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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_antiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Ancient antiquity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_antiquity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_antiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Classical antiquity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Middle Ages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ottoman_Syria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ottoman_Syria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Ottoman Syria </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ottoman_Syria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-French_Mandate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_Mandate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 French Mandate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French_Mandate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Independent_Syrian_Republic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Independent_Syrian_Republic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Independent Syrian Republic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Independent_Syrian_Republic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ba'athist_Syria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ba'athist_Syria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Ba'athist Syria </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ba'athist_Syria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-21st_century_and_civil_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#21st_century_and_civil_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 21st century and civil war </div> </a> <ul id="toc-21st_century_and_civil_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Geography </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Geography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Geography subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Geography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Biodiversity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biodiversity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Biodiversity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biodiversity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government_and_politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government_and_politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Government and politics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Government_and_politics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Government and politics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Government_and_politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Administrative_divisions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Administrative_divisions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Administrative divisions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Administrative_divisions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Autonomous_Administration_of_North_and_East_Syria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Autonomous_Administration_of_North_and_East_Syria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Autonomous_Administration_of_North_and_East_Syria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_relations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_relations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Foreign relations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_relations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-International_disputes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_disputes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 International disputes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_disputes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Military </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Human rights </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Economy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Economy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Economy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Drug_industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drug_industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Drug industry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drug_industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Petroleum_industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Petroleum_industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Petroleum industry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Petroleum_industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transport" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transport"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Transport </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transport-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internet_and_telecommunications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internet_and_telecommunications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Internet and telecommunications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internet_and_telecommunications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Water_supply_and_sanitation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_supply_and_sanitation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Water supply and sanitation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water_supply_and_sanitation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demographics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Demographics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Demographics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Largest_cities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Largest_cities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Largest cities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Largest_cities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethnic_groups" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnic_groups"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Ethnic groups </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnic_groups-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Education </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Health </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Music </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Media </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cuisine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cuisine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Cuisine </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cuisine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 General references </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle External links subsection </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Government </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tourism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tourism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.3 Tourism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tourism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maps" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maps"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.4 Maps </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maps-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Syria</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 256 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-256" aria-hidden="true" > 256 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriyah" title="Suriyah – Acehnese" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Suriyah" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="Acehnese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Acèh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbd mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Шам – Kabardian" lang="kbd" hreflang="kbd" data-title="Шам" data-language-autonym="Адыгэбзэ" data-language-local-name="Kabardian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгэбзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ady mw-list-item"><a href="https://ady.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Сирие – Adyghe" lang="ady" hreflang="ady" data-title="Сирие" data-language-autonym="Адыгабзэ" data-language-local-name="Adyghe" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгабзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siri%C3%AB" title="Sirië – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Sirië" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrien" title="Syrien – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Syrien" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%B6%E1%88%AA%E1%8B%AB" title="ሶሪያ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሶሪያ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-smn mw-list-item"><a href="https://smn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syyria" title="Syyria – Inari Sami" lang="smn" hreflang="smn" data-title="Syyria" data-language-autonym="Anarâškielâ" data-language-local-name="Inari Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Anarâškielâ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="सीरिया – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="सीरिया" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ab mw-list-item"><a href="https://ab.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%8C%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%82%D3%99%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Шьамтәыла – Abkhazian" lang="ab" hreflang="ab" data-title="Шьамтәыла" data-language-autonym="Аԥсшәа" data-language-local-name="Abkhazian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Аԥсшәа</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="سوريا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سوريا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%A3%DC%98%DC%AA%DC%9D%DC%90" title="ܣܘܪܝܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܣܘܪܝܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Սուրիա – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Սուրիա" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9B%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE" title="ছিৰিয়া – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ছিৰিয়া" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="सीरिया – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="सीरिया" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">अवधी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ADria" title="Síria – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Síria" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Шам – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Шам" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriya" title="Suriya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Suriya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%87" title="سوریه – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="سوریه" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriah" title="Suriah – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Suriah" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bm mw-list-item"><a href="https://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriya" title="Suriya – Bambara" lang="bm" hreflang="bm" data-title="Suriya" data-language-autonym="Bamanankan" data-language-local-name="Bambara" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bamanankan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE" title="সিরিয়া – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সিরিয়া" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su-l%C4%AB-a" title="Su-lī-a – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Su-lī-a" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D2%AF%D1%80%D0%B8%D3%99" title="Сүриә – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Сүриә" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%96%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Сірыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Сірыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8B%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Сырыя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Сырыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="सीरिया – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="सीरिया" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirya" title="Sirya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Sirya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bi mw-list-item"><a href="https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Bislama" lang="bi" hreflang="bi" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Bislama" data-language-local-name="Bislama" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bislama</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Сирия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Сирия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrien" title="Syrien – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Syrien" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A6%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A1%E0%BC%8D" title="སི་རི་ཡ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="སི་རི་ཡ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirija" title="Sirija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Sirija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Сири – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Сири" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ADria" title="Síria – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Síria" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Сири – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Сири" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BDrie" title="Sýrie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Sýrie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cbk-zam mw-list-item"><a href="https://cbk-zam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Chavacano" lang="cbk" hreflang="cbk" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Chavacano de Zamboanga" data-language-local-name="Chavacano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Chavacano de Zamboanga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tum mw-list-item"><a href="https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Tumbuka" lang="tum" hreflang="tum" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="ChiTumbuka" data-language-local-name="Tumbuka" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiTumbuka</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrien" title="Syrien – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Syrien" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="سوريا – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="سوريا" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Davvisámegiella</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrien" title="Syrien – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Syrien" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%90%DE%AB%DE%83%DE%A8%DE%94%DE%A7" title="ސޫރިޔާ – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ސޫރިޔާ" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ދިވެހިބަސް</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nv mw-list-item"><a href="https://nv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ha%CA%BCa%CA%BCaahj%C3%AD_%C3%81s%C3%A1%C3%AD_Dine%CA%BC%C3%A9_Bik%C3%A9yah" title="Haʼaʼaahjí Ásáí Dineʼé Bikéyah – Navajo" lang="nv" hreflang="nv" data-title="Haʼaʼaahjí Ásáí Dineʼé Bikéyah" data-language-autonym="Diné bizaad" data-language-local-name="Navajo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Diné bizaad</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syriska" title="Syriska – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Syriska" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dolnoserbski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dty mw-list-item"><a href="https://dty.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="सीरिया – Doteli" lang="dty" hreflang="dty" data-title="सीरिया" data-language-autonym="डोटेली" data-language-local-name="Doteli" class="interlanguage-link-target">डोटेली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BC%C3%BCria" title="Süüria – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Süüria" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%85%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Συρία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Συρία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirio" title="Sirio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Sirio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ee mw-list-item"><a href="https://ee.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Ewe" lang="ee" hreflang="ee" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Eʋegbe" data-language-local-name="Ewe" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eʋegbe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%87" title="سوریه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سوریه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_(des)" title="Syria (des) – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Syria (des)" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BDria" title="Sýria – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Sýria" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrie" title="Syrie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Syrie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrje" title="Syrje – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Syrje" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ff mw-list-item"><a href="https://ff.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriya" title="Suriya – Fula" lang="ff" hreflang="ff" data-title="Suriya" data-language-autonym="Fulfulde" data-language-local-name="Fula" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fulfulde</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_tSiria" title="An tSiria – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An tSiria" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yn_Teer" title="Yn Teer – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Yn Teer" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gag mw-list-item"><a href="https://gag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siriya" title="Siriya – Gagauz" lang="gag" hreflang="gag" data-title="Siriya" data-language-autonym="Gagauz" data-language-local-name="Gagauz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gagauz</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Kikuyu" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="Kikuyu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gĩkũyũ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk mw-list-item"><a href="https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%87" title="سۊريه – Gilaki" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" data-title="سۊريه" data-language-autonym="گیلکی" data-language-local-name="Gilaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">گیلکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B8%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%AF%E0%AA%BE" title="સિરિયા – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="સિરિયા" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-got mw-list-item"><a href="https://got.wikipedia.org/wiki/%F0%90%8D%83%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%BF%F0%90%8D%82%F0%90%8C%BE%F0%90%8C%B0" title="𐍃𐌰𐌿𐍂𐌾𐌰 – Gothic" lang="got" hreflang="got" data-title="𐍃𐌰𐌿𐍂𐌾𐌰" data-language-autonym="𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺" data-language-local-name="Gothic" class="interlanguage-link-target">𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gom mw-list-item"><a href="https://gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="सीरिया – Goan Konkani" lang="gom" hreflang="gom" data-title="सीरिया" data-language-autonym="गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni" data-language-local-name="Goan Konkani" class="interlanguage-link-target">गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Si-li-%C3%A2" title="Si-li-â – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Si-li-â" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%9C%EB%A6%AC%EC%95%84" title="시리아 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="시리아" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siriya" title="Siriya – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Siriya" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw mw-list-item"><a href="https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suria" title="Suria – Hawaiian" lang="haw" hreflang="haw" data-title="Suria" data-language-autonym="Hawaiʻi" data-language-local-name="Hawaiian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hawaiʻi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%AB%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Սիրիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սիրիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="सीरिया – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सीरिया" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syriska" title="Syriska – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Syriska" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirija" title="Sirija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Sirija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bpy mw-list-item"><a href="https://bpy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE" title="সিরিয়া – Bishnupriya" lang="bpy" hreflang="bpy" data-title="সিরিয়া" data-language-autonym="বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী" data-language-local-name="Bishnupriya" class="interlanguage-link-target">বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriah" title="Suriah – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Suriah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Сири – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Сири" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BDrland" title="Sýrland – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Sýrland" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94" title="סוריה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="סוריה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriah" title="Suriah – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Suriah" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siirii" title="Siirii – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Siirii" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE" title="ಸಿರಿಯಾ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸಿರಿಯಾ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="სირია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="სირია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%85_(%D9%85%D9%8F%D9%84%DA%A9)" title="شام (مُلک) – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="شام (مُلک)" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syr%C3%ABj%C3%B4" title="Syrëjô – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Syrëjô" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kaszëbsczi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Сирия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Сирия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syri" title="Syri – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Syri" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siriya" title="Siriya – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="Siriya" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="Kinyarwanda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ikinyarwanda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Сирия – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Сирия" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Kongo" lang="kg" hreflang="kg" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Kongo" data-language-local-name="Kongo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kongo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siri" title="Siri – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Siri" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siri" title="Siri – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Siri" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BBr%C3%AE" title="Sûrî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Sûrî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surya" title="Surya – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Surya" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C4%ABrija" title="Sīrija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Sīrija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrien" title="Syrien – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Syrien" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Сирия – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Сирия" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirija" title="Sirija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Sirija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciria" title="Sciria – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Sciria" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syri%C3%AB" title="Syrië – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Syrië" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir%C3%AD" title="Sirí – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Sirí" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suria" title="Suria – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Suria" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirii" title="Sirii – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Sirii" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Livvinkarjala</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/sixygu%27e" title="sixygu'e – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="sixygu'e" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sz%C3%ADria" title="Szíria – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szíria" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mad mw-list-item"><a href="https://mad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriah" title="Suriah – Madurese" lang="mad" hreflang="mad" data-title="Suriah" data-language-autonym="Madhurâ" data-language-local-name="Madurese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Madhurâ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="सीरिया – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="सीरिया" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Сирија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Сирија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF" title="സിറിയ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സിറിയ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirja" title="Sirja – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Sirja" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mi mw-list-item"><a href="https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiria" title="Hiria – Māori" lang="mi" hreflang="mi" data-title="Hiria" data-language-autonym="Māori" data-language-local-name="Māori" class="interlanguage-link-target">Māori</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="सीरिया – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="सीरिया" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="სირია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="სირია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="سوريا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="سوريا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%87" title="سوریه – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="سوریه" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%81%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%94%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%8C%EA%AF%A5" title="ꯁꯤꯔꯤꯌꯥ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯁꯤꯔꯤꯌꯥ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriah" title="Suriah – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Suriah" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%AA%CC%A4%E1%B9%B3-l%C3%A9-%C4%81" title="Sê̤ṳ-lé-ā – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Sê̤ṳ-lé-ā" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ADria" title="Síria – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Síria" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Сирия – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Сирия" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Сири – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Сири" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%86%E1%80%AE%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AE%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8%E1%80%94%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%84%E1%80%B6" title="ဆီးရီးယားနိုင်ငံ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဆီးရီးယားနိုင်ငံ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syri%C3%AB" title="Syrië – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Syrië" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syri%C3%AB" title="Syrië – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Syrië" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="सिरिया – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="सिरिया" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="सिरिया – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="सिरिया" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B7%E3%83%AA%E3%82%A2" title="シリア – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="シリア" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Шема – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Шема" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrien" title="Syrien – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Syrien" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siriya" title="Siriya – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Siriya" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norfuk / Pitkern</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Сирий – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Сирий" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%B0%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%86" title="ସିରିଆ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ସିରିଆ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siiriyaa" title="Siiriyaa – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Siiriyaa" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriya" title="Suriya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Suriya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%86" title="ਸੀਰੀਆ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸੀਰੀਆ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pi mw-list-item"><a href="https://pi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="सिरिया – Pali" lang="pi" hreflang="pi" data-title="सिरिया" data-language-autonym="पालि" data-language-local-name="Pali" class="interlanguage-link-target">पालि</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ami mw-list-item"><a href="https://ami.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Amis" lang="ami" hreflang="ami" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Pangcah" data-language-local-name="Amis" class="interlanguage-link-target">Pangcah</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%85" title="شام – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="شام" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%87" title="سوريه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="سوريه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%8A%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%B8" title="ស៊ីរី – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ស៊ីរី" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirie" title="Sirie – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Sirie" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tok Pisin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrien" title="Syrien – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Syrien" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%85%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Συρία – Pontic" lang="pnt" hreflang="pnt" data-title="Συρία" data-language-autonym="Ποντιακά" data-language-local-name="Pontic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ποντιακά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ADria" title="Síria – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Síria" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siriya" title="Siriya – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Siriya" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriye" title="Suriye – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Suriye" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirya" title="Sirya – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Sirya" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Сирия – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Сирия" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Сирия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Сирия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Сирия – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Сирия" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sakizaya</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suria" title="Suria – Samoan" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Suria" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="Samoan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gagana Samoa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="सिरिया – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="सिरिया" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%AD%E1%B1%9F" title="ᱥᱤᱨᱤᱭᱟ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱥᱤᱨᱤᱭᱟ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ACria" title="Sìria – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Sìria" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrie" title="Syrie – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Syrie" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-trv mw-list-item"><a href="https://trv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Taroko" lang="trv" hreflang="trv" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Seediq" data-language-local-name="Taroko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seediq</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="සිරියාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="සිරියාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%85" title="شام – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="شام" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ss mw-list-item"><a href="https://ss.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISiriya" title="ISiriya – Swati" lang="ss" hreflang="ss" data-title="ISiriya" data-language-autonym="SiSwati" data-language-local-name="Swati" class="interlanguage-link-target">SiSwati</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BDria" title="Sýria – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Sýria" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirija" title="Sirija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Sirija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cu mw-list-item"><a href="https://cu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%B7%D1%80%D1%97%EA%99%97" title="Сѷрїꙗ – Church Slavic" lang="cu" hreflang="cu" data-title="Сѷрїꙗ" data-language-autonym="Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ" data-language-local-name="Church Slavic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syryjo" title="Syryjo – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Syryjo" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suuriya" title="Suuriya – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Suuriya" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="سووریا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="سووریا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-srn mw-list-item"><a href="https://srn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syirikondre" title="Syirikondre – Sranan Tongo" lang="srn" hreflang="srn" data-title="Syirikondre" data-language-autonym="Sranantongo" data-language-local-name="Sranan Tongo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sranantongo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Сирија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Сирија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirija" title="Sirija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Sirija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriah" title="Suriah – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Suriah" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syyria" title="Syyria – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Syyria" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrien" title="Syrien – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Syrien" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE" title="சிரியா – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சிரியா" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surya" title="Surya – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Surya" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D2%AF%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Сүрия – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Сүрия" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shn mw-list-item"><a href="https://shn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%AD%E1%80%B0%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AE%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AE%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9A%E1%82%83%E1%80%B8" title="မိူင်းသီးရီးယႃး – Shan" lang="shn" hreflang="shn" data-title="မိူင်းသီးရီးယႃး" data-language-autonym="ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး " data-language-local-name="Shan" class="interlanguage-link-target">ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး </a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tay mw-list-item"><a href="https://tay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Tayal" lang="tay" hreflang="tay" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Tayal" data-language-local-name="Tayal" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tayal</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BE" title="సిరియా – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="సిరియా" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tet mw-list-item"><a href="https://tet.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ADria" title="Síria – Tetum" lang="tet" hreflang="tet" data-title="Síria" data-language-autonym="Tetun" data-language-local-name="Tetum" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tetun</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2" title="ประเทศซีเรีย – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ประเทศซีเรีย" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ti mw-list-item"><a href="https://ti.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%B1%E1%88%AD%E1%8B%AB" title="ሱርያ – Tigrinya" lang="ti" hreflang="ti" data-title="ሱርያ" data-language-autonym="ትግርኛ" data-language-local-name="Tigrinya" class="interlanguage-link-target">ትግርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Сурия – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Сурия" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-to mw-list-item"><a href="https://to.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silia" title="Silia – Tongan" lang="to" hreflang="to" data-title="Silia" data-language-autonym="Lea faka-Tonga" data-language-local-name="Tongan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lea faka-Tonga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriye" title="Suriye – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Suriye" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siri%C3%BDa" title="Siriýa – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Siriýa" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tw mw-list-item"><a href="https://tw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Twi" lang="tw" hreflang="tw" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Twi" data-language-local-name="Twi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Twi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriya" title="Suriya – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Suriya" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tyap</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Сирия – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Сирия" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="Udmurt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Удмурт</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bug mw-list-item"><a href="https://bug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%A8%94%E1%A8%98%E1%A8%91%E1%A8%97%E1%A8%95%E1%A8%96" title="ᨔᨘᨑᨗᨕᨖ – Buginese" lang="bug" hreflang="bug" data-title="ᨔᨘᨑᨗᨕᨖ" data-language-autonym="Basa Ugi" data-language-local-name="Buginese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Ugi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Сирія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Сирія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%81" title="سوریہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="سوریہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%87%D8%B1%D9%89%D9%8A%DB%95" title="سۇرىيە – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="سۇرىيە" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siliya" title="Siliya – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Siliya" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ACria" title="Sìria – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Sìria" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirii" title="Sirii – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Sirii" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BCriy%C3%A4n" title="Süriyän – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Süriyän" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BC%C3%BCri%C3%A4" title="Süüriä – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Süüriä" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sireye" title="Sireye – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Sireye" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%95%98%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9E" title="敘利亞 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="敘利亞" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syri%C3%AB" title="Syrië – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Syrië" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target">West-Vlams</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirya" title="Sirya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Sirya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siri" title="Siri – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Siri" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="Wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target">Wolof</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%99%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9A" title="叙利亚 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="叙利亚" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria – Tsonga" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Syria" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="Tsonga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Xitsonga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A2" title="סיריע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="סיריע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ADr%C3%AD%C3%A0" title="Síríà – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Síríà" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%95%98%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9E" title="敘利亞 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="敘利亞" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriya" title="Suriya – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Suriya" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syri%C3%AB" title="Syrië – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Syrië" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zeêuws</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C4%97r%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Sėrėjė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Sėrėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%99%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9A" title="叙利亚 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="叙利亚" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriah" title="Suriah – Betawi" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Suriah" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="Betawi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Betawi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iba mw-list-item"><a href="https://iba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siria" title="Siria – Iban" lang="iba" hreflang="iba" data-title="Siria" data-language-autonym="Jaku Iban" 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.geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Syria&params=35_N_38_E_">35°N 38°E / 35°N 38°E / 35; 38</a></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Syrian_Arab_Republic&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Arab Republic">Syrian Arab Republic</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Country in West Asia</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the modern state of Syria. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Syria_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Syria (disambiguation)">Syria (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Styria" title="Styria">Styria</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Syrian Arab Republic</div><div class="ib-country-names">ٱلْجُمْهُورِيَّةُ ٱلْعَرَبِيَّة ٱلْسُوْرِيَّة (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>) al-Jumhūriyya al-ʿArabiyya as-Sūriya</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding-left:5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Syria.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of Syria"><img alt="Flag of Syria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Flag_of_Syria.svg/125px-Flag_of_Syria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Flag_of_Syria.svg/188px-Flag_of_Syria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Flag_of_Syria.svg/250px-Flag_of_Syria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Syria" title="Flag of Syria">Flag</a></div> </div> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_Syria.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of arms of Syria"><img alt="Coat of arms of Syria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Coat_of_arms_of_Syria.svg/90px-Coat_of_arms_of_Syria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Coat_of_arms_of_Syria.svg/135px-Coat_of_arms_of_Syria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Coat_of_arms_of_Syria.svg/180px-Coat_of_arms_of_Syria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="652" data-file-height="625" /></a></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Syria" title="Coat of arms of Syria"> Coat of arms</a></div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Motto: وَحْدَةٌ، حُرِّيَّةٌ، اِشْتِرَاكِيَّةٌ Waḥda, Ḥurriyya, Ishtirākiyya "<a href="/wiki/Baathism" class="mw-redirect" title="Baathism">Unity, Freedom, Socialism</a>"</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data anthem">Anthem: حُمَاةَ الدِّيَارِ Ḥumāt ad-Diyār "<a href="/wiki/Humat_ad-Diyar" title="Humat ad-Diyar">Guardians of the Homeland</a>"<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="67" data-mwtitle="National_Anthem_of_Syria.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/National_Anthem_of_Syria.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/fc/National_Anthem_of_Syria.ogg/National_Anthem_of_Syria.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANational_Anthem_of_Syria.ogg&lang=ar&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="ar" label="العربية ‪(ar)‬" data-dir="rtl" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANational_Anthem_of_Syria.ogg&lang=de&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="de" label="Deutsch ‪(de)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANational_Anthem_of_Syria.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANational_Anthem_of_Syria.ogg&lang=es&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="es" label="español ‪(es)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANational_Anthem_of_Syria.ogg&lang=fa&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="fa" label="فارسی ‪(fa)‬" data-dir="rtl" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANational_Anthem_of_Syria.ogg&lang=id&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="id" label="Bahasa Indonesia ‪(id)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANational_Anthem_of_Syria.ogg&lang=vi&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="vi" label="Tiếng Việt ‪(vi)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANational_Anthem_of_Syria.ogg&lang=zh-tw&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh-Hant-TW" label="中文（臺灣） ‪(zh-tw)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div class="switcher-container"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Syria_(orthographic_projection)_disputed.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Syria_%28orthographic_projection%29_disputed.svg/220px-Syria_%28orthographic_projection%29_disputed.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Syria_%28orthographic_projection%29_disputed.svg/330px-Syria_%28orthographic_projection%29_disputed.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Syria_%28orthographic_projection%29_disputed.svg/440px-Syria_%28orthographic_projection%29_disputed.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="553" data-file-height="553" /></a> Syria proper shown in dark green; Syria's territorial claims over the Turkish <a href="/wiki/Hatay_Province" title="Hatay Province">Hatay Province</a> and the Israeli-occupied <a href="/wiki/Golan_Heights" title="Golan Heights">Golan Heights</a> shown in light greenShow globe</div><div><a href="/wiki/File:Syria_-_Location_Map_(2013)_-_SYR_-_UNOCHA.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Syria_-_Location_Map_%282013%29_-_SYR_-_UNOCHA.svg/250px-Syria_-_Location_Map_%282013%29_-_SYR_-_UNOCHA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Syria_-_Location_Map_%282013%29_-_SYR_-_UNOCHA.svg/375px-Syria_-_Location_Map_%282013%29_-_SYR_-_UNOCHA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Syria_-_Location_Map_%282013%29_-_SYR_-_UNOCHA.svg/500px-Syria_-_Location_Map_%282013%29_-_SYR_-_UNOCHA.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="254" data-file-height="254" /></a>Show map of Syria</div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital<div class="ib-country-largest">and largest city</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Syria&params=33_30_N_36_18_E_type:city">33°30′N 36°18′E / 33.500°N 36.300°E / 33.500; 36.300</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Official languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Arabic</a><a href="#cite_note-CoSAR-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">Ethnic groups</a> <div class="ib-country-ethnic"><a href="#cite_note-CIA_-_The_World_Factbook-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data">90% <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> 9% <a href="/wiki/Kurds" title="Kurds">Kurds</a> 1% <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Syria" title="Ethnic groups in Syria">others</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"><a href="#cite_note-CIA_-_The_World_Factbook-2">[2]</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1116488514">.mw-parser-output .treeview ul{padding:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .treeview li{padding:0;margin:0;list-style-type:none;list-style-image:none}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Treeview-grey-line.png")no-repeat 0 -2981px;padding-left:21px;text-indent:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li:last-child{background-position:0 -5971px}.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>.mw-empty-elt:first-child+.emptyline,.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>li:first-child{background-position:0 9px}</style><div class="treeview"> <ul><li>87% <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Syria" title="Islam in Syria">Islam</a> <ul><li>74% <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni Islam</a></li> <li>13% <a href="/wiki/Alawites" title="Alawites">Alawism</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li>10% <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Syria" title="Christianity in Syria">Christianity</a></li> <li>3% <a href="/wiki/Druze_in_Syria" title="Druze in Syria">Druze</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Syrian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian people">Syrian</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Syria" title="Politics of Syria">Government</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Unitary <a href="/wiki/Neo-Ba%27athist" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Ba'athist">neo-Ba'athist</a> <a href="/wiki/Presidential_system" title="Presidential system">presidential republic</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> under a <a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">totalitarian</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hereditary_dictatorship" class="mw-redirect" title="Hereditary dictatorship">hereditary dictatorship</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/President_of_Syria" title="President of Syria">President</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_Syria" title="Vice President of Syria">Vice President</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Najah_al-Attar" title="Najah al-Attar">Najah al-Attar</a> <a href="/wiki/Faisal_Mekdad" title="Faisal Mekdad">Faisal Mekdad</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Syria" title="Prime Minister of Syria">Prime Minister</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Ghazi_al-Jalali" title="Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali">Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_People%27s_Assembly_of_Syria" title="Speaker of the People's Assembly of Syria">Speaker of the People's Assembly</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hammouda_Sabbagh" title="Hammouda Sabbagh">Hammouda Sabbagh</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Legislature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Assembly_of_Syria" title="People's Assembly of Syria">People's Assembly</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Establishment</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Arab_Kingdom_of_Syria" title="Arab Kingdom of Syria">Arab Kingdom of Syria</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">8 March 1920</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/State_of_Syria_(1925%E2%80%931930)" title="State of Syria (1925–1930)">State of Syria</a> under <a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Syria_and_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandate for Syria and Lebanon">French mandate</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1 December 1924</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Syrian_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandatory Syrian Republic">Syrian Republic</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">14 May 1930</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• De jure independence </div></th><td class="infobox-data">24 October 1945</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• De facto <a href="/wiki/Independent_First_Syrian_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent First Syrian Republic">independence</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">17 April 1946</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Left the <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Republic" title="United Arab Republic">United Arab Republic</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">28 September 1961</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Ba'ath Party</a> <a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">takes power</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">8 March 1963</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Syria" title="Constitution of Syria">Current constitution</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">27 February 2012</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Syria" title="Geography of Syria">Area </a></th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Total</div></th><td class="infobox-data">185,180<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> km2 (71,500 sq mi) (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_area" title="List of countries and dependencies by area">87th</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Water (%)</div></th><td class="infobox-data">1.1</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Syria" title="Demographics of Syria">Population</a></th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• 2024 estimate</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><img alt="Increase" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/11px-Increase2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/17px-Increase2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Increase2.svg/22px-Increase2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /> 25,000,753<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_population" title="List of countries and dependencies by population">57th</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Density</div></th><td class="infobox-data">118.3/km2 (306.4/sq mi) (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_population_density" title="List of countries and dependencies by population density">70th</a>)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style>(<a href="/wiki/Purchasing_power_parity" title="Purchasing power parity">PPP</a>)</th><td class="infobox-data">2015 estimate</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Total</div></th><td class="infobox-data">$50.28 billion<a href="#cite_note-CIA-9">[9]</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Per capita</div></th><td class="infobox-data">$2,900<a href="#cite_note-CIA-9">[9]</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">(nominal)</th><td class="infobox-data">2020 estimate</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Total</div></th><td class="infobox-data">$11.08 billion<a href="#cite_note-CIA-9">[9]</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div class="ib-country-fake-li">• Per capita</div></th><td class="infobox-data">$533</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Gini_coefficient" title="Gini coefficient">Gini</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">(2022)</th><td class="infobox-data"><img alt="Positive decrease" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Decrease_Positive.svg/11px-Decrease_Positive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Decrease_Positive.svg/17px-Decrease_Positive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Decrease_Positive.svg/22px-Decrease_Positive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /> 26.6<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style>low inequality</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Human_Development_Index" title="Human Development Index">HDI</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488">(2022)</th><td class="infobox-data"><img alt="Steady" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Steady2.svg/11px-Steady2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Steady2.svg/17px-Steady2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Steady2.svg/22px-Steady2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /> 0.557<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494">medium (<a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_Human_Development_Index" title="List of countries by Human Development Index">157th</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Syrian_pound" title="Syrian pound">Syrian pound</a> (<a href="/wiki/ISO_4217" title="ISO 4217">SYP</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Time zone</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time" title="Coordinated Universal Time">UTC</a>+3 (<a href="/wiki/Arabia_Standard_Time" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia Standard Time">Arabia Standard Time</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Date format</th><td class="infobox-data">dd/mm/yyyy (<a href="/wiki/Anno_Domini" title="Anno Domini">AD</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Left-_and_right-hand_traffic" title="Left- and right-hand traffic">Drives on</a></th><td class="infobox-data">right</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Telephone_numbers_in_Syria" title="Telephone numbers in Syria">Calling code</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Telephone_numbers_in_Syria" title="Telephone numbers in Syria">+963</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/ISO_3166" title="ISO 3166">ISO 3166 code</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/ISO_3166-2:SY" title="ISO 3166-2:SY">SY</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Country_code_top-level_domain" title="Country code top-level domain">Internet TLD</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/.sy" title=".sy">.sy</a> <a href="/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7." class="mw-redirect" title="سوريا.">سوريا.</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Syria,<a href="#cite_note-12">[a]</a> officially the Syrian Arab Republic,<a href="#cite_note-13">[b]</a> is a country in <a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asia</a> located in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean" title="Eastern Mediterranean">Eastern Mediterranean</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>. Within the region of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, it is bounded by the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a> to the west, <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> to the north, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> to <a href="/wiki/Iraq%E2%80%93Syria_border" title="Iraq–Syria border">the east and southeast</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a> to <a href="/wiki/Jordan%E2%80%93Syria_border" title="Jordan–Syria border">the south</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a> to <a href="/wiki/Lebanon%E2%80%93Syria_border" title="Lebanon–Syria border">the southwest</a>. It is a <a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">republic</a> that consists of <a href="/wiki/Governorates_of_Syria" title="Governorates of Syria">14 governorates</a> as subdivisions. <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> is Syria's capital and largest city. With a population of 25.0 million, it is the 57th most populous country in the world and 8th most populous in the Arab world. Syria is spread across an area of 185,180 square kilometres (71,500 sq mi), making it 87th largest country in the world. A country of fertile plains, high mountains, and deserts, Syria is home to <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Syria" title="Demographics of Syria">diverse ethnic and religious groups</a>. Arabs are the largest ethnic group, and Sunni Muslims are the largest religious group. The name "Syria" historically referred to a <a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">wider region</a>, broadly synonymous with the Levant, and known in Arabic as al-Sham. The modern state encompasses the sites of several ancient kingdoms and empires, including the <a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Eblan</a> civilization of the 3rd millennium <a href="/wiki/Before_Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Before Christ">BC</a>. <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a> are cities of great cultural significance. During the Islamic rule, Damascus was the seat of the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a> and a provincial capital for the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate" title="Mamluk Sultanate">Mamluk Sultanate</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lower_Egypt" title="Lower Egypt">Egypt</a>. The modern Syrian state was established in the mid-20th century <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Syria" title="Ottoman Syria">after centuries of Ottoman rule</a>, as a French Mandate. The newly created state represented the largest Arab state to emerge from the formerly <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a>-ruled Syrian provinces. It gained de jure independence as a <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_republic" title="Parliamentary republic">parliamentary republic</a> in 1945 when the new <a href="/wiki/First_Syrian_Republic" title="First Syrian Republic">Republic</a> became a founding member of the United Nations, an act which legally ended the former French mandate. French troops departed in April 1946, granting de facto independence. The post-independence period was tumultuous, with multiple <a href="/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">military coup</a> attempts shaking the country between 1949 and 1971. In 1958, Syria entered a <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Republic" title="United Arab Republic">brief union</a> with <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, which was terminated in the <a href="/wiki/1961_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1961 Syrian coup d'état">1961 coup d'état</a> and was renamed as the Arab Republic of Syria in <a href="/wiki/1961_Syrian_constitutional_referendum" title="1961 Syrian constitutional referendum">constitutional referendum</a>. The <a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">1963 coup d'état</a> carried out by the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region#Military_Bureau" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">military committee</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">Ba'ath Party</a> established a <a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party state</a> and ran Syria under emergency law from 1963 to 2011, effectively suspending constitutional protections for citizens. Internal power-struggles within <a href="/wiki/Ba%27athism" title="Ba'athism">Ba'athist</a> factions caused further coups in <a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966</a> and <a href="/wiki/1970_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" class="mw-redirect" title="1970 Syrian coup d'état">1970</a>, which eventually resulted in the seizure of power by <a href="/wiki/Hafiz_al-Assad" class="mw-redirect" title="Hafiz al-Assad">Hafiz al-Assad</a>. He effectively established an Alawi minority rule to consolidate power within his family. After Assad's <a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Hafez_al-Assad" title="Death and state funeral of Hafez al-Assad">death</a>, his son <a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a> inherited the <a href="/wiki/President_of_Syria" title="President of Syria">presidency</a> in 2000. Since 2011, Syria has been embroiled in a <a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">multi-sided civil war</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Foreign_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war" title="Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war">involvement of different countries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[c]</a> Three political entities – the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Interim_Government" title="Syrian Interim Government">Syrian Interim Government</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Salvation_Government" title="Syrian Salvation Government">Syrian Salvation Government</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rojava" class="mw-redirect" title="Rojava">Rojava</a> – have emerged in Syrian territory to challenge Assad's rule. Syria is now the only country that is governed by <a href="/wiki/Neo-ba%27athism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-ba'athism">Ba'athists</a>, who advocate <a href="/wiki/Arab_socialism" title="Arab socialism">Arab socialism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a>. The country's Ba'athist government is a <a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">totalitarian</a> dictatorship with a comprehensive <a href="/wiki/Cult_of_personality" title="Cult of personality">cult of personality</a> around the <a href="/wiki/Assad_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Assad family">Assad family</a>, and has attracted widespread criticism for its severe domestic repression and <a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Syrian_civil_war" title="War crimes in the Syrian civil war">war crimes</a>. Being ranked 4th worst in the 2024 <a href="/wiki/Fragile_States_Index" title="Fragile States Index">Fragile States Index</a>, Syria is one of the most dangerous places for <a href="/wiki/Journalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Journalists">journalists</a>. Freedom of press is extremely limited, and the country is ranked 2nd worst in 2024 <a href="/wiki/World_Press_Freedom_Index" title="World Press Freedom Index">World Press Freedom Index</a>. Syria is the most corrupt country in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a> and was ranked the 2nd lowest globally on the 2023 <a href="/wiki/Corruption_Perceptions_Index" title="Corruption Perceptions Index">Corruption Perceptions Index</a>. The country has also become the epicentre of a state-sponsored multi-billion dollar <a href="/wiki/Illicit_drug_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Illicit drug trade">illicit drug cartel</a>, the largest in the world. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Name_of_Syria" title="Name of Syria">Name of Syria</a></div> Several sources indicate that the name Syria is derived from the 8th century BC <a href="/wiki/Luwian" class="mw-redirect" title="Luwian">Luwian</a> term "Sura/i", and the derivative <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">ancient Greek</a> name: Σύριοι, Sýrioi, or Σύροι, Sýroi, both of which originally derived from Aššūr (<a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a>) in northern <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> (present-day Iraq).<a href="#cite_note-16">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[14]</a> However, from the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> (323–150 BC), this term was also applied to the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>,<a href="#cite_note-18">[15]</a> and from this point the Greeks applied the term without distinction between the <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians</a> of Mesopotamia and <a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a> of the Levant.<a href="#cite_note-19">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[17]</a> Mainstream modern academic opinion strongly favors the argument that the Greek word is related to the cognate Ἀσσυρία, <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a>, ultimately derived from the <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a> <a href="/wiki/Assur" title="Assur">Aššur</a>.<a href="#cite_note-21">[18]</a> The Greek name appears to correspond to <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician</a> ʾšr "Assur", ʾšrym "Assyrians", recorded in the 8th century BC <a href="/wiki/%C3%87inek%C3%B6y_inscription" title="Çineköy inscription">Çineköy inscription</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rollinger-22">[19]</a> The area designated by the word has changed over time. Classically, Syria lies at the eastern end of the Mediterranean, between <a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabia</a> to the south and <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> to the north, stretching inland to include parts of Iraq, and having an uncertain border to the northeast that <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> describes as including, from west to east, <a href="/wiki/Commagene" title="Commagene">Commagene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sophene" title="Sophene">Sophene</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a>.<a href="#cite_note-23">[20]</a> By Pliny's time, however, this larger Syria had been divided into a number of provinces under the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> (but politically independent from each other): <a href="/wiki/Iudaea_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Iudaea Province">Judaea</a>, later renamed <a href="/wiki/Palestina_(region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Palestina (region)">Palaestina</a> in AD 135 (the region corresponding to <a href="/wiki/Modern_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Israel">modern-day Israel</a>, the Palestinian Territories, and Jordan) in the extreme southwest; <a href="/wiki/Phoenice_(Roman_province)" title="Phoenice (Roman province)">Phoenice</a> (established in AD 194) corresponding to modern Lebanon, Damascus and Homs regions; <a href="/wiki/Coele-Syria" title="Coele-Syria">Coele-Syria</a> (or "Hollow Syria") and south of the <a href="/wiki/An_Nahr_al_Kabir" class="mw-redirect" title="An Nahr al Kabir">Eleutheris river</a>.<a href="#cite_note-24">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Syria" title="History of Syria">History of Syria</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_antiquity">Ancient antiquity</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FemaleFigurineSyria5000BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/FemaleFigurineSyria5000BCE.jpg/170px-FemaleFigurineSyria5000BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/FemaleFigurineSyria5000BCE.jpg/255px-FemaleFigurineSyria5000BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/FemaleFigurineSyria5000BCE.jpg/340px-FemaleFigurineSyria5000BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="962" data-file-height="1344" /></a><figcaption>Female figurine, 5000 BC <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Orient_Museum" title="Ancient Orient Museum">Ancient Orient Museum</a></figcaption></figure> Since approximately the 11th millennium BC, Syria was one of the centers of <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> culture (known as <a href="/wiki/PPNA" class="mw-redirect" title="PPNA">Pre-Pottery Neolithic A</a>), where agriculture and cattle breeding first began to appear. The site of <a href="/wiki/Tell_Qaramel" title="Tell Qaramel">Tell Qaramel</a> in Aleppo Governorate has several round stone towers dated to 10650 BC, making them the oldest structures of this kind in the world.<a href="#cite_note-25">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[23]</a> The Neolithic period (<a href="/wiki/PPNB" class="mw-redirect" title="PPNB">PPNB</a>) is represented by rectangular houses of <a href="/wiki/Mureybet" title="Mureybet">Mureybet</a> culture. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used containers made of stone, gyps, and burnt lime (<a href="/wiki/White_Ware" title="White Ware">Vaisselle blanche</a>). The discovery of <a href="/wiki/Obsidian" title="Obsidian">obsidian</a> tools from <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> are evidence of early trade. The ancient cities of <a href="/wiki/Hamoukar" title="Hamoukar">Hamoukar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emar" title="Emar">Emar</a> played an important role during the late Neolithic and Bronze Age. <a href="/wiki/Archaeologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeologist">Archaeologists</a> have demonstrated that <a href="/wiki/Civilization" title="Civilization">civilization</a> in Syria was one of the most ancient on earth, perhaps preceded by only that of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ishqi-Mari_(dark_background).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Ishqi-Mari_%28dark_background%29.jpg/170px-Ishqi-Mari_%28dark_background%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Ishqi-Mari_%28dark_background%29.jpg/255px-Ishqi-Mari_%28dark_background%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Ishqi-Mari_%28dark_background%29.jpg/340px-Ishqi-Mari_%28dark_background%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3250" data-file-height="5716" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ishqi-Mari" title="Ishqi-Mari">Ishqi-Mari</a>, king of the Second Kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a>, circa 2300 BC</figcaption></figure>The earliest recorded indigenous civilization in the region was the Kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[24]</a> near present-day <a href="/wiki/Idlib" title="Idlib">Idlib</a>, northern Syria. Ebla appears to have been founded around 3500 BC,<a href="#cite_note-28">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[29]</a> and gradually built its fortune through trade with the <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesopotamian">Mesopotamian</a> states of <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Akkad_(city)" title="Akkad (city)">Akkad</a>, as well as with the <a href="/wiki/Hurrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurrian">Hurrian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hattians" title="Hattians">Hattian</a> peoples to the northwest, in <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-LibraryofCongress-33">[30]</a> Gifts from <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">Pharaohs</a>, found during excavations, confirm Ebla's contact with <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egypt</a>. One of the earliest written texts from Syria is a trading agreement between Vizier <a href="/wiki/Ibrium" title="Ibrium">Ibrium</a> of Ebla and an ambiguous kingdom called <a href="/wiki/Abarsal" title="Abarsal">Abarsal</a> c. 2300 BC.<a href="#cite_note-34">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[32]</a> Scholars believe the <a href="/wiki/Eblaite_language" title="Eblaite language">language of Ebla</a> to be among the oldest known written <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic languages</a> after <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a>. Recent classifications of the Eblaite language have shown that it was an <a href="/wiki/East_Semitic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="East Semitic language">East Semitic language</a>, closely related to the <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-36">[33]</a> Ebla was weakened by a long war with <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a>, and the whole of Syria became part of the Mesopotamian <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a> after <a href="/wiki/Sargon_of_Akkad" title="Sargon of Akkad">Sargon of Akkad</a> and his grandson <a href="/wiki/Naram-Sin_of_Akkad" title="Naram-Sin of Akkad">Naram-Sin</a>'s conquests ended Eblan domination over Syria in the first half of the 23rd century BC.<a href="#cite_note-37">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[35]</a> By the 21st century BC, <a href="/wiki/Hurrians" title="Hurrians">Hurrians</a> settled in the northern east parts of Syria while the rest of the region was dominated by the <a href="/wiki/Amorite" class="mw-redirect" title="Amorite">Amorites</a>. Syria was called the Land of the Amurru (Amorites) by their Assyro-Babylonian neighbors. The <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Semitic_languages" title="Northwest Semitic languages">Northwest Semitic</a> language of the <a href="/wiki/Amorite_language" title="Amorite language">Amorites</a> is the earliest attested of the <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Canaanite language">Canaanite languages</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a> reemerged during this period, and saw renewed prosperity until conquered by <a href="/wiki/Hammurabi" title="Hammurabi">Hammurabi</a> of Babylon. <a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a> also arose during this time, circa 1800 BC, close to modern <a href="/wiki/Latakia" title="Latakia">Latakia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ugaritic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ugaritic language">Ugaritic</a> was a Semitic language loosely related to the Canaanite languages, and developed the <a href="/wiki/Ugaritic_alphabet" title="Ugaritic alphabet">Ugaritic alphabet</a>,<a href="#cite_note-39">[36]</a> considered to be the world's earliest known alphabet. The Ugaritic kingdom survived until its destruction at the hands of the marauding Indo-European <a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a> in the 12th century BC in what was known as the Late <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronze Age Collapse">Bronze Age Collapse</a> which saw similar kingdoms and states witness the same destruction at the hand of the Sea Peoples. <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a> and the capital city Damascus are among the <a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_continuously_inhabited_cities" title="List of oldest continuously inhabited cities">oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world</a>.<a href="#cite_note-40">[37]</a> <a href="/wiki/Yamhad" title="Yamhad">Yamhad</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a>) dominated northern Syria for two centuries,<a href="#cite_note-google44-41">[38]</a> although Eastern Syria was occupied in the 19th and 18th centuries BC by the <a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Assyrian Empire">Old Assyrian Empire</a> ruled by the Amorite Dynasty of <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_I" title="Shamshi-Adad I">Shamshi-Adad I</a>, and by the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian Empire">Babylonian Empire</a> which was founded by Amorites. Yamhad was described in the tablets of Mari as the mightiest state in the near east and as having more vassals than Hammurabi of Babylon.<a href="#cite_note-google44-41">[38]</a> Yamhad imposed its authority over <a href="/wiki/Alalakh" title="Alalakh">Alalakh</a>,<a href="#cite_note-42">[39]</a> <a href="/wiki/Qatna" title="Qatna">Qatna</a>,<a href="#cite_note-43">[40]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Hurrians" title="Hurrians">Hurrians</a> states and the Euphrates Valley down to the borders with Babylon.<a href="#cite_note-44">[41]</a> The army of Yamhad campaigned as far away as <a href="/wiki/Der_(Sumer)" title="Der (Sumer)">Dēr</a> on the border of <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a> (modern Iran).<a href="#cite_note-45">[42]</a> Yamhad was conquered and destroyed, along with Ebla, by the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Indo-European</a> <a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a> from <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> circa 1600 BC.<a href="#cite_note-46">[43]</a> From this time, Syria became a battle ground for various foreign empires, these being the <a href="/wiki/Hittite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hittite Empire">Hittite Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a> Empire, <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian Empire">Egyptian Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian Empire</a>, and to a lesser degree <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a>. The Egyptians initially occupied much of the south, while the Hittites, and the Mitanni, much of the north. However, Assyria eventually gained the upper hand, destroying the Mitanni Empire and annexing huge swathes of territory previously held by the Hittites and Babylon. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:390px;max-width:390px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:52px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Syrians_bringing_presents_in_the_tomb_of_Rekhmire_(actual).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Syrians_bringing_presents_in_the_tomb_of_Rekhmire_%28actual%29.jpg/388px-Syrians_bringing_presents_in_the_tomb_of_Rekhmire_%28actual%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="388" height="53" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Syrians_bringing_presents_in_the_tomb_of_Rekhmire_%28actual%29.jpg/582px-Syrians_bringing_presents_in_the_tomb_of_Rekhmire_%28actual%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Syrians_bringing_presents_in_the_tomb_of_Rekhmire_%28actual%29.jpg/776px-Syrians_bringing_presents_in_the_tomb_of_Rekhmire_%28actual%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="10696" data-file-height="1450" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:390px;max-width:390px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:49px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Syrians_bringing_presents_in_the_tomb_of_Rekhmire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Syrians_bringing_presents_in_the_tomb_of_Rekhmire.jpg/388px-Syrians_bringing_presents_in_the_tomb_of_Rekhmire.jpg" decoding="async" width="388" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Syrians_bringing_presents_in_the_tomb_of_Rekhmire.jpg/582px-Syrians_bringing_presents_in_the_tomb_of_Rekhmire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Syrians_bringing_presents_in_the_tomb_of_Rekhmire.jpg/776px-Syrians_bringing_presents_in_the_tomb_of_Rekhmire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="10696" data-file-height="1368" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Syrians bringing presents to Pharaoh <a href="/wiki/Tuthmosis_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuthmosis III">Tuthmosis III</a>, as depicted in the tomb of <a href="/wiki/Rekhmire" title="Rekhmire">Rekhmire</a>, circa 1450 BCE (actual painting and interpretational drawing). They are labeled "Chiefs of <a href="/wiki/Retjenu" title="Retjenu">Retjenu</a>".<a href="#cite_note-47">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[45]</a></div></div></div></div> Around the 14th century BC, various Semitic peoples appeared in the area, such as the semi-nomadic <a href="/wiki/Suteans" title="Suteans">Suteans</a> who came into an unsuccessful conflict with <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a> to the east, and the <a href="/wiki/West_Semitic_languages" title="West Semitic languages">West Semitic</a> speaking <a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a> who subsumed the earlier Amorites. They too were subjugated by Assyria and the Hittites for centuries. The Egyptians fought the Hittites for control over western Syria; the fighting reached its zenith in 1274 BC with the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kadesh" title="Battle of Kadesh">Battle of Kadesh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-49">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[47]</a> The west remained part of the Hittite empire until its destruction c. 1200 BC,<a href="#cite_note-51">[48]</a> while eastern Syria largely became part of the Middle Assyrian Empire,<a href="#cite_note-52">[49]</a> who also annexed much of the west during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_I" title="Tiglath-Pileser I">Tiglath-Pileser I</a> 1114–1076 BC. With the destruction of the Hittites and the decline of Assyria in the late 11th century BC, the Aramean tribes gained control of much of the interior, founding states such as <a href="/wiki/Bit_Bahiani" title="Bit Bahiani">Bit Bahiani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Aram-Damascus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hamath" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamath">Hamath</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aram-Rehob" class="mw-redirect" title="Aram-Rehob">Aram-Rehob</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aram-Naharaim" title="Aram-Naharaim">Aram-Naharaim</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Luhuti" title="Luhuti">Luhuti</a>. From this point, the region became known as <a href="/wiki/Aramea" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramea">Aramea</a> or <a href="/wiki/Aram_(biblical_region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aram (biblical region)">Aram</a>. There was also a synthesis between the Semitic Arameans and the remnants of the Indo-European <a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a>, with the founding of a number of <a href="/wiki/Syro-Hittite" class="mw-redirect" title="Syro-Hittite">Syro-Hittite</a> states centered in north central Aram (Syria) and south central Asia Minor (modern Turkey), including <a href="/wiki/Palistin" title="Palistin">Palistin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carchemish" title="Carchemish">Carchemish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sam%27al" class="mw-redirect" title="Sam'al">Sam'al</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Amrit01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Amrit01.jpg/250px-Amrit01.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Amrit01.jpg/375px-Amrit01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Amrit01.jpg/500px-Amrit01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1258" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Amrit" title="Amrit">Amrit</a> Phoenician Temple</figcaption></figure> A <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages" title="Canaanite languages">Canaanite</a> group known as the <a href="/wiki/Phoenicians" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoenicians">Phoenicians</a> came to dominate the coasts of Syria, (and also Lebanon and northern <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a>) from the 13th century BC, founding city states such as <a href="/wiki/Amrit" title="Amrit">Amrit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Simyra" class="mw-redirect" title="Simyra">Simyra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arwad" title="Arwad">Arwad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_al-Mulk" title="Arab al-Mulk">Paltos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latakia#Ancient_settlement_and_founding" title="Latakia">Ramitha</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tell_Sukas" title="Tell Sukas">Shuksi</a>. From these coastal regions, they eventually spread their influence throughout the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a>, including building colonies in <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a>, Sicily, the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberian peninsula">Iberian peninsula</a> (modern Spain and <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>), and the coasts of North Africa and most significantly, founding the major city-state of <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a> (in modern <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>) in the 9th century BC, which was much later to become the center of a major empire, rivaling the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>. Syria and the Western half of <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a> then fell to the vast <a href="/wiki/Neo_Assyrian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo Assyrian Empire">Neo Assyrian Empire</a> (911 BC – 605 BC). The Assyrians introduced <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Aramaic" title="Imperial Aramaic">Imperial Aramaic</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> of their empire. This language was to remain dominant in Syria and the entire <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a> until after the <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> <a href="/wiki/Islamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic">Islamic</a> conquest in the 7th and 8th centuries AD, and was to be a vehicle for the spread of Christianity. The Assyrians named their colonies of Syria and Lebanon <a href="/wiki/Eber-Nari" title="Eber-Nari">Eber-Nari</a>. Assyrian domination ended after the Assyrians greatly weakened themselves in a series of brutal internal civil wars, followed by attacks from: the <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Medes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Babylonians" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonians">Babylonians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldeans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cimmerians" title="Cimmerians">Cimmerians</a>. During the fall of Assyria, the <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a> ravaged and plundered much of Syria. The last stand of the Assyrian army was at <a href="/wiki/Carchemish" title="Carchemish">Carchemish</a> in northern Syria in 605 BC. The Assyrian Empire was followed by the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> (605 BC – 539 BC). During this period, Syria became a battle ground between Babylonia and another former Assyrian colony, that of <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>. The Babylonians, like their Assyrian relations, were victorious over Egypt. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_antiquity">Classical antiquity</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Eber-Nari" title="Eber-Nari">Eber-Nari</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coele-Syria" title="Coele-Syria">Coele-Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Roman Syria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Syria_Palaestina" title="Syria Palaestina">Syria Palaestina</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Palmyra_03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Palmyra_03.jpg/220px-Palmyra_03.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Palmyra_03.jpg/330px-Palmyra_03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Palmyra_03.jpg/440px-Palmyra_03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3260" data-file-height="2201" /></a><figcaption>Ancient city of <a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Palmyra</a> before the war</figcaption></figure> Lands that constitute modern day Syria were part of the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> and had been annexed by the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> in 539 BC. Led by <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a>, the Achaemenid Persians retained <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Aramaic" title="Imperial Aramaic">Imperial Aramaic</a> as one of the diplomatic languages of their empire (539 BC – 330 BC), as well as the Assyrian name for the new <a href="/wiki/Satrapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Satrapy">satrapy</a> of Aram/Syria <a href="/wiki/Eber-Nari" title="Eber-Nari">Eber-Nari</a>. Syria was later conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonian Empire">Macedonian Empire</a> which was ruled by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> c. 330 BC, and consequently became <a href="/wiki/Coele-Syria" title="Coele-Syria">Coele-Syria</a> province of the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> (323 BC – 64 BC), with the Seleucid kings styling themselves 'King of Syria' and the city of Antioch being its capital starting from 240. Thus, it was the Greeks who introduced the name "Syria" to the region. Originally an Indo-European corruption of "Assyria" in northern Mesopotamia (Iraq), the Greeks used this term to describe not only Assyria itself but also the lands to the west which had for centuries been under Assyrian dominion.<a href="#cite_note-53">[50]</a> Thus in the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Roman">Greco-Roman</a> world both the <a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a> of Syria and the <a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Assyrian Empire">Assyrians</a> of Mesopotamia (modern day <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>) to the east were referred to as "Syrians" or "Syriacs", despite these being distinct peoples in their own right, a confusion which would continue into the modern world. Eventually parts of southern <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a> Syria were taken by the <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jewish</a> <a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Hasmoneans dynasty</a> upon the slow disintegration of the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> Empire. Syria briefly came under <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenian</a> control from 83 BC, with the conquests of the Armenian king <a href="/wiki/Tigranes_the_Great" title="Tigranes the Great">Tigranes the Great</a>, who was welcomed as a savior from the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucids</a> and Romans by the Syrian people. However, <a href="/wiki/Pompey_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Pompey the Great">Pompey the Great</a>, a general of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, rode to Syria and captured <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a>, its capital, and turned Syria into a <a href="/wiki/Syria_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria (Roman province)">Roman province</a> in 64 BC, thus ending Armenian control over the region which had lasted two decades. Syria prospered under Roman rule, being strategically located on the silk road, which gave it massive wealth and importance, making it the battleground for the rivaling Romans and Persians. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bosra_pano_Syria.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Bosra_pano_Syria.jpg/220px-Bosra_pano_Syria.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Bosra_pano_Syria.jpg/330px-Bosra_pano_Syria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Bosra_pano_Syria.jpg/440px-Bosra_pano_Syria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Roman_Theatre_at_Bosra" title="Roman Theatre at Bosra">Roman Theatre at Bosra</a> in the province of <a href="/wiki/Arabia_Petraea" title="Arabia Petraea">Arabia</a>, present-day Syria</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Jupiter_temple_in_Damascus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/The_Jupiter_temple_in_Damascus.jpg/220px-The_Jupiter_temple_in_Damascus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/The_Jupiter_temple_in_Damascus.jpg/330px-The_Jupiter_temple_in_Damascus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/The_Jupiter_temple_in_Damascus.jpg/440px-The_Jupiter_temple_in_Damascus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Jupiter,_Damascus" title="Temple of Jupiter, Damascus">Temple of Jupiter, Damascus</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Palmyra</a>, a rich and sometimes powerful native <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a>-speaking kingdom arose in northern Syria in the 2nd century; the Palmyrene established a trade network that made the city one of the richest in the Roman empire. Eventually, in the late 3rd century AD, the Palmyrene king <a href="/wiki/Odaenathus" title="Odaenathus">Odaenathus</a> defeated the Persian emperor <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a> and controlled the entirety of the Roman East while his successor and widow <a href="/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia">Zenobia</a> established the <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a>, which briefly conquered Egypt, Syria, Palestine, much of Asia Minor, Judah and Lebanon, before being finally brought under Roman control in 273 AD. The northern Mesopotamian <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Assyrian">Assyrian</a> kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a> controlled areas of north east Syria between 10 AD and 117 AD, before it was conquered by Rome.<a href="#cite_note-54">[51]</a> The Aramaic language has been found as far afield as Hadrian's Wall in Ancient Britain,<a href="#cite_note-55">[52]</a> with an inscription written by a Palmyrene emigrant at the site of Fort <a href="/wiki/Arbeia" title="Arbeia">Arbeia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-56">[53]</a> Control of Syria eventually passed from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantines</a>, with the split in the Roman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-LibraryofCongress-33">[30]</a> The largely <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a>-speaking population of Syria during the heyday of the Byzantine Empire was probably not exceeded again until the 19th century. Prior to the Arab Islamic Conquest in the 7th century AD, the bulk of the population were <a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a>, but Syria was also home to <a href="/wiki/Greek_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek people">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> ruling classes, <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians</a> still dwelt in the north east, <a href="/wiki/Phoenicians" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoenicians">Phoenicians</a> along the coasts, and <a href="/wiki/Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenian</a> communities were also extant in major cities, with <a href="/wiki/Nabateans" class="mw-redirect" title="Nabateans">Nabateans</a> and pre-Islamic <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Lakhmids" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakhmids">Lakhmids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ghassanids" title="Ghassanids">Ghassanids</a> dwelling in the deserts of southern Syria. <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Christianity" title="Syriac Christianity">Syriac Christianity</a> had taken hold as the major religion, although others still followed <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manicheanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Manicheanism">Manicheanism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Classical_mythology" title="Classical mythology">Greco-Roman Religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Canaanite Religion">Canaanite Religion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesopotamian Religion">Mesopotamian Religion</a>. Syria's large and prosperous population made Syria one of the most important of the Roman and Byzantine provinces, particularly during the 2nd and 3rd centuries (AD).<a href="#cite_note-Cavendish_Corporation_2006_183-57">[54]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Apamea_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Apamea_02.jpg/220px-Apamea_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Apamea_02.jpg/330px-Apamea_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Apamea_02.jpg/440px-Apamea_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3424" data-file-height="2283" /></a><figcaption>The ancient city of <a href="/wiki/Apamea,_Syria" title="Apamea, Syria">Apamea</a>, an important commercial center and one of Syria's most prosperous cities in classical antiquity</figcaption></figure> Syrians held considerable amounts of power during the <a href="/wiki/Severan_dynasty" title="Severan dynasty">Severan dynasty</a>. The matriarch of the family and Empress of Rome as wife of emperor <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a> was <a href="/wiki/Julia_Domna" title="Julia Domna">Julia Domna</a>, a Syrian from the city of <a href="/wiki/Emesa" class="mw-redirect" title="Emesa">Emesa</a> (modern day <a href="/wiki/Homs" title="Homs">Homs</a>), whose <a href="/wiki/Royal_family_of_Emesa" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal family of Emesa">family</a> held hereditary rights to the priesthood of the god <a href="/wiki/El-Gabal" class="mw-redirect" title="El-Gabal">El-Gabal</a>. Her great nephews, also Arabs from Syria, would also become Roman Emperors, the first being <a href="/wiki/Elagabalus" title="Elagabalus">Elagabalus</a> and the second, his cousin <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Severus" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Severus">Alexander Severus</a>. Another Roman emperor who was a Syrian was <a href="/wiki/Philip_the_Arab" title="Philip the Arab">Philip the Arab</a> (Marcus Julius Philippus), who was born in <a href="/wiki/Arabia_Petraea" title="Arabia Petraea">Roman Arabia</a>. He was emperor from 244 to 249,<a href="#cite_note-Cavendish_Corporation_2006_183-57">[54]</a> and ruled briefly during the <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a>. During his reign, he focused on his home town of Philippopolis (modern day <a href="/wiki/Shahba" title="Shahba">Shahba</a>) and began many construction projects to improve the city, most of which were halted after his death. Syria is significant in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">history of Christianity</a>; Saulus of Tarsus, better known as the <a href="/wiki/Apostle_Paul" class="mw-redirect" title="Apostle Paul">Apostle Paul</a>, was converted on the <a href="/wiki/Road_to_Damascus" class="mw-redirect" title="Road to Damascus">Road to Damascus</a> and emerged as a significant figure in the Christian Church at <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a> in ancient Syria, from which he left on many of his missionary journeys.<a href="#cite_note-58">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>'s first interaction with the people and tribes of Syria was during the <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Dumatul_Jandal" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of Dumatul Jandal">Invasion of Dumatul Jandal</a> in July 626<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-59">[56]</a> where he ordered his followers to invade Duma, because Muhammad received intelligence that some tribes there were involved in highway robbery and preparing to attack Medina itself.<a href="#cite_note-Mubarakpuri,_The_Sealed_Nectar_pp._193-194-60">[57]</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Montgomery_Watt" class="mw-redirect" title="William Montgomery Watt">William Montgomery Watt</a> claims that this was the most significant expedition Muhammad ordered at the time, even though it received little notice in the primary sources. <a href="/wiki/Dumat_Al-Jandal" class="mw-redirect" title="Dumat Al-Jandal">Dumat Al-Jandal</a> was 800 kilometres (500 mi) from Medina, and Watt says that there was no immediate threat to Muhammad, other than the possibility that his communications to Syria and supplies to Medina would be interrupted. Watt says "It is tempting to suppose that Muhammad was already envisaging something of the expansion which took place after his death", and that the rapid march of his troops must have "impressed all those who heard of it".<a href="#cite_note-Muhammad_at_Medina-61">[58]</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Muir" title="William Muir">William Muir</a> also believes that the expedition was important as Muhammad followed by 1000 men reached the confines of Syria, where distant tribes had now learnt his name, while the political horizon of Muhammad was extended.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-59">[56]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabischer_Maler_um_730_002.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Arabischer_Maler_um_730_002.jpg/220px-Arabischer_Maler_um_730_002.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Arabischer_Maler_um_730_002.jpg/330px-Arabischer_Maler_um_730_002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Arabischer_Maler_um_730_002.jpg/440px-Arabischer_Maler_um_730_002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="2219" /></a><figcaption>Umayyad <a href="/wiki/Fresco" title="Fresco">fresco</a> from <a href="/wiki/Qasr_al-Hayr_al-Gharb%C3%AE" class="mw-redirect" title="Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbî">Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbî</a>, built in the early 7th century</figcaption></figure> By AD 640, Syria <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">was conquered</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Arab_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab people">Arab</a> <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_army" title="Rashidun army">Rashidun army</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Khalid_ibn_al-Walid" title="Khalid ibn al-Walid">Khalid ibn al-Walid</a>. In the mid-7th century, the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_dynasty" title="Umayyad dynasty">Umayyad dynasty</a>, then rulers of the empire, placed the capital of the empire in Damascus. The country's power declined during later Umayyad rule; this was mainly due to totalitarianism, corruption and the resulting revolutions. The Umayyad dynasty was then overthrown in 750 by the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_dynasty" title="Abbasid dynasty">Abbasid dynasty</a>, which moved the capital of empire to <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>. <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> – made official under Umayyad rule<a href="#cite_note-62">[59]</a> – became the dominant language, replacing <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic language">Aramaic</a> of the Byzantine era. In 887, the Egypt-based <a href="/wiki/Tulunids" title="Tulunids">Tulunids</a> annexed Syria from the Abbasids, and were later replaced by once the Egypt-based <a href="/wiki/Ikhshidid_dynasty" title="Ikhshidid dynasty">Ikhshidids</a> and still later by the <a href="/wiki/Hamdanid" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamdanid">Hamdanids</a> originating in <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a> founded by <a href="/wiki/Sayf_al-Dawla" title="Sayf al-Dawla">Sayf al-Dawla</a>.<a href="#cite_note-63">[60]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BattleOfHoms1299.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/BattleOfHoms1299.JPG/220px-BattleOfHoms1299.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/BattleOfHoms1299.JPG/330px-BattleOfHoms1299.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/BattleOfHoms1299.JPG/440px-BattleOfHoms1299.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1331" data-file-height="881" /></a><figcaption>The 1299 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wadi_al-Khazandar" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar">Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar</a>. The Mongols under <a href="/wiki/Ghazan" title="Ghazan">Ghazan</a> defeated the Mamluks.</figcaption></figure> Sections of Syria were held by French, English, <a href="/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">Italian</a> and German overlords between 1098 and 1189 AD during the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a> and were known collectively as the <a href="/wiki/Crusader_states" title="Crusader states">Crusader states</a> among which the primary one in Syria was the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Antioch" title="Principality of Antioch">Principality of Antioch</a>. The coastal mountainous region was also occupied in part by the <a href="/wiki/Nizaris" class="mw-redirect" title="Nizaris">Nizari Ismailis</a>, the so-called <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Assassins" title="Order of Assassins">Assassins</a>, who had intermittent confrontations and truces with the Crusader States. Later in history when "the Nizaris faced renewed Frankish hostilities, they received timely assistance from the Ayyubids."<a href="#cite_note-64">[61]</a> After a century of Seljuk rule, Syria was largely conquered (1175–1185) by the <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish people">Kurdish</a> liberator <a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Salah ad-Din</a>, founder of the <a href="/wiki/Ayyubid" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayyubid">Ayyubid</a> dynasty of Egypt. Aleppo <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Aleppo_(1260)" title="Siege of Aleppo (1260)">fell</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hulegu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hulegu">Hulegu</a> in January 1260, and Damascus in March, but then Hulegu was forced to break off his attack to return to China to deal with a succession dispute. A few months later, the Mamluks arrived with an army from Egypt and defeated the Mongols in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ain_Jalut" title="Battle of Ain Jalut">Battle of Ain Jalut</a> in <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a>. The Mamluk leader, <a href="/wiki/Baibars" class="mw-redirect" title="Baibars">Baibars</a>, made Damascus a provincial capital. When he died, power was taken by <a href="/wiki/Qalawun" title="Qalawun">Qalawun</a>. In the meantime, an emir named <a href="/wiki/Sunqur_al-Ashqar" title="Sunqur al-Ashqar">Sunqur al-Ashqar</a> had tried to declare himself ruler of Damascus, but he was defeated by Qalawun on 21 June 1280, and fled to northern Syria. Al-Ashqar, who had married a Mongol woman, appealed for help from the Mongols. The <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a> took Aleppo in October 1280, but Qalawun persuaded Al-Ashqar to join him, and they fought against the Mongols on 29 October 1281, in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Homs" title="Second Battle of Homs">Second Battle of Homs</a>, which was won by the <a href="/wiki/Mamluks" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluks">Mamluks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-65">[62]</a> In 1400, the Muslim <a href="/wiki/Turco-Mongol" class="mw-redirect" title="Turco-Mongol">Turco-Mongol</a> conqueror <a href="/wiki/Tamurlane" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamurlane">Tamurlane</a> invaded Syria, in which he <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Aleppo_(1400)" title="Sack of Aleppo (1400)">sacked Aleppo</a>,<a href="#cite_note-66">[63]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Damascus_(1400)" title="Siege of Damascus (1400)">captured Damascus</a> after defeating the Mamluk army. The city's inhabitants were massacred, except for the artisans, who were deported to <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a>.<a href="#cite_note-67">[64]</a> Tamurlane also conducted specific massacres of the <a href="/wiki/Aramean" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramean">Aramean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrian</a> Christian populations, greatly reducing their numbers.<a href="#cite_note-68">[65]</a> By the end of the 15th century, the discovery of a sea route from Europe to the Far East ended the need for an <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">overland trade route</a> through Syria. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ottoman_Syria">Ottoman Syria</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Syria" title="Ottoman Syria">Ottoman Syria</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Syrian_women,_Description_de_L%27Universe_(Alain_Manesson_Mallet,_1683)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Syrian_women%2C_Description_de_L%27Universe_%28Alain_Manesson_Mallet%2C_1683%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Syrian_women%2C_Description_de_L%27Universe_%28Alain_Manesson_Mallet%2C_1683%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Syrian_women%2C_Description_de_L%27Universe_%28Alain_Manesson_Mallet%2C_1683%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Syrian_women%2C_Description_de_L%27Universe_%28Alain_Manesson_Mallet%2C_1683%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Syrian_women%2C_Description_de_L%27Universe_%28Alain_Manesson_Mallet%2C_1683%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Syrian_women%2C_Description_de_L%27Universe_%28Alain_Manesson_Mallet%2C_1683%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="453" data-file-height="494" /></a><figcaption>Syrian women, 1683</figcaption></figure>In 1516, the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> invaded the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate" title="Mamluk Sultanate">Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt</a>, conquering Syria, and incorporating it into its empire. The Ottoman system was not burdensome to Syrians because the Turks respected Arabic as the language of the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a>, and accepted the mantle of defenders of the faith. Damascus was made the major entrepot for <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>, and as such it acquired a holy character to Muslims, because of the beneficial results of the countless pilgrims who passed through on the hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca.<a href="#cite_note-Syria_–_Ottoman_Empire-69">[66]</a> Ottoman administration followed a system that led to peaceful coexistence. Each <a href="/wiki/Ethno-religious" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethno-religious">ethno-religious</a> minority—<a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> <a href="/wiki/Shia_Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia Muslim">Shia Muslim</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni Muslim">Sunni Muslim</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aramean" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramean">Aramean</a>-<a href="/wiki/Syriac_Orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Syriac Orthodox">Syriac Orthodox</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek Orthodox">Greek Orthodox</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maronite_Christians" class="mw-redirect" title="Maronite Christians">Maronite Christians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Christians" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian Christians">Assyrian Christians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kurds" title="Kurds">Kurds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a>—constituted a <a href="/wiki/Millet_(Ottoman_Empire)" title="Millet (Ottoman Empire)">millet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-70">[67]</a> The religious heads of each community administered all personal status laws and performed certain civil functions as well.<a href="#cite_note-Syria_–_Ottoman_Empire-69">[66]</a> In 1831, <a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_Pasha_of_Egypt" title="Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt">Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt</a> renounced his loyalty to the Empire and overran <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Syria" title="Ottoman Syria">Ottoman Syria</a>, capturing Damascus. His short-term rule over the domain attempted to change the demographics and social structure of the region: he brought thousands of Egyptian villagers to populate the plains of <a href="/wiki/Southern_Syria" title="Southern Syria">Southern Syria</a>, rebuilt <a href="/wiki/Jaffa" title="Jaffa">Jaffa</a> and settled it with veteran Egyptian soldiers aiming to turn it into a regional capital, and he crushed <a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">peasant</a> and Druze rebellions and deported non-loyal tribesmen. By 1840, however, he had to surrender the area back to the Ottomans. From 1864, <a href="/wiki/Tanzimat" title="Tanzimat">Tanzimat</a> reforms were applied on Ottoman Syria, carving out the provinces (vilayets) of <a href="/wiki/Aleppo_Vilayet" class="mw-redirect" title="Aleppo Vilayet">Aleppo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sanjak_of_Zor" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanjak of Zor">Zor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beirut_Vilayet" class="mw-redirect" title="Beirut Vilayet">Beirut</a> and <a href="/wiki/Damascus_Vilayet" class="mw-redirect" title="Damascus Vilayet">Damascus Vilayet</a>; <a href="/wiki/Mutasarrifate_of_Mount_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutasarrifate of Mount Lebanon">Mutasarrifate of Mount Lebanon</a> was created, as well, and soon after the <a href="/wiki/Mutasarrifate_of_Jerusalem" title="Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem">Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem</a> was given a separate status. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Armenian_woman_kneeling_beside_dead_child_in_field.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Armenian_woman_kneeling_beside_dead_child_in_field.png/220px-Armenian_woman_kneeling_beside_dead_child_in_field.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Armenian_woman_kneeling_beside_dead_child_in_field.png/330px-Armenian_woman_kneeling_beside_dead_child_in_field.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Armenian_woman_kneeling_beside_dead_child_in_field.png/440px-Armenian_woman_kneeling_beside_dead_child_in_field.png 2x" data-file-width="2479" data-file-height="1551" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenian</a> deportees near Aleppo during the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a>, 1915</figcaption></figure> During <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> entered the conflict on the side of Germany and the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Austro-Hungarian Empire">Austro-Hungarian Empire</a>. It ultimately suffered defeat and loss of control of the entire <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a> to the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French Empire</a>. During the conflict, <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a> against indigenous Christian peoples was carried out by the Ottomans and their allies in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian genocide">Assyrian genocide</a>, of which <a href="/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor" title="Deir ez-Zor">Deir ez-Zor</a>, in Ottoman Syria, was the final destination of these death marches.<a href="#cite_note-71">[68]</a> In the midst of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, two <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allied</a> diplomats (Frenchman <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Georges-Picot" title="François Georges-Picot">François Georges-Picot</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_people" title="British people">Briton</a> <a href="/wiki/Mark_Sykes" title="Mark Sykes">Mark Sykes</a>) secretly agreed on the post-war division of the Ottoman Empire into respective zones of influence in the <a href="/wiki/Sykes-Picot_Agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Sykes-Picot Agreement">Sykes-Picot Agreement</a> of 1916. Initially, the two territories were separated by a border that ran in an almost straight line from Jordan to <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>. However, the discovery of oil in the region of <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a> just before the end of the war led to yet <a href="/wiki/1918_Clemenceau%E2%80%93Lloyd_George_Agreement_(Middle_East)" title="1918 Clemenceau–Lloyd George Agreement (Middle East)">another negotiation with France in 1918</a> to cede this region to the British zone of influence, which was to become Iraq. The fate of the intermediate province of Zor was left unclear; its <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Zor" title="Occupation of Zor">occupation by Arab nationalists resulted in its attachment to Syria</a>. This border was recognized internationally when Syria became a <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> mandate in 1920<a href="#cite_note-72">[69]</a> and has not changed to date. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French_Mandate">French Mandate</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon" title="Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon">Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Syrian_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandatory Syrian Republic">Mandatory Syrian Republic</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hashim_Atassi_Inauguration_1936.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Hashim_Atassi_Inauguration_1936.jpg/220px-Hashim_Atassi_Inauguration_1936.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Hashim_Atassi_Inauguration_1936.jpg/330px-Hashim_Atassi_Inauguration_1936.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Hashim_Atassi_Inauguration_1936.jpg/440px-Hashim_Atassi_Inauguration_1936.jpg 2x" data-file-width="594" data-file-height="406" /></a><figcaption>The inauguration of President <a href="/wiki/Hashim_al-Atassi" title="Hashim al-Atassi">Hashim al-Atassi</a> in 1936</figcaption></figure> In 1920, a short-lived independent <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Syria">Kingdom of Syria</a> was established under <a href="/wiki/Faisal_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Faisal I">Faisal I</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Hashemite" class="mw-redirect" title="Hashemite">Hashemite</a> family. However, his rule over Syria ended after only a few months, following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maysalun" title="Battle of Maysalun">Battle of Maysalun</a>. French troops occupied Syria later that year after the <a href="/wiki/San_Remo_conference" title="San Remo conference">San Remo conference</a> proposed that the League of Nations put Syria under a French mandate. General Gouraud had according to his secretary de Caix two options: "Either build a Syrian nation that does not exist... by smoothing the rifts which still divide it" or "cultivate and maintain all the phenomena, which require our arbitration that these divisions give". De Caix added "I must say only the second option interests me". This is what Gouraud did.<a href="#cite_note-73">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[71]</a> In 1925, <a href="/wiki/Sultan_al-Atrash" title="Sultan al-Atrash">Sultan al-Atrash</a> led <a href="/wiki/Great_Syrian_Revolt" title="Great Syrian Revolt">a revolt</a> that broke out in the <a href="/wiki/Jabal_al-Druze" title="Jabal al-Druze">Druze Mountain</a> and spread to engulf the whole of Syria and parts of Lebanon. Al-Atrash won several battles against the French, notably the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_al-Kafr" title="Battle of al-Kafr">Battle of al-Kafr</a> on 21 July 1925, the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_al-Mazraa" title="Battle of al-Mazraa">Battle of al-Mazraa</a> on 2–3 August 1925, and the battles of Salkhad, <a href="/wiki/Al-Musayfirah" title="Al-Musayfirah">al-Musayfirah</a> and Suwayda. France sent thousands of troops from Morocco and Senegal, leading the French to regain many cities, although resistance lasted until the spring of 1927. The French sentenced Sultan al-Atrash to death, but he had escaped with the rebels to Transjordan and was eventually pardoned. He returned to Syria in 1937 after the signing of the Syrian-French Treaty. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ghouta_rebels_in_1925.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Ghouta_rebels_in_1925.jpg/220px-Ghouta_rebels_in_1925.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Ghouta_rebels_in_1925.jpg/330px-Ghouta_rebels_in_1925.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Ghouta_rebels_in_1925.jpg/440px-Ghouta_rebels_in_1925.jpg 2x" data-file-width="622" data-file-height="422" /></a><figcaption>Syrian rebels in <a href="/wiki/Ghouta" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghouta">Ghouta</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Great_Syrian_Revolt" title="Great Syrian Revolt">Great Syrian Revolt</a> against French colonial rule in the 1920s</figcaption></figure> Syria and France negotiated a <a href="/wiki/Franco-Syrian_Treaty_of_Independence_(1936)" class="mw-redirect" title="Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence (1936)">treaty of independence</a> in September 1936, and <a href="/wiki/Hashim_al-Atassi" title="Hashim al-Atassi">Hashim al-Atassi</a> was the first president to be elected under the first incarnation of the modern republic of Syria. However, the treaty never came into force because the French Legislature refused to ratify it. With the fall of France in 1940 during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, Syria came under the control of <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a> until the British and Free French occupied the country in the <a href="/wiki/Syria-Lebanon_campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria-Lebanon campaign">Syria-Lebanon campaign</a> in July 1941. Continuing pressure from Syrian nationalists and the British <a href="/wiki/Levant_Crisis" title="Levant Crisis">forced the French</a> to evacuate their troops in April 1946, leaving the country in the hands of a republican government that had been formed during the mandate.<a href="#cite_note-USDoS-75">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Independent_Syrian_Republic">Independent Syrian Republic</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Republic_(1946%E2%80%9363)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Republic (1946–63)">Syrian Republic (1946–63)</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Republic" title="United Arab Republic">United Arab Republic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">1963 Syrian coup d'état</a></div> Upheaval dominated Syrian politics from independence through the late 1960s. In May 1948, Syrian forces invaded <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a>, together with other Arab states, and immediately <a href="/wiki/Battles_of_the_Kinarot_Valley" title="Battles of the Kinarot Valley">attacked</a> Jewish settlements.<a href="#cite_note-76">[73]</a> Their president <a href="/wiki/Shukri_al-Quwwatli" class="mw-redirect" title="Shukri al-Quwwatli">Shukri al-Quwwatli</a> instructed his troops in the front, "to destroy the Zionists".<a href="#cite_note-77">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[75]</a> The Invasion purpose was to prevent the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">State of Israel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Britan-79">[76]</a> Toward this end, the Syrian government engaged in an active process of recruiting former <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazis</a>, including several former members of the <a href="/wiki/Schutzstaffel" title="Schutzstaffel">Schutzstaffel</a>, to build up their armed forces and military intelligence capabilities.<a href="#cite_note-80">[77]</a> Defeat in this war was one of several trigger factors for the <a href="/wiki/March_1949_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="March 1949 Syrian coup d'état">March 1949 Syrian coup d'état</a> by Col. <a href="/wiki/Husni_al-Za%27im" title="Husni al-Za'im">Husni al-Za'im</a>, described as the first military overthrow of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_World" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab World">Arab World</a><a href="#cite_note-Britan-79">[76]</a> since the start of the Second World War. This was soon followed by another overthrow, by Col. <a href="/wiki/Sami_al-Hinnawi" title="Sami al-Hinnawi">Sami al-Hinnawi</a>, who was himself quickly deposed by Col. <a href="/wiki/Adib_Shishakli" title="Adib Shishakli">Adib Shishakli</a>, all within the same year.<a href="#cite_note-Britan-79">[76]</a><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Syrien_1961_Aleppol_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Syrien_1961_Aleppol_1.jpg/220px-Syrien_1961_Aleppol_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Syrien_1961_Aleppol_1.jpg/330px-Syrien_1961_Aleppol_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Syrien_1961_Aleppol_1.jpg/440px-Syrien_1961_Aleppol_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="427" /></a><figcaption>Aleppo in 1961</figcaption></figure>Shishakli eventually abolished multipartyism altogether, but was himself overthrown in a <a href="/wiki/1954_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Syrian coup d'état">1954 coup</a> and the parliamentary system was restored.<a href="#cite_note-Britan-79">[76]</a> However, by this time, power was increasingly concentrated in the military and security establishment.<a href="#cite_note-Britan-79">[76]</a> The weakness of Parliamentary institutions and the mismanagement of the economy led to unrest and the influence of <a href="/wiki/Nasserism" title="Nasserism">Nasserism</a> and other ideologies. There was fertile ground for various <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab nationalist">Arab nationalist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syrian_nationalism" title="Syrian nationalism">Syrian nationalist</a>, and socialist movements, which represented disaffected elements of society. Notably included were religious minorities, who demanded radical reform.<a href="#cite_note-Britan-79">[76]</a> In November 1956, as a direct result of the <a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a>,<a href="#cite_note-81">[78]</a> Syria signed a pact with the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. This gave a foothold for Communist influence within the government in exchange for military equipment.<a href="#cite_note-Britan-79">[76]</a> <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> then became worried about this increase in the strength of Syrian military technology, as it seemed feasible that Syria might attempt to retake <a href="/wiki/%C4%B0skenderun" title="İskenderun">İskenderun</a>. Only heated debates in the United Nations lessened the threat of war.<a href="#cite_note-82">[79]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nasser_addresses_Aleppo,_1960.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Nasser_addresses_Aleppo%2C_1960.jpg/220px-Nasser_addresses_Aleppo%2C_1960.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Nasser_addresses_Aleppo%2C_1960.jpg/330px-Nasser_addresses_Aleppo%2C_1960.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Nasser_addresses_Aleppo%2C_1960.jpg/440px-Nasser_addresses_Aleppo%2C_1960.jpg 2x" data-file-width="499" data-file-height="420" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a> at <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a>, 1960</figcaption></figure> On 1 February 1958, Syrian President <a href="/wiki/Shukri_al-Quwatli" title="Shukri al-Quwatli">Shukri al-Quwatli</a> and Egypt's Nasser announced the merging of Egypt and Syria, creating the <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Republic" title="United Arab Republic">United Arab Republic</a>, and all Syrian political parties, as well as the communists therein, ceased overt activities.<a href="#cite_note-USDoS-75">[72]</a> Meanwhile, a group of Syrian Ba'athist officers, alarmed by the party's poor position and the increasing fragility of the union, decided to form a secret Military Committee; its initial members were Lieutenant-Colonel <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Umran" title="Muhammad Umran">Muhammad Umran</a>, Major <a href="/wiki/Salah_Jadid" title="Salah Jadid">Salah Jadid</a> and Captain Hafiz al-Assad. Syria seceded from the union with Egypt on 28 September 1961, after a <a href="/wiki/1961_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1961 Syrian coup d'état">coup</a> and terminated the political union. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ba'athist_Syria">Ba'athist Syria</h3></div> The instability which followed the <a href="/wiki/1961_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1961 Syrian coup d'état">1961 coup</a> culminated in the <a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">8 March 1963 Ba'athist coup</a>. The takeover was engineered by members of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a> and <a href="/wiki/Salah_al-Din_al-Bitar" title="Salah al-Din al-Bitar">Salah al-Din al-Bitar</a>. The new Syrian cabinet was dominated by Ba'ath members.<a href="#cite_note-USDoS-75">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-Britan-79">[76]</a> Since the <a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">1963 seizure of power</a> by its <a href="/wiki/Military_Committee_(Syria)" class="mw-redirect" title="Military Committee (Syria)">Military Committee</a>, the Ba'ath party has ruled Syria as a <a href="/wiki/Totalitarian_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Totalitarian state">totalitarian state</a>. Ba'athists took control over country's politics, education, culture, religion and surveilled all aspects of civil society through its powerful <a href="/wiki/Military_Intelligence_Directorate_(Syria)" title="Military Intelligence Directorate (Syria)">Mukhabarat</a> (secret police). <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Arab_Armed_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Arab Armed Forces">Syrian Arab Armed forces</a> and secret police were integrated with the Ba'ath party apparatus; after the purging of traditional civilian and military elites by the new regime.<a href="#cite_note-83">[80]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:General_Hafez_al-Assad_(1930-2000),_the_new_president_of_Syria_in_November_1970.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/General_Hafez_al-Assad_%281930-2000%29%2C_the_new_president_of_Syria_in_November_1970.png/185px-General_Hafez_al-Assad_%281930-2000%29%2C_the_new_president_of_Syria_in_November_1970.png" decoding="async" width="185" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/General_Hafez_al-Assad_%281930-2000%29%2C_the_new_president_of_Syria_in_November_1970.png/277px-General_Hafez_al-Assad_%281930-2000%29%2C_the_new_president_of_Syria_in_November_1970.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/General_Hafez_al-Assad_%281930-2000%29%2C_the_new_president_of_Syria_in_November_1970.png/370px-General_Hafez_al-Assad_%281930-2000%29%2C_the_new_president_of_Syria_in_November_1970.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="915" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a>, president of Syria (1970–2000)</figcaption></figure> The 1963 Ba'athist coup marked a "radical break" in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Syria#Modern_history" title="History of Syria">modern Syrian history</a>, after which <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">Ba'ath party</a> monopolised power in the country to establish a <a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party state</a> and shaped a new socio-political order by enforcing its <a href="/wiki/Neo-Ba%27athism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Ba'athism">state ideology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-84">[81]</a> On 23 February 1966, the <a href="/wiki/Neo-ba%27athist" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-ba'athist">neo-Ba'athist</a> Military Committee carried out an <a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">intra-party rebellion</a> against the Ba'athist Old Guard (<a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Aflaq</a> and <a href="/wiki/Salah_al-Din_al-Bitar" title="Salah al-Din al-Bitar">Bitar</a>), imprisoned President <a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Hafiz" title="Amin al-Hafiz">Amin al-Hafiz</a> and designated a regionalist, civilian Ba'ath government on 1 March.<a href="#cite_note-Britan-79">[76]</a> Although <a href="/wiki/Nureddin_al-Atassi" title="Nureddin al-Atassi">Nureddin al-Atassi</a> became the formal head of state, <a href="/wiki/Salah_Jadid" title="Salah Jadid">Salah Jadid</a> was Syria's effective ruler from 1966 until November 1970,<a href="#cite_note-85">[82]</a> when he was deposed by <a href="/wiki/Hafiz_al-Assad" class="mw-redirect" title="Hafiz al-Assad">Hafiz al-Assad</a>, who at the time was Minister of Defense.<a href="#cite_note-ps-86">[83]</a> The coup led to the schism within the original <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">pan-Arab Ba'ath Party</a>: one <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-led_faction)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-led faction)">Iraqi-led ba'ath movement</a> (ruled Iraq from 1968 to 2003) and one <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-led_faction)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-led faction)">Syrian-led ba'ath movement</a> was established. In the first half of 1967, a low-key state of war existed between Syria and <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>. Conflict over Israeli cultivation of land in the <a href="/wiki/Israel%E2%80%93Syria_Mixed_Armistice_Commission" title="Israel–Syria Mixed Armistice Commission">Demilitarized Zone</a> led to <a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_Six-Day_War#Israel_and_Syria" title="Origins of the Six-Day War">7 April pre-war aerial clashes</a> between Israel and Syria.<a href="#cite_note-Tessler1994-87">[84]</a> When the <a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a> broke out between Egypt and Israel, Syria joined the war and attacked Israel as well. In the final days of the war, Israel turned its attention to Syria, capturing two-thirds of the <a href="/wiki/Golan_Heights" title="Golan Heights">Golan Heights</a> in under 48 hours.<a href="#cite_note-88">[85]</a> The defeat caused a split between Jadid and Assad over what steps to take next.<a href="#cite_note-Khatib2012-89">[86]</a> Disagreement developed between Jadid, who controlled the party apparatus, and Assad, who controlled the military. The 1970 retreat of Syrian forces sent to aid the <a href="/wiki/PLO" class="mw-redirect" title="PLO">Palestine Liberation Organization</a> (PLO) led by <a href="/wiki/Yasser_Arafat" title="Yasser Arafat">Yasser Arafat</a> during the "<a href="/wiki/Black_September_in_Jordan" class="mw-redirect" title="Black September in Jordan">Black September</a> (also known as the Jordan Civil War of 1970)" hostilities with Jordan reflected this disagreement.<a href="#cite_note-90">[87]</a> The power struggle culminated in the November <a href="/wiki/1970_Syrian_Corrective_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="1970 Syrian Corrective Revolution">1970 Syrian Corrective movement</a>, a bloodless military coup that installed <a href="/wiki/Hafiz_al-Assad" class="mw-redirect" title="Hafiz al-Assad">Hafiz al-Assad</a> as the strongman of the government.<a href="#cite_note-ps-86">[83]</a> General Hafiz al-Assad transformed a <a href="/wiki/Ba%27athism" title="Ba'athism">Ba'athist</a> party state into a <a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">totalitarian</a> dictatorship marked by his pervasive grip on the party, <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Arab_Armed_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Arab Armed Forces">armed forces</a>, <a href="/wiki/Military_Intelligence_Directorate_(Syria)" title="Military Intelligence Directorate (Syria)">secret police</a>, media, education sector, religious and cultural spheres and all aspects of civil society. He assigned <a href="/wiki/Alawites" title="Alawites">Alawite</a> loyalists to key posts in the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Armed_Forces" title="Syrian Armed Forces">military forces</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">bureaucracy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Military_Intelligence_Directorate_(Syria)" title="Military Intelligence Directorate (Syria)">intelligence</a> and the ruling elite. A <a href="/wiki/Cult_of_personality" title="Cult of personality">cult of personality</a> revolving around Hafiz and his family became a core tenet of <a href="/wiki/Assadism" class="mw-redirect" title="Assadism">Ba'athist ideology</a>,<a href="#cite_note-The_Sturdy_House_That_Assad_Built2-91">[88]</a> which espoused that <a href="/wiki/Assad_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Assad dynasty">Assad dynasty</a> was destined to rule perennially.<a href="#cite_note-92">[89]</a> On 6 October 1973, Syria and Egypt initiated the <a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a> against Israel. The <a href="/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces" title="Israel Defense Forces">Israel Defense Forces</a> reversed the initial Syrian gains and pushed deeper into Syrian territory.<a href="#cite_note-93">[90]</a> The village of <a href="/wiki/Quneitra" title="Quneitra">Quneitra</a> was largely destroyed by the Israeli army. In the late 1970s, an <a href="/wiki/Islamist_uprising_in_Syria" title="Islamist uprising in Syria">Islamist uprising</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_Brotherhood_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim Brotherhood of Syria">Muslim Brotherhood</a> was aimed against the government. Islamists attacked civilians and off-duty military personnel, leading security forces to also kill civilians in retaliatory strikes. The uprising had reached its climax in the 1982 <a href="/wiki/1982_Hama_massacre" title="1982 Hama massacre">Hama massacre</a>,<a href="#cite_note-94">[91]</a> when more than 40,000 people were killed by <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Armed_Forces" title="Syrian Armed Forces">Syrian military</a> troops and Ba'athist paramilitaries.<a href="#cite_note-wright2008-95">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-Amos-96">[93]</a> It has been described as the "single deadliest act" of violence perpetrated by any state upon its own population in <a href="/wiki/Modern_Middle_East" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Middle East">modern Arab history</a><a href="#cite_note-wright2008-95">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-Amos-96">[93]</a> In a major shift in relations with both other <a href="/wiki/Arab_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab states">Arab states</a> and the Western world, Syria participated in the United States-led <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a> against <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a>. The country participated in the multilateral <a href="/wiki/Madrid_Conference_of_1991" title="Madrid Conference of 1991">Madrid Conference of 1991</a>, and during the 1990s engaged in negotiations with Israel along with <a href="/wiki/State_of_Palestine" title="State of Palestine">Palestine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>. These negotiations failed, and there have been no further direct Syrian-Israeli talks since President Hafiz al-Assad's meeting with then President <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> in <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a> in March 2000.<a href="#cite_note-97">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="21st_century_and_civil_war">21st century and civil war</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Civil War">Syrian Civil War</a></div> Hafiz al-Assad died on 10 June 2000. His son, <a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a>, was elected president in <a href="/wiki/Syrian_presidential_election,_2000" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian presidential election, 2000">an election</a> in which he ran unopposed.<a href="#cite_note-USDoS-75">[72]</a> His election saw the birth of the <a href="/wiki/Damascus_Spring" title="Damascus Spring">Damascus Spring</a> and hopes of reform, but by autumn 2001, the authorities had suppressed the movement, imprisoning some of its leading intellectuals.<a href="#cite_note-Alan-98">[95]</a> Instead, reforms have been limited to some market reforms.<a href="#cite_note-The_Sturdy_House_That_Assad_Built2-91">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated4-99">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[97]</a> On 5 October 2003, Israel <a href="/wiki/Ain_es_Saheb_airstrike" title="Ain es Saheb airstrike">bombed a site near Damascus</a>, claiming it was a terrorist training facility for members of <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Jihad_Movement_in_Palestine" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic Jihad Movement in Palestine">Islamic Jihad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-101">[98]</a> In March 2004, <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Kurds" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Kurds">Syrian Kurds</a> and Arabs <a href="/wiki/2004_Al-Qamishli_riots" class="mw-redirect" title="2004 Al-Qamishli riots">clashed</a> in the northeastern city of <a href="/wiki/Al-Qamishli" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Qamishli">al-Qamishli</a>. Signs of rioting were seen in the cities of Qamishli and <a href="/wiki/Al-Hasakah" title="Al-Hasakah">Hasakeh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-102">[99]</a> In 2005, Syria ended its military presence in Lebanon.<a href="#cite_note-103">[100]</a> <a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Rafic_Hariri" class="mw-redirect" title="Killing of Rafic Hariri">Assassination</a> of <a href="/wiki/Rafic_Hariri" title="Rafic Hariri">Rafic Hariri</a> in 2005 led to international condemnation and triggered a popular <a href="/wiki/Cedar_Revolution" title="Cedar Revolution">Intifada</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, known as "the Cedar Revolution" which forced the <a href="/wiki/Assad_regime" class="mw-redirect" title="Assad regime">Assad regime</a> to end its 29-year old of <a href="/wiki/Syrian_occupation_of_Lebanon" title="Syrian occupation of Lebanon">military occupation in Lebanon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-The_Los_Angeles_Times-104">[101]</a> On 6 September 2007, foreign jet fighters, suspected as Israeli, reportedly carried out <a href="/wiki/Operation_Orchard" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Orchard">Operation Orchard</a> against a suspected <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactor</a> under construction by <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korean</a> technicians.<a href="#cite_note-105">[102]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war</a> is an ongoing internal violent conflict in Syria. It is a part of the wider <a href="/wiki/Arab_Spring" title="Arab Spring">Arab Spring</a>, a wave of upheaval throughout the <a href="/wiki/Arab_World" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab World">Arab World</a>. Public demonstrations across Syria began on 26 January 2011 and developed into a nationwide uprising. Protesters demanded the resignation of President <a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a>, the overthrow of his government, and an end to nearly five decades of <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">Ba’ath Party rule</a>. Since spring 2011, the <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Syria" title="Politics of Syria">Syrian government</a> deployed the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Army" title="Syrian Army">Syrian Army</a> to quell the uprising, and several cities were besieged,<a href="#cite_note-106">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-http-107">[104]</a> though the unrest continued. According to some witnesses, soldiers, who refused to open fire on civilians, were summarily executed by the Syrian Army.<a href="#cite_note-defect-108">[105]</a> The Syrian government denied reports of defections, and blamed armed gangs for causing trouble.<a href="#cite_note-crackdown-109">[106]</a> Since early autumn 2011, civilians and army defectors began forming fighting units, which began an insurgency campaign against the Syrian Army. The insurgents unified under the banner of the <a href="/wiki/Free_Syrian_Army" title="Free Syrian Army">Free Syrian Army</a> and fought in an increasingly organized fashion; however, the civilian component of the armed opposition lacked an organized leadership.<a href="#cite_note-:2-110">[107]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pro-government_Syrians_demonstration_in_Damascus_after_US_missile_strike_10.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Pro-government_Syrians_demonstration_in_Damascus_after_US_missile_strike_10.jpg/220px-Pro-government_Syrians_demonstration_in_Damascus_after_US_missile_strike_10.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Pro-government_Syrians_demonstration_in_Damascus_after_US_missile_strike_10.jpg/330px-Pro-government_Syrians_demonstration_in_Damascus_after_US_missile_strike_10.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Pro-government_Syrians_demonstration_in_Damascus_after_US_missile_strike_10.jpg/440px-Pro-government_Syrians_demonstration_in_Damascus_after_US_missile_strike_10.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="557" /></a><figcaption>Pro-Assad demonstration in the capital Damascus after <a href="/wiki/April_2018_missile_strikes_against_Syria" title="April 2018 missile strikes against Syria">US-led missile strikes</a> in April 2018</figcaption></figure>The uprising has sectarian undertones, though neither faction in the conflict has described sectarianism as playing a major role. The opposition is dominated by <a href="/wiki/Sunni" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni">Sunni</a> Muslims, whereas the leading government figures are <a href="/wiki/Alawite" class="mw-redirect" title="Alawite">Alawites</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:2-110">[107]</a> affiliated with Shia Islam. As a result, the opposition is winning support from the Sunni Muslim states, whereas the government is publicly supported by the Shia dominated <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> and the Lebanese <a href="/wiki/Hezbollah" title="Hezbollah">Hezbollah</a>. According to various sources, including the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>, up to 13,470–19,220 people have been killed, of which about half were civilians, but also including 6,035–6,570 armed combatants from both sides<a href="#cite_note-SOHR-111">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-myrtlebeachonline-114">[111]</a> and up to 1,400 opposition protesters.<a href="#cite_note-almost11,500-115">[112]</a> Many more have been injured, and tens of thousands of protesters have been imprisoned. According to the Syrian government, 9,815–10,146 people, including 3,430 members of the security forces, 2,805–3,140 insurgents and up to 3,600 civilians, have been killed in fighting with what they characterize as "armed terrorist groups."<a href="#cite_note-syriangovernment2-116">[113]</a> To escape the violence, tens of thousands of <a href="/wiki/Refugees_of_the_Syrian_civil_war" title="Refugees of the Syrian civil war">Syrian refugees</a> have fled the country to neighboring <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> and <a href="#cite_note-117">[114]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, as well to <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>.<a href="#cite_note-118">[115]</a> The total official UN numbers of Syrian refugees reached 42,000 at the time,<a href="#cite_note-119">[116]</a> while unofficial number stood at as many as 130,000.<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Damascus_from_qasioun_mountain.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Damascus_from_qasioun_mountain.jpg/220px-Damascus_from_qasioun_mountain.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Damascus_from_qasioun_mountain.jpg/330px-Damascus_from_qasioun_mountain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Damascus_from_qasioun_mountain.jpg/440px-Damascus_from_qasioun_mountain.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Aerial view of <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> in 2020</figcaption></figure> UNICEF reported that over 500 children have been killed,<a href="#cite_note-120">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[118]</a> Another 400 children have been reportedly arrested and tortured in Syrian prisons.<a href="#cite_note-122">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[120]</a> Both claims have been contested by the Syrian government.<a href="#cite_note-124">[121]</a> Additionally, over 600 detainees and political prisoners have died under torture.<a href="#cite_note-125">[122]</a> <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch" title="Human Rights Watch">Human Rights Watch</a> accused the government and Shabiha of using civilians as <a href="/wiki/Human_shield" title="Human shield">human shields</a> when they advanced on opposition held-areas.<a href="#cite_note-126">[123]</a> Anti-government rebels have been accused of human rights abuses as well, including torture, kidnapping, unlawful detention and execution of civilians, Shabiha and soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-:2-110">[107]</a> HRW also expressed concern at the kidnapping of Iranian nationals.<a href="#cite_note-127">[124]</a> The UN Commission of Inquiry has also documented abuses of this nature in its February 2012 report, which also includes documentation that indicates rebel forces have been responsible for <a href="/wiki/Displaced_person" class="mw-redirect" title="Displaced person">displacement</a> of civilians.<a href="#cite_note-128">[125]</a> Being ranked 8th last on the 2024 <a href="/wiki/Global_Peace_Index" title="Global Peace Index">Global Peace Index</a> and 4th worst in the 2024 <a href="/wiki/Fragile_States_Index" title="Fragile States Index">Fragile States Index</a>,<a href="#cite_note-129">[126]</a> Syria is one of the most dangerous places for <a href="/wiki/Journalist" title="Journalist">journalists</a>. Freedom of press is extremely limited, and the country is ranked 2nd worst in the 2024 <a href="/wiki/World_Press_Freedom_Index" title="World Press Freedom Index">World Press Freedom Index</a>.<a href="#cite_note-130">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[128]</a> Syria is the most corrupt country in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[130]</a> and was ranked the 2nd lowest globally on the 2023 <a href="/wiki/Corruption_Perceptions_Index" title="Corruption Perceptions Index">Corruption Perceptions Index</a>.<a href="#cite_note-134">[131]</a> The country has also become the epicentre of a state-sponsored multi-billion dollar <a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade" title="Illegal drug trade">illicit drug cartel</a>, the largest in the world.<a href="#cite_note-135">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-137">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-138">[135]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">civil war</a> has resulted in more than 600,000 deaths,<a href="#cite_note-139">[136]</a> with pro-Assad forces causing more than 90% of the <a href="/wiki/Casualties_of_the_Syrian_civil_war" title="Casualties of the Syrian civil war">total civilian casualties</a>.<a href="#cite_note-148">[d]</a> The war led to a <a href="/wiki/Syrian_refugee_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian refugee crisis">massive refugee crisis</a>, with an estimated 7.6 million <a href="/wiki/Forced_displacement" title="Forced displacement">internally displaced people</a> (July 2015 <a href="/wiki/UNHCR" class="mw-redirect" title="UNHCR">UNHCR</a> figure) and over 5 million <a href="/wiki/Refugees_of_the_Syrian_civil_war" title="Refugees of the Syrian civil war">refugees</a> (July 2017 registered by <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees" title="United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees">UNHCR</a>).<a href="#cite_note-149">[145]</a> The war has also worsened economic conditions, with more than 90% of the population living in <a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">poverty</a> and 80% facing <a href="/wiki/Food_insecurity" class="mw-redirect" title="Food insecurity">food insecurity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-154">[e]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League">Arab League</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="United States of America">United States</a>, the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union states</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Cooperation_Council_for_the_Arab_States_of_the_Gulf" class="mw-redirect" title="Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf">Gulf Cooperation Council states</a>, and other countries have condemned the use of violence against the protesters.<a href="#cite_note-:2-110">[107]</a> China and Russia have avoided condemning the government or applying sanctions, saying that such methods could escalate into foreign intervention. However, military intervention has been ruled out by most countries.<a href="#cite_note-155">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-156">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-157">[152]</a> The Arab League suspended Syria's membership over the government's response to the crisis,<a href="#cite_note-158">[153]</a> but sent an <a href="/wiki/Arab_League_Monitors_in_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab League Monitors in Syria">observer mission</a> in December 2011, as part of its <a href="/wiki/Syrian_conflict_peace_proposals" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian conflict peace proposals">proposal for peaceful resolution</a> of the crisis.<a href="#cite_note-:3-157">[152]</a> The latest attempts to resolve the crisis has been made through the appointment of Kofi Annan, as a <a href="/wiki/Kofi_Annan_peace_plan_for_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Kofi Annan peace plan for Syria">special envoy</a> to resolve the Syrian crisis in the Middle East.<a href="#cite_note-:2-110">[107]</a> Some analysts however have posited the partitioning the region into a <a href="/wiki/Sunnite" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunnite">Sunnite</a> east, <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish people">Kurdish</a> north and <a href="/wiki/Shiite" class="mw-redirect" title="Shiite">Shiite</a>/<a href="/wiki/Alawite" class="mw-redirect" title="Alawite">Alawite</a> west.<a href="#cite_note-159">[154]</a> Twelve years into Syria's devastating civil war, the conflict appears to have settled into a frozen state.<a href="#cite_note-:4-160">[155]</a> Although roughly 30% of the country is controlled by opposition forces, heavy fighting has largely ceased and there is a growing regional trend toward normalizing relations with the regime of Bashar al-Assad.<a href="#cite_note-:4-160">[155]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geography">Geography</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Syria" title="Geography of Syria">Geography of Syria</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Water_Stress,_Top_Countries_(2020).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Water_Stress%2C_Top_Countries_%282020%29.svg/220px-Water_Stress%2C_Top_Countries_%282020%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Water_Stress%2C_Top_Countries_%282020%29.svg/330px-Water_Stress%2C_Top_Countries_%282020%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Water_Stress%2C_Top_Countries_%282020%29.svg/440px-Water_Stress%2C_Top_Countries_%282020%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="265" /></a><figcaption>Syria is the twelfth most water stressed country in the world.</figcaption></figure> Syria lies between latitudes <a href="/wiki/32nd_parallel_north" title="32nd parallel north">32°</a> and <a href="/wiki/38th_parallel_north" title="38th parallel north">38° N</a>, and longitudes <a href="/wiki/35th_meridian_east" title="35th meridian east">35°</a> and <a href="/wiki/43rd_meridian_east" title="43rd meridian east">43° E</a>. The climate varies from the humid Mediterranean coast, through a semiarid steppe zone, to arid desert in the east. The country consists mostly of arid plateau, although the northwest part bordering the Mediterranean is fairly green. <a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Al-Jazira</a> in the northeast and <a href="/wiki/Hauran" title="Hauran">Hawran</a> in the south are important agricultural areas. The <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>, Syria's most important river, crosses the country in the east. Syria is one of the fifteen states that comprise the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">cradle of civilization</a>".<a href="#cite_note-161">[156]</a> Its land straddles the "northwest of the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabian Plate">Arabian plate</a>".<a href="#cite_note-162">[157]</a> Petroleum in commercial quantities was first discovered in the northeast in 1956. The most important oil fields are those of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Suwaydiyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Suwaydiyah (page does not exist)">al-Suwaydiyah</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Karatchok_Field&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Karatchok Field (page does not exist)">Karatchok</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rmelan" title="Rmelan">Rmelan</a> near <a href="/wiki/Al-Hasakah" title="Al-Hasakah">al-Hasakah</a>, as well as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Omar_Field&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Omar Field (page does not exist)">al-Omar</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Taym_Field&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Taym Field (page does not exist)">al-Taym</a> fields near <a href="/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor" title="Deir ez-Zor">Dayr az–Zawr</a>. The fields are a natural extension of the Iraqi fields of <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kirkuk" title="Kirkuk">Kirkuk</a>. Petroleum became Syria's leading natural resource and chief export after 1974. Natural gas was discovered at the field of Jbessa in 1940.<a href="#cite_note-USDoS-75">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Syria" title="Wildlife of Syria">Wildlife of Syria</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Syria" title="Environmental issues in Syria">Environmental issues in Syria</a></div> Syria contains four terrestrial ecoregions: <a href="/wiki/Syrian_xeric_grasslands_and_shrublands" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian xeric grasslands and shrublands">Syrian xeric grasslands and shrublands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean_conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf_forests" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests">Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Anatolian_montane_conifer_and_deciduous_forests" title="Southern Anatolian montane conifer and deciduous forests">Southern Anatolian montane conifer and deciduous forests</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_shrub_desert" title="Mesopotamian shrub desert">Mesopotamian shrub desert</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DinersteinOlson2017-163">[158]</a> The country had a 2019 <a href="/wiki/Forest_Landscape_Integrity_Index" title="Forest Landscape Integrity Index">Forest Landscape Integrity Index</a> mean score of 3.64/10, ranking it 144th globally out of 172 countries.<a href="#cite_note-FLII-Supplementary-164">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government_and_politics">Government and politics</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Syria" title="Politics of Syria">Politics of Syria</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Syria" title="Elections in Syria">Elections in Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:242px;max-width:242px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:109px;max-width:109px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:155px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Bashar_al-Assad_(2018-05-17)_03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Bashar_al-Assad_%282018-05-17%29_03.jpg/107px-Bashar_al-Assad_%282018-05-17%29_03.jpg" decoding="async" width="107" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Bashar_al-Assad_%282018-05-17%29_03.jpg/161px-Bashar_al-Assad_%282018-05-17%29_03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Bashar_al-Assad_%282018-05-17%29_03.jpg/214px-Bashar_al-Assad_%282018-05-17%29_03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="782" data-file-height="1139" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">President <a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:129px;max-width:129px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:155px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Hussein_Arnous.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Hussein_Arnous.jpg/127px-Hussein_Arnous.jpg" decoding="async" width="127" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Hussein_Arnous.jpg/191px-Hussein_Arnous.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Hussein_Arnous.jpg/254px-Hussein_Arnous.jpg 2x" data-file-width="465" data-file-height="570" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Hussein_Arnous" title="Hussein Arnous">Hussein Arnous</a></div></div></div></div></div> Syria is a <a href="/wiki/Presidential_republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Presidential republic">presidential state</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[160]</a> that nominally permits the candidacy of individuals who do not form part of the <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">Ba'ath</a>-controlled <a href="/wiki/National_Progressive_Front_(Syria)" title="National Progressive Front (Syria)">National Progressive Front</a>.<a href="#cite_note-166">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-167">[162]</a> Despite this, Syria remains a one-party state with an extensive <a href="/wiki/General_Intelligence_Directorate_(Syria)" title="General Intelligence Directorate (Syria)">secret police</a> apparatus that curtails any independent political activity.<a href="#cite_note-168">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[164]</a> The new constitution introduced single-handedly by the <a href="/wiki/Assad_regime" class="mw-redirect" title="Assad regime">Assad regime</a>, without participation of the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_opposition" title="Syrian opposition">Syrian opposition</a>, has bolstered its <a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">authoritarian</a> character by bestowing extraordinary powers on the <a href="/wiki/President_of_Syria" title="President of Syria">Presidency</a> and a Ba'athist political committee continues to be responsible for authorization of political parties.<a href="#cite_note-170">[165]</a> The ruling <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party</a> governs Syria as a totalitarian <a href="/wiki/Police_state" title="Police state">police state</a>,<a href="#cite_note-171">[166]</a> through its control of the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Arab_Armed_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Arab Armed Forces">Syrian military</a> and security apparatus.<a href="#cite_note-172">[f]</a> 50th edition of <a href="/wiki/Freedom_in_the_World" title="Freedom in the World">Freedom in the World</a>, the annual report published by <a href="/wiki/Freedom_House" title="Freedom House">Freedom House</a> in 2023, designates Syria as "Worst of the Worst" among the "Not Free" countries and gives it the lowest score (1/100) alongside <a href="/wiki/South_Sudan" title="South Sudan">South Sudan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-173">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-174">[168]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Syria#Constitution_of_2012" title="Constitution of Syria">2012 Syrian constitution</a>, the <a href="/wiki/President_of_Syria" title="President of Syria">Syrian president</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Head_of_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Head of State">head of Syrian state</a>, while the <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Syria" title="Prime Minister of Syria">Syrian prime Minister</a> is nominally the <a href="/wiki/Head_of_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Head of Government">head of government</a>,<a href="#cite_note-175">[169]</a> although real power in the system lies with the Presidency.<a href="#cite_note-176">[170]</a> The legislature, the Peoples Council, is the body responsible for passing laws, approving government <a href="/wiki/Appropriation_(law)" title="Appropriation (law)">appropriations</a> and debating policy.<a href="#cite_note-177">[171]</a> In the event of a <a href="/wiki/Vote_of_no_confidence" class="mw-redirect" title="Vote of no confidence">vote of no confidence</a> by a simple majority, the Prime Minister is required to tender the resignation of their government to the President.<a href="#cite_note-178">[172]</a> Since the rule of Hafez al-Asad, the Syrian Ba'athist political system has been centered around a comprehensive <a href="/wiki/Al-Assad_family#Cult_of_Personality" title="Al-Assad family">cult of personality</a> focused on the <a href="/wiki/Al-Assad_family" title="Al-Assad family">al-Assad family</a>;<a href="#cite_note-179">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-180">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-181">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-182">[176]</a> with Alawite loyalists of the Ba'ath party dominating key positions in the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Arab_Armed_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Arab Armed Forces">military apparatus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Military_Intelligence_Directorate_(Syria)" title="Military Intelligence Directorate (Syria)">secret police</a> and political establishment.<a href="#cite_note-The_Sturdy_House_That_Assad_Built2-91">[88]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Executive_branch" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive branch">executive branch</a> consists of the president, two <a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_Syria" title="Vice President of Syria">vice presidents</a>, the prime minister, and the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of Ministers of Syria">Council of Ministers</a> (cabinet). The constitution requires the president to be a Muslim but does not make Islam the state religion.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-183">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-const-184">[178]</a> On 31 January 1973, Hafiz al-Assad implemented a new constitution, which led to a national crisis. Unlike previous constitutions, this one did not require that the President of Syria be a <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a>, leading to fierce demonstrations in <a href="/wiki/Hama" title="Hama">Hama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Homs" title="Homs">Homs</a> and Aleppo organized by the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_Brotherhood" title="Muslim Brotherhood">Muslim Brotherhood</a> and the traditional <a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">ulama</a>. They labelled Assad the "enemy of <a href="/wiki/Allah" title="Allah">Allah</a>" and called for a <a href="/wiki/Jihad" title="Jihad">jihad</a> against his rule.<a href="#cite_note-185">[179]</a> The government survived a series of <a href="/wiki/Islamist_uprising_in_Syria" title="Islamist uprising in Syria">armed revolts</a> led mostly by <a href="/wiki/Islamist" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamist">Islamists</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_Brotherhood" title="Muslim Brotherhood">Muslim Brotherhood</a>, between 1976 and 1982, through a series of repressions and massacres. The constitution gives the president the right to appoint ministers, to declare war and <a href="/wiki/State_of_emergency" title="State of emergency">state of emergency</a>, to issue laws (which, except in the case of emergency, require ratification by the People's Council), to declare <a href="/wiki/Amnesty" title="Amnesty">amnesty</a>, to amend the constitution, and to appoint civil servants and military personnel.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-183">[177]</a> According to the 2012 constitution, the president is elected by Syrian citizens in a direct election. Syria's <a href="/wiki/Legislative_branch" class="mw-redirect" title="Legislative branch">legislative branch</a> is the unicameral <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Council_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Council of Syria">People's Council</a>. Under the previous constitution, Syria did not hold multi-party elections for the legislature,<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-183">[177]</a> with two-thirds of the seats automatically allocated to the ruling coalition.<a href="#cite_note-186">[180]</a> On 7 May 2012, Syria held its first elections in which parties outside the ruling coalition could take part. Seven new political parties took part in the elections, of which <a href="/wiki/Popular_Front_for_Change_and_Liberation" title="Popular Front for Change and Liberation">Popular Front for Change and Liberation</a> was the largest opposition party. The anti-government <a href="/wiki/Syrian_opposition" title="Syrian opposition">Syrian opposition</a> coalition, however, chose not to field candidates and called on their supporters to boycott the elections. The People's Council primarily serves as an institution to validate Syria's one-party system and re-affirm the legislative proceedings of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">Arab Socialist Ba'ath party</a>.<a href="#cite_note-187">[181]</a> As of 2008, the President is the Regional Secretary of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">Ba'ath party in Syria</a> and leader of the <a href="/wiki/National_Progressive_Front_(Syria)" title="National Progressive Front (Syria)">National Progressive Front</a> governing coalition. Ethnic minorities like <a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Syria" title="Kurds in Syria">Kurds</a> have no cultural or linguistic rights and activities of Kurdish political parties are banned.<a href="#cite_note-188">[182]</a> There is no independent judiciary in Syria, since all judges and prosecutors are required to be Ba'athist appointees.<a href="#cite_note-189">[183]</a> Syria's <a href="/wiki/Judicial_branch" class="mw-redirect" title="Judicial branch">judicial branches</a> include the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Constitutional_Court_of_Syria" title="Supreme Constitutional Court of Syria">Supreme Constitutional Court</a>, the <a href="/wiki/High_Judicial_Council" title="High Judicial Council">High Judicial Council</a>, the Court of Cassation, and the <a href="/wiki/Security_agency" title="Security agency">State Security</a> Courts. <a href="/wiki/Islamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic">Islamic</a> jurisprudence is a main source of legislation and Syria's judicial system has elements of <a href="/wiki/Mecelle" title="Mecelle">Ottoman</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_law" class="mw-redirect" title="French law">French</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Islamic</a> laws. Syria has three levels of courts: courts of first instance, courts of appeals, and the constitutional court, the highest <a href="/wiki/Tribunal" title="Tribunal">tribunal</a>. Religious courts handle questions of personal and family law.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-183">[177]</a> The Supreme State Security Court (SSSC) was abolished by President Bashar al-Assad by legislative decree No. 53 on 21 April 2011.<a href="#cite_note-decree53-190">[184]</a> The Personal Status Law 59 of 1953 (amended by Law 34 of 1975) is essentially a codified sharia.<a href="#cite_note-191">[185]</a> Article 3(2) of the 1973 <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Syria" title="Constitution of Syria">constitution</a> declares Islamic jurisprudence a main source of legislation. The Code of Personal Status is applied to Muslims by sharia courts.<a href="#cite_note-192">[186]</a> As a result of the ongoing civil war, various alternative governments were formed, including the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Interim_Government" title="Syrian Interim Government">Syrian Interim Government</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Union_Party_(Syria)" title="Democratic Union Party (Syria)">Democratic Union Party</a> and localized regions governed by <a href="/wiki/Sharia_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharia law">sharia law</a>. Representatives of the Syrian Interim government were invited to take up Syria's seat at the <a href="/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League">Arab League</a> on 28 March 2013 and<a href="#cite_note-guardian.co.uk-193">[187]</a> was recognised as the "sole representative of the Syrian people" by several nations including the United States, United Kingdom and France.<a href="#cite_note-bbc.co.uk-194">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-bbc-195">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-usatoday.com-196">[190]</a> <a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Syria" title="Elections in Syria">Syria's elections</a> are conducted through a <a href="/wiki/Sham_election" class="mw-redirect" title="Sham election">sham process</a>; characterised by wide-scale <a href="/wiki/Rigging_election" class="mw-redirect" title="Rigging election">rigging</a>, repetitive voting and absence of <a href="/wiki/Voter_registration" title="Voter registration">voter registration</a> and verification systems.<a href="#cite_note-197">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-198">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-199">[193]</a> Parliamentary elections were held on 13 April 2016 in the government-controlled areas of Syria, for all 250 seats of Syria's unicameral legislature, the Majlis al-Sha'ab, or the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Council_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Council of Syria">People's Council of Syria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-200">[194]</a> Even before results had been announced, several nations, including Germany, the United States and the United Kingdom, have declared their refusal to accept the results, largely citing it "not representing the will of the Syrian people."<a href="#cite_note-201">[195]</a> However, representatives of the Russian Federation have voiced their support of this election's results. Various independent observers and international organizations have denounced the <a href="/wiki/Assad_regime" class="mw-redirect" title="Assad regime">Assad regime</a>'s electoral conduct as a scam; with the United Nations condemning it as illegitimate elections with "no mandate".<a href="#cite_note-202">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-203">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-204">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-205">[199]</a> <a href="/wiki/Electoral_Integrity_Project" title="Electoral Integrity Project">Electoral Integrity Project</a>'s 2022 Global report designates Syrian elections as a "facade" with the worst electoral integrity in the world alongside <a href="/wiki/Comoros" title="Comoros">Comoros</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_African_Republic" title="Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-206">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[201]</a> Three alternative governments formed during the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Civil War">Syrian Civil War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Interim_Government" title="Syrian Interim Government">Syrian Interim Government</a> (formed in 2013), <a href="/wiki/Rojava" class="mw-redirect" title="Rojava">Rojava</a> (formed in 2016) and the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Salvation_Government" title="Syrian Salvation Government">Syrian Salvation Government</a> (formed in 2017), control northern of the country and operate independently of the Syrian Arab Republic. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Administrative_divisions">Administrative divisions</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Governorates_of_Syria" title="Governorates of Syria">Governorates of Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Districts_of_Syria" title="Districts of Syria">Districts of Syria</a></div> Syria is divided into 14 <a href="/wiki/Governorates_of_Syria" title="Governorates of Syria">governorates</a>, which are sub-divided into 61 <a href="/wiki/Districts_of_Syria" title="Districts of Syria">districts</a>, which are further divided into sub-districts. The <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Federation_of_Northern_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Federation of Northern Syria">Democratic Federation of Northern Syria</a>, while de facto autonomous, is not recognized by the country as such. <table border="0" cellpadding="3"> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th>No.</th> <th>Governorate</th> <th>Capital </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="15"><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Syria,_administrative_divisions_-_Nmbrs_-_colored.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Syria%2C_administrative_divisions_-_Nmbrs_-_colored.svg/440px-Syria%2C_administrative_divisions_-_Nmbrs_-_colored.svg.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="364" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Syria%2C_administrative_divisions_-_Nmbrs_-_colored.svg/660px-Syria%2C_administrative_divisions_-_Nmbrs_-_colored.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Syria%2C_administrative_divisions_-_Nmbrs_-_colored.svg/880px-Syria%2C_administrative_divisions_-_Nmbrs_-_colored.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="922" data-file-height="762" /></a><figcaption>Governorates of Syria</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Latakia_Governorate" title="Latakia Governorate">Latakia</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Latakia" title="Latakia">Latakia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Idlib_Governorate" title="Idlib Governorate">Idlib</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Idlib" title="Idlib">Idlib</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>3</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aleppo_Governorate" title="Aleppo Governorate">Aleppo</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>4</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Raqqa_Governorate" title="Raqqa Governorate">Raqqa</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Raqqa" title="Raqqa">Raqqa</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>5</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Al-Hasakah_Governorate" title="Al-Hasakah Governorate">Al-Hasakah</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Al-Hasakah" title="Al-Hasakah">Al-Hasakah</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>6</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tartus_Governorate" title="Tartus Governorate">Tartus</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tartus" title="Tartus">Tartus</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>7</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hama_Governorate" title="Hama Governorate">Hama</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hama" title="Hama">Hama</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>8</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_Governorate" title="Deir ez-Zor Governorate">Deir ez-Zor</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor" title="Deir ez-Zor">Deir ez-Zor</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>9</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Homs_Governorate" title="Homs Governorate">Homs</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Homs" title="Homs">Homs</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>10</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Damascus_Governorate" title="Damascus Governorate">Damascus</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>11</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_Governorate" title="Rif Dimashq Governorate">Rif Dimashq</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Douma,_Syria" title="Douma, Syria">Douma</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>12</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Quneitra_Governorate" title="Quneitra Governorate">Quneitra</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Quneitra" title="Quneitra">Quneitra</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>13</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Daraa_Governorate" title="Daraa Governorate">Daraa</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Daraa" title="Daraa">Daraa</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>14</td> <td><a href="/wiki/As-Suwayda_Governorate" class="mw-redirect" title="As-Suwayda Governorate">Al-Suwayda</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Al-Suwayda" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Suwayda">Al-Suwayda</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Autonomous_Administration_of_North_and_East_Syria">Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria</h4></div> The <a href="/wiki/Autonomous_Administration_of_North_and_East_Syria" title="Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria">Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria</a> (AANES), also known as Rojava,<a href="#cite_note-211">[g]</a> is a de facto <a href="/wiki/Autonomous_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous region">autonomous region</a> in northeastern Syria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg201911,_95-212">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZabad2017219,_228-213">[206]</a> It consists of self-governing <a href="/wiki/Regions_of_North_and_East_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Regions of North and East Syria">sub-regions</a> in the areas of <a href="/wiki/Afrin_Region" title="Afrin Region">Afrin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jazira_Region" title="Jazira Region">Jazira</a>, <a href="/wiki/Euphrates_Region" title="Euphrates Region">Euphrates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Raqqa" title="Raqqa">Raqqa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Thawrah" title="Al-Thawrah">Tabqa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manbij" title="Manbij">Manbij</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_Governorate" title="Deir ez-Zor Governorate">Deir Ez-Zor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg201997–98-214">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-Second_conference_of_Shahba_region-215">[208]</a> The region gained its de facto autonomy in 2012 in the context of the ongoing <a href="/wiki/Rojava_conflict" title="Rojava conflict">Rojava conflict</a> and the wider <a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war</a>, in which its official military force, the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Democratic_Forces" title="Syrian Democratic Forces">Syrian Democratic Forces</a> (SDF), has taken part.<a href="#cite_note-216">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-217">[210]</a> While entertaining <a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_North_and_East_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign relations of North and East Syria">some foreign relations</a>, the region is not officially recognized as autonomous by the government of Syria or any state<a href="#cite_note-russia-mediates-218">[211]</a> though it has been recognized by the regional <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Catalonia" title="Parliament of Catalonia">Catalan Parliament</a>.<a href="#cite_note-219">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-220">[213]</a> The AANES has widespread support for its universal <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democratic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ecological" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological">sustainable</a>, <a href="/wiki/Autonomous" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous">autonomous</a> <a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">pluralist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">equal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jineology" title="Jineology">feminist</a> policies in dialogues with other <a href="/wiki/Political_parties" class="mw-redirect" title="Political parties">parties</a> and organizations.<a href="#cite_note-tandfonline.com-221">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-222">[215]</a><a href="#cite_note-223">[216]</a><a href="#cite_note-224">[217]</a> Northeastern Syria is <a href="/wiki/Polyethnicity" title="Polyethnicity">polyethnic</a> and home to sizeable ethnic <a href="/wiki/Kurds" title="Kurds">Kurdish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> and <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrian</a> populations, with smaller communities of ethnic <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Turkmen" title="Syrian Turkmen">Turkmen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armenians_in_Syria" title="Armenians in Syria">Armenians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassians</a>,<a href="#cite_note-225">[218]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yazidis" title="Yazidis">Yazidis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019xviii,_112-226">[219]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZabad2017219,_228–229-227">[220]</a><a href="#cite_note-228">[221]</a> The supporters of the region's administration state that it is an officially <a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">secular</a> polity<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019xviii,_66,_200-229">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-marriage-230">[223]</a> with <a href="/wiki/Direct_democracy" title="Direct democracy">direct democratic</a> ambitions based on an <a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">anarchistic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminist</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Democratic_confederalism" title="Democratic confederalism">libertarian socialist ideology</a> promoting <a href="/wiki/Decentralization" title="Decentralization">decentralization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">gender equality</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZabad2017219-231">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019156–163-232">[225]</a> environmental <a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">sustainability</a>, social <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecology</a> and pluralistic tolerance for <a href="/wiki/Religious" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious">religious</a>, cultural and political <a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">diversity</a>, and that these values are mirrored in its <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_North_and_East_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of North and East Syria">constitution</a>, society, and politics, stating it to be a model for a <a href="/wiki/Federalization_of_Syria" title="Federalization of Syria">federalized Syria</a> as a whole, rather than outright independence.<a href="#cite_note-233">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-utopia-234">[227]</a><a href="#cite_note-235">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jongerden-236">[229]</a> The region's administration has also been accused by some <a href="/wiki/Partisan_(politics)" title="Partisan (politics)">partisan</a> and non-partisan sources of <a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">authoritarianism</a>, support of the Syrian government,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg201994,_130–131,_184-237">[230]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kurdification" title="Kurdification">Kurdification</a>, and displacement.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] However, despite this the AANES has been the most <a href="/wiki/Direct_democracy" title="Direct democracy">democratic</a> system in Syria, with direct open elections, <a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">universal equality</a>, respecting <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a> within the region, as well as defense of <a href="/wiki/Minority_group" title="Minority group">minority</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religious_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious rights">religious rights</a> within Syria.<a href="#cite_note-238">[231]</a><a href="#cite_note-239">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-240">[233]</a><a href="#cite_note-tandfonline.com-221">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-241">[234]</a><a href="#cite_note-242">[235]</a><a href="#cite_note-243">[236]</a> On 13 October 2019, the SDF announced that it had reached an agreement with the Syrian Army which allowed the latter to enter the SDF-held cities of <a href="/wiki/Manbij" title="Manbij">Manbij</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kobani" title="Kobani">Kobani</a> in order to dissuade a Turkish attack on those cities as part of the cross-border offensive by Turkish and Turkish-backed Syrian rebels.<a href="#cite_note-244">[237]</a> The Syrian Army also deployed in the north of Syria together with the SDF along the Syrian-Turkish border and entered into several SDF-held cities such as Ayn Issa and Tell Tamer.<a href="#cite_note-245">[238]</a><a href="#cite_note-246">[239]</a> Following the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Northern_Syria_Buffer_Zone" title="Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone">Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone</a> the SDF stated that it was ready to work cooperatively with the Syrian Army if a political settlement between the Syrian government and the SDF was achieved.<a href="#cite_note-247">[240]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_relations">Foreign relations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Syria" title="Foreign relations of Syria">Foreign relations of Syria</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diplomatic_relations_of_Syria.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Diplomatic_relations_of_Syria.svg/220px-Diplomatic_relations_of_Syria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Diplomatic_relations_of_Syria.svg/330px-Diplomatic_relations_of_Syria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Diplomatic_relations_of_Syria.svg/440px-Diplomatic_relations_of_Syria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1104" data-file-height="566" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_Syria" title="List of diplomatic missions of Syria">Diplomatic missions of Syria</a></figcaption></figure> Ensuring national security, increasing influence among its <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> neighbors, and securing the return of the <a href="/wiki/Golan_Heights" title="Golan Heights">Golan Heights</a>, have been the primary goals of Syria's foreign policy. At many points in its history, Syria has seen virulent tension with its geographically cultural neighbors, such as Turkey, Israel, Iraq, and Lebanon. Syria enjoyed an improvement in relations with several of the states in its region in the 21st century, prior to the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Spring" title="Arab Spring">Arab Spring</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Civil War">Syrian Civil War</a>. Since the ongoing civil war of 2011, and associated killings and human rights abuses, Syria has been increasingly isolated from the countries in the region, and the wider international community. Diplomatic relations have been severed with several countries including: Britain, Canada, France, Italy, Germany, Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, the United States, Belgium, Spain, and the Arab states of the Persian Gulf.<a href="#cite_note-248">[241]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Syria_military_involvement.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Syria_military_involvement.svg/250px-Syria_military_involvement.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Syria_military_involvement.svg/375px-Syria_military_involvement.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Syria_military_involvement.svg/500px-Syria_military_involvement.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="863" data-file-height="443" /></a><figcaption>Map of world and Syria (red) with military involvement.<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  Countries that support the Syrian government</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Countries that support the Syrian rebels</div></figcaption></figure> From the Arab league, Syria continues to maintain diplomatic relations with <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>. Following its violent suppression of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Spring" title="Arab Spring">Arab Spring</a> protests of the 2011 <a href="/wiki/Syrian_revolution" title="Syrian revolution">Syrian Revolution</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Syria" title="Government of Syria">Syrian government</a> was suspended from the <a href="/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League">Arab League</a> in November 2011 for over 11 years, until its reinstatement in 2023.<a href="#cite_note-NYT_Arab_League-249">[242]</a> Syria also quit the <a href="/wiki/Union_for_the_Mediterranean" title="Union for the Mediterranean">Union for the Mediterranean</a>.<a href="#cite_note-250">[243]</a> After 11 years, the Arab League readmitted Syria.<a href="#cite_note-251">[244]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Organisation of Islamic Cooperation">Organisation of Islamic Cooperation</a> suspended Syria in August 2012 citing "deep concern at the <a href="/wiki/List_of_massacres_in_Syria" title="List of massacres in Syria">massacres</a> and inhuman acts" perpetrated by forces loyal to Bashar al-Assad.<a href="#cite_note-252">[h]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="International_disputes">International disputes</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Turkish_occupation_of_northern_Syria" title="Turkish occupation of northern Syria">Turkish occupation of northern Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Israeli-occupied_territories" title="Israeli-occupied territories">Israeli-occupied territories</a></div> In 1939, while Syria was still a French mandate the French allowed a plebiscite regarding the <a href="/wiki/Sanjak_of_Alexandretta" title="Sanjak of Alexandretta">Sanjak of Alexandretta</a> joining to <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> as part of a treaty of friendship in World War II. In order to facilitate this, a faulty election was done in which ethnic <a href="/wiki/Turkish_people" title="Turkish people">Turks</a> who were originally from the Sanjak but lived in <a href="/wiki/Adana" title="Adana">Adana</a> and other areas near the border in Turkey came to vote in the elections, shifting the election in favor of secession. Through this, the <a href="/wiki/Hatay_Province" title="Hatay Province">Hatay Province</a> of Turkey was formed. The move by the French was very controversial in Syria, and only five years later Syria became independent.<a href="#cite_note-Morris9-253">[245]</a> Despite the Turkish annexation of the Sanjak of Alexandretta, the Syrian government has refused to recognize Turkish sovereignty over the region since Independence, except for a short period during the year of 1949.<a href="#cite_note-AlexandrettaTurkeyRelations-254">[246]</a><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Golan_heights_border.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Golan_heights_border.jpg/220px-Golan_heights_border.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Golan_heights_border.jpg/330px-Golan_heights_border.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Golan_heights_border.jpg/440px-Golan_heights_border.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="1728" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Golan_Heights" title="Golan Heights">Golan Heights</a> was occupied by Israel since the <a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a></figcaption></figure>The western two-thirds of Syria's <a href="/wiki/Golan_Heights" title="Golan Heights">Golan Heights</a> region are since 1967 <a href="/wiki/Israeli-occupied_territories" title="Israeli-occupied territories">occupied by Israel</a> and were in 1981 <a href="/wiki/Golan_Heights_Law" title="Golan Heights Law">effectively annexed</a> by <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>,<a href="#cite_note-occupiedSyrian-255">[247]</a><a href="#cite_note-InternationalCommunityOccupiedTerritory-256">[248]</a> whereas the eastern third is controlled by Syria, with the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Disengagement_Observer_Force" title="United Nations Disengagement Observer Force">UNDOF</a> maintaining a buffer zone in between, to implement the ceasefire of the <a href="/wiki/Purple_Line_(ceasefire_line)" title="Purple Line (ceasefire line)">Purple Line</a>. Israel's 1981 Golan annexation law is not recognized in international law. The UN Security Council condemned it in Resolution 497 (1981) as "null and void and without international legal effect." Since then, General Assembly resolutions on "The Occupied Syrian Golan" reaffirm the illegality of Israeli occupation and annexation.<a href="#cite_note-257">[249]</a> The Syrian government continues to demand the return of this territory.<a href="#cite_note-258">[250]</a> The only remaining land Syria has in the Golan is a strip of territory which contains the abandoned city of <a href="/wiki/Quneitra" title="Quneitra">Quneitra</a>, the governorate's de facto capital <a href="/wiki/Madinat_al-Baath" title="Madinat al-Baath">Madinat al-Baath</a> and many small villages, mostly populated by <a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassians</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Beer_Ajam" title="Beer Ajam">Beer Ajam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hader,_Quneitra_Governorate" title="Hader, Quneitra Governorate">Hader</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Syria#Dubious" title="Talk:Syria">discuss</a>] In March 2019, U.S. President <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> announced that the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> will recognize Israel's annexation of the Golan Heights.<a href="#cite_note-259">[251]</a> In early 1976, Syria entered Lebanon, beginning their twenty-nine-year military presence. Syria entered on the invitation of Suleiman Franjieh, the Maronite Christian president at the time to help aid the Lebanese Christian militias against the Palestinian militias.<a href="#cite_note-St._Petersburg_Times-260">[252]</a><a href="#cite_note-261">[253]</a> Over the following 15 years of <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">civil war</a>, Syria fought for control over Lebanon. The Syrian military remained in Lebanon until 26 April 2005 in response to domestic and international pressure after the assassination of former Lebanese Prime Minister, <a href="/wiki/Rafik_Hariri" class="mw-redirect" title="Rafik Hariri">Rafik Hariri</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BBC-262">[254]</a> Another disputed territory is the <a href="/wiki/Shebaa_farms" class="mw-redirect" title="Shebaa farms">Shebaa farms</a>, located in the intersection of the <a href="/wiki/Lebanese-Syrian_border" class="mw-redirect" title="Lebanese-Syrian border">Lebanese-Syrian border</a> and the Israeli occupied Golan Heights. The farms, which are 11 km long and about 3 kilometers wide were occupied by Israel in 1981, along with rest of the Golan Heights.<a href="#cite_note-263">[255]</a> Yet following Syrian army advances the Israeli occupation ended and Syria became the de facto ruling power over the farms. Yet after Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon in 2000, <a href="/wiki/Hezbollah" title="Hezbollah">Hezbollah</a> claimed that the withdrawal was not complete because Shebaa was on Lebanese – not Syrian – territory.<a href="#cite_note-264">[256]</a> After studying 81 different maps, the United Nations concluded that there is no evidence of the abandoned farmlands being Lebanese.<a href="#cite_note-265">[257]</a> Nevertheless, Lebanon has continued to claim ownership of the territory. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military">Military</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Armed_Forces" title="Syrian Armed Forces">Syrian Armed Forces</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Damascus_Checkpoint.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Damascus_Checkpoint.jpeg/220px-Damascus_Checkpoint.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Damascus_Checkpoint.jpeg/330px-Damascus_Checkpoint.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Damascus_Checkpoint.jpeg/440px-Damascus_Checkpoint.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="657" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Army" title="Syrian Army">Syrian Army</a> soldier manning a checkpoint outside of <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> shortly after the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Civil War">Syrian Civil War</a>, 2012</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/President_of_Syria" title="President of Syria">President of Syria</a> is commander in chief of the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Armed_Forces" title="Syrian Armed Forces">Syrian Armed Forces</a>, comprising some 400,000 troops upon mobilization. The military is a conscripted force; males serve in the military upon reaching the age of 18.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The obligatory military service period is being decreased over time, in 2005 from two and a half years to two years, in 2008 to 21 months and in 2011 to year and a half.<a href="#cite_note-266">[258]</a> About 20,000 Syrian soldiers were deployed in Lebanon until 27 April 2005, when the last of Syria's troops left the country after three decades.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The breakup of the Soviet Union—long the principal source of training, material, and credit for the Syrian forces—may have slowed Syria's ability to acquire modern military equipment. It has an arsenal of surface-to-surface missiles. In the early 1990s, <a href="/wiki/Scud" class="mw-redirect" title="Scud">Scud</a>-C missiles with a 500-kilometre (310-mile) range were procured from <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a>, and Scud-D, with a range of up to 700 kilometres (430 miles), is allegedly being developed by Syria with the help of North Korea and <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, according to Zisser.<a href="#cite_note-267">[259]</a> Syria received significant financial aid from <a href="/wiki/Arab_states_of_the_Persian_Gulf" title="Arab states of the Persian Gulf">Arab states of the Persian Gulf</a> as a result of its participation in the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Persian Gulf War</a>, with a sizable portion of these funds earmarked for <a href="/wiki/Military_spending" class="mw-redirect" title="Military spending">military spending</a>. Iran and Russia are biggest suppliers of military aid to the Assad-led Syrian Government. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_rights">Human rights</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Syria" title="Human rights in Syria">Human rights in Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Syria">LGBT rights in Syria</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wounded_civilians_arrive_at_hospital_Aleppo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Wounded_civilians_arrive_at_hospital_Aleppo.jpg/220px-Wounded_civilians_arrive_at_hospital_Aleppo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Wounded_civilians_arrive_at_hospital_Aleppo.jpg/330px-Wounded_civilians_arrive_at_hospital_Aleppo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Wounded_civilians_arrive_at_hospital_Aleppo.jpg/440px-Wounded_civilians_arrive_at_hospital_Aleppo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1277" data-file-height="718" /></a><figcaption>Wounded civilians arrive at a hospital in Aleppo, October 2012</figcaption></figure> The situation for human rights in Syria has long been a significant concern among independent organizations such as <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch" title="Human Rights Watch">Human Rights Watch</a>, who in 2010 referred to the country's record as "among the worst in the world."<a href="#cite_note-268">[260]</a> The 2011 <a href="/wiki/Freedom_House" title="Freedom House">Freedom House</a> report<a href="#cite_note-debate-269">[261]</a> ranked Syria "Not Free" in its annual <a href="/wiki/Freedom_in_the_World" title="Freedom in the World">Freedom in the World</a> survey.<a href="#cite_note-270">[262]</a> The Ba'ath regime is a <a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">totalitarian</a> dictatorship that has been internationally condemned for its domestic and political repression, including <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_Syria" title="Capital punishment in Syria">summary executions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Internet_censorship_in_Syria" title="Internet censorship in Syria">massive censorship</a>,<a href="#cite_note-271">[263]</a><a href="#cite_note-272">[264]</a> <a href="/wiki/Enforced_disappearance" title="Enforced disappearance">forced disappearances</a>,<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-273">[265]</a><a href="#cite_note-ohchr.org-274">[266]</a> etc. as well as numerous crimes against Syrian civilians perpetrated during the civil war, such as <a href="/wiki/Mass_murder" title="Mass murder">massacres</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Syrian_civil_war_barrel_bomb_attacks" title="List of Syrian civil war barrel bomb attacks">barrel-bombings</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">chemical attacks</a>, etc.<a href="#cite_note-275">[267]</a><a href="#cite_note-press.un.org-276">[268]</a> The authorities are accused of arresting democracy and human rights activists, <a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">censoring</a> websites, detaining bloggers, and imposing travel bans. <a href="/wiki/Arbitrary_detention" class="mw-redirect" title="Arbitrary detention">Arbitrary detention</a>, <a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">torture</a>, and disappearances are widespread.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-273">[265]</a><a href="#cite_note-ohchr.org-274">[266]</a><a href="#cite_note-hrw.org-277">[269]</a> Although Syria's constitution guarantees gender equality, critics say that personal statutes laws and the penal code discriminate against women and girls. Moreover, it also grants leniency for so-called '<a href="/wiki/Honour_killing" class="mw-redirect" title="Honour killing">Honour killing</a>'.<a href="#cite_note-hrw.org-277">[269]</a> As of 9 November 2011 during the uprising against President Bashar al-Assad, the United Nations reported that of the over 3500 total deaths, over 250 deaths were children as young as two years old, and that boys as young as 11 years old have been gang-raped by security services officers.<a href="#cite_note-278">[270]</a><a href="#cite_note-279">[271]</a> <a href="/wiki/Free_Syrian_Army" title="Free Syrian Army">People opposing President Assad's rule</a> claim that more than 200, mostly civilians, were massacred and about 300 injured in Hama in shelling by the Government forces on 12 July 2012.<a href="#cite_note-280">[272]</a> In August 2013, the government was suspected of using chemical weapons against its civilians. US Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/John_Kerry" title="John Kerry">John Kerry</a> said it was "undeniable" that chemical weapons had been used in the country and that President Bashar al-Assad's forces had committed a "moral obscenity" against his own people. "Make no mistake," Kerry said. "President Obama believes there must be accountability for those who would use the world's most heinous weapon against the world's most vulnerable people. Nothing today is more serious, and nothing is receiving more serious scrutiny".<a href="#cite_note-281">[273]</a> The Emergency Law, effectively suspending most constitutional protections, was in effect from 1963 until 21 April 2011. It was justified by the government in the light of the continuing war with Israel over the Golan Heights.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-183">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-decree53-190">[184]</a> In August 2014, <a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Human_Rights" title="Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights">UN Human Rights</a> chief <a href="/wiki/Navi_Pillay" title="Navi Pillay">Navi Pillay</a> criticized the international community over its "paralysis" in dealing with the more than 3-year-old <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Civil War">civil war</a> gripping the country, which by 30 April 2014, had resulted in 191,369 deaths with war crimes, according to Pillay, being committed with total impunity on all sides in the conflict. Minority <a href="/wiki/Alawite" class="mw-redirect" title="Alawite">Alawites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Syria" title="Christianity in Syria">Christians</a> are being increasingly targeted by Islamists and other groups fighting in the Syrian civil war.<a href="#cite_note-282">[274]</a><a href="#cite_note-283">[275]</a><a href="#cite_note-284">[276]</a><a href="#cite_note-press.un.org-276">[268]</a> Three years later in April 2017, the U.S. Navy carried out a <a href="/wiki/2017_Shayrat_missile_strike" title="2017 Shayrat missile strike">missile attack</a> against a Syrian air base<a href="#cite_note-285">[277]</a> which had allegedly been used to conduct a <a href="/wiki/Khan_Shaykhun_chemical_attack" title="Khan Shaykhun chemical attack">chemical weapons attack</a> on Syrian civilians, according to the US government.<a href="#cite_note-286">[278]</a> In November 2021, the US Central Command called a 2019 airstrike that killed civilians in Syria "legitimate". The acknowledgement came after a New York Times investigation said the military had concealed the death of dozens of non-combatants.<a href="#cite_note-287">[279]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Syria" title="Economy of Syria">Economy of Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Industry_in_Syria" title="Industry in Syria">Industry in Syria</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Syria" title="Tourism in Syria">Tourism in Syria</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GDP_per_capita_development_of_Syria.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/GDP_per_capita_development_of_Syria.svg/220px-GDP_per_capita_development_of_Syria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/GDP_per_capita_development_of_Syria.svg/330px-GDP_per_capita_development_of_Syria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/GDP_per_capita_development_of_Syria.svg/440px-GDP_per_capita_development_of_Syria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Historical development of real GDP per capita in Syria, since 1820</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BankSharqAndBlueTower.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/BankSharqAndBlueTower.jpg/220px-BankSharqAndBlueTower.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/BankSharqAndBlueTower.jpg/330px-BankSharqAndBlueTower.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/BankSharqAndBlueTower.jpg/440px-BankSharqAndBlueTower.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3736" data-file-height="2491" /></a><figcaption>Bank Al-Sharq and the <a href="/wiki/Blue_Tower_Hotel" title="Blue Tower Hotel">Blue Tower Hotel</a> in <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a></figcaption></figure> As of 2015<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Syria&action=edit">[update]</a>, the Syrian economy relies upon inherently unreliable revenue sources such as dwindling customs and income taxes which are heavily bolstered by lines of credit from Iran.<a href="#cite_note-revenues_shrink-288">[280]</a> Iran is believed to spend between $6 billion and US$20 billion a year on Syria during the Syrian Civil War.<a href="#cite_note-289">[281]</a> The Syrian economy has contracted 60% and the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_pound" title="Syrian pound">Syrian pound</a> has lost 80% of its value, with the economy becoming part <a href="/wiki/State-owned_enterprise" title="State-owned enterprise">state-owned</a> and part <a href="/wiki/War_economy" title="War economy">war economy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-290">[282]</a> At the outset of the ongoing Syrian Civil War, Syria was classified by the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> as a "lower middle income country."<a href="#cite_note-data.worldbank.org-291">[283]</a> In 2010, Syria remained dependent on the oil and <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_sector" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture sector">agriculture sectors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-wbbrief-292">[284]</a> The oil sector provided about 40% of export earnings.<a href="#cite_note-wbbrief-292">[284]</a> Proven <a href="/wiki/Offshore_drilling" title="Offshore drilling">offshore</a> expeditions have indicated that large sums of oil exist on the Mediterranean Sea floor between Syria and Cyprus.<a href="#cite_note-293">[285]</a> The agriculture sector contributes to about 20% of GDP and 20% of employment. Oil reserves are expected to decrease in the coming years and Syria has already become a net oil importer.<a href="#cite_note-wbbrief-292">[284]</a> Since the civil war began, the economy shrank by 35%, and the Syrian pound has fallen to one-sixth of its prewar value.<a href="#cite_note-economycrumble-294">[286]</a> The government increasingly relies on credit from <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> and <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>.<a href="#cite_note-economycrumble-294">[286]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Al-Hamidiyah_Souq_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Al-Hamidiyah_Souq_02.jpg/220px-Al-Hamidiyah_Souq_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Al-Hamidiyah_Souq_02.jpg/330px-Al-Hamidiyah_Souq_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Al-Hamidiyah_Souq_02.jpg/440px-Al-Hamidiyah_Souq_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Al-Hamidiyah_Souq" title="Al-Hamidiyah Souq">Al-Hamidiyah Souq</a> in Damascus in 2010</figcaption></figure>The economy is highly regulated by the government, which has increased subsidies and tightened trade controls to assuage protesters and protect <a href="/wiki/Foreign_currency_reserve" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign currency reserve">foreign currency reserves</a>.<a href="#cite_note-CIA-9">[9]</a> Long-run economic constraints include foreign trade barriers, declining oil production, high unemployment, rising budget deficits, and increasing pressure on water supplies caused by heavy use in agriculture, rapid population growth, industrial expansion, and water pollution.<a href="#cite_note-CIA-9">[9]</a> The <a href="/wiki/UNDP" class="mw-redirect" title="UNDP">UNDP</a> announced in 2005 that 30% of the Syrian population lives in poverty and 11.4% live below the subsistence level.<a href="#cite_note-USDoS-75">[72]</a> Syria's share in global exports has eroded gradually since 2001.<a href="#cite_note-wbgrowth10-295">[287]</a> The real per capita GDP growth was just 2.5% per year in the 2000–2008 period.<a href="#cite_note-wbgrowth10-295">[287]</a> Unemployment is high at above 10%. Poverty rates have increased from 11% in 2004 to 12.3% in 2007.<a href="#cite_note-wbgrowth10-295">[287]</a> In 2007, Syria's main exports included fenethylline pills (an illegal drug commonly known as <a href="/wiki/Captagon" class="mw-redirect" title="Captagon">captagon</a>), crude oil, refined products, raw cotton, clothing, fruits, and grains. The bulk of Syrian imports are raw materials essential for industry, vehicles, agricultural equipment, and heavy machinery. Earnings from oil exports as well as remittances from Syrian workers are the government's most important sources of foreign exchange.<a href="#cite_note-USDoS-75">[72]</a> Political instability poses a significant threat to future economic development.<a href="#cite_note-ief-296">[288]</a> Foreign investment is constrained by violence, government restrictions, economic sanctions, and international isolation. Syria's economy also remains hobbled by state bureaucracy, falling oil production, rising budget deficits, and inflation.<a href="#cite_note-ief-296">[288]</a> Prior to the civil war in 2011, the government hoped to attract new investment in the tourism, natural gas, and service sectors to diversify its economy and reduce its dependence on oil and agriculture. The government began to institute economic reforms aimed at liberalizing most markets, but those reforms were slow and ad hoc, and have been completely reversed since the outbreak of conflict in 2011.<a href="#cite_note-297">[289]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beach_Latakia_4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Beach_Latakia_4.jpg/220px-Beach_Latakia_4.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Beach_Latakia_4.jpg/330px-Beach_Latakia_4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Beach_Latakia_4.jpg/440px-Beach_Latakia_4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption> A cove in <a href="/wiki/Latakia" title="Latakia">Latakia</a> in 2014</figcaption></figure> As of 2012<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Syria&action=edit">[update]</a>, because of the ongoing Syrian civil war, the value of Syria's overall exports has been slashed by two-thirds, from the figure of US$12 billion in 2010 to only US$4 billion in 2012.<a href="#cite_note-AFP_economy-298">[290]</a> Syria's GDP declined by over 3% in 2011,<a href="#cite_note-299">[291]</a> and is expected to further decline by 20% in 2012.<a href="#cite_note-300">[292]</a> As of 2012<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Syria&action=edit">[update]</a>, Syria's oil and tourism industries in particular have been devastated, with US$5 billion lost to the ongoing conflict of the civil war.<a href="#cite_note-AFP_economy-298">[290]</a> Reconstruction needed because of the ongoing civil war will cost as much as US$10 billion.<a href="#cite_note-AFP_economy-298">[290]</a> Sanctions have sapped the government's finances. US and European Union bans on oil imports, which went into effect in 2012, are estimated to cost Syria about $400 million a month.<a href="#cite_note-shortap-301">[293]</a> Revenues from tourism have dropped dramatically, with hotel occupancy rates falling from 90% before the war to less than 15% in May 2012.<a href="#cite_note-economyhang-302">[294]</a> Around 40% of all employees in the tourism sector have lost their jobs since the beginning of the war.<a href="#cite_note-economyhang-302">[294]</a> In May 2015, <a href="/wiki/ISIS" class="mw-redirect" title="ISIS">ISIS</a> captured Syria's phosphate mines, one of the Syrian government's last chief sources of income.<a href="#cite_note-303">[295]</a> The following month, ISIS blew up a gas pipeline to Damascus that was used to generate heating and electricity in Damascus and Homs; "the name of its game for now is denial of key resources to the regime" an analyst stated.<a href="#cite_note-304">[296]</a> In addition, ISIS was closing in on Shaer gas field and three other facilities in the area—Hayan, Jihar and Ebla—with the loss of these western gas fields having the potential to cause Iran to further subsidize the Syrian government.<a href="#cite_note-305">[297]</a> <a href="/wiki/Aleppo_soap" title="Aleppo soap">Aleppo soap</a> is a popular product of Syria. Agrarian reform measures were introduced into Syria which consisted of three interrelated programs: Legislation regulation the relationship between agriculture laborers and landowners: legislation governing the ownership and use of private and state domain land and directing the economic organization of peasants; and measures reorganizing agricultural production under state control.<a href="#cite_note-306">[298]</a> Despite high levels of inequality in land ownership these reforms allowed for progress in redistribution of land from 1958 to 1961 than any other reforms in Syria's history, since independence. The first law passed (Law 134; passed 4 September 1958) in response to concern about peasant mobilization and expanding peasants' rights.<a href="#cite_note-Heydemann,_Steven_1999-307">[299]</a> This was designed to strengthen the position of sharecroppers and agricultural laborers in relation to land owners.<a href="#cite_note-Heydemann,_Steven_1999-307">[299]</a> This law led to the creation of the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs, which announced the implementation of new laws that would allow the regulation of working condition especially for women and adolescents, set hours of work, and introduce the principle of minimum wage for paid laborers and an equitable division of harvest for sharecroppers.<a href="#cite_note-308">[300]</a> Furthermore, it obligated landlords to honor both written and oral contracts, established collective bargaining, contained provisions for workers' compensation, health, housing, and employment services.<a href="#cite_note-Heydemann,_Steven_1999-307">[299]</a> Law 134 was not designed strictly to protect workers. It also acknowledged the rights of landlords to form their own syndicates.<a href="#cite_note-Heydemann,_Steven_1999-307">[299]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Drug_industry">Drug industry</h3></div> Syria is home to a burgeoning <a href="/wiki/Prohibition_of_drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Prohibition of drugs">illegal drugs</a> industry run by associates and relatives of the Syrian president, Bashar al-Assad.<a href="#cite_note-:0-309">[301]</a> It mainly produces <a href="/wiki/Captagon" class="mw-redirect" title="Captagon">captagon</a>, an addictive <a href="/wiki/Amphetamine" title="Amphetamine">amphetamine</a> popular in the Arab world. As of 2021, the export of illegal drugs eclipsed the country's legal exports, leading the New York Times to call Syria "the world's newest <a href="/wiki/Narco-state" title="Narco-state">narcostate</a>".<a href="#cite_note-:0-309">[301]</a> The drug exports allow the Syrian government to generate hard currency and bypass <a href="/wiki/International_sanctions_against_Syria" title="International sanctions against Syria">international sanctions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-309">[301]</a><a href="#cite_note-310">[302]</a><a href="#cite_note-311">[303]</a> Captagon is Syria's primary export, valued at a minimum of US$3.4 billion annually, surpassing the country's largest legal export, olive oil, which is valued at around US$122 million dollars a year, as per estimates.<a href="#cite_note-312">[304]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Petroleum_industry">Petroleum industry</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Syria" title="Petroleum industry in Syria">Petroleum industry in Syria</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oil_refinery_in_Homs,_2010.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Oil_refinery_in_Homs%2C_2010.jpg/220px-Oil_refinery_in_Homs%2C_2010.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Oil_refinery_in_Homs%2C_2010.jpg/330px-Oil_refinery_in_Homs%2C_2010.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Oil_refinery_in_Homs%2C_2010.jpg/440px-Oil_refinery_in_Homs%2C_2010.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1245" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>Oil refinery in <a href="/wiki/Homs" title="Homs">Homs</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Syria" title="Petroleum industry in Syria">Syria's petroleum industry</a> has been subject to a sharp decline. In September 2014, ISIS was producing more oil than the government at 80,000 bbl/d (13,000 m3/d) compared to the government's 17,000 bbl/d (2,700 m3/d) with the Syrian Oil Ministry stating that by the end of 2014, oil production had plunged further to 9,329 bbl/d (1,483.2 m3/d); ISIS has since captured a further oil field, leading to a projected oil production of 6,829 bbl/d (1,085.7 m3/d).<a href="#cite_note-revenues_shrink-288">[280]</a> In the third year of the Syrian Civil War, the deputy economy minister Salman Hayan stated that Syria's two main oil refineries were operating at less than 10% capacity.<a href="#cite_note-313">[305]</a> Historically, the country produced heavy-grade oil from fields located in the northeast since the late 1960s. In the early 1980s, light-grade, low-sulphur oil was discovered near <a href="/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor" title="Deir ez-Zor">Deir ez-Zor</a> in eastern Syria. Syria's rate of oil production has decreased dramatically from a peak close to 600,000 barrels per day (95,000 m3/d) (bpd) in 1995 down to less than 182,500 bbl/d (29,020 m3/d) in 2012.<a href="#cite_note-314">[306]</a> Since 2012 the production has decreased even more, reaching 32,000 barrels per day (5,100 m3/d) (bpd) in 2014. Official figures quantity the production in 2015 at 27,000 barrels per day (4,300 m3/d), but those figures have to be taken with precaution because it is difficult to estimate the oil that is currently produced in the rebel held areas. Prior to the uprising, more than 90% of Syrian oil exports were to EU countries, with the remainder going to Turkey.<a href="#cite_note-economyhang-302">[294]</a> Oil and gas revenues constituted in 2012 around 20% of total GDP and 25% of total government revenue.<a href="#cite_note-economyhang-302">[294]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transport">Transport</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Syria" title="Transport in Syria">Transport in Syria</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D8%AC%D8%B3%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/%D8%AC%D8%B3%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1.jpg/220px-%D8%AC%D8%B3%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/%D8%AC%D8%B3%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1.jpg/330px-%D8%AC%D8%B3%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/%D8%AC%D8%B3%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1.jpg/440px-%D8%AC%D8%B3%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Expressway M5 near Al-Rastan</figcaption></figure> Syria has four international airports (<a href="/wiki/Damascus_International_Airport" title="Damascus International Airport">Damascus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aleppo_International_Airport" title="Aleppo International Airport">Aleppo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bassel_Al-Assad_International_Airport" title="Bassel Al-Assad International Airport">Lattakia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qamishli_Airport" title="Qamishli Airport">Qamishli</a>), which serve as hubs for <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Air" title="Syrian Air">Syrian Air</a> and are also served by a variety of foreign carriers.<a href="#cite_note-315">[307]</a> The majority of Syrian cargo is carried by <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Railways" title="Syrian Railways">Syrian Railways</a> (the Syrian railway company), which links up with <a href="/wiki/Turkish_State_Railways" title="Turkish State Railways">Turkish State Railways</a> (the Turkish counterpart). For a relatively underdeveloped country, Syria's railway infrastructure is well maintained with many express services and modern trains.<a href="#cite_note-316">[308]</a> The road network in Syria is 69,873 kilometres (43,417 miles) long, including 1,103 kilometres (685 miles) of expressways. The country also has 900 kilometres (560 miles) of navigable but not economically significant waterways.<a href="#cite_note-CIA-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internet_and_telecommunications">Internet and telecommunications</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Syria" title="Telecommunications in Syria">Telecommunications in Syria</a> are overseen by the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Communications_and_Technology_(Syria)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Communications and Technology (Syria)">Ministry of Communications and Technology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-317">[309]</a> In addition, <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Telecom" title="Syrian Telecom">Syrian Telecom</a> plays an integral role in the distribution of government internet access.<a href="#cite_note-318">[310]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Electronic_Army" title="Syrian Electronic Army">Syrian Electronic Army</a> serves as a pro-government military faction in cyberspace and has been long considered an enemy of the <a href="/wiki/Hacktivism" title="Hacktivism">hacktivist</a> group <a href="/wiki/Anonymous_(group)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anonymous (group)">Anonymous</a>.<a href="#cite_note-319">[311]</a> Because of <a href="/wiki/Internet_censorship" title="Internet censorship">internet censorship</a> laws, 13,000 internet <a href="/wiki/Activism" title="Activism">activists</a> were arrested between March 2011 and August 2012.<a href="#cite_note-320">[312]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Water_supply_and_sanitation">Water supply and sanitation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Syria" title="Water supply and sanitation in Syria">Water supply and sanitation in Syria</a></div> Syria is a semiarid country with scarce water resources. The largest water consuming sector in Syria is <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>. Domestic water use stands at only about 9% of total water use.<a href="#cite_note-Agriculutre-321">[313]</a> A big challenge for Syria before the civil war was its high population growth (in 2006 the growth rate was 2.7%<a href="#cite_note-322">[314]</a>), leading to rapidly increasing demand for urban and industrial water.<a href="#cite_note-World_Bank-323">[315]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demographics">Demographics</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Syria" title="Demographics of Syria">Demographics of Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Syria" title="List of cities in Syria">List of cities in Syria</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Syrians" title="Syrians">Syrians</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236656977">.mw-parser-output .abbr-header{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .caption-purple{border:1px #a2a9b1 solid;border-bottom:none;background-color:lavender}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .caption-purple{background:inherit!important}}.mw-parser-output .table-pale{border:1px #a2a9b1 solid;border-top:none;background-color:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);padding:5px}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .table-pale{border-top:1px #a2a9b1 solid!important}.mw-parser-output .caption-purple{border:none}}</style><table class="table-pale" style="width:15em;border-top-width:0;border-spacing: 0;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 0.5em;"><caption class="caption-purple" style="padding:0.25em;font-weight:bold">Historical populations</caption><tbody><tr style="font-size:95%"><th style="border-bottom:1px solid var(--color-base, #000000);padding:1px;width:3em">Year</th><th style="border-bottom:1px solid var(--color-base, #000000);padding:1px 2px;text-align:right"><abbr title="Population" class="abbr-header">Pop.</abbr></th><th style="border-bottom:1px solid var(--color-base, #000000);padding:1px;text-align:right"><abbr title="Per annum growth rate" class="abbr-header">±% p.a.</abbr></th></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px">1960 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">4,565,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">—    </td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px">1970 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">6,305,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+3.28%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px">1981 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">9,046,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+3.34%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px">1994 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">13,782,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+3.29%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">2004 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">17,921,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px;border-bottom:1px solid #bbbbbb">+2.66%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px">2011 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">21,124,000</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">+2.38%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px">2015 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">18,734,987</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">−2.96%</td></tr><tr><th style="text-align:center;padding:1px">2019 </th><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">18,528,105</td><td style="text-align:right;padding:1px">−0.28%</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="border-top:1px solid var(--color-base, #000000);font-size:85%;text-align:left">2019 estimate<a href="#cite_note-324">[316]</a> Source: <a href="/wiki/Central_Bureau_of_Statistics_(Syria)" title="Central Bureau of Statistics (Syria)">Central Bureau of Statistics</a> of the Syrian Arab Republic, 2011<a href="#cite_note-cbspop-325">[317]</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Most people live in the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Euphrates River">Euphrates River</a> valley and along the coastal plain, a fertile strip between the coastal mountains and the desert. Overall population density in Syria before the Civil War was about 99 per square kilometre (258 per square mile).<a href="#cite_note-326">[318]</a> According to the World Refugee Survey 2008, published by the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, Syria hosted a population of refugees and asylum seekers numbering approximately 1,852,300. The vast majority of this population was from Iraq (1,300,000), but sizeable populations from <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a> (543,400) and <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a> (5,200) also lived in the country.<a href="#cite_note-World_Refugee_Survey_2008-327">[319]</a> In what the UN has described as "the biggest humanitarian emergency of our era",<a href="#cite_note-328">[320]</a> by 2014 about 9.5 million Syrians, half the population, had been displaced since the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Civil War">Syrian Civil War</a> in March 2011;<a href="#cite_note-Reuters_Half-329">[321]</a> 4 million were outside the country as <a href="/wiki/Refugees_of_the_Syrian_civil_war" title="Refugees of the Syrian civil war">refugees</a>.<a href="#cite_note-330">[322]</a> By 2020, the UN estimated that over 5.5 million Syrians were living as refugees in the region, and 6.1 million others were internally displaced.<a href="#cite_note-The_Refugee_Brief_2020-331">[323]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Largest_cities">Largest cities</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1219497266">.mw-parser-output .largestCities-table-background{background:#f9f9f9;color:#222}.mw-parser-output .largestCities-cell-background{background:#f0f0f0;color:#222}</style> <div> <table style="font-size:88%;margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 100%; border: 1px solid darkgray;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="10" style="padding:0.3em 0.75em;"><div style="float:right; width:6em; height:2.6em"> </div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini" style="float: left;height:2.6em;"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Largest_cities_of_Syria" title="Template:Largest cities of Syria"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Largest_cities_of_Syria" title="Template talk:Largest cities of Syria"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Largest_cities_of_Syria" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Largest cities of Syria"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div> <div style="height:2.6em;line-height:1.3em;">Largest cities or towns in Syria <div style="display:inline;font-weight:normal;">Syria Central Bureau of Statistics (2004 Census)</div></div> </th></tr> <tr> <th></th> <th>Rank </th> <th><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Syria" title="List of cities in Syria">Name</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Provinces of Syria">Province</a> </th> <th>Pop. </th> <th>Rank </th> <th><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Syria" title="List of cities in Syria">Name</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Provinces of Syria">Province</a> </th> <th>Pop.</th> <th> </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="11" style="text-align: center"><a href="/wiki/File:Aleppo_city.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Aleppo"><img alt="Aleppo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Aleppo_city.jpg/120px-Aleppo_city.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Aleppo_city.jpg/180px-Aleppo_city.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Aleppo_city.jpg/240px-Aleppo_city.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="480" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Umayyad_Mosque,_Damascus.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Damascus"><img alt="Damascus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Umayyad_Mosque%2C_Damascus.jpg/120px-Umayyad_Mosque%2C_Damascus.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Umayyad_Mosque%2C_Damascus.jpg/180px-Umayyad_Mosque%2C_Damascus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Umayyad_Mosque%2C_Damascus.jpg/240px-Umayyad_Mosque%2C_Damascus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3056" data-file-height="2054" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> </td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">1</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Aleppo_Governorate" title="Aleppo Governorate">Aleppo Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">2,132,100</td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">11</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Tartus" title="Tartus">Tartus</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Tartus_Governorate" title="Tartus Governorate">Tartus Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">115,769 </td> <td rowspan="11" style="text-align: center"><a href="/wiki/File:Waer_7.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Homs"><img alt="Homs" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Waer_7.jpg/120px-Waer_7.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Waer_7.jpg/180px-Waer_7.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Waer_7.jpg/240px-Waer_7.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1383" data-file-height="899" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Homs" title="Homs">Homs</a> <a href="/wiki/File:LatakiaSkyline.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Latakia"><img alt="Latakia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/LatakiaSkyline.png/120px-LatakiaSkyline.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/LatakiaSkyline.png/180px-LatakiaSkyline.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/LatakiaSkyline.png/240px-LatakiaSkyline.png 2x" data-file-width="3840" data-file-height="2160" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Latakia" title="Latakia">Latakia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">2</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">1,552,161</td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">12</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Jaramana" title="Jaramana">Jaramana</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_Governorate" title="Rif Dimashq Governorate">Rif Dimashq Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">114,363 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">3</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Homs" title="Homs">Homs</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Homs_Governorate" title="Homs Governorate">Homs Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">652,609</td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">13</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Douma,_Syria" title="Douma, Syria">Douma, Syria</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_Governorate" title="Rif Dimashq Governorate">Rif Dimashq Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">110,893 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">4</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Latakia" title="Latakia">Latakia</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Latakia_Governorate" title="Latakia Governorate">Latakia Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">383,786</td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">14</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Manbij" title="Manbij">Manbij</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Aleppo_Governorate" title="Aleppo Governorate">Aleppo Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">99,497 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">5</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Hama" title="Hama">Hama</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Hama_Governorate" title="Hama Governorate">Hama Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">312,994</td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">15</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Idlib" title="Idlib">Idlib</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Idlib_Governorate" title="Idlib Governorate">Idlib Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">98,791 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">6</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Raqqa" title="Raqqa">Raqqa</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Raqqa_Governorate" title="Raqqa Governorate">Raqqa Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">220,488</td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">16</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Daraa" title="Daraa">Daraa</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Daraa_Governorate" title="Daraa Governorate">Daraa Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">97,969 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">7</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor" title="Deir ez-Zor">Deir ez-Zor</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_Governorate" title="Deir ez-Zor Governorate">Deir ez-Zor Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">211,857</td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">17</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Al-Hajar_al-Aswad" title="Al-Hajar al-Aswad">Al-Hajar al-Aswad</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_Governorate" title="Rif Dimashq Governorate">Rif Dimashq Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">84,948 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">8</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Hasakah" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasakah">Hasakah</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Al-Hasakah_Governorate" title="Al-Hasakah Governorate">Al-Hasakah Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">188,160</td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">18</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Darayya" title="Darayya">Darayya</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_Governorate" title="Rif Dimashq Governorate">Rif Dimashq Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">78,763 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">9</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Qamishli" title="Qamishli">Qamishli</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Al-Hasakah_Governorate" title="Al-Hasakah Governorate">Al-Hasakah Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">184,231</td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">19</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Suwayda" title="Suwayda">Suwayda</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/As-Suwayda_Governorate" class="mw-redirect" title="As-Suwayda Governorate">As-Suwayda Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">73,641 </td></tr> <tr> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">10</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Sayyidah_Zaynab" title="Sayyidah Zaynab">Sayyidah Zaynab</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_Governorate" title="Rif Dimashq Governorate">Rif Dimashq Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">136,427</td> <td class="largestCities-cell-background" style="text-align:center;">20</td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Al-Thawrah" title="Al-Thawrah">Al-Thawrah</a></td> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Raqqa_Governorate" title="Raqqa Governorate">Raqqa Governorate</a></td> <td style="text-align:right;">69,425 </td></tr> </tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethnic_groups">Ethnic groups</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Syrians" title="Syrians">Syrians</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Damascus,_traditional_clothing_(6364877017).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Damascus%2C_traditional_clothing_%286364877017%29.jpg/220px-Damascus%2C_traditional_clothing_%286364877017%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Damascus%2C_traditional_clothing_%286364877017%29.jpg/330px-Damascus%2C_traditional_clothing_%286364877017%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Damascus%2C_traditional_clothing_%286364877017%29.jpg/440px-Damascus%2C_traditional_clothing_%286364877017%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4272" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>Damascus, traditional clothing</figcaption></figure> Syrians are an overall indigenous <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levantine</a> people, closely related to their immediate neighbors, such as <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_people" title="Lebanese people">Lebanese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palestinians" title="Palestinians">Palestinians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Jordan" title="Demographics of Jordan">Jordanians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a>.<a href="#cite_note-332">[324]</a><a href="#cite_note-333">[325]</a> Syria has a population of approximately 18,500,000 (2019 estimate). <a href="/wiki/Syrian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian people">Syrian Arabs</a>, together with some 600,000 <a href="/wiki/Palestinians_in_Syria" title="Palestinians in Syria">Palestinian</a> not including the 6 million refugees outside the country. Arabs make up roughly 74% of the population.<a href="#cite_note-CIA-9">[9]</a> The indigenous <a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Syria" title="Assyrians in Syria">Assyrians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Neo-Aramaic" title="Western Neo-Aramaic">Western Aramaic</a>-speakers number around 400,000 people,<a href="#cite_note-334">[326]</a> with the Western Aramaic-speakers living mainly in the villages of <a href="/wiki/Ma%27loula" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma'loula">Ma'loula</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jubb%27adin" title="Jubb'adin">Jubb'adin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al-Sarkha_(Bakhah)" title="Al-Sarkha (Bakhah)">Bakh'a</a>, while the Assyrians mainly reside in the north and northeast (Homs, Aleppo, Qamishli, Hasakah). Many (particularly the Assyrian group) still retain several <a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Aramaic">Neo-Aramaic</a> dialects as spoken and written languages.<a href="#cite_note-335">[327]</a> The second-largest ethnic group in Syria are the <a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Syria" title="Kurds in Syria">Kurds</a>. They constitute about 9%<a href="#cite_note-SyriaKurds-336">[328]</a> to 10%<a href="#cite_note-Khalifa2013-337">[329]</a> of the population, or approximately 2 million people (including 40,000 <a href="/wiki/Yazidis_in_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Yazidis in Syria">Yazidis</a><a href="#cite_note-Khalifa2013-337">[329]</a>). Most Kurds reside in the northeastern corner of Syria and most speak the <a href="/wiki/Kurmanji" title="Kurmanji">Kurmanji</a> variant of the <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_language" title="Kurdish language">Kurdish language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SyriaKurds-336">[328]</a> The third largest ethnic group are the <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>-speaking <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Turkmen" title="Syrian Turkmen">Syrian Turkmen</a>/Turkoman. There are no reliable estimates of their total population, with estimates ranging from several hundred thousand to 3.5 million.<a href="#cite_note-338">[330]</a><a href="#cite_note-339">[331]</a><a href="#cite_note-340">[332]</a> The fourth largest ethnic group are the <a href="/wiki/Syrian-Assyrians" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian-Assyrians">Assyrians</a> (3–4%),<a href="#cite_note-Khalifa2013-337">[329]</a> followed by the <a href="/wiki/Circassians_in_Syria" title="Circassians in Syria">Circassians</a> (1.5%)<a href="#cite_note-Khalifa2013-337">[329]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Armenians_in_Syria" title="Armenians in Syria">Armenians</a> (1%),<a href="#cite_note-Khalifa2013-337">[329]</a> most of which are the descendants of refugees who arrived in Syria during the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian genocide</a>. Syria holds the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_diaspora" title="Armenian diaspora">7th largest Armenian population in the world</a>. They are mainly gathered in Aleppo, <a href="/wiki/Qamishli" title="Qamishli">Qamishli</a>, Damascus and <a href="/wiki/Kesab" class="mw-redirect" title="Kesab">Kesab</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Syria_Ethno-religious_composition..jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Syria_Ethno-religious_composition..jpg/220px-Syria_Ethno-religious_composition..jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Syria_Ethno-religious_composition..jpg/330px-Syria_Ethno-religious_composition..jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Syria_Ethno-religious_composition..jpg/440px-Syria_Ethno-religious_composition..jpg 2x" data-file-width="899" data-file-height="769" /></a><figcaption>The ethno-religious composition of Syria</figcaption></figure> There are also smaller ethnic minority groups, such as the <a href="/wiki/Albanians" title="Albanians">Albanians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bosnians" title="Bosnians">Bosnians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greeks_in_Syria" title="Greeks in Syria">Greeks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persians" title="Persians">Persians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pashtuns" title="Pashtuns">Pashtuns</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russians" title="Russians">Russians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Khalifa2013-337">[329]</a> However, most of these ethnic minorities have become <a href="/wiki/Arabized" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabized">Arabized</a> to some degree, particularly those who practice the <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> faith.<a href="#cite_note-Khalifa2013-337">[329]</a> The largest concentration of the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_diaspora" title="Syrian diaspora">Syrian diaspora</a> outside the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a> is in <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, which has millions of people of Arab and other Near Eastern ancestries.<a href="#cite_note-341">[333]</a> Brazil is the first country in the Americas to offer humanitarian visas to Syrian <a href="/wiki/Refugee" title="Refugee">refugees</a>.<a href="#cite_note-342">[334]</a> The majority of <a href="/wiki/Arab_Argentine" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab Argentine">Arab Argentines</a> are from either Lebanese or Syrian background.<a href="#cite_note-343">[335]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Languages">Languages</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Syria" title="Languages of Syria">Languages of Syria</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Arabic</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Official_language" title="Official language">official language</a> of the country.<a href="#cite_note-CoSAR-1">[1]</a> Several modern <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">Arabic dialects</a> are used in everyday life, most notably <a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine</a> in the west and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian</a> in the northeast. According to The Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics, in addition to Arabic, the following languages are spoken in the country, in order of the number of speakers: <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_language" title="Kurdish language">Kurdish</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Behnstedt-344">[336]</a> <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Behnstedt-344">[336]</a> <a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Aramaic">Neo-Aramaic</a> (four dialects),<a href="#cite_note-Behnstedt-344">[336]</a> <a href="/wiki/Circassian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Circassian language">Circassian</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Behnstedt-344">[336]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chechen_language" title="Chechen language">Chechen</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Behnstedt-344">[336]</a> <a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Behnstedt-344">[336]</a> and finally <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Behnstedt-344">[336]</a> However, none of these minority languages have official status.<a href="#cite_note-Behnstedt-344">[336]</a> <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic language">Aramaic</a> was the <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> of the region before the advent of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Arabic</a>, and is still spoken among <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Classical Syriac</a> is still used as the liturgical language of <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Christianity" title="Syriac Christianity">various Syriac Christian denominations</a>. Most remarkably, <a href="/wiki/Western_Neo-Aramaic" title="Western Neo-Aramaic">Western Neo-Aramaic</a> is still spoken in the village of <a href="/wiki/Ma%27loula" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma'loula">Ma'loula</a> as well as two neighboring villages, 56 km (35 mi) northeast of Damascus. English and French are widely spoken as second languages, but English is more often used.<a href="#cite_note-345">[337]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Syria" title="Religion in Syria">Religion in Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Syria" title="Islam in Syria">Islam in Syria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Syria" title="Christianity in Syria">Christianity in Syria</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Omayad_Mosque_of_Aleppo_Syria.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Omayad_Mosque_of_Aleppo_Syria.jpg/220px-Omayad_Mosque_of_Aleppo_Syria.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Omayad_Mosque_of_Aleppo_Syria.jpg/330px-Omayad_Mosque_of_Aleppo_Syria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Omayad_Mosque_of_Aleppo_Syria.jpg/440px-Omayad_Mosque_of_Aleppo_Syria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_Aleppo" title="Great Mosque of Aleppo">Great Mosque of Aleppo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Muslims" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni Muslims">Sunni Muslims</a> make up around 74% of Syria's population<a href="#cite_note-CIA-9">[9]</a> and Sunni Arabs account for 59–60% of the population. Most Kurds (8.5%)<a href="#cite_note-Drysdale&Hinnebusch1991-346">[338]</a> and most Turkmens (3%)<a href="#cite_note-Drysdale&Hinnebusch1991-346">[338]</a> are Sunni and account for the difference between Sunnis and Sunni Arabs, while 3% of Syrians are <a href="/wiki/Shia_Muslims" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia Muslims">Shia Muslims</a> (particularly <a href="/wiki/Ismailis" class="mw-redirect" title="Ismailis">Ismailis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Twelvers" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelvers">Twelvers</a> but there are also Arabs, Kurds and Turkmens), 10% <a href="/wiki/Alawites" title="Alawites">Alawites</a>, 10% <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a><a href="#cite_note-CIA-9">[9]</a> (the majority are Antiochian Greek Orthodox, the rest are Syriac Orthodox, Greek Catholic and other Catholic Rites, Armenian Orthodox, Assyrian Church of the East, Protestants and other denominations), and 3% <a href="/wiki/Druzes" class="mw-redirect" title="Druzes">Druzes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-CIA-9">[9]</a> Druze number around 500,000, and concentrate mainly in the southern area of <a href="/wiki/Jabal_al-Druze" title="Jabal al-Druze">Jabal al-Druze</a>.<a href="#cite_note-book-347">[339]</a> President Bashar al-Assad's family is Alawite and Alawites dominate the government of Syria and hold key military positions.<a href="#cite_note-The_Sturdy_House_That_Assad_Built2-91">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-348">[340]</a><a href="#cite_note-349">[341]</a> In May 2013, <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Observatory_for_Human_Rights" title="Syrian Observatory for Human Rights">SOHR</a> stated that out of 94,000 killed during the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Civil War">Syrian Civil War</a>, at least 41,000 were Alawites.<a href="#cite_note-350">[342]</a> <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a> numbering 1.2 million, a sizable number of whom are found among Syria's population of <a href="/wiki/Palestinians" title="Palestinians">Palestinian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iraqis" title="Iraqis">Iraqi</a> refugees, are divided into several sects. The <a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church_of_Antioch" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch">Greek Orthodox</a> make up 45.7% of the Christian population; the <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Orthodox_Church" title="Syriac Orthodox Church">Syriac Orthodox</a> make up 22.4%; the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_Apostolic_Church" title="Armenian Apostolic Church">Armenian Orthodox</a> make up 10.9%; the Catholics (including <a href="/wiki/Melkite_Greek_Catholic_Church" title="Melkite Greek Catholic Church">Greek Catholic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Catholic_Church" title="Syriac Catholic Church">Syriac Catholic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armenian_Catholic_Church" title="Armenian Catholic Church">Armenian Catholic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maronite_Church" title="Maronite Church">Maronite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chaldean_Catholic_Church" title="Chaldean Catholic Church">Chaldean Catholic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latin_liturgical_rites" title="Latin liturgical rites">Latin</a>) make up 16.2%; <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Church_of_the_East" title="Assyrian Church of the East">Assyrian Church of the East</a> and several smaller Christian denominations account for the remainder. Many Christian <a href="/wiki/List_of_Monasteries_in_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Monasteries in Syria">monasteries</a> also exist. Many Christian Syrians belong to a high socio-economic class.<a href="#cite_note-351">[343]</a> As per one estimate, the count of Christians affiliated with established denominations in Syria has dropped from approximately 2.5 million before the civil war, to about 500,000 in 2023.<a href="#cite_note-352">[344]</a> Syria was once home to a substantial population of <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Syria" title="History of the Jews in Syria">Jews</a>, with large communities in Damascus, Aleppo, and <a href="/wiki/Qamishli" title="Qamishli">Qamishii</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:5-353">[345]</a> Due to a combination of persecution in Syria and opportunities elsewhere, the Jews began to emigrate in the second half of the 19th century to Great Britain, the United States, and Israel.<a href="#cite_note-:5-353">[345]</a> The process was completed with the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">State of Israel</a> in 1948.<a href="#cite_note-:5-353">[345]</a> The remaining Jewish population dwindled as a result of the civil war. Today 100 Jews still live in Syria.<a href="#cite_note-:5-353">[345]</a> The United States is home to a large Syrian Jewish community, which is still considered as Syrian citizens, by the Syrian government. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Education_in_Syria" title="Education in Syria">Education in Syria</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aleppo_University,_Faculty_of_Arts_and_Humanities.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Aleppo_University%2C_Faculty_of_Arts_and_Humanities.jpg/220px-Aleppo_University%2C_Faculty_of_Arts_and_Humanities.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Aleppo_University%2C_Faculty_of_Arts_and_Humanities.jpg/330px-Aleppo_University%2C_Faculty_of_Arts_and_Humanities.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Aleppo_University%2C_Faculty_of_Arts_and_Humanities.jpg/440px-Aleppo_University%2C_Faculty_of_Arts_and_Humanities.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3645" data-file-height="1943" /></a><figcaption>Faculty of Arts and Humanities in <a href="/wiki/Aleppo_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Aleppo University">Aleppo University</a></figcaption></figure> Education is free and compulsory from ages 6 to 12. Schooling consists of 6 years of primary education followed by a 3-year general or <a href="/wiki/Vocational" class="mw-redirect" title="Vocational">vocational</a> training period and a 3-year academic or vocational program. The second 3-year period of academic training is required for university <a href="/wiki/University_and_college_admissions" class="mw-redirect" title="University and college admissions">admission</a>. Total enrollment at <a href="/wiki/Post-secondary" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-secondary">post-secondary</a> schools is over 150,000. The <a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">literacy</a> rate of Syrians aged 15 and older is 90.7% for males and 82.2% for females.<a href="#cite_note-US_department_of_States-354">[346]</a><a href="#cite_note-impact-se-355">[347]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:UIS_Literacy_Rate_Syria_population_plus15_1980_2015.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/UIS_Literacy_Rate_Syria_population_plus15_1980_2015.png/220px-UIS_Literacy_Rate_Syria_population_plus15_1980_2015.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/UIS_Literacy_Rate_Syria_population_plus15_1980_2015.png/330px-UIS_Literacy_Rate_Syria_population_plus15_1980_2015.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/UIS_Literacy_Rate_Syria_population_plus15_1980_2015.png 2x" data-file-width="397" data-file-height="317" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/UNESCO_Institute_for_Statistics" title="UNESCO Institute for Statistics">UIS</a> adult literacy rate of Syria</figcaption></figure> Since 1967, all schools, colleges, and universities have been under close government supervision by the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">Ba'ath Party</a>.<a href="#cite_note-356">[348]</a> There are 6 state universities in Syria<a href="#cite_note-357">[349]</a> and 15 private universities.<a href="#cite_note-358">[350]</a> The top two state universities are <a href="/wiki/Damascus_University" title="Damascus University">Damascus University</a> (210,000 students as of 2014)<a href="#cite_note-359">[351]</a> and <a href="/wiki/University_of_Aleppo" title="University of Aleppo">University of Aleppo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-360">[352]</a> The top private universities in Syria are: <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Private_University" title="Syrian Private University">Syrian Private University</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_International_University" title="Arab International University">Arab International University</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Kalamoon" title="University of Kalamoon">University of Kalamoon</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_University_for_Science_and_Technology" title="International University for Science and Technology">International University for Science and Technology</a>. There are also many higher institutes in Syria, like the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Higher_Institute_of_Business_Administration&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Higher Institute of Business Administration (page does not exist)">Higher Institute of Business Administration</a>, which offer undergraduate and graduate programs in business.<a href="#cite_note-361">[353]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Webometrics_Ranking_of_World_Universities" title="Webometrics Ranking of World Universities">Webometrics Ranking of World Universities</a>, the top-ranking universities in the country are <a href="/wiki/Damascus_University" title="Damascus University">Damascus University</a> (3540th worldwide), the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Aleppo" title="University of Aleppo">University of Aleppo</a> (7176th) and <a href="/wiki/Tishreen_University" title="Tishreen University">Tishreen University</a> (7968th).<a href="#cite_note-362">[354]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health">Health</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Health_in_Syria" title="Health in Syria">Health in Syria</a></div> In 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 3.4% of the country's GDP. In 2008, there were 14.9 physicians and 18.5 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants.<a href="#cite_note-363">[355]</a> The life expectancy at birth was 75.7 years in 2010, or 74.2 years for males and 77.3 years for females.<a href="#cite_note-364">[356]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Syria" title="Culture of Syria">Culture of Syria</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dabke2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Dabke2.jpg/220px-Dabke2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Dabke2.jpg/330px-Dabke2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Dabke2.jpg/440px-Dabke2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dabke" title="Dabke">Dabke</a> combines circle dance and line dancing and is widely performed at weddings and other joyous occasions.</figcaption></figure> Syria is a traditional society with a long cultural history.<a href="#cite_note-365">[357]</a> Importance is placed on family, religion, education, self-discipline and respect. Syrians' taste for the traditional arts is expressed in dances such as the al-Samah, the <a href="/wiki/Dabkeh" class="mw-redirect" title="Dabkeh">Dabkeh</a> in all their variations, and the sword dance. Marriage ceremonies and the births of children are occasions for the lively demonstration of folk customs.<a href="#cite_note-traditional-366">[358]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Syria">Literature of Syria</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Adonis_Cracow_Poland_May12_2011_Fot_Mariusz_Kubik_08.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Adonis_Cracow_Poland_May12_2011_Fot_Mariusz_Kubik_08.JPG/170px-Adonis_Cracow_Poland_May12_2011_Fot_Mariusz_Kubik_08.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Adonis_Cracow_Poland_May12_2011_Fot_Mariusz_Kubik_08.JPG/256px-Adonis_Cracow_Poland_May12_2011_Fot_Mariusz_Kubik_08.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Adonis_Cracow_Poland_May12_2011_Fot_Mariusz_Kubik_08.JPG/340px-Adonis_Cracow_Poland_May12_2011_Fot_Mariusz_Kubik_08.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Adunis" class="mw-redirect" title="Adunis">Adunis</a></figcaption></figure> The literature of Syria has contributed to <a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">Arabic literature</a> and has a proud tradition of oral and written poetry. Syrian writers, many of whom migrated to Egypt, played a crucial role in the <a href="/wiki/Nahda" title="Nahda">nahda</a> or Arab literary and cultural revival of the 19th century. Prominent contemporary Syrian writers include, among others, <a href="/wiki/Ali_Ahmad_Said" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali Ahmad Said">Adonis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Maghut" title="Muhammad al-Maghut">Muhammad Maghout</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haidar_Haidar" title="Haidar Haidar">Haidar Haidar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ghada_al-Samman" title="Ghada al-Samman">Ghada al-Samman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nizar_Qabbani" title="Nizar Qabbani">Nizar Qabbani</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zakariyya_Tamer" class="mw-redirect" title="Zakariyya Tamer">Zakariyya Tamer</a>. Ba'ath Party rule, since the <a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966 coup</a>, has brought about renewed censorship.<a href="#cite_note-:1-367">[359]</a><a href="#cite_note-368">[360]</a> In this context, the genre of the historical novel, spearheaded by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nabil_Sulayman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nabil Sulayman (page does not exist)">Nabil Sulayman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fawwaz_Haddad" title="Fawwaz Haddad">Fawwaz Haddad</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Khyri_al-Dhahabi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Khyri al-Dhahabi (page does not exist)">Khyri al-Dhahabi</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nihad_Siris&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nihad Siris (page does not exist)">Nihad Siris</a>, is sometimes used as a means of expressing dissent, critiquing the present through a depiction of the past. Syrian <a href="/wiki/List_of_folklores" class="mw-redirect" title="List of folklores">folk narrative</a>, as a subgenre of historical fiction, is imbued with <a href="/wiki/Magical_realism" title="Magical realism">magical realism</a>, and is also used as a means of veiled criticism of the present. <a href="/wiki/Salim_Barakat" title="Salim Barakat">Salim Barakat</a>, a Syrian émigré living in Sweden, is one of the leading figures of the genre. Contemporary Syrian literature also encompasses science fiction and futuristic <a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">utopiae</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuhad_Sharif&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nuhad Sharif (page does not exist)">Nuhad Sharif</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Talib_Umran&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Talib Umran (page does not exist)">Talib Umran</a>), which may also serve as media of dissent. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Music">Music</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Music_of_Syria" title="Music of Syria">Music of Syria</a></div> The Syrian music scene, in particular that of Damascus, has long been among the Arab world's most important, especially in the field of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arab_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Arab music">classical Arab music</a>. Syria has produced several pan-Arab stars, including <a href="/wiki/Asmahan" title="Asmahan">Asmahan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Farid_al-Atrash" title="Farid al-Atrash">Farid al-Atrash</a> and singer <a href="/wiki/Lena_Chamamyan" title="Lena Chamamyan">Lena Chamamyan</a>. The city of Aleppo is known for its <a href="/wiki/Muwashshah" title="Muwashshah">muwashshah</a>, a form of <a href="/wiki/Andalous" class="mw-redirect" title="Andalous">Andalous</a> sung poetry popularized by <a href="/wiki/Sabri_Moudallal" title="Sabri Moudallal">Sabri Moudallal</a>, as well as for popular stars like <a href="/wiki/Sabah_Fakhri" title="Sabah Fakhri">Sabah Fakhri</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Media">Media</h3></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86.jpg/170px-%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86.jpg/255px-%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86.jpg/339px-%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86.jpg 2x" data-file-width="389" data-file-height="630" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Suzan_Najm_Aldeen" title="Suzan Najm Aldeen">Suzan Najm Aldeen</a> – a popular Syrian actress in the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Television_in_Syria" title="Television in Syria">Television was introduced to Syria</a> and Egypt in 1960, when both were part of the <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Republic" title="United Arab Republic">United Arab Republic</a>. It broadcast in black and white until 1976. <a href="/wiki/Syrian_soap_operas" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian soap operas">Syrian soap operas</a> have considerable market penetration throughout the eastern Arab world.<a href="#cite_note-369">[361]</a> Nearly all of <a href="/wiki/Media_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Syria">Syria's media</a> outlets are state-owned, and the Ba'ath Party controls nearly all newspapers.<a href="#cite_note-370">[362]</a> The authorities operate several intelligence agencies,<a href="#cite_note-371">[363]</a> among them <a href="/wiki/Military_Intelligence_(Syria)" class="mw-redirect" title="Military Intelligence (Syria)">Shu'bat al-Mukhabarat al-'Askariyya</a>, employing many operatives.<a href="#cite_note-372">[364]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Civil War">Syrian Civil War</a> many of Syria's artists, poets, writers and activists have been incarcerated, and some have been killed, including famed cartoonist <a href="/wiki/Akram_Raslam" class="mw-redirect" title="Akram Raslam">Akram Raslan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-373">[365]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cuisine">Cuisine</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Syrian_cuisine" title="Syrian cuisine">Syrian cuisine</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fattoush.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Fattoush.JPG/220px-Fattoush.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Fattoush.JPG/330px-Fattoush.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Fattoush.JPG/440px-Fattoush.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Fattoush" title="Fattoush">Fattoush</a>, a Syrian bread salad</figcaption></figure> Syrian cuisine is rich and varied in its ingredients, linked to the regions of Syria where a specific dish has originated. Syrian food mostly consists of Southern Mediterranean, Greek, and Southwest Asian dishes. Some Syrian dishes also evolved from Turkish and French cooking: dishes like <a href="/wiki/Kebab" title="Kebab">shish kebab</a>, stuffed zucchini/courgette, and <a href="/wiki/Dolma" title="Dolma">yabraʾ</a> (stuffed grape leaves, the word yabraʾ deriving from the <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a> word yaprak, meaning leaf). The main dishes that form Syrian cuisine are <a href="/wiki/Kibbeh" title="Kibbeh">kibbeh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hummus" title="Hummus">hummus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tabbouleh" title="Tabbouleh">tabbouleh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fattoush" title="Fattoush">fattoush</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strained_yogurt" title="Strained yogurt">labneh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shawarma" title="Shawarma">shawarma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mujaddara" title="Mujaddara">mujaddara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shanklish" title="Shanklish">shanklish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Past%C4%B1rma" class="mw-redirect" title="Pastırma">pastırma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sujuk" title="Sujuk">sujuk</a> and baklava. <a href="/wiki/Baklava" title="Baklava">Baklava</a> is made of <a href="/wiki/Filo" title="Filo">filo</a> pastry filled with chopped nuts and soaked in <a href="/wiki/Honey" title="Honey">honey</a>. Syrians often serve selections of appetizers, known as <a href="/wiki/Meze" title="Meze">meze</a>, before the main course. <a href="/wiki/Za%27atar" title="Za'atar">Za'atar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Minced_beef" class="mw-redirect" title="Minced beef">minced beef</a>, and cheese <a href="/wiki/Manakish" title="Manakish">manakish</a> are popular <a href="/wiki/Hors_d%27%C5%93uvres" class="mw-redirect" title="Hors d'œuvres">hors d'œuvres</a>. The Arabic flatbread <a href="/wiki/Khubz" title="Khubz">khubz</a> is always eaten together with meze. Drinks in Syria vary, depending on the time of day and the occasion. <a href="/wiki/Arabic_coffee" title="Arabic coffee">Arabic coffee</a> is the most well-known hot drink, usually prepared in the morning at breakfast or in the evening. It is usually served for guests or after food. <a href="/wiki/Arak_(distilled_beverage)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arak (distilled beverage)">Arak</a>, an alcoholic drink, is a well-known beverage, served mostly on special occasions. Other Syrian beverages include <a href="/wiki/Ayran" title="Ayran">ayran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jallab" title="Jallab">jallab</a>, <a href="/wiki/White_coffee" title="White coffee">white coffee</a>, and a locally manufactured beer called Al Shark.<a href="#cite_note-374">[366]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Syria-related_articles" title="Index of Syria-related articles">Index of Syria-related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_recognition_of_the_Syrian_National_Council" title="International recognition of the Syrian National Council">International recognition of the Syrian National Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Syria" title="Outline of Syria">Outline of syria</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: سُورِيَا, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">romanized</a>: Sūriyā, or سُورِيَة, Sūriya. </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> Arabic: الجمهورية العربية السورية, romanized: al-Jumhūriyya al-ʿArabiyya as-Sūriyya. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Sources: <ul><li><a href="#cite_note-CNN_OIC-14">[12]</a></li> <li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAlsharif2012" class="citation news cs1">Alsharif, Asma (16 August 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220922013349/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-islamic-summit-idUSBRE87E19F20120816">"Organization of Islamic Cooperation suspends Syria"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Reuters" title="Reuters">Reuters</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-islamic-summit-idUSBRE87E19F20120816">the original</a> on 22 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Organization+of+Islamic+Cooperation+suspends+Syria&rft.date=2012-08-16&rft.aulast=Alsharif&rft.aufirst=Asma&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-syria-crisis-islamic-summit-idUSBRE87E19F20120816&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180627112504/http://www.dw.com/en/islamic-bloc-suspends-syria-membership-over-crisis/a-16169355">"Islamic bloc suspends Syria membership over crisis"</a>. DW News. 16 August 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://amp.dw.com/en/islamic-bloc-suspends-syria-membership-over-crisis/a-16169355">the original</a> on 27 June 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=DW+News&rft.atitle=Islamic+bloc+suspends+Syria+membership+over+crisis&rft.date=2012-08-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Famp.dw.com%2Fen%2Fislamic-bloc-suspends-syria-membership-over-crisis%2Fa-16169355&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180701041619/https://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/2/8/50565/World/Region/Organisation-of-Islamic-Cooperation-suspends-Syria.aspx">"Organisation of Islamic Cooperation suspends Syria"</a>. Ahram Online. 16 August 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/2/8/50565/World/Region/Organisation-of-Islamic-Cooperation-suspends-Syria.aspx">the original</a> on 1 July 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ahram+Online&rft.atitle=Organisation+of+Islamic+Cooperation+suspends+Syria&rft.date=2012-08-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fenglish.ahram.org.eg%2FNewsContent%2F2%2F8%2F50565%2FWorld%2FRegion%2FOrganisation-of-Islamic-Cooperation-suspends-Syria.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230208075035/https://www.rferl.org/amp/oic-suspends-syria/24678392.html">"OIC Suspends Syria Over Crackdown"</a>. RFE/RL. 16 August 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rferl.org/amp/oic-suspends-syria/24678392.html">the original</a> on 8 February 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=RFE%2FRL&rft.atitle=OIC+Suspends+Syria+Over+Crackdown&rft.date=2012-08-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rferl.org%2Famp%2Foic-suspends-syria%2F24678392.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> Sources:<a href="#cite_note-140">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-145">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[144]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <a href="#cite_note-150">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-152">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-153">[149]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> Sources describing Syria as a totalitarian state: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhamis,_B._Gold,_Vaughn2013" class="citation book cs1">Khamis, B. Gold, Vaughn, Sahar, Paul, Katherine (2013). "22. Propaganda in Egypt and Syria's "Cyberwars": Contexts, Actors, Tools, and Tactics". In Auerbach, Castronovo, Jonathan, Russ (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Propaganda Studies. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 422. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-976441-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-976441-9"><bdi>978-0-19-976441-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=22.+Propaganda+in+Egypt+and+Syria%27s+%22Cyberwars%22%3A+Contexts%2C+Actors%2C+Tools%2C+and+Tactics&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Propaganda+Studies&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=422&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-976441-9&rft.aulast=Khamis%2C+B.+Gold%2C+Vaughn&rft.aufirst=Sahar%2C+Paul%2C+Katherine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWieland2018" class="citation book cs1">Wieland, Carsten (2018). "6: De-neutralizing Aid: All Roads Lead to Damascus". Syria and the Neutrality Trap: The Dilemmas of Delivering Humanitarian Aid Through Violent Regimes. London: I. B. Tauris. p. 68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7556-4138-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7556-4138-3"><bdi>978-0-7556-4138-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=6%3A+De-neutralizing+Aid%3A+All+Roads+Lead+to+Damascus&rft.btitle=Syria+and+the+Neutrality+Trap%3A+The+Dilemmas+of+Delivering+Humanitarian+Aid+Through+Violent+Regimes&rft.place=London&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=I.+B.+Tauris&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-7556-4138-3&rft.aulast=Wieland&rft.aufirst=Carsten&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeininghaus2016" class="citation book cs1">Meininghaus, Esther (2016). "Introduction". Creating Consent in Ba'thist Syria: Women and Welfare in a Totalitarian State. I. B. Tauris. pp. 1–33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78453-115-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78453-115-7"><bdi>978-1-78453-115-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Creating+Consent+in+Ba%27thist+Syria%3A+Women+and+Welfare+in+a+Totalitarian+State&rft.pages=1-33&rft.pub=I.+B.+Tauris&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-78453-115-7&rft.aulast=Meininghaus&rft.aufirst=Esther&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSadikiFares2014" class="citation book cs1">Sadiki, Larbi; Fares, Obaida (2014). "12: The Arab Spring Comes to Syria: Internal Mobilization for Democratic Change, Militarization and Internationalization". Routledge Handbook of the Arab Spring: Rethinking Democratization. Routledge. p. 147. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-52391-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-52391-2"><bdi>978-0-415-52391-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=12%3A+The+Arab+Spring+Comes+to+Syria%3A+Internal+Mobilization+for+Democratic+Change%2C+Militarization+and+Internationalization&rft.btitle=Routledge+Handbook+of+the+Arab+Spring%3A+Rethinking+Democratization&rft.pages=147&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-415-52391-2&rft.aulast=Sadiki&rft.aufirst=Larbi&rft.au=Fares%2C+Obaida&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> The name "Rojava" ("The West") was initially used by the region's <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Union_Party_(Syria)" title="Democratic Union Party (Syria)">PYD</a>-led government, before its usage was dropped in 2016.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELister2015154-208">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg201989-209">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-210">[204]</a> Since then, the name is still used by locals and international observers. </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> Sources: <ul><li><a href="#cite_note-CNN_OIC-14">[12]</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlsharif2012" class="citation news cs1">Alsharif, Asma (16 August 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220922013349/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-islamic-summit-idUSBRE87E19F20120816">"Organization of Islamic Cooperation suspends Syria"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Reuters" title="Reuters">Reuters</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-islamic-summit-idUSBRE87E19F20120816">the original</a> on 22 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Organization+of+Islamic+Cooperation+suspends+Syria&rft.date=2012-08-16&rft.aulast=Alsharif&rft.aufirst=Asma&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-syria-crisis-islamic-summit-idUSBRE87E19F20120816&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180627112504/http://www.dw.com/en/islamic-bloc-suspends-syria-membership-over-crisis/a-16169355">"Islamic bloc suspends Syria membership over crisis"</a>. DW News. 16 August 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://amp.dw.com/en/islamic-bloc-suspends-syria-membership-over-crisis/a-16169355">the original</a> on 27 June 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=DW+News&rft.atitle=Islamic+bloc+suspends+Syria+membership+over+crisis&rft.date=2012-08-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Famp.dw.com%2Fen%2Fislamic-bloc-suspends-syria-membership-over-crisis%2Fa-16169355&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180701041619/https://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/2/8/50565/World/Region/Organisation-of-Islamic-Cooperation-suspends-Syria.aspx">"Organisation of Islamic Cooperation suspends Syria"</a>. Ahram Online. 16 August 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/2/8/50565/World/Region/Organisation-of-Islamic-Cooperation-suspends-Syria.aspx">the original</a> on 1 July 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ahram+Online&rft.atitle=Organisation+of+Islamic+Cooperation+suspends+Syria&rft.date=2012-08-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fenglish.ahram.org.eg%2FNewsContent%2F2%2F8%2F50565%2FWorld%2FRegion%2FOrganisation-of-Islamic-Cooperation-suspends-Syria.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230208075035/https://www.rferl.org/amp/oic-suspends-syria/24678392.html">"OIC Suspends Syria Over Crackdown"</a>. RFE/RL. 16 August 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rferl.org/amp/oic-suspends-syria/24678392.html">the original</a> on 8 February 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=RFE%2FRL&rft.atitle=OIC+Suspends+Syria+Over+Crackdown&rft.date=2012-08-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rferl.org%2Famp%2Foic-suspends-syria%2F24678392.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-CoSAR-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CoSAR_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CoSAR_1-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/ELECTRONIC/91436/106031/F-931434246/constitution2.pdf">"Constitution of the Syrian Arab Republic – 2012"</a> (PDF). 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New York: Oxford University Press. p. 422. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-976441-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-976441-9"><bdi>978-0-19-976441-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=22.+Propaganda+in+Egypt+and+Syria%27s+%22Cyberwars%22%3A+Contexts%2C+Actors%2C+Tools%2C+and+Tactics&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Propaganda+Studies&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=422&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-976441-9&rft.aulast=Khamis%2C+B.+Gold%2C+Vaughn&rft.aufirst=Sahar%2C+Paul%2C+Katherine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWieland2018" class="citation book cs1">Wieland, Carsten (2018). 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Albany, New York: Suny Press. pp. 144, 149. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781438472911" title="Special:BookSources/9781438472911"><bdi>9781438472911</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Totalitarian+Space+and+the+Destruction+of+Aura&rft.place=Albany%2C+New+York&rft.pages=144%2C+149&rft.pub=Suny+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9781438472911&rft.aulast=Ahmed&rft.aufirst=Saladdin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHensman2018" class="citation book cs1">Hensman, Rohini (2018). "7: The Syrian Uprising". Indefensible: Democracy, Counterrevolution, and the Rhetoric of Anti-Imperialism. 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Retrieved 3 May 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=United+Nations+Development+Programme&rft.atitle=HUMAN+DEVELOPMENT+REPORT+2023-24&rft.pages=274-277&rft.date=2024-03-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhdr.undp.org%2Fsystem%2Ffiles%2Fdocuments%2Fglobal-report-document%2Fhdr2023-24reporten.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CNN_OIC-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CNN_OIC_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CNN_OIC_14-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://edition.cnn.com/2012/08/13/world/meast/syria-unrest/index.html?hpt=hp_t1">"Regional group votes to suspend Syria; rebels claim downing of jet"</a>. CNN. 14 August 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120815211356/http://edition.cnn.com/2012/08/13/world/meast/syria-unrest/index.html?hpt=hp_t1">Archived</a> from the original on 15 August 2012. Retrieved 14 August 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Regional+group+votes+to+suspend+Syria%3B+rebels+claim+downing+of+jet&rft.date=2012-08-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fedition.cnn.com%2F2012%2F08%2F13%2Fworld%2Fmeast%2Fsyria-unrest%2Findex.html%3Fhpt%3Dhp_t1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRollinger2006" class="citation journal cs1">Rollinger, Robert (2006). "The terms "Assyria" and "Syria" again". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 65 (4): 284–287. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F511103">10.1086/511103</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-2968">0022-2968</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162760021">162760021</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Near+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=The+terms+%22Assyria%22+and+%22Syria%22+again&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=284-287&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162760021%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0022-2968&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F511103&rft.aulast=Rollinger&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrye1992" class="citation journal cs1">Frye, R. N. (1992). "Assyria and Syria: Synonyms". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 51 (4): 281–285. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F373570">10.1086/373570</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161323237">161323237</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Near+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=Assyria+and+Syria%3A+Synonyms&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=281-285&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F373570&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161323237%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Frye&rft.aufirst=R.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdam781" class="citation book cs1">Adam (781). "Translation of the Nestorian Inscription". <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Nestorian_Monument:_An_Ancient_Record_of_Christianity_in_China/Translation_of_the_Nestorian_Inscription">Stele to the Propagation in China of the Jingjiao of Daqin</a>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Wylie_(missionary)" title="Alexander Wylie (missionary)">Wylie, Alexander</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326023958/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Nestorian_Monument:_An_Ancient_Record_of_Christianity_in_China/Translation_of_the_Nestorian_Inscription">Archived</a> from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 2 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Translation+of+the+Nestorian+Inscription&rft.btitle=Stele+to+the+Propagation+in+China+of+the+Jingjiao+of+Daqin&rft.date=781&rft.au=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2FThe_Nestorian_Monument%3A_An_Ancient_Record_of_Christianity_in_China%2FTranslation_of_the_Nestorian_Inscription&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerodotus" class="citation book cs1">Herodotus. <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_Herodotus/Book_7">The History of Herodotus (Rawlinson)</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221004183722/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/History_of_Herodotus/Book_7">Archived</a> from the original on 4 October 2022. Retrieved 19 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Herodotus+%28Rawlinson%29&rft.au=Herodotus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2FHistory_of_Herodotus%2FBook_7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoseph2008" class="citation web cs1">Joseph, John (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jaas.org/edocs/v11n2/JohnJoseph.pdf">"Assyria and Syria: Synonyms?"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130521091130/http://www.jaas.org/edocs/v11n2/JohnJoseph.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 21 May 2013. Retrieved 21 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Assyria+and+Syria%3A+Synonyms%3F&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Joseph&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jaas.org%2Fedocs%2Fv11n2%2FJohnJoseph.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> First proposed by <a href="/wiki/Theodor_N%C3%B6ldeke" title="Theodor Nöldeke">Theodor Nöldeke</a> in 1881; cf. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarper2001" class="citation web cs1">Harper, Douglas (November 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Syria">"Syria"</a>. Online Etymology Dictionary. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130513183105/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Syria">Archived</a> from the original on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 13 June 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Syria&rft.date=2001-11&rft.aulast=Harper&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3DSyria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rollinger-22"><a href="#cite_ref-Rollinger_22-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRollinger2006" class="citation journal cs1">Rollinger, Robert (1 October 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/511103">"The Terms "Assyria" and "Syria" Again"</a>. Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 65 (4): 283–287. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F511103">10.1086/511103</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-2968">0022-2968</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162760021">162760021</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230119094915/https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/511103">Archived</a> from the original on 19 January 2023. Retrieved 19 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Near+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Terms+%22Assyria%22+and+%22Syria%22+Again&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=283-287&rft.date=2006-10-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162760021%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0022-2968&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F511103&rft.aulast=Rollinger&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.journals.uchicago.edu%2Fdoi%2F10.1086%2F511103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPliny1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny</a> (March 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/5*.html">"Book 5 Section 66"</a>. Natural History. 77AD. University of Chicago. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-249-1901-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-249-1901-6"><bdi>978-84-249-1901-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240206025205/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/5%2A.html">Archived</a> from the original on 6 February 2024. Retrieved 20 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Book+5+Section+66&rft.btitle=Natural+History&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago&rft.date=1998-03&rft.isbn=978-84-249-1901-6&rft.au=Pliny&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FL%2FRoman%2FTexts%2FPliny_the_Elder%2F5%2A.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syria/29905/Roman-provincial-organization#default">"Syria :: Roman provincial organization"</a>. Britannica Online Encyclopedia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091219035534/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syria/29905/Roman-provincial-organization#default">Archived</a> from the original on 19 December 2009. Retrieved 25 October 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Syria+%3A%3A+Roman+provincial+organization&rft.btitle=Britannica+Online+Encyclopedia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F578856%2FSyria%2F29905%2FRoman-provincial-organization%23default&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTobolczyk2020" class="citation book cs1">Tobolczyk, Marta (18 September 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5PUBEAAAQBAJ&dq=..+oldest+known+masonry+structures+in+the+world.+Some+journals+have+already+declared+the+site+Tell+Qaramel+to+be+the+oldest+city+or+the+oldest+proto+city.+Further+excavations+need+to+be+carried+out+to+ascertain+whether+this+assumption+is&pg=PA79">The Art of Building at the Dawn of Human Civilization: The Ontogenesis of Architecture</a>. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5275-5971-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5275-5971-4"><bdi>978-1-5275-5971-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Building+at+the+Dawn+of+Human+Civilization%3A+The+Ontogenesis+of+Architecture&rft.pub=Cambridge+Scholars+Publishing&rft.date=2020-09-18&rft.isbn=978-1-5275-5971-4&rft.aulast=Tobolczyk&rft.aufirst=Marta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5PUBEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3D..%2Boldest%2Bknown%2Bmasonry%2Bstructures%2Bin%2Bthe%2Bworld.%2BSome%2Bjournals%2Bhave%2Balready%2Bdeclared%2Bthe%2Bsite%2BTell%2BQaramel%2Bto%2Bbe%2Bthe%2Boldest%2Bcity%2Bor%2Bthe%2Boldest%2Bproto%2Bcity.%2BFurther%2Bexcavations%2Bneed%2Bto%2Bbe%2Bcarried%2Bout%2Bto%2Bascertain%2Bwhether%2Bthis%2Bassumption%2Bis%26pg%3DPA79&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pcma.uw.edu.pl/en/2019/01/11/tell-qaramel-2/">"Tell Qaramel"</a>. pcma.uw.edu.pl. Retrieved 14 September 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=pcma.uw.edu.pl&rft.atitle=Tell+Qaramel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpcma.uw.edu.pl%2Fen%2F2019%2F01%2F11%2Ftell-qaramel-2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Pettinato, Giovanni. The Archives of Ebla; Gelb, I. J. "Thoughts about Ibla: A Preliminary Evaluation" in Monographic Journals of the Near East, Syro-Mesopotamian Studies 1/1 (May 1977) pp. 3–30. </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_J._Hamblin2006" class="citation book cs1">William J. Hamblin (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=PT239">Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC: Holy Warriors at the Dawn of History</a>. Routledge. p. 239. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-52062-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-52062-6"><bdi>978-1-134-52062-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warfare+in+the+Ancient+Near+East+to+1600+BC%3A+Holy+Warriors+at+the+Dawn+of+History&rft.pages=239&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-134-52062-6&rft.au=William+J.+Hamblin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbiyDDd0uKGMC%26pg%3DPT239&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIan_ShawRobert_Jameson2008" class="citation book cs1">Ian Shaw; Robert Jameson (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8HKDtlPuM2oC&pg=PA211">A Dictionary of Archaeology</a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 211. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-75196-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-75196-1"><bdi>978-0-470-75196-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Archaeology&rft.pages=211&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-470-75196-1&rft.au=Ian+Shaw&rft.au=Robert+Jameson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8HKDtlPuM2oC%26pg%3DPA211&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss_Burns2009" class="citation book cs1">Ross Burns (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z_IBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA155">Monuments of Syria: A Guide</a>. I.B.Tauris. p. 155. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85771-489-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85771-489-3"><bdi>978-0-85771-489-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Monuments+of+Syria%3A+A+Guide&rft.pages=155&rft.pub=I.B.Tauris&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-85771-489-3&rft.au=Ross+Burns&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz_IBAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA155&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaolo_MatthiaeNicoló_Marchetti2013" class="citation book cs1">Paolo Matthiae; Nicoló Marchetti (31 May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AaZg0ypYrnQC&pg=PA35">Ebla and its Landscape: Early State Formation in the Ancient Near East</a>. Left Coast Press. p. 35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61132-228-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61132-228-6"><bdi>978-1-61132-228-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ebla+and+its+Landscape%3A+Early+State+Formation+in+the+Ancient+Near+East&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=Left+Coast+Press&rft.date=2013-05-31&rft.isbn=978-1-61132-228-6&rft.au=Paolo+Matthiae&rft.au=Nicol%C3%B3+Marchetti&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAaZg0ypYrnQC%26pg%3DPA35&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVictor_Harold_MatthewsDon_C._Benjamin1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Victor_Harold_Matthews" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor Harold Matthews">Victor Harold Matthews</a>; Don C. Benjamin (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4sjpB5HlT-YC&pg=PA241">Old Testament Parallels: Laws and Stories from the Ancient Near East</a>. Paulist Press. p. 241. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8091-3731-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8091-3731-2"><bdi>978-0-8091-3731-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old+Testament+Parallels%3A+Laws+and+Stories+from+the+Ancient+Near+East&rft.pages=241&rft.pub=Paulist+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-8091-3731-2&rft.au=Victor+Harold+Matthews&rft.au=Don+C.+Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4sjpB5HlT-YC%26pg%3DPA241&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-LibraryofCongress-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LibraryofCongress_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-LibraryofCongress_33-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thoughtco.com/ancient-area-of-greater-syria-121182">"About the Ancient Area of Greater Syria"</a>. 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Eerdmans Publishing. p. 285. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-4960-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-4960-1"><bdi>978-0-8028-4960-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+Reliability+of+the+Old+Testament&rft.pages=285&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-4960-1&rft.au=Kenneth+Anderson+Kitchen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKw6U05qBiXcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephen_C._Neff2014" class="citation book cs1">Stephen C. 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OUP Oxford. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-100292-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-100292-2"><bdi>978-0-19-100292-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Syria%3A+A+Three+Thousand+Year+History&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-100292-2&rft.au=Trevor+Bryce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dq8Z7AgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCyrus_Herzl_GordonGary_RendsburgNathan_H._Winter1990" class="citation book cs1">Cyrus Herzl Gordon; Gary Rendsburg; Nathan H. Winter (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA68">Eblaitica: Essays on the Ebla Archives and Eblaite Language, Volume 4</a>. Eisenbrauns. p. 68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-060-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-060-6"><bdi>978-1-57506-060-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eblaitica%3A+Essays+on+the+Ebla+Archives+and+Eblaite+Language%2C+Volume+4&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-1-57506-060-6&rft.au=Cyrus+Herzl+Gordon&rft.au=Gary+Rendsburg&rft.au=Nathan+H.+Winter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0Rwals-oh6kC%26pg%3DPA68&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_F._Healey1990" class="citation book cs1">John F. Healey (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0_KnI588AnkC&pg=PA22">The Early Alphabet</a>. University of California Press. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07309-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07309-8"><bdi>978-0-520-07309-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Early+Alphabet&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-520-07309-8&rft.au=John+F.+Healey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0_KnI588AnkC%26pg%3DPA22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061111111827/http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/Ramad.html">"Neolithic Tell Ramad in the Damascus Basin of Syria"</a>. Archive. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/Ramad.html">the original</a> on 11 November 2006. Retrieved 25 January 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Neolithic+Tell+Ramad+in+the+Damascus+Basin+of+Syria&rft.pub=Archive&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fancientneareast.tripod.com%2FRamad.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-google44-41">^ <a href="#cite_ref-google44_41-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-google44_41-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephanie_Dalley2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephanie_Dalley" title="Stephanie Dalley">Stephanie Dalley</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_oTh51M5XF4C&pg=PA44">Mari and Karana: Two Old Babylonian Cities</a>. Gorgias Press. p. 44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-931956-02-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-931956-02-4"><bdi>978-1-931956-02-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mari+and+Karana%3A+Two+Old+Babylonian+Cities&rft.pages=44&rft.pub=Gorgias+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-931956-02-4&rft.au=Stephanie+Dalley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_oTh51M5XF4C%26pg%3DPA44&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNadav_Naʼaman2005" class="citation book cs1">Nadav Naʼaman (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HmTOoQmf23AC&pg=PA285">Canaan in the Second Millennium B.C.E.</a> Eisenbrauns. p. 285. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-113-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-113-9"><bdi>978-1-57506-113-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Canaan+in+the+Second+Millennium+B.C.E.&rft.pages=285&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-57506-113-9&rft.au=Nadav+Na%CA%BCaman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHmTOoQmf23AC%26pg%3DPA285&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIorwerth_Eiddon_Stephen_Edwards1973" class="citation book cs1">Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FF5-7JVj4jYC&pg=PA32">The Cambridge Ancient History</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-08230-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-08230-3"><bdi>978-0-521-08230-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Ancient+History&rft.pages=32&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-521-08230-3&rft.au=Iorwerth+Eiddon+Stephen+Edwards&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFF5-7JVj4jYC%26pg%3DPA32&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_J._Hamblin2006" class="citation book cs1">William J. Hamblin (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=PT254">Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC</a>. Routledge. p. 259. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-52062-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-52062-6"><bdi>978-1-134-52062-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warfare+in+the+Ancient+Near+East+to+1600+BC&rft.pages=259&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-134-52062-6&rft.au=William+J.+Hamblin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbiyDDd0uKGMC%26pg%3DPT254&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJack_M._Sasson1969" class="citation book cs1">Jack M. Sasson (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J8GgNzv1LfsC&pg=PA2">The Military Establishments at Mari</a>. p. 2+3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Military+Establishments+at+Mari&rft.pages=2%2B3&rft.date=1969&rft.au=Jack+M.+Sasson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ8GgNzv1LfsC%26pg%3DPA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> Relations between God and Man in the Hurro-Hittite Song of Release, Mary R. Bachvarova, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Jan–Mar SAAD 2005 </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> "The foreigners of the fourth register, with long hairstyles and calf-length fringed robes, are labeled Chiefs of Retjenu, the ancient name tor the Syrian region. Like the Nubians, they come with animals, in this case horses, an elephant, and a bear; they also offer weapons and vessels most likely filled with precious substance." in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHawassVannini2009" class="citation book cs1">Hawass, Zahi A.; Vannini, Sandro (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YjZZAAAAYAAJ">The lost tombs of Thebes: life in paradise</a>. Thames & Hudson. p. 120. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780500051597" title="Special:BookSources/9780500051597"><bdi>9780500051597</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+lost+tombs+of+Thebes%3A+life+in+paradise&rft.pages=120&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780500051597&rft.aulast=Hawass&rft.aufirst=Zahi+A.&rft.au=Vannini%2C+Sandro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYjZZAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZakrzewskiShortlandRowland2015" class="citation book cs1">Zakrzewski, Sonia; Shortland, Andrew; Rowland, Joanne (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=w6pACwAAQBAJ&pg=PA268">Science in the Study of Ancient Egypt</a>. Routledge. p. 268. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-39195-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-39195-1"><bdi>978-1-317-39195-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+in+the+Study+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.pages=268&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-317-39195-1&rft.aulast=Zakrzewski&rft.aufirst=Sonia&rft.au=Shortland%2C+Andrew&rft.au=Rowland%2C+Joanne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dw6pACwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA268&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Lange2006" class="citation book cs1">John Lange (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WOxnM3WJYJgC&pg=PA475">The Philosophy of Historiography</a>. Open Road Integrated Media, Incorporated. p. 475. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61756-132-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61756-132-0"><bdi>978-1-61756-132-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Philosophy+of+Historiography&rft.pages=475&rft.pub=Open+Road+Integrated+Media%2C+Incorporated&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-61756-132-0&rft.au=John+Lange&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWOxnM3WJYJgC%26pg%3DPA475&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFImmanuel_Velikovsky2010" class="citation book cs1">Immanuel Velikovsky (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EClaAtUb2TAC&pg=PA23">Ramses II and His Time</a>. Paradigma. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-906833-74-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-906833-74-9"><bdi>978-1-906833-74-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ramses+II+and+His+Time&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Paradigma&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-906833-74-9&rft.au=Immanuel+Velikovsky&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEClaAtUb2TAC%26pg%3DPA23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouglas_Frayne1981" class="citation book cs1">Douglas Frayne (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1A0OgvXfHlQC&pg=PA24">Ugarit in Retrospect</a>. Eisenbrauns. p. 23,24,25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-931464-07-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-931464-07-2"><bdi>978-0-931464-07-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ugarit+in+Retrospect&rft.pages=23%2C24%2C25&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-931464-07-2&rft.au=Douglas+Frayne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1A0OgvXfHlQC%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> Georges Roux, Ancient Iraq, 3rd ed., Penguin Books, London, 1991, p.381 </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRollinger2006" class="citation journal cs1">Rollinger, Robert (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/511103">"The terms "Assyria" and "Syria" again""</a>. Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 65 (4): 284–287. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F511103">10.1086/511103</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162760021">162760021</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230119094915/https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/511103">Archived</a> from the original on 19 January 2023. Retrieved 19 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Near+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=The+terms+%22Assyria%22+and+%22Syria%22+again%22&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=284-287&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F511103&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162760021%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Rollinger&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.journals.uchicago.edu%2Fdoi%2F10.1086%2F511103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> Hist. xviii., vii. 1 </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharlotte_Higgins2009" class="citation web cs1">Charlotte Higgins (13 October 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/culture/charlottehigginsblog/2009/oct/13/hadrians-wall">"When Syrians, Algerians and Iraqis patrolled Hadrian's Wall"</a>. The Guardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130908040020/https://www.theguardian.com/culture/charlottehigginsblog/2009/oct/13/hadrians-wall">Archived</a> from the original on 8 September 2013. Retrieved 13 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=When+Syrians%2C+Algerians+and+Iraqis+patrolled+Hadrian%27s+Wall&rft.date=2009-10-13&rft.au=Charlotte+Higgins&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fculture%2Fcharlottehigginsblog%2F2009%2Foct%2F13%2Fhadrians-wall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> Palmyra: Mirage in the Desert, Joan Aruz, 2018, page 78. </li> <li id="cite_note-Cavendish_Corporation_2006_183-57">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cavendish_Corporation_2006_183_57-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cavendish_Corporation_2006_183_57-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCavendish_Corporation2006" class="citation book cs1">Cavendish Corporation, Marshall (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worlditspeoplesm0000unse/page/183">World and Its Peoples</a>. <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Cavendish" title="Marshall Cavendish">Marshall Cavendish</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worlditspeoplesm0000unse/page/183">183</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7614-7571-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7614-7571-2"><bdi>978-0-7614-7571-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+and+Its+Peoples&rft.pages=183&rft.pub=Marshall+Cavendish&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7614-7571-2&rft.aulast=Cavendish+Corporation&rft.aufirst=Marshall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fworlditspeoplesm0000unse%2Fpage%2F183&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%209:1–43&version=nrsv">Acts 9:1–43</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated2-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated2_59-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated2_59-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuir1861" class="citation cs2">Muir, William (1861), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YDwBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA225">The life of Mahomet</a>, Smith, Elder & Co, pp. 225–226</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+life+of+Mahomet&rft.pages=225-226&rft.pub=Smith%2C+Elder+%26+Co&rft.date=1861&rft.aulast=Muir&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYDwBAAAAQAAJ%26pg%3DPA225&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mubarakpuri,_The_Sealed_Nectar_pp._193-194-60"><a href="#cite_ref-Mubarakpuri,_The_Sealed_Nectar_pp._193-194_60-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110623154138/http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Books/SM_tsn/ch4s8.html">"Military Platoons and Missions between the Battle of Uhud and the Battle of the Confederates"</a>. 23 June 2011. pp. 193–194. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Books/SM_tsn/ch4s8.html">the original</a> on 23 June 2011. Retrieved 19 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Military+Platoons+and+Missions+between+the+Battle+of+Uhud+and+the+Battle+of+the+Confederates&rft.pages=193-194&rft.date=2011-06-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.witness-pioneer.org%2Fvil%2FBooks%2FSM_tsn%2Fch4s8.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Muhammad_at_Medina-61"><a href="#cite_ref-Muhammad_at_Medina_61-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMontgomery_Watt_W.1956" class="citation book cs1">Montgomery Watt W. (1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/muhammadatmedina029655mbp">Muhammad At Medina</a>. Osmania University, Digital Library Of India. Oxford At The Clarendon Press. p. 35. <q>This expedition receives scant notice in the sources, but in some ways it is the most significant so far. As Dumah was some 800 km (500 mi) from Medina there can have been no immediate threat to Muhammad, but it may be, as Caetani suggests, 1 that communications with Syria were being interrupted and supplies to Medina stopped. It is tempting to suppose that was already envisaging something of the expansion which took place after his death.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muhammad+At+Medina&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=Oxford+At+The+Clarendon+Press.&rft.date=1956&rft.au=Montgomery+Watt+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmuhammadatmedina029655mbp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/umay/hd_umay.htm">"The Art of the Umayyad Period (661–750)"</a>. Met Museum. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200920005127/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/umay/hd_umay.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 20 September 2020. Retrieved 21 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+the+Umayyad+Period+%28661%E2%80%93750%29&rft.pub=Met+Museum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.metmuseum.org%2Ftoah%2Fhd%2Fumay%2Fhd_umay.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syria">"Syria: History"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150525033119/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syria">Archived</a> from the original on 25 May 2015. Retrieved 25 January 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Syria%3A+History&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F578856%2FSyria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> Farhad Daftary. A Short History of the Ismailis. 1998, Edinburg, UK. Edinburg University Press. Page 146. </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mongolconquestst00time/page/59">Timeframe AD 1200–1300: The Mongol Conquests</a>. Time-Life Books. 1989. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mongolconquestst00time/page/59">59–75</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8094-6437-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8094-6437-1"><bdi>978-0-8094-6437-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Timeframe+AD+1200%E2%80%931300%3A+The+Mongol+Conquests&rft.pages=59-75&rft.pub=Time-Life+Books&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-8094-6437-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmongolconquestst00time%2Fpage%2F59&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=1433425">"Battle of Aleppo"</a>. Everything2.com. 22 February 2003. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070626194212/http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=1433425">Archived</a> from the original on 26 June 2007. Retrieved 25 January 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Battle+of+Aleppo&rft.pub=Everything2.com&rft.date=2003-02-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.everything2.com%2Findex.pl%3Fnode_id%3D1433425&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090428055820/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/08/wae/ht08wae.htm">"The Eastern Mediterranean, 1400–1600 A.D"</a>. Metmuseum.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/08/wae/ht08wae.htm">the original</a> on 28 April 2009. Retrieved 23 April 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Eastern+Mediterranean%2C+1400%E2%80%931600+A.D&rft.pub=Metmuseum.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.metmuseum.org%2Ftoah%2Fht%2F08%2Fwae%2Fht08wae.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/26/magazine/is-this-the-end-of-christianity-in-the-middle-east.html">"Is This the End of Christianity in the Middle East?"</a>. The New York Times. 22 July 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150722154939/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/26/magazine/is-this-the-end-of-christianity-in-the-middle-east.html">Archived</a> from the original on 22 July 2015. Retrieved 8 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Is+This+the+End+of+Christianity+in+the+Middle+East%3F&rft.date=2015-07-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2015%2F07%2F26%2Fmagazine%2Fis-this-the-end-of-christianity-in-the-middle-east.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Syria_–_Ottoman_Empire-69">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Syria_–_Ottoman_Empire_69-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Syria_–_Ottoman_Empire_69-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://countrystudies.us/syria/7.htm">"Syria – Ottoman"</a>. Library of Congress Country Studies. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151105005145/http://countrystudies.us/syria/7.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 5 November 2015. Retrieved 25 January 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Syria+%E2%80%93+Ottoman&rft.pub=Library+of+Congress+Country+Studies&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcountrystudies.us%2Fsyria%2F7.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"><img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /> This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> a b Stanford J. Shaw, "Dynamics of Ottoman Society and administration", in "History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey" </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> Pouring a People into the Desert:The "Definitive Solution" of the Unionists to the Armenian Question, Fuat Dundar, A Question of Genocide, ed. Ronald Grigor Suny, Fatma Muge Gocek and Norman M. Naimark, (Oxford University Press, 2011), 280–281. </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080626065208/http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/IMG/pdf/III_-_Protmand_modifie_mandat.pdf">"Mandat Syrie-Liban"</a> (PDF) (in French). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/IMG/pdf/III_-_Protmand_modifie_mandat.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 26 June 2008. Retrieved 25 January 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mandat+Syrie-Liban&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.diplomatie.gouv.fr%2Ffr%2FIMG%2Fpdf%2FIII_-_Protmand_modifie_mandat.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_Barr2011" class="citation book cs1">James Barr (2011). a line in the sand. Britain, France and the struggle that shaped the Middle East. Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84737-453-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84737-453-0"><bdi>978-1-84737-453-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=a+line+in+the+sand.+Britain%2C+France+and+the+struggle+that+shaped+the+Middle+East&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-84737-453-0&rft.au=James+Barr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_N._StearnsWilliam_Leonard_Langer2001" class="citation book cs1">Peter N. Stearns; William Leonard Langer (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MziRd4ddZz4C">"The Middle East, p. 761"</a>. 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Houghton Mifflin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-395-65237-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-395-65237-4"><bdi>978-0-395-65237-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Middle+East%2C+p.+761&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+World+History&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Books&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-395-65237-4&rft.au=Peter+N.+Stearns&rft.au=William+Leonard+Langer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMziRd4ddZz4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-USDoS-75">^ <a href="#cite_ref-USDoS_75-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-USDoS_75-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-USDoS_75-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-USDoS_75-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-USDoS_75-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-USDoS_75-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-USDoS_75-6">g</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://2009-2017.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/syria/85051.htm">"Background Note: Syria"</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State" title="United States Department of State">United States Department of State</a>, Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, May 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190722082421/https://2009-2017.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/syria/85051.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 22 July 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=United+States+Department+of+State%2C+Bureau+of+Near+Eastern+Affairs%2C+May+2007&rft.atitle=Background+Note%3A+Syria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2F2009-2017.state.gov%2Foutofdate%2Fbgn%2Fsyria%2F85051.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"><img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /> This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> Gelber, 2006, pp. 138 </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> Morris, 2008, pp. 253, 254 </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> Tal, 2004, pp. 251 </li> <li id="cite_note-Britan-79">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Britan_79-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britan_79-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britan_79-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britan_79-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britan_79-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britan_79-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britan_79-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britan_79-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britan_79-8">i</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syria/29922/World-War-II-and-independence">"Syria: World War II and independence"</a>. 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Retrieved 23 October 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Syria%3A+World+War+II+and+independence&rft.pub=Britannica+Online+Encyclopedia&rft.date=2023-05-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F578856%2FSyria%2F29922%2FWorld-War-II-and-independence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChen2018" class="citation journal cs1">Chen, Chern (8 August 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080/07075332.2017.1367705">"Former Nazi Officers in the Near East: German Military Advisors in Syria, 1949–56"</a>. The International History Review. 40 (4): 732–751. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F07075332.2017.1367705">10.1080/07075332.2017.1367705</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0707-5332">0707-5332</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158837784">158837784</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+International+History+Review&rft.atitle=Former+Nazi+Officers+in+the+Near+East%3A+German+Military+Advisors+in+Syria%2C+1949%E2%80%9356&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=732-751&rft.date=2018-08-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A158837784%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0707-5332&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F07075332.2017.1367705&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Chern&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%2F07075332.2017.1367705&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobson2012" class="citation news cs1">Robson, John (10 February 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.torontosun.com/2012/02/10/syria-hasnt-changed-but-the-world-has">"Syria hasn't changed, but the world has"</a>. Toronto Sun. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160118010341/http://www.torontosun.com/2012/02/10/syria-hasnt-changed-but-the-world-has">Archived</a> from the original on 18 January 2016. Retrieved 25 January 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Toronto+Sun&rft.atitle=Syria+hasn%27t+changed%2C+but+the+world+has&rft.date=2012-02-10&rft.aulast=Robson&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.torontosun.com%2F2012%2F02%2F10%2Fsyria-hasnt-changed-but-the-world-has&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrecherJonathan_Wilkenfeld1997" class="citation book cs1">Brecher, Michael; Jonathan Wilkenfeld (1997). 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Foreign Affairs. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110507025111/http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/67561/michael-broening/the-sturdy-house-that-assad-built">Archived</a> from the original on 7 May 2011. Retrieved 10 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Affairs&rft.atitle=The+Sturdy+House+That+Assad+Built&rft.date=2011-03-07&rft.au=Michael+Br%C3%B6ning&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.foreignaffairs.com%2Farticles%2F67561%2Fmichael-broening%2Fthe-sturdy-house-that-assad-built&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFP._Miller,_H._Rand2020" class="citation book cs1">P. Miller, H. Rand, Andrew, Dafna (2020). "2: The Syrian Crucible and Future U.S. Options". 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Syriahr.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140421081746/http://syriahr.com/en/index.php?option=com_news&nid=2023&Itemid=2&task=displaynews">Archived</a> from the original on 21 April 2014. Retrieved 17 May 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Syrian+Observatory+for+Human+Rights&rft.pub=Syriahr.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.syriahr.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/story/2011-12-22/syria-arab-league/52159302/1">"Arab League delegates head to Syria over 'bloodbath'"</a>. USA Today. 22 December 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120108104259/http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/story/2011-12-22/syria-arab-league/52159302/1">Archived</a> from the original on 8 January 2012. Retrieved 10 April 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=USA+Today&rft.atitle=Arab+League+delegates+head+to+Syria+over+%27bloodbath%27&rft.date=2011-12-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usatoday.com%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Fstory%2F2011-12-22%2Fsyria-arab-league%2F52159302%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=en&ie=UTF8&prev=_t&rurl=translate.google.com&sl=ar&tl=en&u=http://syrianshuhada.com/default.asp%3Fa%3Dst%26st%3D7&usg=ALkJrhjgBFKK6VIV9Bbocy6W-jbZe_D0CA">"Number as a civil / military"</a>. Translate.googleusercontent.com. Retrieved 6 February 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Number+as+a+civil+%2F+military&rft.pub=Translate.googleusercontent.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftranslate.googleusercontent.com%2Ftranslate_c%3Fhl%3Den%26ie%3DUTF8%26prev%3D_t%26rurl%3Dtranslate.google.com%26sl%3Dar%26tl%3Den%26u%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fsyrianshuhada.com%2Fdefault.asp%253Fa%253Dst%2526st%253D7%26usg%3DALkJrhjgBFKK6VIV9Bbocy6W-jbZe_D0CA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-myrtlebeachonline-114"><a href="#cite_ref-myrtlebeachonline_114-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEnders2012" class="citation news cs1">Enders, David (19 April 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141025134759/http://www.myrtlebeachonline.com/2012/04/19/2783703/syrias-farouq-rebels-battle-to.html">"Syria's Farouq rebels battle to hold onto Qusayr, last outpost near Lebanese border"</a>. Myrtle Beach Sun News. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.myrtlebeachonline.com/2012/04/19/2783703/syrias-farouq-rebels-battle-to.html">the original</a> on 25 October 2014. Retrieved 17 May 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Myrtle+Beach+Sun+News&rft.atitle=Syria%27s+Farouq+rebels+battle+to+hold+onto+Qusayr%2C+last+outpost+near+Lebanese+border&rft.date=2012-04-19&rft.aulast=Enders&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.myrtlebeachonline.com%2F2012%2F04%2F19%2F2783703%2Fsyrias-farouq-rebels-battle-to.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-almost11,500-115"><a href="#cite_ref-almost11,500_115-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140328103035/http://ansamed.ansa.it/ansamed/en/news/sections/politics/2012/03/19/visualizza_new.html_134589467.html">"Syria: Opposition, almost 11,500 civilians killed"</a>. Ansamed.ansa.it. 3 January 2010. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ansamed.ansa.it/ansamed/en/news/sections/politics/2012/03/19/visualizza_new.html_134589467.html">the original</a> on 28 March 2014. Retrieved 17 May 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Syria%3A+Opposition%2C+almost+11%2C500+civilians+killed&rft.pub=Ansamed.ansa.it&rft.date=2010-01-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fansamed.ansa.it%2Fansamed%2Fen%2Fnews%2Fsections%2Fpolitics%2F2012%2F03%2F19%2Fvisualizza_new.html_134589467.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-syriangovernment2-116"><a href="#cite_ref-syriangovernment2_116-0">^</a> 6,143 civilians and security forces (15 March 2011-20 March 2012),<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://syrianfreepress.wordpress.com/2012/04/10/official-doc-6143-syrians-killed-by-armed-terrorists-video/">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120423124402/http://syrianfreepress.wordpress.com/2012/04/10/official-doc-6143-syrians-killed-by-armed-terrorists-video/">Archived</a> 2012-04-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> 865 security forces (21 March-1 June),<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121029163717/http://sana.sy/eng/337/index.htm">"Syrian Arab news agency - SANA - Syria : Syria news ::"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sana.sy/eng/337/index.htm">the original</a> on 29 October 2012. Retrieved 17 July 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Syrian+Arab+news+agency+-+SANA+-+Syria+%3A+Syria+news+%3A%3A&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sana.sy%2Feng%2F337%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> 3,138 insurgents (15 March 2011-30 May 2012),<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://syrianshuhada.com/?lang=en&a=st&st=7">[2]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304064949/http://syrianshuhada.com/?lang=en&a=st&st=7">Archived</a> 2016-03-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEnders2012" class="citation news cs1">Enders, David (19 April 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141025134759/http://www.myrtlebeachonline.com/2012/04/19/2783703/syrias-farouq-rebels-battle-to.html">"Syria's Farouq rebels battle to hold onto Qusayr, last outpost near Lebanese border"</a>. Myrtle Beach Sun News. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.myrtlebeachonline.com/2012/04/19/2783703/syrias-farouq-rebels-battle-to.html">the original</a> on 25 October 2014. Retrieved 13 December 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Myrtle+Beach+Sun+News&rft.atitle=Syria%27s+Farouq+rebels+battle+to+hold+onto+Qusayr%2C+last+outpost+near+Lebanese+border&rft.date=2012-04-19&rft.aulast=Enders&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.myrtlebeachonline.com%2F2012%2F04%2F19%2F2783703%2Fsyrias-farouq-rebels-battle-to.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> total of 10,146 reported killed </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.news24.com/World/News/Syria-Refugees-brace-for-more-bloodshed-20120312">"Syria: Refugees brace for more bloodshed"</a>. News24. 12 March 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171023184006/http://www.news24.com/World/News/Syria-Refugees-brace-for-more-bloodshed-20120312">Archived</a> from the original on 23 October 2017. Retrieved 10 April 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=News24&rft.atitle=Syria%3A+Refugees+brace+for+more+bloodshed&rft.date=2012-03-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.news24.com%2FWorld%2FNews%2FSyria-Refugees-brace-for-more-bloodshed-20120312&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2012/03/11/148327930/syrian-refugees-may-be-wearing-out-turks-welcome">"Syrian Refugees May Be Wearing Out Turks' Welcome"</a>. NPR. 11 March 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120402005834/http://www.npr.org/2012/03/11/148327930/syrian-refugees-may-be-wearing-out-turks-welcome">Archived</a> from the original on 2 April 2012. Retrieved 10 April 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NPR&rft.atitle=Syrian+Refugees+May+Be+Wearing+Out+Turks%27+Welcome&rft.date=2012-03-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2012%2F03%2F11%2F148327930%2Fsyrian-refugees-may-be-wearing-out-turks-welcome&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-17635434">"Syria crisis: Turkey refugee surge amid escalation fear"</a>. BBC News. 6 April 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120408231033/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-17635434">Archived</a> from the original on 8 April 2012. Retrieved 10 April 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Syria+crisis%3A+Turkey+refugee+surge+amid+escalation+fear&rft.date=2012-04-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld-middle-east-17635434&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120525033139/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jn_Hwm1c4s57hZroY2XO3gtvHl_g?docId=CNG.d4e0242216423f0ddcaa53de60d07900.f1">"UNICEF says 400 children killed in Syria unrest"</a>. Google News. Geneva. Agence France-Presse. 7 February 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jn_Hwm1c4s57hZroY2XO3gtvHl_g?docId=CNG.d4e0242216423f0ddcaa53de60d07900.f1">the original</a> on 25 May 2012. Retrieved 22 February 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Google+News&rft.atitle=UNICEF+says+400+children+killed+in+Syria+unrest&rft.date=2012-02-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fhostednews%2Fafp%2Farticle%2FALeqM5jn_Hwm1c4s57hZroY2XO3gtvHl_g%3FdocId%3DCNG.d4e0242216423f0ddcaa53de60d07900.f1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.upi.com/Top_News/Special/2012/03/23/UNICEF-500-children-died-in-Syrian-war/UPI-69191332522535/">"UNICEF: 500 children died in Syrian war"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120327093556/http://www.upi.com/Top_News/Special/2012/03/23/UNICEF-500-children-died-in-Syrian-war/UPI-69191332522535/">Archived</a> from the original on 27 March 2012. Retrieved 17 April 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=UNICEF%3A+500+children+died+in+Syrian+war&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.upi.com%2FTop_News%2FSpecial%2F2012%2F03%2F23%2FUNICEF-500-children-died-in-Syrian-war%2FUPI-69191332522535%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.couriermail.com.au/news/breaking-news/unicef-says-400-children-killed-in-syria/story-e6freonf-1226265280318">"UNICEF says 400 children killed in Syria"</a>. The Courier-Mail. 8 February 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130514041232/http://www.couriermail.com.au/news/breaking-news/unicef-says-400-children-killed-in-syria/story-e6freonf-1226265280318">Archived</a> from the original on 14 May 2013. Retrieved 16 February 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Courier-Mail&rft.atitle=UNICEF+says+400+children+killed+in+Syria&rft.date=2012-02-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.couriermail.com.au%2Fnews%2Fbreaking-news%2Funicef-says-400-children-killed-in-syria%2Fstory-e6freonf-1226265280318&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeralta2012" class="citation web cs1">Peralta, Eyder (3 February 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2012/02/03/146346490/rights-group-says-syrian-security-forces-detained-tortured-children">"Rights Group Says Syrian Security Forces Detained, Tortured Children: The Two-Way"</a>. NPR. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150427232713/http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2012/02/03/146346490/rights-group-says-syrian-security-forces-detained-tortured-children">Archived</a> from the original on 27 April 2015. Retrieved 16 February 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NPR&rft.atitle=Rights+Group+Says+Syrian+Security+Forces+Detained%2C+Tortured+Children%3A+The+Two-Way&rft.date=2012-02-03&rft.aulast=Peralta&rft.aufirst=Eyder&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Fblogs%2Fthetwo-way%2F2012%2F02%2F03%2F146346490%2Frights-group-says-syrian-security-forces-detained-tortured-children&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181106202708/https://www.sana.sy/print.html/?sid=400319&newlang=eng">"Syrian Arab news agency - SANA - Syria : Syria news"</a>. Sana.sy. 14 February 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sana.sy/print.html?sid=400319&newlang=eng">the original</a> on 6 November 2018. Retrieved 10 April 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Syrian+Arab+news+agency+-+SANA+-+Syria+%3A+Syria+news&rft.pub=Sana.sy&rft.date=2012-02-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sana.sy%2Fprint.html%3Fsid%3D400319%26newlang%3Deng&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFahim2012" class="citation news cs1">Fahim, Kareem (5 January 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/06/world/middleeast/hundreds-tortured-in-syria-human-rights-group-says.html">"Hundreds Tortured in Syria, Human Rights Group Says"</a>. 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Albany, New York: Suny Press. pp. 144, 149. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781438472911" title="Special:BookSources/9781438472911"><bdi>9781438472911</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Totalitarian+Space+and+the+Destruction+of+Aura&rft.place=Albany%2C+New+York&rft.pages=144%2C+149&rft.pub=Suny+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9781438472911&rft.aulast=Ahmed&rft.aufirst=Saladdin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHensman2018" class="citation book cs1">Hensman, Rohini (2018). "7: The Syrian Uprising". Indefensible: Democracy, Counterrevolution, and the Rhetoric of Anti-Imperialism. 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March 2023. p. 31. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230506235359/https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/2023-03/FIW_World_2023_DigtalPDF.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 6 May 2023. Retrieved 12 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Freedom+House&rft.atitle=Freedom+in+the+World%3A+2023&rft.pages=31&rft.date=2023-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffreedomhouse.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2F2023-03%2FFIW_World_2023_DigtalPDF.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scribd.com/doc/81771718/Qordoba-Translation-of-the-Syrian-Constitution-Modifications-15-2-2012">"Constitution of Syria. Articles 83–118"</a>. 15 February 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200502203942/https://www.scribd.com/doc/81771718/Qordoba-Translation-of-the-Syrian-Constitution-Modifications-15-2-2012">Archived</a> from the original on 2 May 2020. Retrieved 30 January 2013 – via Scribd.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Constitution+of+Syria.+Articles+83%E2%80%93118&rft.date=2012-02-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scribd.com%2Fdoc%2F81771718%2FQordoba-Translation-of-the-Syrian-Constitution-Modifications-15-2-2012&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240214220233/https://www.britannica.com/place/Syria/Local-government">"Syria"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. 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Article 75(1)2)(4)"</a>. 15 February 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200502203942/https://www.scribd.com/doc/81771718/Qordoba-Translation-of-the-Syrian-Constitution-Modifications-15-2-2012">Archived</a> from the original on 2 May 2020. Retrieved 30 January 2013 – via Scribd.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Constitution+of+Syria.+Article+75%281%292%29%284%29&rft.date=2012-02-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scribd.com%2Fdoc%2F81771718%2FQordoba-Translation-of-the-Syrian-Constitution-Modifications-15-2-2012&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scribd.com/doc/81771718/Qordoba-Translation-of-the-Syrian-Constitution-Modifications-15-2-2012">"Constitution of Syria. Article 77(2)"</a>. 15 February 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200502203942/https://www.scribd.com/doc/81771718/Qordoba-Translation-of-the-Syrian-Constitution-Modifications-15-2-2012">Archived</a> from the original on 2 May 2020. Retrieved 30 January 2013 – via Scribd.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Constitution+of+Syria.+Article+77%282%29&rft.date=2012-02-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scribd.com%2Fdoc%2F81771718%2FQordoba-Translation-of-the-Syrian-Constitution-Modifications-15-2-2012&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWedeen2015" class="citation book cs1">Wedeen, Lisa (2015). Ambiguities of Domination: Politics, Rhetoric, and Symbols in Contemporary Syria. 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Geopolitics. 26 (4): 1023–1045. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14650045.2018.1531283">10.1080/14650045.2018.1531283</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1887%2F87090">1887/87090</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geopolitics&rft.atitle=Gender+Revolution+in+Rojava%3A+The+Voices+beyond+Tabloid+Geopolitics&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1023-1045&rft.date=2018-10-29&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1887%2F87090&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14650045.2018.1531283&rft.aulast=%C5%9Eim%C5%9Fek&rft.aufirst=Bahar&rft.au=Jongerden%2C+Joost&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F14650045.2018.1531283&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurç2020" class="citation journal cs1">Burç, Rosa (22 May 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.doiserbia.nb.rs/img/doi/0353-5738/2020/0353-57382003319B.pdf">"Non-territorial autonomy and gender equality: The case of the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria - Rojava"</a> (PDF). Philosophy and Society. 31 (3): 277–448. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2298%2FFID2003319B">10.2298/FID2003319B</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:226412887">226412887</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220617192825/http://www.doiserbia.nb.rs/img/doi/0353-5738/2020/0353-57382003319B.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 17 June 2022. Retrieved 14 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+and+Society&rft.atitle=Non-territorial+autonomy+and+gender+equality%3A+The+case+of+the+Autonomous+Administration+of+North+and+East+Syria+-+Rojava&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=277-448&rft.date=2020-05-22&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2298%2FFID2003319B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A226412887%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Bur%C3%A7&rft.aufirst=Rosa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.doiserbia.nb.rs%2Fimg%2Fdoi%2F0353-5738%2F2020%2F0353-57382003319B.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGammer2004" class="citation book cs1">Gammer, Moshe (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5CVBWjMAtLEC">The Caspian Region: The Caucasus</a>. Vol. 2. Routledge. p. 64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-00512-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-00512-5"><bdi>978-0-203-00512-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230211033935/https://books.google.com/books?id=5CVBWjMAtLEC">Archived</a> from the original on 11 February 2023. Retrieved 22 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Caspian+Region%3A+The+Caucasus&rft.pages=64&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-203-00512-5&rft.aulast=Gammer&rft.aufirst=Moshe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5CVBWjMAtLEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019xviii,_112-226"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019xviii,_112_226-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019">Allsopp & van Wilgenburg (2019)</a>, pp. xviii, 112. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZabad2017219,_228–229-227"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZabad2017219,_228–229_227-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZabad2017">Zabad (2017)</a>, pp. 219, 228–229. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFZabad2017 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmidinger2019" class="citation book cs1">Schmidinger, Thomas (2019). The Battle for the Mountain of the Kurds. Translated by Schiffmann, Thomas. Oakland, CA: PM Press, Kairos. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62963-651-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62963-651-1"><bdi>978-1-62963-651-1</bdi></a>. <q>Afrin was the home to the largest Ezidi minority in Syria.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Battle+for+the+Mountain+of+the+Kurds&rft.place=Oakland%2C+CA&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=PM+Press%2C+Kairos&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-62963-651-1&rft.aulast=Schmidinger&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019xviii,_66,_200-229"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019xviii,_66,_200_229-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019">Allsopp & van Wilgenburg (2019)</a>, pp. xviii, 66, 200. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-marriage-230"><a href="#cite_ref-marriage_230-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160222111444/http://aranews.net/2016/02/syria-kurds-challenging-traditions-promote-civil-marriage/">"Syria Kurds challenging traditions, promote civil marriage"</a>. <a href="/wiki/ARA_News" title="ARA News">ARA News</a>. 20 February 2016. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aranews.net/2016/02/syria-kurds-challenging-traditions-promote-civil-marriage/">the original</a> on 22 February 2016. Retrieved 23 August 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Syria+Kurds+challenging+traditions%2C+promote+civil+marriage&rft.pub=ARA+News&rft.date=2016-02-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faranews.net%2F2016%2F02%2Fsyria-kurds-challenging-traditions-promote-civil-marriage%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZabad2017219-231"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZabad2017219_231-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZabad2017">Zabad (2017)</a>, p. 219. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFZabad2017 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019156–163-232"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019156–163_232-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019">Allsopp & van Wilgenburg (2019)</a>, pp. 156–163. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161001094203/http://aranews.net/2016/05/poyd-leader-current-sdf-operation-recapture-northern-countryside-raqqa-not-city/">"PYD leader: SDF operation for Raqqa countryside in progress, Syria can only be secular"</a>. <a href="/wiki/ARA_News" title="ARA News">ARA News</a>. 28 May 2016. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aranews.net/2016/05/poyd-leader-current-sdf-operation-recapture-northern-countryside-raqqa-not-city/">the original</a> on 1 October 2016. Retrieved 8 October 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=PYD+leader%3A+SDF+operation+for+Raqqa+countryside+in+progress%2C+Syria+can+only+be+secular&rft.date=2016-05-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faranews.net%2F2016%2F05%2Fpoyd-leader-current-sdf-operation-recapture-northern-countryside-raqqa-not-city%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-utopia-234"><a href="#cite_ref-utopia_234-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss2015" class="citation news cs1">Ross, Carne (30 September 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/30/opinion/the-kurds-democratic-experiment.html">"The Kurds' Democratic Experiment"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190618184815/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/30/opinion/the-kurds-democratic-experiment.html">Archived</a> from the original on 18 June 2019. Retrieved 20 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Kurds%27+Democratic+Experiment&rft.date=2015-09-30&rft.aulast=Ross&rft.aufirst=Carne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2015%2F09%2F30%2Fopinion%2Fthe-kurds-democratic-experiment.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIn_der_MaurStaal2015" class="citation book cs1">In der Maur, Renée; Staal, Jonas (2015). "Introduction". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161025095239/http://newworldsummit.eu/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/NWA5-Stateless-Democracy1.pdf">Stateless Democracy</a> (PDF). Utrecht: BAK. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-77288-22-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-77288-22-1"><bdi>978-90-77288-22-1</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://newworldsummit.eu/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/NWA5-Stateless-Democracy1.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 25 October 2016. 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Comparative Islamic Studies. 10 (1): 87–109. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1558%2Fcis.29642">10.1558/cis.29642</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1743-1638">1743-1638</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230119162824/https://journal.equinoxpub.com/CIS/article/view/9744">Archived</a> from the original on 19 January 2023. 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South Atlantic Quarterly. 115 (1): 184–196. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F00382876-3425013">10.1215/00382876-3425013</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220427094931/https://read.dukeupress.edu/south-atlantic-quarterly/article-abstract/115/1/184/3804/The-Rojava-Experience-Possibilities-and-Challenges">Archived</a> from the original on 27 April 2022. Retrieved 14 October 2022 – via read.dukeupress.edu.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=South+Atlantic+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Rojava+Experience%3A+Possibilities+and+Challenges+of+Building+a+Democratic+Life&rft.volume=115&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=184-196&rft.date=2016-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1215%2F00382876-3425013&rft.aulast=K%C3%BC%C3%A7%C3%BCk&rft.aufirst=B%C3%BClent&rft.au=%C3%96zsel%C3%A7uk%2C+Ceren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fread.dukeupress.edu%2Fsouth-atlantic-quarterly%2Farticle-abstract%2F115%2F1%2F184%2F3804%2FThe-Rojava-Experience-Possibilities-and-Challenges&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarkhoda" class="citation web cs1">Barkhoda, Dalir. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/30582442">"The Experiment of the Rojava System in Grassroots Participatory Democracy: Its Theoretical Foundation, Structure, and Strategies"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230408083524/https://www.academia.edu/30582442">Archived</a> from the original on 8 April 2023. 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Geopolitics. 26 (4): 1–25. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14650045.2018.1508016">10.1080/14650045.2018.1508016</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:150297675">150297675</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220427094729/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14650045.2018.1508016">Archived</a> from the original on 27 April 2022. Retrieved 14 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geopolitics&rft.atitle=When+%C3%96calan+met+Bookchin%3A+The+Kurdish+Freedom+Movement+and+the+Political+Theory+of+Democratic+Confederalism&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1-25&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14650045.2018.1508016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A150297675%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Gerber&rft.aufirst=Damian&rft.au=Brincat%2C+Shannon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1080%2F14650045.2018.1508016&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imemo.ru/files/File/magazines/puty_miru/2016/02/04Moberg.pdf">"NATION-BUILDING IN ROJAVA: PARTICIPATORY DEMOCRACY AMIDST THE SYRIAN CIVL WAR"</a> (PDF). Imemo.ru. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220622151413/https://www.imemo.ru/files/File/magazines/puty_miru/2016/02/04Moberg.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 22 June 2022. Retrieved 4 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Imemo.ru&rft.atitle=NATION-BUILDING+IN+ROJAVA%3A+PARTICIPATORY+DEMOCRACY+AMIDST+THE+SYRIAN+CIVL+WAR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.imemo.ru%2Ffiles%2FFile%2Fmagazines%2Fputy_miru%2F2016%2F02%2F04Moberg.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://repository.bilkent.edu.tr/bitstream/handle/11693/36653/bilkent-research-paper.pdf?sequence=1">"RUPTURES AND RIPPLE EFFECTS IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND BEYOND"</a> (PDF). Repository.bilkent.edu.tr. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210718174324/http://repository.bilkent.edu.tr/bitstream/handle/11693/36653/bilkent-research-paper.pdf?sequence=1">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 18 July 2021. Retrieved 4 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Repository.bilkent.edu.tr&rft.atitle=RUPTURES+AND+RIPPLE+EFFECTS+IN+THE+MIDDLE+EAST+AND+BEYOND&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frepository.bilkent.edu.tr%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F11693%2F36653%2Fbilkent-research-paper.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-security-towns-report-idUSKBN1WS0K0">"Report: Syrian army to enter SDF-held Kobani, Manbij"</a>. Reuters. 14 October 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191013164335/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-security-towns-report-idUSKBN1WS0K0">Archived</a> from the original on 13 October 2019. Retrieved 1 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Report%3A+Syrian+army+to+enter+SDF-held+Kobani%2C+Manbij&rft.date=2019-10-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-syria-security-towns-report-idUSKBN1WS0K0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-security-government-sdf-idUSKBN1WS0PF">"Syrian army to deploy along Turkish border in deal with Kurdish-led forces"</a>. Reuters. 14 October 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191022053311/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-security-government-sdf-idUSKBN1WS0PF">Archived</a> from the original on 22 October 2019. Retrieved 1 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Syrian+army+to+deploy+along+Turkish+border+in+deal+with+Kurdish-led+forces&rft.date=2019-10-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-syria-security-government-sdf-idUSKBN1WS0PF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.timesofisrael.com/syrian-army-moves-to-confront-turkish-forces-as-us-withdraws/">"Syrian army moves to confront Turkish forces as US withdraws"</a>. Times of Israel. 14 October 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191014110752/https://www.timesofisrael.com/syrian-army-moves-to-confront-turkish-forces-as-us-withdraws/">Archived</a> from the original on 14 October 2019. Retrieved 1 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Times+of+Israel&rft.atitle=Syrian+army+moves+to+confront+Turkish+forces+as+US+withdraws&rft.date=2019-10-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.timesofisrael.com%2Fsyrian-army-moves-to-confront-turkish-forces-as-us-withdraws%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191024140036/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-syria-security-idUKKBN1X319A">"Syrian Kurds accuse Turkey of violations, Russia says peace plan on track"</a>. Reuters. 24 October 2019. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-syria-security-idUKKBN1X319A">the original</a> on 24 October 2019. Retrieved 1 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Syrian+Kurds+accuse+Turkey+of+violations%2C+Russia+says+peace+plan+on+track&rft.date=2019-10-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fuk.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fuk-syria-security-idUKKBN1X319A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrenger2012" class="citation web cs1">Strenger, Carlo (8 February 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.haaretz.com/news/middle-east/assad-takes-a-page-out-of-russia-s-book-in-his-war-against-rebels-1.411789">"Assad takes a page out of Russia's book in his war against rebels"</a>. Haaretz. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120209101845/http://www.haaretz.com/news/middle-east/assad-takes-a-page-out-of-russia-s-book-in-his-war-against-rebels-1.411789">Archived</a> from the original on 9 February 2012. Retrieved 15 January 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Haaretz&rft.atitle=Assad+takes+a+page+out+of+Russia%27s+book+in+his+war+against+rebels&rft.date=2012-02-08&rft.aulast=Strenger&rft.aufirst=Carlo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.haaretz.com%2Fnews%2Fmiddle-east%2Fassad-takes-a-page-out-of-russia-s-book-in-his-war-against-rebels-1.411789&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NYT_Arab_League-249"><a href="#cite_ref-NYT_Arab_League_249-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacFarquhar2011" class="citation news cs1">MacFarquhar, Neil (12 November 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/13/world/middleeast/arab-league-votes-to-suspend-syria-over-its-crackdown-on-protesters.html">"Arab League Votes to Suspend Syria"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111113011207/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/13/world/middleeast/arab-league-votes-to-suspend-syria-over-its-crackdown-on-protesters.html">Archived</a> from the original on 13 November 2011. Retrieved 12 November 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Arab+League+Votes+to+Suspend+Syria&rft.date=2011-11-12&rft.aulast=MacFarquhar&rft.aufirst=Neil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2011%2F11%2F13%2Fworld%2Fmiddleeast%2Farab-league-votes-to-suspend-syria-over-its-crackdown-on-protesters.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111206201635/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/world/2011-12/01/c_131282989.htm">"Syria suspends its membership in Mediterranean union"</a>. Xinhua News Agency. 1 December 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/world/2011-12/01/c_131282989.htm">the original</a> on 6 December 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Syria+suspends+its+membership+in+Mediterranean+union&rft.date=2012-12-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.xinhuanet.com%2Fenglish2010%2Fworld%2F2011-12%2F01%2Fc_131282989.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-251"><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230507172435/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/5/7/arab-league-agrees-to-bring-syria-back-into-its-fold">"Arab League brings Syria back into its fold after 12 years"</a>. Al Jazeera. 7 May 2023. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/5/7/arab-league-agrees-to-bring-syria-back-into-its-fold">the original</a> on 7 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Al+Jazeera&rft.atitle=Arab+League+brings+Syria+back+into+its+fold+after+12+years&rft.date=2023-05-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Fnews%2F2023%2F5%2F7%2Farab-league-agrees-to-bring-syria-back-into-its-fold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Morris9-253"><a href="#cite_ref-Morris9_253-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris,_Chris2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Chris_Morris_(journalist)" title="Chris Morris (journalist)">Morris, Chris</a> (2005). "<a href="/wiki/The_New_Turkey#Chapter_9:_Crossroads" title="The New Turkey">Chapter 9: Crossroads</a>". <a href="/wiki/The_New_Turkey" title="The New Turkey">The New Turkey</a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Granta_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Granta Books">Granta Books</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newturkeyquietre0000morr_l7s3/page/203">203–227</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86207-865-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86207-865-9"><bdi>978-1-86207-865-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+9%3A+Crossroads&rft.btitle=The+New+Turkey&rft.place=London&rft.pages=203-227&rft.pub=Granta+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-86207-865-9&rft.au=Morris%2C+Chris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AlexandrettaTurkeyRelations-254"><a href="#cite_ref-AlexandrettaTurkeyRelations_254-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanjian1956" class="citation journal cs1">Sanjian, Avedis K. (1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4322848">"The Sanjak of Alexandretta (Hatay): Its Impact on Turkish-Syrian Relations (1939–1956)"</a>. The Middle East Journal. 10 (4): 379–394. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4322848">4322848</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221222083853/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4322848">Archived</a> from the original on 22 December 2022. Retrieved 22 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Middle+East+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Sanjak+of+Alexandretta+%28Hatay%29%3A+Its+Impact+on+Turkish-Syrian+Relations+%281939%E2%80%931956%29&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=379-394&rft.date=1956&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4322848%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Sanjian&rft.aufirst=Avedis+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4322848&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-occupiedSyrian-255"><a href="#cite_ref-occupiedSyrian_255-0">^</a> *"The international community maintains that the Israeli decision to impose its laws, jurisdiction and administration in the occupied Syrian Golan is null and void and without international legal effect." <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInternational_Labour_Office2009" class="citation book cs1">International Labour Office (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DqIv03qWPc0C">The situation of workers of the occupied Arab territories</a> (International government publication ed.). International Labour Office. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-2-120630-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-2-120630-9"><bdi>978-92-2-120630-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+situation+of+workers+of+the+occupied+Arab+territories&rft.pages=23&rft.edition=International+government+publication&rft.pub=International+Labour+Office&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-92-2-120630-9&rft.au=International+Labour+Office&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDqIv03qWPc0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988">. * "...occupied Syrian Golan Heights..." (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.al-bab.com/arab/docs/league/peace02.htm">The Arab Peace Initiative, 2002</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090604091304/http://www.al-bab.com/arab/docs/league/peace02.htm">Archived</a> 4 June 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, www.al-bab.com. Retrieved 1 August 2010.) <ul><li>In 2008, a plenary session of the United Nations General Assembly voted by 161–1 in favor of a motion on the "occupied Syrian Golan" that reaffirmed support for UN Resolution 497. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2008/ga10794.doc.htm">General Assembly adopts broad range of texts, 26 in all, on recommendation of its fourth Committee, including on decolonization, information, Palestine refugees</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110628235312/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2008/ga10794.doc.htm">Archived</a> 28 June 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, United Nations, 5 December 2008.)</li> <li>"the Syrian Golan Heights territory, which Israel has occupied since 1967". Also, "the Golan Heights, a 450-square mile portion of southwestern Syria that Israel occupied during the 1967 Arab-Israeli war." (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/62681.pdf">CRS Issue Brief for Congress: Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180918231125/https://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/62681.pdf">Archived</a> 18 September 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Congressional Research Service. 19 January 2006)</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-InternationalCommunityOccupiedTerritory-256"><a href="#cite_ref-InternationalCommunityOccupiedTerritory_256-0">^</a> Occupied territory: <ul><li>"Israeli-occupied Golan Heights" (Central Intelligence Agency. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pqanFyF6nI0C&pg=PA339">CIA World Factbook 2010</a>, Skyhorse Publishing Inc., 2009. p. 339. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-60239-727-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-60239-727-9">1-60239-727-9</a>.)</li> <li>"...the United States considers the Golan Heights to be occupied territory subject to negotiation and Israeli withdrawal..." (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/9570.pdf">"CRS Issue Brief for Congress: Israeli-United States Relations"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030424042458/https://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/9570.pdf">Archived</a> 24 April 2003 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Congressional Research Service, 5 April 2002. pg. 5. Retrieved 1 August 2010.)</li> <li>"Occupied Golan Heights" (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travelling-and-living-overseas/travel-advice-by-country/middle-east-north-africa/israel-occupied">Travel advice: Israel and the Occupied Palestinian Territories</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090720052803/http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travelling-and-living-overseas/travel-advice-by-country/middle-east-north-africa/israel-occupied">Archived</a> 20 July 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office. Retrieved 1 August 2010.)</li> <li>"In the ICRC's view, the Golan is an occupied territory." 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Kurds are the second largest ethnic group in Syria, making up around 10% of the Syrian population and distributed among four regions...with a Yazidi minority that numbers around 40,000... Turkmen are the third-largest ethnic group in Syria, making up around 4–5% of the population. Some estimations indicate that they are the second biggest group, outnumbering Kurds, drawing on the fact that Turkmen are divided into two groups: the rural Turkmen who make up 30% of the Turkmen in Syria and have kept their mother tongue, and the urban Turkmen who have become Arabised and no longer speak their mother language... Assyrians are the fourth-largest ethnic group in Syria. They represent the original and oldest inhabitants of Syria, today making up around 3–4% of the Syrian population... Circassians are the fifth-largest ethnic group in Syria, making up around 1.5% of the population... Armenians are sixth-largest ethnic group in Syria, making up around 1% of the population... 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March 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fw-magazine.com/content/getting-education-right">the original</a> on 3 October 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Getting+education+right&rft.date=2008-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fw-magazine.com%2Fcontent%2Fgetting-education-right&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-362"><a href="#cite_ref-362">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.webometrics.info/en/aw/Syrian%20Arab%20Republic">"Syrian Arab Republic"</a>. Ranking Web of Universities. Retrieved 26 February 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Syrian+Arab+Republic&rft.pub=Ranking+Web+of+Universities&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.webometrics.info%2Fen%2Faw%2FSyrian%2520Arab%2520Republic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-363"><a href="#cite_ref-363">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130513184758/http://www.sesrtcic.org/oic-member-countries-infigures.php?c_code=50&cat_code=8">"Health"</a>. SESRIC. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sesrtcic.org/oic-member-countries-infigures.php?c_code=50&cat_code=8">the original</a> on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 5 March 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Health&rft.pub=SESRIC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sesrtcic.org%2Foic-member-countries-infigures.php%3Fc_code%3D50%26cat_code%3D8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-364"><a href="#cite_ref-364">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sesrtcic.org/oic-member-countries-infigures.php?c_code=50&cat_code=7">"Demography"</a>. SESRIC. Retrieved 5 March 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Demography&rft.pub=SESRIC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sesrtcic.org%2Foic-member-countries-infigures.php%3Fc_code%3D50%26cat_code%3D7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-365"><a href="#cite_ref-365">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHopwood1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Derek_Hopwood" title="Derek Hopwood">Hopwood, Derek</a> (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/syria19451986pol0000hopw">Syria 1945–1986: Politics and Society</a>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-04-445039-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-04-445039-9"><bdi>978-0-04-445039-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Syria+1945%E2%80%931986%3A+Politics+and+Society&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-04-445039-9&rft.aulast=Hopwood&rft.aufirst=Derek&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsyria19451986pol0000hopw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-traditional-366"><a href="#cite_ref-traditional_366-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalamandra2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Derek_Hopwood" title="Derek Hopwood">Salamandra, Christa</a> (2004). A New Old Damascus: Authenticity and Distinction in Urban Syria. <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University_Press" title="Indiana University Press">Indiana University Press</a>. p. 103. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-21722-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-21722-6"><bdi>978-0-253-21722-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+New+Old+Damascus%3A+Authenticity+and+Distinction+in+Urban+Syria&rft.pages=103&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-253-21722-6&rft.aulast=Salamandra&rft.aufirst=Christa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-367"><a href="#cite_ref-:1_367-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2019/country-chapters/syria">"Syria: Events of 2018"</a>. World Report 2019: Rights Trends in Syria. Human Rights Watch. 17 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Syria%3A+Events+of+2018&rft.btitle=World+Report+2019%3A+Rights+Trends+in+Syria&rft.pub=Human+Rights+Watch&rft.date=2018-12-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrw.org%2Fworld-report%2F2019%2Fcountry-chapters%2Fsyria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-368"><a href="#cite_ref-368">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ohchr.org/En/HRBodies/HRC/IICISyria/Pages/IndependentInternationalCommission.aspx">"OHCHR | IICISyria Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic"</a>. www.ohchr.org. Retrieved 19 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ohchr.org&rft.atitle=OHCHR+%7C+IICISyria+Independent+International+Commission+of+Inquiry+on+the+Syrian+Arab+Republic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ohchr.org%2FEn%2FHRBodies%2FHRC%2FIICISyria%2FPages%2FIndependentInternationalCommission.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-369"><a href="#cite_ref-369">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalti2006" class="citation book cs1">Salti, Rasha (2006). Insights into Syrian Cinema: Essays and Conversations with Contemporary Filmmakers. <a href="/w/index.php?title=ArteEast&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ArteEast (page does not exist)">ArteEast</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-892494-70-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-892494-70-2"><bdi>978-1-892494-70-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Insights+into+Syrian+Cinema%3A+Essays+and+Conversations+with+Contemporary+Filmmakers&rft.pub=ArteEast&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-892494-70-2&rft.aulast=Salti&rft.aufirst=Rasha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-370"><a href="#cite_ref-370">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101227094624/http://www.freedomhouse.org/uploads/pfs/371.pdf">"Freedom House report on Syria (2010)"</a> (PDF). Freedom House. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.freedomhouse.org/uploads/pfs/371.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 27 December 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Freedom+House+report+on+Syria+%282010%29&rft.pub=Freedom+House&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.freedomhouse.org%2Fuploads%2Fpfs%2F371.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-371"><a href="#cite_ref-371">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright2008" class="citation book cs1">Wright, Robin (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dreamsshadowsfut00wrig">Dreams and shadows, the Future of the Middle East</a>. Penguin Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dreamsshadowsfut00wrig/page/214">214</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781594201110" title="Special:BookSources/9781594201110"><bdi>9781594201110</bdi></a>. <q>more than one dozen intelligence agencies</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dreams+and+shadows%2C+the+Future+of+the+Middle+East&rft.pages=214&rft.pub=Penguin+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781594201110&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Robin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdreamsshadowsfut00wrig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-372"><a href="#cite_ref-372">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright2008" class="citation book cs1">Wright, Robin (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dreamsshadowsfut00wrig">Dreams and shadows, the Future of the Middle East</a>. Penguin Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dreamsshadowsfut00wrig/page/230">230</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781594201110" title="Special:BookSources/9781594201110"><bdi>9781594201110</bdi></a>. <q>hundreds of thousands of mukhabarat according to dissident Riad Seif</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dreams+and+shadows%2C+the+Future+of+the+Middle+East&rft.pages=230&rft.pub=Penguin+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781594201110&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Robin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdreamsshadowsfut00wrig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-373"><a href="#cite_ref-373">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.syriauntold.com/en/creative/akram-raslan-how-caricatures-shake-tyranny">"Akram Raslan: How Caricatures Shake Tyranny"</a>. Syria Untold. 13 April 2015. Retrieved 23 September 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Akram+Raslan%3A+How+Caricatures+Shake+Tyranny&rft.pub=Syria+Untold&rft.date=2015-04-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.syriauntold.com%2Fen%2Fcreative%2Fakram-raslan-how-caricatures-shake-tyranny&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-374"><a href="#cite_ref-374">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091204125219/http://www.rte.ie/travel/2009/1015/damascus.html">"Damascus"</a>. Raidió Teilifís Éireann. 15 October 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rte.ie/travel/2009/1015/damascus.html">the original</a> on 4 December 2009. Retrieved 26 November 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Damascus&rft.date=2009-10-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rte.ie%2Ftravel%2F2009%2F1015%2Fdamascus.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_references">General references</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Boczek, Boleslaw Adam (2006). International Law: A Dictionary. Scarecrow Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8108-5078-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8108-5078-8">0-8108-5078-8</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinkelstein2003" class="citation book cs1">Finkelstein, Norman (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vNb5VkyxDlYC">Image and reality of the Israel-Palestine conflict</a>. Verso. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85984-442-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85984-442-7"><bdi>978-1-85984-442-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Image+and+reality+of+the+Israel-Palestine+conflict&rft.pub=Verso&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-85984-442-7&rft.aulast=Finkelstein&rft.aufirst=Norman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvNb5VkyxDlYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlass1990" class="citation cs2">Glass, Charles (1990), Tribes with Flags: A Dangerous Passage Through the Chaos of the Middle East, Atlantic Monthly Press (New York) and Picador (London), <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-436-18130-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-436-18130-6"><bdi>978-0-436-18130-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tribes+with+Flags%3A+A+Dangerous+Passage+Through+the+Chaos+of+the+Middle+East&rft.pub=Atlantic+Monthly+Press+%28New+York%29+and+Picador+%28London%29&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-436-18130-6&rft.aulast=Glass&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988">.</li> <li>Karoubi, Mohammad Taghi (2004). Just or Unjust War? Ashgate Publishing <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7546-2375-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7546-2375-0">0-7546-2375-0</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fw-magazine.com/">Forward Magazine</a> (Syria's English monthly since 2007)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forward+Magazine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffw-magazine.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121224231822/http://www.orsam.org.tr/tr/trUploads/Yazilar/Dosyalar/2011113_inceleme4.pdf">Orsam Suriye Türkleri Raporu-Orsam Syria Turks</a></li> <li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><cite class="citation wikicite" id="Reference-Wright-2008">Wright, Robin. 2008. Dreams and Shadows : the Future of the Middle East. Penguin.</cite></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_Dam2011" class="citation cs2">van Dam, Nikolaos (2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/The-struggle-for-power-in-Syria-Nikolaos-van-Dam.php">The Struggle for Power in Syria: Politics and Society under Asad and the Ba'ath Party</a>, I. B. Tauris</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Struggle+for+Power+in+Syria%3A+Politics+and+Society+under+Asad+and+the+Ba%27ath+Party&rft.pub=I.+B.+Tauris&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=van+Dam&rft.aufirst=Nikolaos&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.themontrealreview.com%2F2009%2FThe-struggle-for-power-in-Syria-Nikolaos-van-Dam.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDawisha1980" class="citation book cs1">Dawisha, A. I. (1980). Syria and the Lebanese Crisis. St. Martin's Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-78203-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-78203-0"><bdi>978-0-312-78203-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Syria+and+the+Lebanese+Crisis&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-312-78203-0&rft.aulast=Dawisha&rft.aufirst=A.+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawson2010" class="citation cs2">Lawson, Fred H (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/Demystifying-Syria.php">Demystifying Syria</a>, Saqi</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Demystifying+Syria&rft.pub=Saqi&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Lawson&rft.aufirst=Fred+H&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.themontrealreview.com%2F2009%2FDemystifying-Syria.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaoz1986" class="citation book cs1">Maoz, M. (1986). Yaniv, A (ed.). Syria Under Assad. St. Martin's Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-78206-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-78206-1"><bdi>978-0-312-78206-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Syria+Under+Assad&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-312-78206-1&rft.aulast=Maoz&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaton1981" class="citation book cs1">Paton, L. B. (1981). The Early History of Syria and Palestine. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-113-53822-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-113-53822-2"><bdi>978-1-113-53822-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Early+History+of+Syria+and+Palestine&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-1-113-53822-2&rft.aulast=Paton&rft.aufirst=L.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSahner2014" class="citation book cs1">Sahner, Christian C. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://global.oup.com/academic/product/among-the-ruins-9780199396702;jsessionid=096DE7B7596EB6555D9A4B94D99A8333?cc=us&lang=en&">Among the Ruins: Syria Past and Present</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-939670-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-939670-2"><bdi>978-0-19-939670-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Among+the+Ruins%3A+Syria+Past+and+Present&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-939670-2&rft.aulast=Sahner&rft.aufirst=Christian+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fglobal.oup.com%2Facademic%2Fproduct%2Famong-the-ruins-9780199396702%3Bjsessionid%3D096DE7B7596EB6555D9A4B94D99A8333%3Fcc%3Dus%26lang%3Den%26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchlicht1980" class="citation cs2">Schlicht, Alfred (1980), "The role of foreign powers in the history of Lebanon and Syria from 1799 to 1861", Journal of Asian History, 14</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Asian+History&rft.atitle=The+role+of+foreign+powers+in+the+history+of+Lebanon+and+Syria+from+1799+to+1861&rft.volume=14&rft.date=1980&rft.aulast=Schlicht&rft.aufirst=Alfred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeale1987" class="citation book cs1">Seale, Patrick (1987). The Struggle for Syria. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-03944-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-03944-3"><bdi>978-0-300-03944-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Struggle+for+Syria&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-300-03944-3&rft.aulast=Seale&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASyria" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Syria <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Syria">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Syria&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=SY">Key Development Forecasts for Syria</a> from <a href="/wiki/International_Futures" title="International Futures">International Futures</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Government">Government</h3></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://egov.sy">Electronic Government Portal</a> – gateway to government sites</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pministry.gov.sy/">Prime Minister</a> – official website of the prime minister of Syria</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cbssyr.sy">Statistics</a> – Official website of Central Bureau of Statistics</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_2">History</h3></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://syrianembassy.ro/ar/%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7/%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%A9-%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE%D9%8A%D8%A9/">"History"</a> – Syrian history at Embassy of the Syrian Arab Republic in Romania</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tourism">Tourism</h3></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mots.gov.sy/en/">Tourism</a> – official website of the minister of tourism</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maps">Maps</h3></div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Gnome-globe.svg/16px-Gnome-globe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Gnome-globe.svg/24px-Gnome-globe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Gnome-globe.svg/32px-Gnome-globe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Atlas_of_Syria" class="extiw" title="commons:Atlas of Syria">Wikimedia Atlas of Syria</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Openstreetmap_logo.svg/16px-Openstreetmap_logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Openstreetmap_logo.svg/24px-Openstreetmap_logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Openstreetmap_logo.svg/32px-Openstreetmap_logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="256" data-file-height="256" /> Geographic data related to <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.openstreetmap.org/relation/184840">Syria</a> at <a href="/wiki/OpenStreetMap" title="OpenStreetMap">OpenStreetMap</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Syrian_history" title="Timeline of Syrian history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_Syria" title="List of years in Syria">Years in Syria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Prehistorical Syria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_corridor" title="Levantine corridor">Levantine corridor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natufian_culture" title="Natufian culture">Natufian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Hureyra" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Hureyra">Abu Hureyra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Aswad" title="Tell Aswad">Aswad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarmukian_culture" title="Yarmukian culture">Yarmukian culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Syria">Ancient Syria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaanites" class="mw-redirect" title="Canaanites">Canaanites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamhad" title="Yamhad">Yamhad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatna" title="Qatna">Qatna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Aram-Damascus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syro-Hittite_states" title="Syro-Hittite states">Syro-Hittite states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eber-Nari" title="Eber-Nari">Achaemenid Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucid Syria">Seleucid Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Roman Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Syria">Byzantine Syria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Syria">Medieval Syria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">Muslim conquest</a> (636)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilad_al-Sham" title="Bilad al-Sham">Caliphal Syria (Bilad al-Sham)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulunid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tulunid dynasty">Tulunid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikhshidid_dynasty" title="Ikhshidid dynasty">Ikhshidid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zangid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Zangid dynasty">Zangid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamdanid_dynasty" title="Hamdanid dynasty">Hamdanid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirdasid_dynasty" title="Mirdasid dynasty">Mirdasid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatimid Syria">Fatimid Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saljuqid_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Saljuqid Syria">Saljuqid Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusader_states" title="Crusader states">Crusader states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Edessa" title="County of Edessa">County of Edessa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Antioch" title="Principality of Antioch">Principality of Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Tripoli" title="County of Tripoli">County of Tripoli</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayyubid Syria">Ayyubid Syria</a> (1174–1260)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Syria">Mamluk Syria</a> (1260–1516)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Early modern Syria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Syria" title="Ottoman Syria">Ottoman Syria</a> (1516–1918)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Modern_history_of_Syria" title="Modern history of Syria">Modern Syria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Kingdom_of_Syria" title="Arab Kingdom of Syria">Arab kingdom</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haj_Fadel_Government" title="Haj Fadel Government">Haj Fadel Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Syria_and_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandate for Syria and Lebanon">French Mandate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Federation" title="Syrian Federation">Syrian Federation</a> (1922–25)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Syria_(1925%E2%80%931930)" title="State of Syria (1925–1930)">State of Syria</a> (1925–30)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Syrian_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandatory Syrian Republic">Mandatory Republic</a> (1930–46)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_First_Syrian_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent First Syrian Republic">independent First Republic</a> (1946–50)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Syrian_Republic" title="Second Syrian Republic">Second Republic</a> (1950–1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Civil war</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria"><img alt="Syria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Insigne_Syriae.svg/80px-Insigne_Syriae.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Insigne_Syriae.svg/120px-Insigne_Syriae.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Insigne_Syriae.svg/160px-Insigne_Syriae.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="302" data-file-height="403" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Syria" title="Geography of Syria">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Syria" title="Template:Borders of Syria">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Syria" title="List of cities in Syria">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Districts_of_Syria" title="Districts of Syria">Districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorates_of_Syria" title="Governorates of Syria">Governorates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Syria" title="List of rivers of Syria">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Syria" title="List of volcanoes in Syria">Volcanoes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Jazira,_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Jazira, Mesopotamia">Al-Jazira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Lebanon_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Lebanon Mountains">Anti-Lebanon Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golan_Heights" title="Golan Heights">Golan Heights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hauran" title="Hauran">Hauran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Hermon" title="Mount Hermon">Hermon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orontes_River" title="Orontes River">Orontes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syria (region)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Syria" title="Southern Syria">Southern Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Syria" title="Politics of Syria">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Syria" title="Constitution of Syria">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Syria" title="Corruption in Syria">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Syria" title="President of Syria">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Syria" title="List of presidents of Syria">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_Syria" title="Vice President of Syria">Vice President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Syria)" title="Council of Ministers (Syria)">Council of Ministers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Syria" title="Prime Minister of Syria">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Prime_Ministers_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Prime Ministers of Syria">list</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Syria" title="Elections in Syria">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Syria" title="Foreign relations of Syria">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golan_Heights#Territorial_claims" title="Golan Heights">Golan Heights claim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hatay_Province#Turkish–Syrian_dispute" title="Hatay Province">Iskandaron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_ministries_of_Syria" title="Government ministries of Syria">Government ministries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Syria" title="Human rights in Syria">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Syria">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Syria" title="Judiciary of Syria">Judiciary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High_Judicial_Council" title="High Judicial Council">High council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Constitutional_Court_of_Syria" title="Supreme Constitutional Court of Syria">Supreme Constitutional Court</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Council_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Council of Syria">Parliament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_People%27s_Council_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Speaker of the People's Council of Syria">Speakers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Syria" title="List of political parties in Syria">Political parties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">national</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">regional command</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Progressive_Front_(Syria)" title="National Progressive Front (Syria)">National Progressive Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_Front_for_Change_and_Liberation" title="Popular Front for Change and Liberation">Popular Front for Change and Liberation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_of_the_Golan_Heights" class="mw-redirect" title="Status of the Golan Heights">Political status of the Golan Heights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_nationalism" title="Syrian nationalism">Nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syria (region)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_Syria" title="Terrorism in Syria">Terrorism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of Syria">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Army" title="Syrian Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Air_Force" title="Syrian Air Force">Air force</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Air_Defense_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Air Defense Force">air defense</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Navy" title="Syrian Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_of_the_General_Staff_(Syria)" title="Chief of the General Staff (Syria)">Chief of the General Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Syria and weapons of mass destruction">Weapons of mass destruction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Syria" title="Economy of Syria">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Syria" title="Agriculture in Syria">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Syria" title="Central Bank of Syria">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Syria" title="List of companies of Syria">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industry_in_Syria" title="Industry in Syria">Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_rankings_of_Syria" title="International rankings of Syria">International rankings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_pound" title="Syrian pound">Pound (currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascus_Securities_Exchange" title="Damascus Securities Exchange">Securities Exchange (stock exchange)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Infrastructure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Syria#Energy_and_mineral_resources" title="Economy of Syria">Energy and mineral resources</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Syria" title="Petroleum industry in Syria">Petroleum industry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Syria" title="Telecommunications in Syria">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Syria" title="Transport in Syria">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Syria" title="Water supply and sanitation in Syria">Water supply and sanitation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Syria" title="Category:Society of Syria">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Censorship in Syria">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Syria" title="Demographics of Syria">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Syria" title="Education in Syria">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Syria" title="Health in Syria">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunger_in_Syria" title="Hunger in Syria">Hunger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrians" title="Syrians">People</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_diaspora" title="Syrian diaspora">diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugees_of_the_Syrian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Refugees of the Syrian Civil War">refugees (2011–present)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Syria" title="Women in Syria">women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Syria" title="Public holidays in Syria">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scouts_of_Syria" title="Scouts of Syria">Scouting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting_in_Syria" title="Squatting in Syria">Squatting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Syria" title="Culture of Syria">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_anthem_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="National anthem of Syria">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Syria" title="Coat of arms of Syria">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_cuisine" title="Syrian cuisine">Cuisine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Syrian_wine" title="Syrian wine">wine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Syrian_films" title="List of Syrian films">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Syria" title="Flag of Syria">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Syria" title="Mass media in Syria">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Organization_of_Radio_and_TV_(Syria)" title="General Organization of Radio and TV (Syria)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Syria" title="Television in Syria">television</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Syria" title="Music of Syria">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Syria" title="Religion in Syria">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_Syria" title="Smoking in Syria">Smoking</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Syria" title="Outline of Syria">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Syria-related_articles" title="Index of Syria-related articles">Index</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Syria" title="Category:Syria">Category</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Geographic_locale" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Geographic_locale" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Geographic locale</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Countries_and_territories_of_the_Mediterranean_Sea" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Countries_and_territories_of_the_Mediterranean_Sea" title="Template:Countries and territories of the Mediterranean Sea"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Countries_and_territories_of_the_Mediterranean_Sea" title="Template talk:Countries and territories of the Mediterranean Sea"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Countries_and_territories_of_the_Mediterranean_Sea" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Countries and territories of the Mediterranean Sea"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Countries_and_territories_of_the_Mediterranean_Sea" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Countries and territories of the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatia" title="Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monaco" title="Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montenegro" title="Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovenia" title="Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with limited recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Cyprus" title="Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Palestine" title="State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akrotiri_and_Dhekelia" title="Akrotiri and Dhekelia">Akrotiri and Dhekelia</a> (<a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">UK</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a> (UK)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceuta" title="Ceuta">Ceuta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Melilla" title="Melilla">Melilla</a> (Spain)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marginal_seas" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginal seas">Marginal seas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Sea" title="Adriatic Sea">Adriatic Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alboran_Sea" title="Alboran Sea">Alboran Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balearic_Sea" title="Balearic Sea">Balearic Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_Sea" title="Ionian Sea">Ionian Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Sea" title="Levantine Sea">Levantine Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_Sea" title="Libyan Sea">Libyan Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ligurian_Sea" title="Ligurian Sea">Ligurian Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Crete" title="Sea of Crete">Sea of Crete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Marmara" title="Sea of Marmara">Sea of Marmara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Sardinia" title="Sea of Sardinia">Sea of Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thracian_Sea" title="Thracian Sea">Thracian Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrrhenian_Sea" title="Tyrrhenian Sea">Tyrrhenian Sea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Middle_East" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Middle_East" title="Template:Middle East"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Middle_East" title="Template talk:Middle East"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Middle_East" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Middle East"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Middle_East" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Middle_Eastern_countries_by_population" title="List of Middle Eastern countries by population">Countries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurdistan_Region" title="Kurdistan Region">Iraqi Kurdistan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Cyprus" title="Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Palestine" title="State of Palestine">Palestine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaza_Strip" title="Gaza Strip">Gaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Bank" title="West Bank">West Bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatar" title="Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Syria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rojava" class="mw-redirect" title="Rojava">North Syria Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_occupation_of_northern_Syria" title="Turkish occupation of northern Syria">Turkish occupation of northern Syria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Middle_East_(orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Middle_East_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/70px-Middle_East_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Middle_East_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/105px-Middle_East_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Middle_East_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/140px-Middle_East_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="553" data-file-height="553" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_the_Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Democracy in the Middle East and North Africa">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Middle_East" title="Economy of the Middle East">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_the_Middle_East" title="Energy in the Middle East">Energy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Middle_East" title="History of the Middle East">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Middle_Eastern_history" title="Timeline of Middle Eastern history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_conflicts_in_the_Middle_East" title="List of modern conflicts in the Middle East">Modern conflicts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_Middle_East" title="Human rights in the Middle East">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_politics_in_the_Middle_East" title="Water politics in the Middle East">Water politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_conflict_in_the_Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Water conflict in the Middle East and North Africa">Water conflict</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Middle_East" title="Demographics of the Middle East">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_the_Middle_East" title="Ethnic groups in the Middle East">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_Middle_East" title="Genetic history of the Middle East">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_metropolitan_areas_of_the_Middle_East" class="mw-redirect" title="List of largest metropolitan areas of the Middle East">Metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Middle_East" title="Religion in the Middle East">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_the_Middle_East" title="Irreligion in the Middle East">Irreligion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Near_Eastern_archaeology" title="Near Eastern archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_Middle_East" title="Cinema of the Middle East">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_cuisine" title="Middle Eastern cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette_in_the_Middle_East" title="Etiquette in the Middle East">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_music" title="Middle Eastern music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_dance" title="Middle Eastern dance">Dance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_studies" title="Middle Eastern studies">Studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Countries_and_regions_in_the_Arabian_Plate" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Countries_and_regions_in_the_Arabian_Plate" title="Template:Countries and regions in the Arabian Plate"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Countries_and_regions_in_the_Arabian_Plate" title="Template talk:Countries and regions in the Arabian Plate"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Countries_and_regions_in_the_Arabian_Plate" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Countries and regions in the Arabian Plate"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Countries_and_regions_in_the_Arabian_Plate" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Countries and regions in the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabian Plate">Arabian Plate</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Country" title="Country">Countries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Palestine" title="State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatar" title="Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khuzestan_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Khuzestan Province">Khuzestan Province</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Anatolia_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Southeastern Anatolia Region">Southeastern Anatolia Region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Denkalya_Subregion" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Denkalya Subregion">Southern Denkalya Subregion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awdal" title="Awdal">Awdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Sinai_Governorate" title="South Sinai Governorate">South Sinai Governorate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Countries_and_dependencies_of_Asia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Countries_of_Asia" title="Template:Countries of Asia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Countries_of_Asia" title="Template talk:Countries of Asia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Countries_of_Asia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Countries of Asia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Countries_and_dependencies_of_Asia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_and_dependent_territories_in_Asia" title="List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia">Countries and dependencies</a> of <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>2</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brunei" title="Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>2</li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Timor" title="East Timor">East Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a>1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a>1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyzstan" title="Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldives" title="Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatar" title="Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px;padding: 0 0.5em;"><div><a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/100px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/150px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/200px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="541" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with limited recognition</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhazia" title="Abkhazia">Abkhazia</a>2</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Cyprus" title="Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a>2</li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Palestine" title="State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Ossetia" title="South Ossetia">South Ossetia</a>2</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependent territories</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Australia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christmas_Island" title="Christmas Island">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands" title="Cocos (Keeling) Islands">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Greece</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kastellorizo" title="Kastellorizo">Kastellorizo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">United Kingdom</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akrotiri_and_Dhekelia" title="Akrotiri and Dhekelia">Akrotiri and Dhekelia</a>2 (Sovereign Base Areas)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Indian_Ocean_Territory" title="British Indian Ocean Territory">British Indian Ocean Territory</a> (<a href="/wiki/British_Overseas_Territories" title="British Overseas Territories">British Overseas Territory</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Special_administrative_regions_of_China" title="Special administrative regions of China">Special administrative regions of China</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li>1 Spans the conventional boundary between Asia and another continent.</li> <li>2 Considered European for cultural, political and historical reasons but is geographically in West Asia.</li></ul> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Asia" title="Category:Asia">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Asia" title="Portal:Asia">Asia portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="International_membership" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="International_membership" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">International membership</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Arab_League" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Arab_League" title="Template:Arab League"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Arab_League" title="Template talk:Arab League"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Arab_League" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Arab League"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Arab_League" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League">Arab League</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Arab_League" title="Category:Arab League">Arab League</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_the_Arab_League" title="Lists of the Arab League">Lists</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Arab_League" title="Politics of the Arab League">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charter_of_the_Arab_League" title="Charter of the Arab League">Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Arab_League" title="Council of the Arab League">Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Arab_League" title="Flag of the Arab League">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_Arab_world" title="Geography of the Arab world">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Headquarters_of_the_Arab_League" title="Headquarters of the Arab League">Headquarters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Arab_League" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Arab League">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Arab_League" title="Military of the Arab League">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Central_Command" title="United States Central Command">United States Central Command</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_military_bases" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States military bases">United States military bases</a>)</li> <li>Joint Defence Council</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Parliament" title="Arab Parliament">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Union" title="Arab Union">Arab Union</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem_of_the_Arab_League.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Emblem_of_the_Arab_League.svg/55px-Emblem_of_the_Arab_League.svg.png" decoding="async" width="55" height="59" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Emblem_of_the_Arab_League.svg/83px-Emblem_of_the_Arab_League.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Emblem_of_the_Arab_League.svg/110px-Emblem_of_the_Arab_League.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="420" data-file-height="450" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Membership</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Member_states_of_the_Arab_League" title="Member states of the Arab League">Members</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comoros" title="Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Palestine" title="State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatar" title="Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Observers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chad" title="Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Candidates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Sudan" title="South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diplomacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Peace_Initiative" title="Arab Peace Initiative">Arab Peace Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_League_monitors_in_Syria" title="Arab League monitors in Syria">Arab League monitors in Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_League%E2%80%93European_Union_relations" title="Arab League–European Union relations">Arab League–European Union relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Arab_League" title="Foreign relations of the Arab League">Foreign relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Arab_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Demographics of the Arab League">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Arab_League" title="Economy of the Arab League">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Arab_League_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)" title="List of Arab League countries by GDP (nominal)">GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_and_Social_Council_(Arab_League)" title="Economic and Social Council (Arab League)">Economic and Social Council</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutions_of_the_Arab_League" title="Institutions of the Arab League">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_policies_of_the_Arab_League" title="Sport policies of the Arab League">Sport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">Pan-Arabism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Arab_National_Olympic_Committees" title="Union of Arab National Olympic Committees">Union of Arab National Olympic Committees</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pan_Arab_Games" class="mw-redirect" title="Pan Arab Games">Pan Arab Games</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation_(OIC)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Template:Organisation of Islamic Cooperation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Template talk:Organisation of Islamic Cooperation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Organisation of Islamic Cooperation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation_(OIC)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Organisation of Islamic Cooperation">Organisation of Islamic Cooperation</a> (OIC)</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secretary-General_of_the_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Secretary-General of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation">Secretary-General of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation</a>: <a href="/wiki/Hissein_Brahim_Taha" title="Hissein Brahim Taha">Hissein Brahim Taha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Member_states_of_the_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation">Member states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Members</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benin" title="Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burkina_Faso" title="Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brunei" title="Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chad" title="Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comoros" title="Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabon" title="Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Gambia" title="The Gambia">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinea" title="Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau" title="Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyana" title="Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast" title="Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyzstan" title="Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldives" title="Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan_and_the_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Pakistan and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation">Pakistan-OIC relations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Palestine" title="State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatar" title="Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suriname" title="Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Togo" title="Togo">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Suspended</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Syria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Observers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;padding-right:0.75em;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Countries and territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Republic" title="Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Cyprus" title="Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a>1</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;padding-right:0.75em;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Muslim communities</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moro_National_Liberation_Front" title="Moro National Liberation Front">Moro National Liberation Front</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;padding-right:0.75em;font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">International organizations</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Cooperation_Organization" title="Economic Cooperation Organization">Economic Cooperation Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League">Arab League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Declarations" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Declarations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abuja_Declaration_(1989)" title="Abuja Declaration (1989)">Abuja Declaration (1989)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cairo_Declaration_on_Human_Rights_in_Islam" title="Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam">Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/OIC_Resolution_10/11" title="OIC Resolution 10/11">OIC Resolution 10/11</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/OIC_Council_of_Foreign_Ministers_Resolution_10/37" title="OIC Council of Foreign Ministers Resolution 10/37">OIC Council of Foreign Ministers Resolution 10/37</a> (2010)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sessions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Extraordinary" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Extraordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference" title="First Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference" title="Second Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference" title="Third Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference" title="Fourth Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference">Fourth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference" title="Fifth Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference">Fifth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference" title="Sixth Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference">Sixth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference" title="Seventh Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference">Seventh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference" title="Eighth Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference">Eighth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference" title="Ninth Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference">Ninth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_Arab%E2%80%93Islamic_extraordinary_summit" title="2023 Arab–Islamic extraordinary summit">Arab–Islamic (2023)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Economy of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation_member_states_by_GDP_(PPP)" title="List of Organisation of Islamic Cooperation member states by GDP (PPP)">GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation_member_states_by_GDP_per_capita_(PPP)" title="List of Organisation of Islamic Cooperation member states by GDP per capita (PPP)">GDP per capita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation_member_states_by_exports" title="List of Organisation of Islamic Cooperation member states by exports">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation_member_states_by_imports" title="List of Organisation of Islamic Cooperation member states by imports">Imports</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation_member_states_by_population" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Organisation of Islamic Cooperation member states by population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_cities_in_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation_member_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="List of largest cities in Organisation of Islamic Cooperation member countries">Largest cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_member_states_of_the_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Education in the member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation">Education</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>1 As the "Turkish Cypriot State".</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Asia_(orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/19px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/29px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/38px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="541" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Asia" title="Portal:Asia">Asia</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/MiddleEast_blacky.svg/21px-MiddleEast_blacky.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/MiddleEast_blacky.svg/32px-MiddleEast_blacky.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/MiddleEast_blacky.svg/42px-MiddleEast_blacky.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1551" data-file-height="1402" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Middle_East" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Middle East">Middle East</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:P_countries-vector.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/P_countries-vector.svg/21px-P_countries-vector.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/P_countries-vector.svg/32px-P_countries-vector.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/P_countries-vector.svg/42px-P_countries-vector.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Countries" title="Portal:Countries">Countries</a></li></ul></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header">Syria at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Syria_-_%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7" class="extiw" title="c:Syria - سوريا">Media</a> from Commons</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/21px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/32px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/42px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Category:Syria" class="extiw" title="n:Category:Syria">News</a> from Wikinews</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Syria" class="extiw" title="q:Syria">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/19px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/29px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/38px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Pinyin/Syria" class="extiw" title="b:Pinyin/Syria">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/19px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/29px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/38px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Syria" class="extiw" title="voy:Syria">Travel guides</a> from Wikivoyage</li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q858#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q858#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q858#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000123695958">ISNI</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/000000012369316X">2</a></li></ul></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/154701530">VIAF</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1208757/">FAST</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4058794-0">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n80061798">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb152411445">France</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119851678">2</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11941661s">3</a></li></ul></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb152411445">BnF data</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119851678">2</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11941661s">3</a></li></ul></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00571218">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge131031&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX451672">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000572586&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007548044105171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geographic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/area/18086faa-7f75-3ca3-a5bb-a77a83d4b200">MusicBrainz area</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kulturnav.org/abdea607-b696-4bc6-b5df-f1ed65d34a92">KulturNav</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.parliament.uk/t3LeQ83A">UK Parliament</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027356949">IdRef</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/003428">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10035790">NARA</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/suriye">İslâm Ansiklopedisi</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1156832818"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Syria&params=35_N_38_E_">35°N 38°E / 35°N 38°E / 35; 38</a>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Syria&oldid=1258380928">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Syria&oldid=1258380928</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Syria" title="Category:Syria">Syria</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Countries_in_Asia" title="Category:Countries in Asia">Countries in Asia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Countries_and_territories_where_Arabic_is_an_official_language" title="Category:Countries and territories where Arabic is an official language">Countries and territories where Arabic is an official language</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Kurdish-speaking_countries_and_territories" title="Category:Kurdish-speaking countries and territories">Kurdish-speaking countries and territories</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Eastern_Mediterranean" title="Category:Eastern Mediterranean">Eastern Mediterranean</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Levant" title="Category:Levant">Levant</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Arab_republics" title="Category:Arab republics">Arab republics</a></li><li><a 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href="/wiki/Category:Ba%27athist_states" title="Category:Ba'athist states">Ba'athist states</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Arabic-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Arabic-language text">Articles containing Arabic-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Source_attribution" title="Category:Source attribution">Source attribution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_French-language_sources_(fr)" title="Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)">CS1 French-language sources (fr)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a 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344.591 1 Template:Infobox_country"," 6.55% 248.083 11 Template:Sfnp"," 3.91% 148.053 21 Template:Cite_journal"," 3.81% 144.458 1 Template:Native_name"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"2.502","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":21755359,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAbdel_Nour2020\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFAdam781\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAhmed2019\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Khalidi2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Shami,_Meckfessel2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlianak2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlsharif2012\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFAmos2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAtassi2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAwadFavier2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarkhoda\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBehari2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBehnstedt2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBennett2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBermanLine2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlack2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrecherJonathan_Wilkenfeld1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurç2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCavendish_Corporation2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCharlotte_Higgins2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCheeseman2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChen2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCyrus_Herzl_GordonGary_RendsburgNathan_H._Winter1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDanna2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDawisha1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDinersteinOlsonJoshiVynne2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDouglas_Frayne1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrysdaleHinnebusch1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEYAL_ZISSER2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEissaCho2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEnders2012\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFF._A._Schaeffer2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFahim2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFinkelstein2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrye1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGammer2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarnett,_S._James,_MacGregor2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeorge2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGerberBrincat2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGhadry2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlass1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGranthamDuncanEvansJones2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGriffin2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuerin2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuy_Dinmore2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGüsten,_Susanne2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarper2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHawassVannini2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHensman2018\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFHerodotus\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHopwood1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHubbardSaad2021\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFHuggler2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHugh_Schofield2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIan_ShawRobert_Jameson2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIddon2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFImmanuel_Velikovsky2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIn_der_MaurStaal2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInternational_Labour_Office2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIorwerth_Eiddon_Stephen_Edwards1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFItzchak_Weismann\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJack_M._Sasson1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJames_Barr2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoe_Lauria2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_F._Healey1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_Lange2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJongerden2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoseph2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaterji2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKenneth_Anderson_Kitchen2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKhalifa2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKhamis,_B._Gold,_Vaughn2013\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFKnappJongerden2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKossaify2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKüçükÖzselçuk2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLawson2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewisChulovBorgerWatt2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLine_Khatib2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLoveluck2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLucas2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacFarquhar2011\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMadhani2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaoz1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarc_Perelman2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMark_A._Tessler1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeininghaus2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichael_Bröning2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMinistry_of_Higher_Education2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMontgomery_Watt_W.1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorris,_Chris2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMuir1861\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNadav_Naʼaman2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNebehay2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorrisMartinez_i_ComaGrömping2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFP._Miller,_H._Rand2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaolo_MatthiaeNicoló_Marchetti2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaton1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeralta2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeter_N._StearnsWilliam_Leonard_Langer2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeyrouse2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhillips2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPipes1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPliny1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPoliti2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRabinovich2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichardsRengoCrucianiGratrix2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobson2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRollinger2006\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFRose,_Söderholm2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoseSöderholm2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoss2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoss_Burns2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoth2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRubin2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSadikiFares2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSahner2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalamandra2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalmanMualla2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalti2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanger2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanjian1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchlager,_WeisblattA._Faksh2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchlicht1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmidinger2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeale1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeale1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSengupta2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShaar,_Akil2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShaheen2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShahvisi2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSherlock2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStephanie_Dalley2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStephen_C._Neff2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrenger2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSzmolk2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTeller2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTobolczyk2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTomader_Fateh2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrevor_Bryce2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnited_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVictor_Harold_MatthewsDon_C._Benjamin1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWedeen2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWieland2018\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFWieland2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliam_J._Hamblin2006\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFWright2008\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFZakrzewskiShortlandRowland2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_Dam2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_Wilgenburg2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFŞimşekJongerden2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFΑϊβαλιώτης2016\"] = 1,\n [\"Reference-Wright-2008\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 3,\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Arab League\"] = 1,\n [\"Arabian Plate\"] = 1,\n [\"As of\"] = 3,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Bibleverse\"] = 1,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 3,\n [\"Center\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 11,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 82,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 21,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 88,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 166,\n [\"Convert\"] = 16,\n [\"Coord\"] = 2,\n [\"Countries and territories bordering the Mediterranean Sea\"] = 1,\n [\"Countries and territories of the Middle East\"] = 1,\n [\"Countries of Asia\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Distinguish\"] = 1,\n [\"Dubious\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 8,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"Historical populations\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 3,\n [\"Increase\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox country\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 7,\n [\"Langx\"] = 3,\n [\"Largest cities of Syria\"] = 1,\n [\"Legend\"] = 2,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 28,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 2,\n [\"Native name\"] = 1,\n [\"Navboxes\"] = 2,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Nowrap\"] = 4,\n [\"Organisation of Islamic Cooperation\"] = 1,\n [\"Osmrelation-inline\"] = 1,\n [\"PD-notice\"] = 3,\n [\"Parabr\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-semi-indef\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 4,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 11,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Small\"] = 1,\n [\"Subject bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Subscription required\"] = 1,\n [\"Switcher\"] = 1,\n [\"Syria topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 7,\n [\"Tree list\"] = 1,\n [\"Tree list/end\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 9,\n [\"Wikiatlas\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikicite\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","500","18.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","360","13.3"],["dataWrapper 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