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id="toc-Early_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Early life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Capture,_imprisonment_and_release" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Capture,_imprisonment_and_release"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Capture, imprisonment and release</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Capture,_imprisonment_and_release-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chang'an_and_translation_work" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chang'an_and_translation_work"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Chang'an and translation work</span> </div> </a> <ul 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id="toc-Translated_Texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Translated_Texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Translated Texts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Translated_Texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sutras" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sutras"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Sutras</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sutras-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treatises" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treatises"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Treatises</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Treatises-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Meditation_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meditation_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Meditation texts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meditation_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.4</span> <span>Other</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Original_works_and_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Original_works_and_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Original works and philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Original_works_and_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Influence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Kumārajīva</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 40 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-40" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">40 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%81%D8%A7" title="كوماراجيفا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="كوماراجيفا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%80%E0%A7%B1" title="কুমাৰজীৱ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="কুমাৰজীৱ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumarajiva" title="Kumarajiva – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Kumarajiva" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AC" title="কুমারজীব – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কুমারজীব" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khiu-m%C3%B4o-l%C3%B4-si%CC%8Dp" title="Khiu-môo-lô-si̍p – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Khiu-môo-lô-si̍p" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumaradjiva" title="Kumaradjiva – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Kumaradjiva" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kum%C3%A1rad%C5%BE%C3%ADva" title="Kumáradžíva – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kumáradžíva" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" title="Kumārajīva – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kumārajīva" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumarajiva" title="Kumarajiva – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Kumarajiva" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumara%C4%9Divo" title="Kumaraĝivo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kumaraĝivo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumarajiva" title="Kumarajiva – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kumarajiva" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A7" title="کوماراجیوا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کوماراجیوا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumarajiva" title="Kumarajiva – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Kumarajiva" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" title="Kumārajīva – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Kumārajīva" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BF%A0%EB%A7%88%EB%9D%BC%EC%A7%80%EB%B0%94" title="쿠마라지바 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="쿠마라지바" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5" title="कुमारजीव – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कुमारजीव" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" title="Kumārajīva – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kumārajīva" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" title="Kumārajīva – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kumārajīva" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" title="Kumārajīva – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Kumārajīva" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%B5" title="ಕುಮಾರಜೀವ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಕುಮಾರಜೀವ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Кумаражива – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Кумаражива" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kum%C3%A1radzs%C3%ADva" title="Kumáradzsíva – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kumáradzsíva" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumarajiva" title="Kumarajiva – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Kumarajiva" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%BB" title="കുമാരജീവൻ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കുമാരജീവൻ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumarajiva" title="Kumarajiva – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kumarajiva" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%B3%A9%E6%91%A9%E7%BE%85%E4%BB%80" title="鳩摩羅什 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="鳩摩羅什" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" title="Kumārajīva – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kumārajīva" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumarad%C5%BCiwa" title="Kumaradżiwa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kumaradżiwa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Кумараджива – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Кумараджива" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumarad%C5%BEiva" title="Kumaradživa – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kumaradživa" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumara%C4%91iva" title="Kumarađiva – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Kumarađiva" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" title="Kumārajīva – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kumārajīva" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%A1%E0%B1%81" title="కుమారజీవుడు – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="కుమారజీవుడు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%9E" title="พระกุมารชีพ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="พระกุมารชีพ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumarajiva" title="Kumarajiva – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kumarajiva" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Кумараджива – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Кумараджива" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C6%B0u-ma-la-th%E1%BA%ADp" title="Cưu-ma-la-thập – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Cưu-ma-la-thập" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%B3%A9%E6%91%A9%E7%BE%85%E4%BB%80" title="鳩摩羅什 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="鳩摩羅什" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Kuchan Buddhist monk and translator (344-413)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Kumārajīva</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Kumarajiva_at_Kizil_Caves,_Kuqa_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Kumarajiva_at_Kizil_Caves%2C_Kuqa_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Kumarajiva_at_Kizil_Caves%2C_Kuqa_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="314" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Kumarajiva_at_Kizil_Caves%2C_Kuqa_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Kumarajiva_at_Kizil_Caves%2C_Kuqa_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Kumarajiva_at_Kizil_Caves%2C_Kuqa_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Kumarajiva_at_Kizil_Caves%2C_Kuqa_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="947" data-file-height="1353" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">The Statue of Kumārajīva in front of the <a href="/wiki/Kizil_Caves" title="Kizil Caves">Kizil Caves</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kuqa_County" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuqa County">Kuqa County</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">344 CE<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Kuqa_County" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuqa County">Kuqa</a>, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">413 CE (aged 68-69)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Chang%27an" title="Chang'an">Chang'an</a>, <a href="/wiki/Later_Qin" title="Later Qin">Later Qin</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an" title="Xi'an">Xi'an</a>, China)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Occupation(s)</th><td class="infobox-data role"><a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu" title="Bhikkhu">Buddhist monk</a>, scholar, <a href="/wiki/Translator" class="mw-redirect" title="Translator">translator</a>, and philosopher</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data">Translation of Buddhist texts written in <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> to <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>, founder of the <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_M%C4%81dhyamaka" title="East Asian Mādhyamaka">Sanlun school</a> of Mahayana Buddhism</td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · 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.sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Buddhism_in_China" title="Category:Buddhism in China">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_Buddha_Character_Fo.jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chinese: "Buddha""><img alt="Chinese: "Buddha"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Chinese_Buddha_Character_Fo.jpeg/150px-Chinese_Buddha_Character_Fo.jpeg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Chinese_Buddha_Character_Fo.jpeg/225px-Chinese_Buddha_Character_Fo.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Chinese_Buddha_Character_Fo.jpeg/300px-Chinese_Buddha_Character_Fo.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Chinese: "Buddha"</figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_Buddhism" title="History of Chinese Buddhism">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Central_Asia" title="Buddhism in Central Asia">Buddhism in Central Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharmaguptaka" title="Dharmaguptaka">Dharmaguptaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">Silk Road transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunhuang_manuscripts" title="Dunhuang manuscripts">Dunhuang manuscripts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Buddhist_Persecutions_in_China" title="Four Buddhist Persecutions in China">Four Buddhist Persecutions in China</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Major figures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lokaksema_(Buddhist_monk)" title="Lokaksema (Buddhist monk)">Lokakṣema</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kumārajīva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sengzhao" title="Sengzhao">Sengzhao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jizang" title="Jizang">Jizang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharmak%E1%B9%A3ema" title="Dharmakṣema">Dharmakṣema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paramartha" title="Paramartha">Paramartha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuiji" title="Kuiji">Kuiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woncheuk" title="Woncheuk">Woncheuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daoxuan" title="Daoxuan">Daoxuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huiyuan_(Buddhist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Huiyuan (Buddhist)">Huiyuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tan-luan" title="Tan-luan">Tanluan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daochuo" title="Daochuo">Daochuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shandao" title="Shandao">Shandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhiyi" title="Zhiyi">Zhiyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhanran" title="Zhanran">Zhanran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fazang" title="Fazang">Fazang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chengguan_(monk)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chengguan (monk)">Chengguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aubhakarasi%E1%B9%83ha" title="Śubhakarasiṃha">Śubhakarasiṃha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrabodhi" title="Vajrabodhi">Vajrabodhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoghavajra" title="Amoghavajra">Amoghavajra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhidharma" title="Bodhidharma">Bodhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huineng" title="Huineng">Huineng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daman_Hongren" title="Daman Hongren">Daman Hongren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazu_Daoyi" title="Mazu Daoyi">Mazu Daoyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hongzhi_Zhengjue" title="Hongzhi Zhengjue">Hongzhi Zhengjue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahui_Zonggao" title="Dahui Zonggao">Dahui Zonggao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linji_Yixuan" title="Linji Yixuan">Linji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guifeng_Zongmi" title="Guifeng Zongmi">Zongmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanshan_Deqing" title="Hanshan Deqing">Hanshan Deqing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhu_Hong" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhu Hong">Zhu Hong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ouyi_Zhixu" title="Ouyi Zhixu">Ouyi Zhixu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miyun_Yuanwu" title="Miyun Yuanwu">Miyun Yuanwu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taixu" title="Taixu">Taixu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanxu" title="Tanxu">Tanxu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hsu_Yun" class="mw-redirect" title="Hsu Yun">Hsu Yun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hsuan_Hua" title="Hsuan Hua">Hsuan Hua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Wenhui" title="Yang Wenhui">Yang Wenhui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yin_Shun" title="Yin Shun">Yin Shun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nan_Huai-Chin" title="Nan Huai-Chin">Nan Huai-Chin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nenghai" title="Nenghai">Nenghai</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Traditions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Huayan school">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Yog%C4%81c%C4%81ra" title="East Asian Yogācāra">Weishi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_M%C4%81dhyamaka" title="East Asian Mādhyamaka">Sanlun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Esoteric_Buddhism" title="Chinese Esoteric Buddhism">Esoteric Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Buddhism" title="Humanistic Buddhism">Humanistic Buddhism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Texts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon" title="Chinese Buddhist canon">Chinese Buddhist canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taish%C5%8D_Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Taishō Tripiṭaka">Taishō Tripiṭaka</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Architecture</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_architecture_in_China" title="List of Buddhist architecture in China">Buddhist architecture in China</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Sacred Sites</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Wutai" title="Mount Wutai">Mount Wutai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Emei" title="Mount Emei">Mount Emei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Jiuhua" title="Mount Jiuhua">Mount Jiuhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Putuo" title="Mount Putuo">Mount Putuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_Lu" class="mw-redirect" title="Mountain Lu">Mount Lu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai_Mountain" title="Tiantai Mountain">Tiantai Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Horse_Temple" title="White Horse Temple">White Horse Temple</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Culture</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_Association_of_China" title="Buddhist Association of China">Buddhist Association of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cuisine" title="Buddhist cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaolin_Kung_Fu" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaolin Kung Fu">Martial arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diyu" title="Diyu">Diyu</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chinese_Buddhism" title="Template:Chinese Buddhism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chinese_Buddhism" title="Template talk:Chinese Buddhism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese_Buddhism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese Buddhism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Kumārajīva</b> (<a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>: कुमारजीव; <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">traditional Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hant">鳩摩羅什</span>; <a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">simplified Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh-Hans">鸠摩罗什</span>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Jiūmóluóshí</span></i>; <a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a>: <i><span lang="zh-Latn-wadegile">Chiu<sup>1</sup> mo<sup>2</sup> lo<sup>2</sup> shih<sup>2</sup></span></i>, 344–413 CE)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPollard2015287_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard2015287-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a <a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu" title="Bhikkhu">Buddhist monk</a>, scholar, missionary and <a href="/wiki/Translator" class="mw-redirect" title="Translator">translator</a> from <a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Aksu_City" title="Aksu City">Aksu</a> Prefecture, <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>). Kumārajīva is seen as one of the greatest translators of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhism</a>. According to <a href="/wiki/Lu_Cheng" title="Lu Cheng">Lu Cheng</a>, Kumarajiva's translations are "unparalleled either in terms of translation technique or degree of fidelity".<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kumārajīva first studied teachings of the <a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvastivadin</a> schools, later studied under <a href="/wiki/Buddhasvamin_(monk)" title="Buddhasvamin (monk)">Buddhasvāmin</a>, and finally became an adherent of <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana Buddhism</a>, studying the <a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Mādhyamaka</a> doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nāgārjuna.</a> After mastering the Chinese language, Kumārajīva settled as a translator and scholar in <a href="/wiki/Chang%27an" title="Chang'an">Chang'an</a> (c. 401 CE) under the patronage of the <a href="/wiki/Later_Qin" title="Later Qin">Later Qin dynasty</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Sixteen_Kingdoms" title="Sixteen Kingdoms">Sixteen Kingdoms</a> period.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was the head of a team of translators which included his amanuensis <a href="/wiki/Sengrui" title="Sengrui">Sengrui</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This team was responsible for the translation of many <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> Buddhist texts into <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>. </p><p>Kumārajīva also introduced the Madhyamaka school of Buddhist philosophy into China which would later be called <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_M%C4%81dhyamaka" title="East Asian Mādhyamaka">Sanlun</a> (the "Three Treatise school").<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Life">Life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_life">Early life</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Kumārajīva was born in the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Tarim_Basin" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim Basin</a> in 344 CE. His father was an Indian monk called <a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81r%C4%81yana" title="Kumārāyana">Kumārāyana</a> who was probably from <a href="/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a> while his mother was a member of the Kucha royal family called <a href="/wiki/J%C4%ABva_(nun)" title="Jīva (nun)">Jīva</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2009523_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2009523-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChandra1977180_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChandra1977180-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1971115_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1971115-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Himself an eminent <a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu" title="Bhikkhu">Buddhist monk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81r%C4%81yana" title="Kumārāyana">Kumārāyana</a> endeavoured to journey from his native <a href="/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a> to <a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">China</a> to spread his <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhist</a> teachings. After crossing the <a href="/wiki/Pamir_Mountains" title="Pamir Mountains">Pamir Mountains</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81r%C4%81yana" title="Kumārāyana">Kumārāyana</a> stopped in <a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a>, where he stayed as a guest of the king. The king of Kucha was so impressed with <a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81r%C4%81yana" title="Kumārāyana">Kumārāyana</a>’s ideas that the king proposed the marriage of his younger sister <a href="/wiki/J%C4%ABva_(nun)" title="Jīva (nun)">Jīva</a> (also known as Jīvaka), a <a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kuchan</a> princess and herself a devout Buddhist, to <a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81r%C4%81yana" title="Kumārāyana">Kumārāyana</a>. <a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81r%C4%81yana" title="Kumārāyana">Kumārāyana</a> and <a href="/wiki/J%C4%ABva_(nun)" title="Jīva (nun)">Jīva</a> both acquiesced to this marriage. It was therefore that Kumārajīva’s father <a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81r%C4%81yana" title="Kumārāyana">Kumārāyana</a> settled in <a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a>, became the royal priest, met Kumārajīva’s mother <a href="/wiki/J%C4%ABva_(nun)" title="Jīva (nun)">Jīva</a> who influenced both his own subsequent <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> studies and later those of their son, and thereafter begat Kumārajīva.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When Kumārajīva was just seven, his mother <a href="/wiki/J%C4%ABva_(nun)" title="Jīva (nun)">Jīva</a> joined the Tsio-li nunnery, north of <a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Beginning at the age of nine, Kumārajīva studied the <a href="/wiki/%C4%80gama_(Buddhism)" title="Āgama (Buddhism)">Agamas</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Sarvastivada Abhidharma</a> under masters in North India, <a href="/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a>, and Kucha: all centers of <a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvastivada</a> monasticism and scholarship.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He later converted to and studied <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmirian</a> <a href="/wiki/Buddhaya%C5%9Bas" title="Buddhayaśas">Buddhayaśas</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kashgar" title="Kashgar">Kashgar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a> at the age of 20, Kumārajīva received full monastic ordination. Around this time he also began to study the Sarvastivada <a href="/wiki/Vinaya" title="Vinaya">Vinaya</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a> philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Over his early life, Kumārajīva became a famous figure in <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, known for his breadth of studies and skill in debate.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Capture,_imprisonment_and_release"><span id="Capture.2C_imprisonment_and_release"></span>Capture, imprisonment and release</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Capture, imprisonment and release"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:White_Horse_Pagoda,_Duhuang.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/White_Horse_Pagoda%2C_Duhuang.jpg/220px-White_Horse_Pagoda%2C_Duhuang.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/White_Horse_Pagoda%2C_Duhuang.jpg/330px-White_Horse_Pagoda%2C_Duhuang.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/White_Horse_Pagoda%2C_Duhuang.jpg/440px-White_Horse_Pagoda%2C_Duhuang.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4600" data-file-height="2977" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/White_Horse_Pagoda,_Dunhuang" title="White Horse Pagoda, Dunhuang">White Horse Pagoda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a>, commemorating Kumarajiva's white horse which carried the scriptures to China, c. 384 CE</figcaption></figure> <p>In 379 CE, Kumārajīva's fame reached China when a Chinese Buddhist monk named Seng Jun visited Kucha and described Kumārajīva's abilities. Efforts were then made by Emperor <a href="/wiki/F%C3%BA_Ji%C4%81n" class="mw-redirect" title="Fú Jiān">Fu Jian</a> (苻堅) of the <a href="/wiki/Former_Qin" title="Former Qin">Former Qin</a> Dynasty to bring Kumārajīva to the Qin capital of <a href="/wiki/Chang%27an" title="Chang'an">Chang'an</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKumar2005107_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKumar2005107-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To do this, his general <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BC_Guang" title="Lü Guang">Lü Guang</a> was dispatched with an army in order to conquer Kucha and return with Kumārajīva. Fu Jian is recorded as telling his general, "Send me Kumārajīva as soon as you conquer Kucha."<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, when Fu Jian's main army at the capital was defeated, his general Lü Guang declared his own state and became a warlord in 386 CE, and had Kumārajīva captured when he was around 40 years old.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENan199884_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENan199884-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Being a non-Buddhist, Lü Guang had Kumārajīva imprisoned for many years, essentially as booty. During this time, it is thought that Kumārajīva became familiar with the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese language</a>. Kumārajīva was also coerced by Lü into marrying the Kucha King's daughter, and so he was forced to give up his <a href="/wiki/Vinaya" title="Vinaya">monk's vows.</a><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the Yao family of <a href="/wiki/Later_Qin" title="Later Qin">Later Qin</a> overthrew the previous ruler Fu Jian, the ruler <a href="/wiki/Yao_Xing" title="Yao Xing">Yao Xing</a> made repeated pleas to the warlords of the Lü family to free Kumārajīva and send him east to Chang'an.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKumar2005108_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKumar2005108-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the Lü family would not free Kumārajīva from their hostage, an exasperated Yao Xing had armies dispatched to Liangzhou in order to defeat the warlords of the Lü family and to have Kumārajīva brought back to them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKumar2005108_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKumar2005108-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally the armies of Emperor Yao succeeded in defeating the Lü family, and Kumārajīva was brought east to the capital of Chang'an in 401 CE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKumar2005108_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKumar2005108-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chang'an_and_translation_work"><span id="Chang.27an_and_translation_work"></span>Chang'an and translation work</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Chang'an and translation work"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chang_Le_Gong_and_Wei_Yang_Gong_by_Bi_Yuan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Chang_Le_Gong_and_Wei_Yang_Gong_by_Bi_Yuan.jpg/220px-Chang_Le_Gong_and_Wei_Yang_Gong_by_Bi_Yuan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Chang_Le_Gong_and_Wei_Yang_Gong_by_Bi_Yuan.jpg/330px-Chang_Le_Gong_and_Wei_Yang_Gong_by_Bi_Yuan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Chang_Le_Gong_and_Wei_Yang_Gong_by_Bi_Yuan.jpg/440px-Chang_Le_Gong_and_Wei_Yang_Gong_by_Bi_Yuan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="867" /></a><figcaption>Brief map of Han <a href="/wiki/Chang%27an" title="Chang'an">Chang'an</a> painted in Qing dynasty</figcaption></figure> <p>At Chang'an, Kumārajīva was introduced to the emperor <a href="/wiki/Yao_Xing" title="Yao Xing">Yao Xing</a>, the court, and the Buddhist leaders. He became a famous and well respected in China, being given the title of "National Preceptor" (<i>guoshi</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-:2_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At Chang'an, Kumārajīva led a court sponsored translation team of scholars who worked on translating numerous Sanskrit Buddhist texts into the Chinese language.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yao Xing looked upon him as his own teacher, and many young and old Chinese Buddhists flocked to him, learning both from his direct teachings and through his translation bureau activities at the Xiaoyao Gardens where daily sessions were held (attended by over a thousand monks).<sup id="cite_ref-:2_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within a dozen years, Kumārajīva's translation bureau had translated about thirty five sutras in 294 scrolls. His translations are still in use today in Chinese Buddhism.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kumarajiva had four main disciples who worked on his team: <a href="/wiki/Daosheng" title="Daosheng">Daosheng</a> (竺道生), <a href="/wiki/Sengzhao" title="Sengzhao">Sengzhao</a> (僧肇), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Daorong&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Daorong (page does not exist)">Daorong</a> (道融), and <a href="/wiki/Sengrui" title="Sengrui">Sengrui</a> (僧睿). According to Paul Williams, <i><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A0_zh%C3%ACd%C3%B9_l%C3%B9n" title="Dà zhìdù lùn">Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa</a></i>, a text translated by him, also has a clear association with the <a href="/wiki/Vaibh%C4%81%E1%B9%A3ika" title="Vaibhāṣika">Vaibhāṣikas</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivādins</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scholarly_work">Scholarly work</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Scholarly work"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Handwritten_diamond_sutra_zhang_jizhi_song_dynasty_1253.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Handwritten_diamond_sutra_zhang_jizhi_song_dynasty_1253.jpg/220px-Handwritten_diamond_sutra_zhang_jizhi_song_dynasty_1253.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Handwritten_diamond_sutra_zhang_jizhi_song_dynasty_1253.jpg/330px-Handwritten_diamond_sutra_zhang_jizhi_song_dynasty_1253.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Handwritten_diamond_sutra_zhang_jizhi_song_dynasty_1253.jpg/440px-Handwritten_diamond_sutra_zhang_jizhi_song_dynasty_1253.jpg 2x" data-file-width="975" data-file-height="604" /></a><figcaption>Section of the <i>Diamond Sutra</i>, a handwritten copy by Zhang Jizhi, based on Kumarajiva's translation from <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> to Chinese</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Translation">Translation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Translation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Kumārajīva revolutionized <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhism</a>, and his team's translation style is known for its clarity and for overcoming the previous <i><a href="/wiki/Geyi" title="Geyi">geyi</a></i> (concept-matching) system of translation which matched Buddhist terminology with Daoist and Confucian terms. Kumārajīva's <a href="/wiki/Readability" title="Readability">readable</a> <a href="/wiki/Translation" title="Translation">translation</a> style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness that reflects his prioritization on conveying the meaning as opposed to precise literal rendering.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENattier1992186_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENattier1992186-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of this, his renderings of seminal Mahāyāna texts have often remained more popular than later, more literal translations, e.g. those of <a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENattier1992188_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENattier1992188-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kumārajīva's translations were very influential on the development of Buddhist Chinese and they introduced much commonly used terminology, such as:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEitelEdkins1871217_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEitelEdkins1871217-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>大乘 ''<i>Dà chéng</i>'', or "greater vehicle", for the Sanskrit term <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahāyāna">Mahāyāna</a></li> <li>念處 "<i>niàn chǔ</i>" for <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Satipatth%C4%81na&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Satipatthāna (page does not exist)">smṛtyupasthāna</a></i> (placement of mindfulness)</li> <li>菩提 "<i>pú tí</i>" for <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Bodhi</a> (awakening)</li> <li>性 "<i>xìng</i>" for dhatū (nature, source)</li></ul> <p>These translations were a group effort and therefore it is more accurate to say that they were translated by a committee which was guided by Kumārajīva, not by Kumārajīva alone. The process of translation began with the reading of the text by Kumārajīva who would also give a running commentary in Chinese. The Chinese monks and students would discuss the text with Kumārajīva and among themselves. A translation in Chinese would emerge from this process, which would be checked by Kumārajīva. The text was then written down and revised numerous times. These were also public events which were attended by devotees, including emperor Yao Xing.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kumārajīva also developed a system of <a href="/wiki/Transcription_(linguistics)" title="Transcription (linguistics)">transcription</a> in order to render Sanskrit terms in Chinese by using certain Chinese characters and their sounds to represent each syllable of a foreign word. This system would go on to become the basis of the development of <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a> romanization.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This encounter with Sanskrit influenced the development of the Chinese language itself, not only in the adoption of specifically Buddhist terms, but also regarding certain secular terms as well (such as "moment").<sup id="cite_ref-:1_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kumārajīva has sometimes been regarded by both the Chinese and by western scholars as abbreviating his translations, with later translators such as <a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a> being regarded as being more "precise." According to Jan Nattier, this is actually an erroneous and mistaken view, and the main difference was due to the earlier versions of Kumarajiva's source texts: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>[W]here Kumārajīva's work can be compared with an extant Indic manuscript – that is, in those rare cases where part or all of a text he translated has survived in a Sanskrit or <a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrit</a> version — a somewhat surprising result emerges. While his translations are indeed shorter in many instances than their extant (and much later) Sanskrit counterparts, when earlier Indic-language manuscript fragments are available they often provide exact parallels of Kumārajīva's supposed "abbreviations." What seems likely to have happened, in sum, is that Kumārajīva was working from earlier Indian versions in which these expansions had not yet taken place.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENattier200560_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENattier200560-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Translated_Texts">Translated Texts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Translated Texts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to John M. Thompson "at present there are fifty two translations in the <a href="/wiki/Taish%C5%8D_Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Taishō Tripiṭaka">Taishō</a> under his name and their authenticity is fairly well accepted."<sup id="cite_ref-:4_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They include <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na_sutras&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mahāyāna sutras (page does not exist)">Mahāyāna sutras</a> as well as works on <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_meditation" title="Buddhist meditation">Buddhist meditation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dhy%C4%81na_in_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhyāna in Buddhism">dhyāna</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sutras">Sutras</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Sutras"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Among the most important sutras translated by Kumārajīva and his team (probably from Kuchan target sources) are the following:<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Diamond_Sutra" title="Diamond Sutra">Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra</a></i> (<i>Diamond Sutra</i>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Amitabha_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Amitabha Sutra">Smaller Sukhāvatī-vyūha</a></i> (T 366)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lotus_Sutra" title="Lotus Sutra">Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra</a> (Lotus Sutra)</i> (T 263–62)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vimalakirti_Sutra" title="Vimalakirti Sutra">Vimalakirti Nirdesa Sutra</a></i> (T 475)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra">Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra</a></i>, (T 227, 408 CE)</li> <li><i>Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (</i>T 223, 403–404 CE)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABra%E1%B9%85gama_Sam%C4%81dhi_S%C5%ABtra" title="Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra">Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra</a></i> (T 642)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Stages_Sutra" title="Ten Stages Sutra"><i>Daśabhūmikā Sūtra</i></a> (T 286) in collaboration with Buddhayaśas.</li> <li><i>Acintyaprabhāsa-nirdeśa-sūtra</i> (T 484)</li> <li><i>Viśeṣacintā-brahma-paripṛcchā</i> (T 585–86)</li> <li><i>Bhadrakalpa</i> (T 425)</li> <li><i>Vasudhara-sūtra</i> (T 481–82)</li> <li><i>Pūrṇa-paripṛcchā</i> ( T 310, 17)</li> <li><i>Ratnajāli-paripṛcchā</i> (T 433)</li> <li><i>Vidhi-hṛdaya-vyūha</i> (T 307)</li> <li><i>Sarva-puṇya-samuccaya-samādhi-sūtra</i> (T 381–82)</li> <li><i>Maitreyavyākaraṇa Sūtra</i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Treatises">Treatises</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Treatises"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>They also translated several key treatises (mainly of the <a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a> school), which became the central works of <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_M%C4%81dhyamaka" title="East Asian Mādhyamaka">East Asian Madhyamaka</a> Buddhism. These are:<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><i>The Middle Treatise</i> (Ch. 中論, pinyin: <i>Zhonglun</i>, T. 1564; Skt. <i>Madhyamakaśāstra</i>), comprising Nāgārjuna's <i><a href="/wiki/M%C5%ABlamadhyamakak%C4%81rik%C4%81" title="Mūlamadhyamakakārikā">Mūlamadhyamakakārikā</a></i> ("Fundamental Verses on the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">Middle Way</a>") alongside a commentary by *<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vimal%C4%81k%E1%B9%A3a&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vimalākṣa (page does not exist)">Vimalākṣa</a> / *<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pi%E1%B9%85gala&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Piṅgala (page does not exist)">Piṅgala</a> (Ch. 青目, pinyin: Qingmu).</li></ul> <ul><li><i>The Treatise on the Twelve Gates</i> (Ch. 十二門論, pinyin: <i>Shiermenlun,</i> T. 1568), allegedly Nāgārjuna's *<i>Dvādaśadvāraśāstra</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also reconstructed as *<i>Dvādaśamukhaśāstra</i><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or as *<i>Dvādaśanikāyaśāstra.</i><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aata%C5%9B%C4%81stra" title="Śataśāstra">The Hundred(-Verse) Treatise</a></i> (Ch. 百論, pinyin: <i>Bailun</i>, T. 1569; Skt. <i>Śatakaśāstra</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <i>Śataśāstra</i><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), consisting of a commentary by a certain master Vasu on some verses by <a href="/wiki/Aryadeva" title="Aryadeva">Āryadeva</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ul><li><i>"Commentary on the Great Perfection of Wisdom"</i> (Ch. 大智度論, pinyin: <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81praj%C3%B1%C4%81p%C4%81ramit%C4%81upade%C5%9Ba" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahāprajñāpāramitāupadeśa"><i>Dazhidulun</i></a>, T. 1509; Skt. <i>Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa</i>). A commentary on the <i>Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra</i> attributed to Nāgārjuna, but this attribution is disputed by some modern scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tattvasiddhi" title="Tattvasiddhi">Satyasiddhi</a> Shastra</i> (<i>Ch'eng-shih lun</i>) – This <a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a> text, while not being a work of Madhyamaka, was influential on Chinese Madhyamaka, since it also taught the emptiness of dharmas.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Other treatises that the team worked on include the <i>Daśabhūmika-vibhāṣā</i> (T. 1521)<i>,</i> a commentary to the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Stages_Sutra" title="Ten Stages Sutra"><i>Daśabhūmikā Sūtra</i></a> attributed to Nagarjuna and the <i>Treatise On Arising Bodhicitta</i> (T. 1659).<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Meditation_texts">Meditation texts</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Meditation texts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Kumārajīva and his team also translated some <a href="/wiki/Dhy%C4%81na_sutras" title="Dhyāna sutras">treatises on meditation (<i>dhyāna</i>)</a>. In the Taisho Tripitaka (vol. 15), five meditation works are attributed to Kumārajīva:<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><i>Scripture of the Secret Essentials of Dhyāna</i> (T. 613. <i>Chan mi yao fa jing</i> 禪祕要法經)</li> <li><i>Scripture on the Samādhi of Sitting Dhyāna</i> (T. 614. <i>Zuòchán sān mēi jīng</i> 坐禪三昧經), ZSJ (also called the <i>Bodhisattvadhyāna Pusa Chanfa Jing</i> 菩薩禪法經 or <i>The Scripture on the Practice of Dhyāna in The Wilderness</i> <i>E lan Rou Xi Chan Fa Jing</i> 阿蘭若習禪法經).</li> <li><i>Scripture on the Bodhisattva's Methods of Censuring Sexual Desire</i> (T. 615. <i>Pusa he seyu fa jing</i> 菩薩訶色欲法經)</li> <li><i>Essential Explanation of The Method of Dhyāna</i> (T. 616. <i>Chán fǎ yào jiě</i> 禪法要解).</li> <li><i>The Abridged Essence of Dhyāna</i> (T. 617. <i>Siwei Lue Yao Fa</i> 思惟略要法)</li></ul> <p>Scholars are divided on how many of these were actually worked on by Kumārajīva (though T. 613 and T. 614 are well attested in early catalogs and prefaces). Furthermore, Chinese sources indicate that these works were edited, summarized and extracted from Indian sources.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreene201241_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreene201241-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eric Greene explains that the main methods of mediation taught in T. 614 are the "five gates of chan" (五門禪) "associated with the so-called yogācāras of northwest India", which "became a standard arrangement in later writings on meditation" and are the following:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreene201244_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreene201244-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>the contemplation of the impure (bu jing guan 不淨觀; aśubha-bhāvanā) for those beset by lust,</li> <li>the cultivation of love (ci xin 慈心; the four apramāṇa meditations) for those with aversion,</li> <li>the contemplation of dependent origination (yin yuan 因緣; pratītyasamutpāda) for those with ignorance,</li> <li>meditation on the breath (nian xi 念息; ānāpāna-smṛti) for those with "excessive thinking" (多思覺人; vitarka), and</li> <li>recollection of the Buddha (nian fo 念佛; buddhānusmṛti) for those with "equally distributed" (等分) defilements.</li></ul> <p>After having calmed the mind and entered dhyāna (chan 禪) through these methods, the meditator then proceeds to develop wisdom (prajñā) by cultivating the four "foundations of mindfulness" (si nian chu 思念處; <a href="/wiki/Satipatthana" title="Satipatthana">smṛtyupasthāna</a>). According to Greene, "following this, one moves through the so-called four nirvedha-bhāgīya-kuśalamūla (si shan gen 四善根), the "roots of good that lead to liberation", which in the Sarvāstivādin system are the highest levels of mundane accomplishment. This in turn leads to the so-called “path of vision” (darśana-maraga), a sequence of sixteen mental moments in which, by means of insight into the four noble truths."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreene201245_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreene201245-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While T. 614 discusses the path of hinayana as well as the bodhisattva path, the actual meditation practices are not different, they are just approached in different ways. For example, the bodhisattva practices the same contemplation of impurity as the sravaka, but they are also warned not to become so disgusted with the world that they seek immediate nirvāṇa. Instead, a bodhisattva should always practice these meditations with the wish for perfecting themselves in order to help others.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreene201246_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreene201246-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As such, Kumārajīva seems to have understood the practice of a bodhisattva to have consisted of the same methods of meditation found in śrāvaka-yāna sources, the only difference being that bodhisattvas have a different motivation and a different goal (Buddhahood).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreene201246_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreene201246-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other">Other</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Other"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other translations include the <i>Da zhuang yan jing lun</i> 大莊嚴經論 <i>(*Mahālaṃkāra-sūtra-śāstra) </i>of <a href="/wiki/A%C5%9Bvagho%E1%B9%A3a" title="Aśvaghoṣa">Asvaghosa</a> and <i>Samyukta avadana sutra.</i><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> According to Robinson,</p><blockquote><p>Kumārajīva's additions to the Vinaya section of the Chinese canon are the <i>Sarvāstivāda-vinaya</i> (T. 1435), the <i>Sarvāstivāda</i>-<i><a href="/wiki/Pratimok%E1%B9%A3a" title="Pratimokṣa">prātimokṣa</a>-sutra</i> (T. 1436), and, according to tradition, the Pu-sa-chieh-p n (<i>bodhisattva-<a href="/wiki/Pratimok%E1%B9%A3a" title="Pratimokṣa">prātimokṣa</a></i>), which is probably the second half of the present <i>Brahmajala-sutra</i> (T. 1484).<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Original_works_and_philosophy">Original works and philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Original works and philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wall_painting_and_incense_brazier.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Wall_painting_and_incense_brazier.jpg/220px-Wall_painting_and_incense_brazier.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Wall_painting_and_incense_brazier.jpg/330px-Wall_painting_and_incense_brazier.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Wall_painting_and_incense_brazier.jpg/440px-Wall_painting_and_incense_brazier.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3074" data-file-height="3286" /></a><figcaption>A painting of Kumārajīva at <a href="/wiki/White_Horse_Pagoda,_Dunhuang" title="White Horse Pagoda, Dunhuang">White Horse Pagoda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Kumārajīva is also known to have authored a few original works, including his <i>Commentary on the Vimalakīrti-nirdesa-sūtra</i> (<i>Zhu Weimojie Jing.</i> Taisho number 1775) and the <i>Shixiang lun</i> (<i>Treatise on <a href="/wiki/Tattva" title="Tattva">Tattva</a>,</i> now lost).<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kumārajīva and his team are also responsible for a biography of Nagarjuna (T. 2047), which may have been based on Kumārajīva's own accounts to his students.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another text which contains some original teachings by Kumārajīva is the <i>Jiumoluoshi fashi dayi</i> (The Great Teaching of Dharma Master Kumārajīva; T. no. 1856), which is a series of letters between Kumārajīva and Lushan Huiyuan (334–416) discussing some basic Mahayana topics.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Regarding Kumārajīva's own philosophical views, according to Richard H. Robinson:</p><blockquote><p>He shows himself to be an orthodox Śūnyavādin and Mādhyamika, rejects the authority of the Abhidharma, and interprets the Āgamas in a Mahāyāna way, holds that the Buddha's statements are purely pragmatic and do not imply any real entities, and denies that real entities arise, because (a) neither inherence nor non-inherence of the effect in the cause is admissible, and (b) simultaneous and successive occurrence of cause and effect are alike untenable. He maintains that reality transcends the four modes of the <a href="/wiki/Catu%E1%B9%A3ko%E1%B9%ADi" title="Catuṣkoṭi">tetralemma</a>, and he holds Nagarjuna's concept of negation.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>Likewise, according to John M. Thompson, the philosophy which emerges from the explanations of Kumārajīva is "virtually identical to the views of Nagarjuna and other Madhyamikas, stressing the <a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">emptiness</a> of all dharmas (even the "emptiness of emptiness") and the <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva's</a> non-attachment to all things and teachings".<sup id="cite_ref-:5_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thompson adds,</p><blockquote><p>Like both the <i>Prajñāpāramita</i> sutras and Madhyamika commentaries, Kumārajīva says that the Buddha's teachings ultimately come from and lead us to a level beyond words and thought. Because the Buddha and Bodhisattvas reside in this transcendent realm (which is none other than our present world) their wisdom enables them to use various <a href="/wiki/Upaya" title="Upaya">upaya</a> to lead suffering beings to enlightenment. Apparent contradictions and confusions in Buddhist texts are due to their upāya, which accommodate to the audience's level and lead them to the truth. Kumārajīva even suggests that the teachings in the sutras may delude those who are unprepared, i.e. at a lower level of understanding. According to Kumārajīva, we truly understand the Dharma only when we attain complete and pure <i>prajñā</i>. <i>Prajñā</i> is the means of removing all obstacles and hindrances, all attachments–even attachments to itself. As Kumārajīva says, "In the Buddha-Dharma, the medicine of <i>prajñā</i> is just like this. By this medicine, one demolishes the objects of addictions. If within <i>prajñā</i> beings then conceive addiction, then one must practice a method of treatment. If within <i>prajñā</i> there are no addictions to <i>prajñā</i>, then further treatment is not applied."<sup id="cite_ref-:5_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote><p>These ideas are found in the <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81praj%C3%B1%C4%81p%C4%81ramit%C4%81upade%C5%9Ba" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahāprajñāpāramitāupadeśa"><i>Dazhidulun</i></a> (T. 1509; Skt. <i>Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa</i>). Various modern scholars also hold that the <i>Dazhidulun</i>, which was traditionally held to be an original work of <a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a> that was translated by Kumārajīva's team, actually contains numerous additions by Kumārajīva and his team or is actually a product of the editorship of Kumārajīva's student <a href="/wiki/Sengrui" title="Sengrui">Sengrui</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Lamotte" title="Étienne Lamotte">Etienne Lamotte</a> notes, Kumārajīva's team also edited and abridged the latter half of this text considerably.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Influence">Influence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Influence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> According to Rafal Felbur, </p><blockquote><p>The translations associated with his name – executed both from <a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrits</a>, i.e. vernacular forms of Sanskrit, and from early forms of Buddhist Sanskrit, into a form of classical Chinese – have enjoyed enormous success in the Sinitic tradition. This success is so great that even when, in the subsequent centuries, other scholars produced new and supposedly improved translations of the same texts, it has been the “Kumarajiva versions” that have remained in use in the devotional, exegetical, and literary life of East Asia up to the present day. In the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, as the Sinitic Buddhist traditions have contributed to the emergence of a distinctly global modernist Buddhism, the Kumarajiva corpus of early fifth-century translations has been an implicit major presence.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>Aside from the linguistic and terminological influence of Kumārajīva's translation work, his work also influenced the philosophical understanding of Buddhism in China. According to Fan Muyou, before Kumārajīva, many Chinese Buddhists had serious misunderstandings of emptiness and not-self. This is because they had been influenced by Neo-Taoist <a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Xuanxue</a> philosophy and thus they saw emptiness as either a kind of non-being, as a real, or absolute substance (both of which are mistaken interpretations of the concepts of <i><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">śūnyatā</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā"><i>anatman</i></a>).<sup id="cite_ref-:6_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kumārajīva and his students like Sengzhao and Sengrui recognized these errors and worked to correct them by introducing proper interpretations based on Indian Madhyamaka philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Translation_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Translation Theory">Chinese Translation Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">Silk Road transmission of Buddhism</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard2015287-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPollard2015287_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPollard2015">Pollard 2015</a>, p. 287.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beeby Lonsdale, Allison; Ensinger, Doris; Presas, Marisa (2000). <i>Investigating Translation: Selected Papers from the 4th International Congress on Translation, Barcelona, 1998,</i> p. 48. John Benjamins Publishing.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rahul, Ram (2000). <i>March of Central Asia,</i> p. 83. Indus Publishing.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lai, Whalen (1991). "Tao Sheng's Theory of Sudden Enlightenment Re-examined". In Gregory, Peter N. <i>Sudden and Gradual. Approaches to Enlightenment in Chinese Thought.</i> Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited. p. 180</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mair, Victor H.; Sanping Chen, Wood, Frances (2013). <i>Chinese Lives: The People Who Made a Civilization,</i> #28, Kumarajiva. Thames & Hudson.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh2009523-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh2009523_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSingh2009">Singh 2009</a>, p. 523.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChandra1977180-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChandra1977180_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChandra1977">Chandra 1977</a>, p. 180.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith1971115-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1971115_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmith1971">Smith 1971</a>, p. 115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHansen2015" class="citation book cs1">Hansen, Valerie (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ri_uoQEACAAJ"><i>The Silk Road: A New History</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-021842-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-021842-3"><bdi>978-0-19-021842-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Silk+Road%3A+A+New+History&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-021842-3&rft.aulast=Hansen&rft.aufirst=Valerie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dri_uoQEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIkeda1976" class="citation book cs1">Ikeda, Daisaku (1976). <i>The Flower of Chinese Buddhism</i>. Middleway Press. pp. 31–33.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Flower+of+Chinese+Buddhism&rft.pages=31-33&rft.pub=Middleway+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.aulast=Ikeda&rft.aufirst=Daisaku&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hansen, Valerie (2015). <i>The Silk Road: A New History,</i> p. 66. Oxford University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Zürcher 2007 p. 226.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robinson, Richard H. 1967. <i>Early Madhyamika in China and India</i>, p. 71. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robinson, Richard H. 1967. <i>Early Madhyamika in China and India</i>, p. 73. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKumar2005107-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKumar2005107_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKumar2005">Kumar 2005</a>, p. 107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Duan, Wenjie. <i>Dunhuang Art: Through the Eyes of Duan Wenjie.</i> 1995. p. 94</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENan199884-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENan199884_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNan1998">Nan 1998</a>, p. 84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wu 1938, p. 455</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKumar2005108-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKumar2005108_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKumar2005108_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKumar2005108_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKumar2005">Kumar 2005</a>, p. 108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Yukteshwar Kumar (2005). <i>A History of Sino-Indian Relations: 1st Century A.D. to 7th Century A.D. : Movement of Peoples and Ideas Between India and China from Kasyapa Matanga to Yi Jing,</i> p. 128. APH Publishing.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thompson, John M. (2008) <i>Understanding Prajñā: Sengzhao's "wild Words" and the Search for Wisdom,</i> p. 76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, Paul, and Tribe, Anthony. <i>Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition.</i> 2000. p. 100</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENattier1992186-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENattier1992186_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNattier1992">Nattier 1992</a>, p. 186.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENattier1992188-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENattier1992188_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNattier1992">Nattier 1992</a>, p. 188.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEitelEdkins1871217-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEitelEdkins1871217_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEitelEdkins1871">Eitel & Edkins 1871</a>, p. 217.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robinson, Richard H. 1967. <i>Early Madhyāmika in China and India</i>, p. 79. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thompson, John M. (2008) <i>Understanding Prajñā: Sengzhao's "wild Words" and the Search for Wisdom,</i> p. 78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hansen, Valerie (2015). <i>The Silk Road: A New History,</i> pp. 69-70. Oxford University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENattier200560-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENattier200560_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNattier2005">Nattier 2005</a>, p. 60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Thompson, John M. (2008) <i>Understanding Prajñā: Sengzhao's "wild Words" and the Search for Wisdom,</i> p. 78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Litian Fang (2018) <i>Chinese Buddhism and Traditional Culture,</i> chapter 2. Routledge.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ramanan, K. Venkata (1987). <i>Nāgārjuna's Philosophy: As Presented in the Mahā-Prajñāparamitā-Sastra</i>, p. 15. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robinson, Richard H. 1967. <i>Early Madhyāmika in China and India</i>, pp. 74-76. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nan, Huai-Chin. <i>Basic Buddhism: Exploring Buddhism and Zen.</i> 1997. p. 91</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cheng, Hsueh-li (2013).  Nagarjuna's Twelve Gate Treatise Translated With Introductory Essays, Comments, and Notes. Springer, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789400977778" title="Special:BookSources/9789400977778">9789400977778</a>. p. 5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Liu, Ming-Wood (1994). <i>Madhyamaka thought in China</i>. E.J. Brill, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9004099840" title="Special:BookSources/9004099840">9004099840</a>. p. 27</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ruegg, David. <i>The Literature of the Madhyamaka School of Philosophy in India, Volume 7</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lamotte, Etienne. <i>Surangamasamadhisutra</i>. p. 40</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Liu, Ming-Wood (1994). <i>Madhyamaka thought in China</i>. E.J. Brill, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9004099840" title="Special:BookSources/9004099840">9004099840</a>. p. 27</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Liu, Ming-Wood (1994). <i>Madhyamaka thought in China</i>. E.J. Brill, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9004099840" title="Special:BookSources/9004099840">9004099840</a>. p. 27</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Liu, Ming-Wood (1994). <i>Madhyamaka thought in China</i>. E.J. Brill, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9004099840" title="Special:BookSources/9004099840">9004099840</a>. p.27</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Petzold, Bruno, The Classification of Buddhism, p. 300.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robinson, Richard H. 1967. <i>Early Madhyamika in China and India</i>, p. 74. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yamabe, Nobuyoshi; Sueki, Fumihiko (2009). <i>The sutra on the concentration of sitting meditation (Taishō Volume 15, Number 614),</i> pp. xiv-xvii. Berkeley: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tansen Sen (2014) <i>Buddhism Across Asia: Networks of Material, Intellectual and Cultural Exchange, volume 1</i>, p. 116. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreene201241-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreene201241_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreene2012">Greene 2012</a>, p. 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreene201244-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreene201244_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreene2012">Greene 2012</a>, p. 44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreene201245-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreene201245_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreene2012">Greene 2012</a>, p. 45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreene201246-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreene201246_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreene201246_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreene2012">Greene 2012</a>, p. 46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yukteshwar Kumar (2005). <i>A History of Sino-Indian Relations: 1st Century A.D. to 7th Century A.D. : Movement of Peoples and Ideas Between India and China from Kasyapa Matanga to Yi Jing,</i> p. 128. APH Publishing.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robinson, Richard H. 1967. <i>Early Madhyamika in China and India</i>, p. 74. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lo Yuet-Keung <i>"Persuasion and entertainment at once: Kumārajīva's Buddhist storytelling in his commentary on the Vimalakīrti sutra,"</i> Bulletin of the Institute of Chinese Literature and Philosophy (Academia Sinica) 21 (2002), 93-103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thompson, John M. (2008) <i>Understanding Prajñā: Sengzhao's "wild Words" and the Search for Wisdom,</i> p. 78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robinson, Richard H. 1967. <i>Early Madhyamika in China and India</i>, pp. 21-26. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fan Muyou. <i>A Reexamination of the Influence of Kumarajiva's Thought on His Translation of the Vimalakirtinirdesa.</i> The Eastern Buddhist 47/1: 57-80 ©2018 The Eastern Buddhist Society.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robinson, Richard H. 1967. <i>Early Madhyamika in China and India</i>, p. 90. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Thompson, John M. (2008) <i>Understanding Prajñā: Sengzhao's "wild Words" and the Search for Wisdom,</i> p. 79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. Hikata, <i>Suvikrāntavikrāmi-pariprcchā Prajñāpāramitā-Sūtra</i> (Fukuoka: Kyushu University Press, 1958), lii-lxxv.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chou, Po-kan, <i>The Problem of the Authorship of the Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa: A Re-examination,</i> BIBLID1012-8514(2004)34p.281-327 2004.10.19收稿，2004.12.21通過刊登</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robinson, Richard H. 1967. <i>Early Madhyamika in China and India</i>, pp. 21-26. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lamotte, Etienne (French trans.); Karma Migme Chodron (English trans.); <i>The Treatise on the Great Virtue of Wisdom of Nagarjuna - Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra</i>, Volume V Chapters XLIX – LII and Chapter XX (2nd series), p. 1772.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Felbur, Rafal. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openphilology.eu/media/pages/publications-rafal-felbur/1125482332-1625255917/2020_kumarajiva.pdf">Kumarajiva “Great Man” and Cultural Event.</a></i> A Companion to World Literature. Edited by Ken Seigneurie. © 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2019 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. DOI: 10.1002/9781118635193.ctwl0312</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Fan Muyou. <i>A Reexamination of the Influence of Kumārajīva's Thought on His Translation of the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa</i>. The Eastern Buddhist 47/1: 57-80 ©2018 The Eastern Buddhist Society.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandra1977" class="citation cs2">Chandra, Moti (1977), <i>Trade and Trade Routes in Ancient India</i>, Abhinav Publications, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788170170556" title="Special:BookSources/9788170170556"><bdi>9788170170556</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trade+and+Trade+Routes+in+Ancient+India&rft.pub=Abhinav+Publications&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=9788170170556&rft.aulast=Chandra&rft.aufirst=Moti&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEitelEdkins1871" class="citation cs2">Eitel, E.J.; Edkins, Joseph (1871), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PcELAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA217">"Handbook for the Student of Chinese Buddhism"</a>, <i>The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal</i>, <b>3</b>, FOOCHOW.: American Presbyterian Mission Press: 217</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Chinese+Recorder+and+Missionary+Journal&rft.atitle=Handbook+for+the+Student+of+Chinese+Buddhism&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=217&rft.date=1871&rft.aulast=Eitel&rft.aufirst=E.J.&rft.au=Edkins%2C+Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPcELAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA217&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreene2012" class="citation cs2">Greene, Eric Matthew (2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://escholarship.org/uc/item/92v7t1cg"><i>Meditation, Repentance, and Visionary Experience in Early Medieval Chinese Buddhism</i></a> (PhD dissertation), University of California, Berkeley</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Meditation%2C+Repentance%2C+and+Visionary+Experience+in+Early+Medieval+Chinese+Buddhism&rft.pub=University+of+California%2C+Berkeley&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Greene&rft.aufirst=Eric+Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fescholarship.org%2Fuc%2Fitem%2F92v7t1cg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKumar2005" class="citation cs2">Kumar, Yukteshwar (2005), <i>A History of Sino-Indian Relations</i>, APH Publishing Corporation, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8176487986" title="Special:BookSources/978-8176487986"><bdi>978-8176487986</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Sino-Indian+Relations&rft.pub=APH+Publishing+Corporation&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-8176487986&rft.aulast=Kumar&rft.aufirst=Yukteshwar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLu2004" class="citation cs2">Lu, Yang (2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.ihp.sinica.edu.tw/publish51.php?TM=5&M=5&C=67&V=3&pid=9">"Narrative and Historicity in the Buddhist Biographies of Early Medieval China: The Case of Kumārajīva"</a>, <i>Asia Major</i>, Third Series, <b>17</b> (2): 1–43</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asia+Major&rft.atitle=Narrative+and+Historicity+in+the+Buddhist+Biographies+of+Early+Medieval+China%3A+The+Case+of+Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=1-43&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Lu&rft.aufirst=Yang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww2.ihp.sinica.edu.tw%2Fpublish51.php%3FTM%3D5%26M%3D5%26C%3D67%26V%3D3%26pid%3D9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNan1998" class="citation cs2">Nan, Huai-Chin (1998), <i>Basic Buddhism: Exploring Buddhism and Zen</i>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1578630202" title="Special:BookSources/978-1578630202"><bdi>978-1578630202</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Basic+Buddhism%3A+Exploring+Buddhism+and+Zen&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-1578630202&rft.aulast=Nan&rft.aufirst=Huai-Chin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNattier1992" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Jan_Nattier" title="Jan Nattier">Nattier, Jan</a> (1992), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131029190717/http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/ojs/index.php/jiabs/article/download/8800/2707">"The Heart Sutra: A Chinese Apocryphal Text?"</a>, <i>Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies</i>, <b>15</b> (2): 153–223, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/ojs/index.php/jiabs/article/download/8800/2707">the original</a> on 2013-10-29<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-10-23</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Association+of+Buddhist+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Heart+Sutra%3A+A+Chinese+Apocryphal+Text%3F&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=153-223&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Nattier&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de%2Fojs%2Findex.php%2Fjiabs%2Farticle%2Fdownload%2F8800%2F2707&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNattier2005" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Jan_Nattier" title="Jan Nattier">Nattier, Jan</a> (2005), <i>A Few Good Men: The Bodhisattva Path according to The Inquiry of Ugra (Ugraparipṛcchā)</i>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Hawaii_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Hawaii Press">University of Hawaii Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0824830038" title="Special:BookSources/978-0824830038"><bdi>978-0824830038</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Few+Good+Men%3A+The+Bodhisattva+Path+according+to+The+Inquiry+of+Ugra+%28Ugraparip%E1%B9%9Bcch%C4%81%29&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0824830038&rft.aulast=Nattier&rft.aufirst=Jan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPollard2015" class="citation cs2">Pollard, Elizabeth (2015), <i>Worlds Together Worlds Apart</i>, New York: W.W. Norton Company Inc, p. 287, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-91847-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-91847-2"><bdi>978-0-393-91847-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Worlds+Together+Worlds+Apart&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=287&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+Company+Inc&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-393-91847-2&rft.aulast=Pollard&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPuri1987" class="citation cs2">Puri, B. N. (1987), <i>Buddhism in Central Asia</i>, <a href="/wiki/Motilal_Banarsidass" title="Motilal Banarsidass">Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120803725" title="Special:BookSources/978-8120803725"><bdi>978-8120803725</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhism+in+Central+Asia&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publishers+Private+Limited&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-8120803725&rft.aulast=Puri&rft.aufirst=B.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingh2009" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Upinder_Singh" title="Upinder Singh">Singh, Upinder</a> (2009), <i>A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century</i>, Pearson Education India, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8131716779" title="Special:BookSources/978-8131716779"><bdi>978-8131716779</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ancient+and+Early+Medieval+India%3A+From+the+Stone+Age+to+the+12th+Century&rft.pub=Pearson+Education+India&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-8131716779&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Upinder&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1971" class="citation cs2">Smith, David Howard (1971), <i>Chinese Religions From 1000 B.C. to the Present Day</i>, <a href="/wiki/Weidenfeld_%26_Nicolson" title="Weidenfeld & Nicolson">Weidenfeld & Nicolson</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Religions+From+1000+B.C.+to+the+Present+Day&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=David+Howard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWu1938" class="citation cs2">Wu, Ching-hsing (1938), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2k3VAAAAMAAJ">"Some Notes on Kao Seng Chuan"</a>, <i>T'ien Hsia Monthly</i>, <b>7</b>, Kelly and Walsh, ltd.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=T%27ien+Hsia+Monthly&rft.atitle=Some+Notes+on+Kao+Seng+Chuan&rft.volume=7&rft.date=1938&rft.aulast=Wu&rft.aufirst=Ching-hsing&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2k3VAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Zürcher, Erik (2007) <i>The Buddhist Conquest of China: The Spread and Adaptation of Buddhism in Early Medieval China.</i> BRILL.</li> <li><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/15px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/23px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/30px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> <i>This article incorporates text from </i>The Chinese recorder and missionary journal, Volume 3<i>, a publication from 1871, now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a> in the United States.</i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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title="commons:Category:Kumarajiva">Kumarajiva</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/31248">Works by Kumārajīva</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Kumārajīva%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Kumārajīva%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Kumārajīva%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Kumārajīva%22%29%20OR%20%28%22344-413%22%20AND%20%28%22Kumārajīva%22%20OR%20Kumarajiva%29%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Kumārajīva</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Notable_foreigners_who_visited_pre-Qing_China" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Notable_foreigners_who_visited_China" title="Template:Notable foreigners who visited China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Notable_foreigners_who_visited_China" title="Template talk:Notable foreigners who visited China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Notable_foreigners_who_visited_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Notable foreigners who visited China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Notable_foreigners_who_visited_pre-Qing_China" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Notable foreigners who visited pre-Qing China</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Pre-Yuan</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kumārajīva</a> (344–413)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aubhakarasi%E1%B9%83ha" title="Śubhakarasiṃha">Śubhakarasiṃha</a> (637-735)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrabodhi" title="Vajrabodhi">Vajrabodhi</a> (671–741)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peroz_III" title="Peroz III">Peroz III</a> (7th c.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narsieh" title="Narsieh">Narsieh</a> (7th c.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ono_no_Imoko" title="Ono no Imoko">Ono no Imoko</a> (7th c.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takamuko_no_Kuromaro" title="Takamuko no Kuromaro">Takamuko no Kuromaro</a> (7th c.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%27d_ibn_Abi_Waqqas" title="Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas">Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas</a> (7th c.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisena" title="Bodhisena">Bodhisena</a> (704–760)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoghavajra" title="Amoghavajra">Amoghavajra</a> (705–774)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugawara_no_Kiyotomo" title="Sugawara no Kiyotomo">Sugawara no Kiyotomo</a> (770-842)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abe_no_Nakamaro" title="Abe no Nakamaro">Abe no Nakamaro</a> (8th c.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awata_no_Mahito" title="Awata no Mahito">Awata no Mahito</a> (8th c.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kibi_no_Makibi" title="Kibi no Makibi">Kibi no Makibi</a> (8th c.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamanoue_no_Okura" title="Yamanoue no Okura">Yamanoue no Okura</a> (8th c.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyecho" title="Hyecho">Hyecho</a> (8th c.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guangzhou_massacre" title="Guangzhou massacre">Abu Zayd Al-Sirafi</a> (9th c.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ch%27oe_Ch%27i-w%C5%8Fn" title="Ch'oe Ch'i-wŏn">Ch'oe Ch'i-wŏn</a> (9th c.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egaku" title="Egaku">Egaku</a> (9th c.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulaiman_al-Tajir" title="Sulaiman al-Tajir">Sulaiman al-Tajir</a> (9th c.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vairocanavajra" title="Vairocanavajra">Vairocanavajra</a> (12th c.)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ajall_Shams_al-Din_Omar" title="Ajall Shams al-Din Omar">Ajall Shams al-Din Omar</a> (1211–1279)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_and_Maffeo_Polo" title="Niccolò and Maffeo Polo">Niccolò and Maffeo Polo</a> (1230–1309)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Fanakati" title="Ahmad Fanakati">Ahmad Fanakati</a> (1242—1282)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_of_Montecorvino" title="John of Montecorvino">John of Montecorvino</a> (1247–1328)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a> (1254–1324)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odoric_of_Pordenone" title="Odoric of Pordenone">Odoric of Pordenone</a> (1286–1331)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhy%C4%81nabhadra" title="Dhyānabhadra">Dhyānabhadra</a> (1289-1363)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_de%27_Marignolli" title="Giovanni de' Marignolli">Giovanni de' Marignolli</a> (1290–1353)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%27id_of_Mogadishu" title="Sa'id of Mogadishu">Sa'id of Mogadishu</a> (1301– ? )</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Battuta" title="Ibn Battuta">Ibn Battuta</a> (1304–1369)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kench%C5%AB_Keimitsu" title="Kenchū Keimitsu">Kenchū Keimitsu</a> (15th c.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghiy%C4%81th_al-d%C4%ABn_Naqq%C4%81sh" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghiyāth al-dīn Naqqāsh">Ghiyāth al-dīn Naqqāsh</a> (fl. 1419-22)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galeote_Pereira" title="Galeote Pereira">Galeote Pereira</a> (1549-1553)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jorge_%C3%81lvares" title="Jorge Álvares">Jorge Álvares</a> (16th c.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fern%C3%A3o_Pires_de_Andrade" title="Fernão Pires de Andrade">Fernão Pires de Andrade</a> (16th c.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom%C3%A9_Pires" title="Tomé Pires">Tomé Pires</a> (1465–1540)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonel_de_Sousa" title="Leonel de Sousa">Leonel de Sousa</a> (16th c.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%27Ali_Akbar_Khata%27i" title="'Ali Akbar Khata'i">'Ali Akbar Khata'i</a> (fl. ca. 1500–1516)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matteo_Ricci" title="Matteo Ricci">Matteo Ricci</a> (1552–1610)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Adam_Schall_von_Bell" title="Johann Adam Schall von Bell">Johann Adam Schall von Bell</a> (1591–1666)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Petlin" title="Ivan Petlin">Ivan Petlin</a> (17th c.)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q335293#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q335293#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q335293#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000081721598">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/106964949">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1829445/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/104083298">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n50052023">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13547195r">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13547195r">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00318891">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an36730695">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jx20080526007&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90824793">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aleweb.ncl.edu.tw/F/?func=accref&acc_sequence=002390380&CON_LNG=ENG">Taiwan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC200604999">Korea</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC201767813">2</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/133828">Vatican</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007452889605171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA01838275?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/1438559">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd104083298.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/104083298">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/050795228">IdRef</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="25px&#124;link=Dharmachakra_Topics_in_Buddhism_25px&#124;link=Buddhist_flag" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" 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typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Dharmachakra" title="Dharmachakra"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Buddhism_Symbol.png/25px-Buddhism_Symbol.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="26" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Buddhism_Symbol.png/38px-Buddhism_Symbol.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Buddhism_Symbol.png/50px-Buddhism_Symbol.png 2x" data-file-width="267" data-file-height="278" /></a></span>   Topics in <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>   <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_flag" title="Buddhist flag"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Buddhism.svg/25px-Flag_of_Buddhism.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Buddhism.svg/38px-Flag_of_Buddhism.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Buddhism.svg/50px-Flag_of_Buddhism.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #FFD068;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Buddhism" title="Outline of Buddhism">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism" title="Glossary of Buddhism">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles" title="Index of Buddhism-related articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Buddhism" title="Outline of Buddhism">Foundations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_in_Buddhism" title="Refuge in Buddhism">Three Jewels</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangha" title="Sangha">Sangha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">Middle Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81gata" title="Tathāgata">Tathāgata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha%27s_Birthday" title="Buddha's Birthday">Birthday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_sights" title="Four sights">Four sights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Eight_Great_Events_in_the_Life_of_Buddha" title="The Eight Great Events in the Life of Buddha">Eight Great Events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Renunciation" title="Great Renunciation">Great Renunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_characteristics_of_the_Buddha" title="Physical characteristics of the Buddha">Physical characteristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Buddha_in_art" title="Life of Buddha in art">Life of Buddha in art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha_footprint" title="Buddha footprint">Footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relics_associated_with_Buddha" title="Relics associated with Buddha">Relics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconography_of_Gautama_Buddha_in_Laos_and_Thailand" title="Iconography of Gautama Buddha in Laos and Thailand">Iconography in Laos and Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depictions_of_Gautama_Buddha_in_film" title="Depictions of Gautama Buddha in film">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracles_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Miracles of Gautama Buddha">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Family of Gautama Buddha">Family</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Auddhodana" title="Śuddhodana">Suddhodāna <small>(father)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_(mother_of_the_Buddha)" title="Maya (mother of the Buddha)">Māyā <small>(mother)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahapajapati_Gotami" title="Mahapajapati Gotami">Mahapajapati Gotamī<small> (aunt, adoptive mother)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ya%C5%9Bodhar%C4%81" title="Yaśodharā">Yaśodharā <small>(wife)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C4%81hula" title="Rāhula">Rāhula <small>(son)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80nanda" title="Ānanda">Ānanda <small>(cousin)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devadatta" title="Devadatta">Devadatta <small>(cousin)</small></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_where_Gautama_Buddha_stayed" title="List of places where Gautama Buddha stayed">Places where the Buddha stayed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha_in_world_religions" title="Gautama Buddha in world religions">Buddha in world religions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattvas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara" title="Avalokiteśvara">Avalokiteśvara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guanyin" title="Guanyin">Guanyin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manjushri" title="Manjushri">Mañjuśrī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahasthamaprapta" title="Mahasthamaprapta">Mahāsthāmaprāpta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80k%C4%81%C5%9Bagarbha" title="Ākāśagarbha">Ākāśagarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%E1%B9%A3itigarbha" title="Kṣitigarbha">Kṣitigarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samantabhadra_(Bodhisattva)" title="Samantabhadra (Bodhisattva)">Samantabhadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrapani" title="Vajrapani">Vajrapāṇi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skanda_(Buddhism)" title="Skanda (Buddhism)">Skanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tara_(Buddhism)" title="Tara (Buddhism)">Tārā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Metteyya/Maitreya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Disciples_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Category:Disciples of Gautama Buddha">Disciples</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaundinya" title="Kaundinya">Kaundinya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assaji" title="Assaji">Assaji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81riputra" title="Śāriputra">Sāriputta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maudgalyayana" title="Maudgalyayana">Mahamoggallāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80nanda" title="Ānanda">Ānanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81k%C4%81%C5%9Byapa" title="Mahākāśyapa">Mahākassapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%85gulim%C4%81la" title="Aṅgulimāla">Aṅgulimāla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anuruddha" title="Anuruddha">Anuruddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katyayana_(Buddhist)" title="Katyayana (Buddhist)">Mahākaccana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_(half-brother_of_Buddha)" title="Nanda (half-brother of Buddha)">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subh%C5%ABti" title="Subhūti">Subhūti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pu%E1%B9%87%E1%B9%87a_Mant%C4%81n%C4%ABputta" title="Puṇṇa Mantānīputta">Puṇṇa Mantānīputta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81li" title="Upāli">Upāli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahapajapati_Gotami" title="Mahapajapati Gotami">Mahapajapati Gotamī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khema" title="Khema">Khema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uppalavanna" title="Uppalavanna">Uppalavanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asita" title="Asita">Asita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channa_(Buddhist)" title="Channa (Buddhist)">Channa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yasa" title="Yasa">Yasa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism" title="Glossary of Buddhism">Key concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avidy%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Avidyā (Buddhism)">Avidyā (Ignorance)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bardo" title="Bardo">Bardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhicitta" title="Bodhicitta">Bodhicitta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">Buddha-nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhamma_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhamma theory">Dhamma theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_hindrances" title="Five hindrances">Five hindrances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indriya" title="Indriya">Indriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Buddhism" title="Karma in Buddhism">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleshas_(Buddhism)" title="Kleshas (Buddhism)">Kleshas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_factors_(Buddhism)" title="Mental factors (Buddhism)">Mental factors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindstream" title="Mindstream">Mindstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parinirvana" title="Parinirvana">Parinirvana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">Pratītyasamutpāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebirth_(Buddhism)" title="Rebirth (Buddhism)">Rebirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra_(Buddhism)" title="Saṃsāra (Buddhism)">Saṃsāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%85kh%C4%81ra" title="Saṅkhāra">Saṅkhāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">Skandha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%E1%B9%87h%C4%81" title="Taṇhā">Taṇhā (Craving)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81t%C4%81" title="Tathātā">Tathātā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetter_(Buddhism)" title="Fetter (Buddhism)">Ten Fetters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_marks_of_existence" title="Three marks of existence">Three marks of existence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Impermanence_(Buddhism)" title="Impermanence (Buddhism)">Anicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Du%E1%B8%A5kha" title="Duḥkha">Dukkha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">Anattā</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_truths_doctrine" title="Two truths doctrine">Two truths doctrine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cosmology" title="Buddhist cosmology">Cosmology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ten_realms" title="Ten realms">Ten spiritual realms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six_Paths" title="Six Paths">Six Paths</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deva_(Buddhism)" title="Deva (Buddhism)">Deva realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_beings_in_Buddhism" title="Human beings in Buddhism">Human realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asura_(Buddhism)" title="Asura (Buddhism)">Asura realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preta" title="Preta">Hungry Ghost realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_Buddhism" title="Animals in Buddhism">Animal realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naraka_(Buddhism)" title="Naraka (Buddhism)">Naraka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trailokya" title="Trailokya">Three planes of existence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chinese Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Zen" title="Japanese Zen">Japanese Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Seon" title="Korean Seon">Korean Seon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thi%E1%BB%81n" title="Thiền">Vietnamese Thiền</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rissh%C5%AB_(Buddhism)" title="Risshū (Buddhism)">Risshū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism" title="Nichiren Buddhism">Nichiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogachara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Esoteric_Buddhism" title="Chinese Esoteric Buddhism">Chinese Esoteric Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shingon_Buddhism" title="Shingon Buddhism">Shingon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzogchen" title="Dzogchen">Dzogchen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navayana" title="Navayana">Navayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">Early Buddhist schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">Pre-sectarian Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_points_unifying_Therav%C4%81da_and_Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na" title="Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna">Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern,_Eastern_and_Northern_Buddhism" title="Southern, Eastern and Northern Buddhism">Southern, Eastern and Northern Buddhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Buddhist_practices" title="Category:Buddhist practices">Practices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhavana" title="Bhavana">Bhavana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhipakkhiy%C4%81dhamm%C4%81" title="Bodhipakkhiyādhammā">Bodhipakkhiyādhammā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmavihara" title="Brahmavihara">Brahmavihara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maitr%C4%AB" title="Maitrī">Mettā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karu%E1%B9%87%C4%81" title="Karuṇā">Karuṇā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudita" title="Mudita">Mudita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upek%E1%B9%A3%C4%81" title="Upekṣā">Upekkha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddh%C4%81bhi%E1%B9%A3eka" title="Buddhābhiṣeka">Buddhābhiṣeka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">Devotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deity_yoga" title="Deity yoga">Deity yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhyana_in_Buddhism" title="Dhyana in Buddhism">Dhyāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Buddhism" title="Faith in Buddhism">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Strengths" title="Five Strengths">Five Strengths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iddhipada" title="Iddhipada">Iddhipada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_meditation" title="Buddhist meditation">Meditation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mantra#Buddhism" title="Mantra">Mantras</a></li> <li><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Kamma%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADh%C4%81na" title="Kammaṭṭhāna">Kammaṭṭhāna</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anussati" title="Anussati">Recollection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simran" title="Simran">Smarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anapanasati" title="Anapanasati">Anapanasati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samatha-vipassan%C4%81" title="Samatha-vipassanā">Samatha-vipassanā</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vipassana_movement" title="Vipassana movement">Vipassana movement</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shikantaza" title="Shikantaza">Shikantaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zazen" title="Zazen">Zazen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tukdam" title="Tukdam">Tukdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koan" title="Koan">Koan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganana" title="Ganana">Ganana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandala" title="Mandala">Mandala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonglen" title="Tonglen">Tonglen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">Tantra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tert%C3%B6n" title="Tertön">Tertön</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terma_(religion)" title="Terma (religion)">Terma</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merit_(Buddhism)" title="Merit (Buddhism)">Merit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindfulness" title="Mindfulness">Mindfulness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mindful_Yoga" title="Mindful Yoga">Mindful Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satipatthana" title="Satipatthana">Satipatthana</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nekkhamma" title="Nekkhamma">Nekkhamma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nianfo" title="Nianfo">Nianfo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā">Pāramitā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paritta" title="Paritta">Paritta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">Puja</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Offering_(Buddhism)" title="Offering (Buddhism)">Offerings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostration_(Buddhism)" title="Prostration (Buddhism)">Prostration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_music" title="Buddhist music">Music</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_in_Buddhism" title="Refuge in Buddhism">Refuge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%81dhu_(Pali_word)" title="Sādhu (Pali word)">Sādhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacca" title="Sacca">Sacca</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Factors_of_Awakening" title="Seven Factors of Awakening">Seven Factors of Enlightenment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">Sati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhamma_vicaya" title="Dhamma vicaya">Dhamma vicaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%ABti" title="Pīti">Pīti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passaddhi" title="Passaddhi">Passaddhi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Śīla</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_precepts" title="Five precepts">Five precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_precepts" title="Eight precepts">Eight precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva_vow" title="Bodhisattva vow">Bodhisattva vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratimok%E1%B9%A3a" title="Pratimokṣa">Pratimokṣa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Threefold_Training" title="Threefold Training">Threefold Training</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Śīla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">Samadhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Prajñā (Buddhism)">Prajñā</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%ABrya" title="Vīrya">Vīrya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Right_Exertions" title="Four Right Exertions">Four Right Exertions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-two_vows_of_Ambedkar" title="Twenty-two vows of Ambedkar">Twenty-two vows of Ambedkar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Bodhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhahood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratyekabuddhay%C4%81na" title="Pratyekabuddhayāna">Pratyekabuddhayāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_stages_of_awakening" title="Four stages of awakening">Four stages of awakening</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sot%C4%81panna" title="Sotāpanna">Sotāpanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakadagami" title="Sakadagami">Sakadagami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An%C4%81g%C4%81mi" title="Anāgāmi">Anāgāmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">Arhat</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_monasticism" title="Buddhist monasticism">Monasticism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu" title="Bhikkhu">Bhikkhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhikkhun%C4%AB" title="Bhikkhunī">Bhikkhunī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanera" title="Samanera">Śrāmaṇera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanera" title="Samanera">Śrāmaṇerī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anag%C4%81rika" title="Anagārika">Anagārika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn" title="Ajahn">Ajahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayadaw" title="Sayadaw">Sayadaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen_master" title="Zen master">Zen master</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C5%8Dshi" title="Rōshi">Rōshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lama" title="Lama">Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinpoche" title="Rinpoche">Rinpoche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geshe" title="Geshe">Geshe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulku" title="Tulku">Tulku</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_tulku" title="Western tulku">Western tulku</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kappiya" title="Kappiya">Kappiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donchee" title="Donchee">Donchee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Householder_(Buddhism)" title="Householder (Buddhism)">Householder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81saka_and_Up%C4%81sik%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Upāsaka and Upāsikā">Upāsaka and Upāsikā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achar_(Buddhism)" title="Achar (Buddhism)">Achar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vaka" title="Śrāvaka">Śrāvaka</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ten_principal_disciples" title="Ten principal disciples">Ten principal disciples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaolin_Monastery" title="Shaolin Monastery">Shaolin Monastery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhists" title="List of Buddhists">Major figures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagasena" title="Nagasena">Nagasena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C5%9Bvagho%E1%B9%A3a" title="Aśvaghoṣa">Aśvaghoṣa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asanga" title="Asanga">Asanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kumārajīva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhaghosa" title="Buddhaghosa">Buddhaghosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhap%C4%81lita" title="Buddhapālita">Buddhapālita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dign%C4%81ga" title="Dignāga">Dignāga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhidharma" title="Bodhidharma">Bodhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhiyi" title="Zhiyi">Zhiyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Sui" title="Emperor Wen of Sui">Emperor Wen of Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songtsen_Gampo" title="Songtsen Gampo">Songtsen Gampo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shandao" title="Shandao">Shandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padmasambhava" title="Padmasambhava">Padmasambhava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saraha" title="Saraha">Saraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ati%C5%9Ba" title="Atiśa">Atiśa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naropa" title="Naropa">Naropa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karmapa" title="Karmapa">Karmapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dnen" title="Hōnen">Hōnen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinran" title="Shinran">Shinran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C5%8Dgen" title="Dōgen">Dōgen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren" title="Nichiren">Nichiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamarpa" title="Shamarpa">Shamarpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalai_Lama" title="Dalai Lama">Dalai Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchen_Lama" title="Panchen Lama">Panchen Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Mun" title="Ajahn Mun">Ajahn Mun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">B. R. Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Chah" title="Ajahn Chah">Ajahn Chah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%ADch_Nh%E1%BA%A5t_H%E1%BA%A1nh" title="Thích Nhất Hạnh">Thích Nhất Hạnh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Texts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_texts" title="Early Buddhist texts">Early Buddhist texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Tripiṭaka">Tripiṭaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahayana sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">Pali Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon" title="Chinese Buddhist canon">Chinese Buddhist canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_canon" title="Tibetan Buddhist canon">Tibetan Buddhist canon</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dhammapada" title="Dhammapada">Dhammapada</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">Sutra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinaya" title="Vinaya">Vinaya</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Madhyamak%C4%81la%E1%B9%83k%C4%81ra" title="Madhyamakālaṃkāra">Madhyamakālaṃkāra</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharmad%C4%ABpa" title="Abhidharmadīpa">Abhidharmadīpa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_by_country" title="Buddhism by country">Countries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Afghanistan" title="Buddhism in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bangladesh" title="Buddhism in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bhutan" title="Buddhism in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Cambodia" title="Buddhism in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Indonesia" title="Buddhism in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Japan" title="Buddhism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Buddhism" title="Korean Buddhism">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Laos" title="Buddhism in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Malaysia" title="Buddhism in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Maldives" title="Buddhism in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mongolia" title="Buddhism in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Myanmar" title="Buddhism in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Nepal" title="Buddhism in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Pakistan" title="Buddhism in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Philippines" title="Buddhism in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Russia" title="Buddhism in Russia">Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Buryatia" title="Buddhism in Buryatia">Buryatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Kalmykia" title="Buddhism in Kalmykia">Kalmykia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_in_Tuva&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Buddhism in Tuva (page does not exist)">Tuva</a> (<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC_%D0%B2_%D0%A2%D1%8B%D0%B2%D0%B5" class="extiw" title="ru:Буддизм в Тыве">ru</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Singapore" title="Buddhism in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Buddhism in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Taiwan" title="Buddhism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Thailand" title="Buddhism in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Vietnam" title="Buddhism in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Africa" title="Buddhism in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Senegal" title="Buddhism in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_South_Africa" title="Buddhism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Central_Asia" title="Buddhism in Central Asia">Central Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Uzbekistan" title="Buddhism in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Middle_East" title="Buddhism in the Middle East">Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Iran" title="Buddhism in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Buddhism in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">Western countries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Argentina" title="Buddhism in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Australia" title="Buddhism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Brazil" title="Buddhism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Canada" title="Buddhism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Costa_Rica" title="Buddhism in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Buddhism in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_France" title="Buddhism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Germany" title="Buddhism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Italy" title="Buddhism in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mexico" title="Buddhism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_New_Zealand" title="Buddhism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Norway" title="Buddhism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Poland" title="Buddhism in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sweden" title="Buddhism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Switzerland" title="Buddhism in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Ukraine" title="Buddhism in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Buddhism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_States" title="Buddhism in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Venezuela" title="Buddhism in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism" title="History of Buddhism">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Buddhism" title="Timeline of Buddhism">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanishka" title="Kanishka">Kanishka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_councils" title="Buddhist councils">Buddhist councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">History of Buddhism in India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Buddhism_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent">Decline of Buddhism in India</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huichang_persecution_of_Buddhism" title="Huichang persecution of Buddhism">Huichang persecution of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhism" title="Greco-Buddhism">Greco-Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gandharan_Buddhism" title="Gandharan Buddhism">Gandharan Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gandh%C4%81ran_Buddhist_texts" title="Gandhāran Buddhist texts">Texts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menander_I" title="Menander I">Menander I</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_the_Roman_world" title="Buddhism and the Roman world">Buddhism and the Roman world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">Buddhism in the West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">Silk Road transmission of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Persecution of Buddhists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Afghanistan" title="Buddhism in Afghanistan">In Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_crisis" title="Buddhist crisis">In Vietnam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rim%C3%A9_movement" title="Rimé movement">Rimé movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banishment_of_Buddhist_monks_from_Nepal" title="Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal">Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalit_Buddhist_movement" title="Dalit Buddhist movement">Dalit Buddhist movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Tibet_by_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China">Chinese invasion of Tibet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1959_Tibetan_uprising" title="1959 Tibetan uprising">1959 Tibetan uprising</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhalese_Buddhist_nationalism" title="Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism">Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vipassana_movement" title="Vipassana movement">Vipassana movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/969_Movement" title="969 Movement">969 Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engaged_Buddhism" title="Engaged Buddhism">Engaged Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Buddhism" title="Women in Buddhism">Women in Buddhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_atomism" title="Buddhist atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_studies" title="Buddhist studies">Buddhology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Creator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_democracy" title="Buddhism and democracy">Buddhism and democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_economics" title="Buddhist economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Consciousnesses" title="Eight Consciousnesses">Eight Consciousnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engaged_Buddhism" title="Engaged Buddhism">Engaged Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_eschatology" title="Buddhist eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhism and evolution">Evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Buddhism" title="Humanistic Buddhism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_logico-epistemology" title="Buddhist logico-epistemology">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reality_in_Buddhism" title="Reality in Buddhism">Reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_Buddhism" title="Secular Buddhism">Secular Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_socialism" title="Buddhist socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_unanswerable_questions" title="The unanswerable questions">The unanswerable questions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Buddhism" title="Culture of Buddhism">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_architecture" title="Buddhist architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_temple" title="Buddhist temple">Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vih%C4%81ra" title="Vihāra">Vihāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyaung" title="Kyaung">Kyaung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wat" title="Wat">Wat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_hall" title="Ordination hall">Ordination hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">Stupa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pagoda" title="Pagoda">Pagoda</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_pagoda" title="Burmese pagoda">Burmese pagoda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candi_of_Indonesia" title="Candi of Indonesia">Candi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzong_architecture" title="Dzong architecture">Dzong architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_architecture_in_China" title="List of Buddhist architecture in China">List of Buddhist architecture in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Buddhist_architecture" title="Japanese Buddhist architecture">Japanese Buddhist architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_temples_in_Korea" title="Buddhist temples in Korea">Buddhist temples in Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_temple_art_and_architecture" title="Thai temple art and architecture">Thai temple art and architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_architecture" title="Tibetan Buddhist architecture">Tibetan Buddhist architecture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_art" title="Buddhist art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhist_art" title="Greco-Buddhist art">Greco-Buddhist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhi_Tree" title="Bodhi Tree">Bodhi Tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budai" title="Budai">Budai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha_in_art" title="Buddha in art">Buddha in art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_calendar" title="Buddhist calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cuisine" title="Buddhist cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_funeral" title="Buddhist funeral">Funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_holidays" title="Buddhist holidays">Holidays</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vesak" title="Vesak">Vesak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uposatha" title="Uposatha">Uposatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81gha_P%C5%ABj%C4%81" title="Māgha Pūjā">Māgha Pūjā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asalha_Puja" title="Asalha Puja">Asalha Puja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vassa" title="Vassa">Vassa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaya_Sri_Maha_Bodhi" title="Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi">Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasaya_(clothing)" title="Kasaya (clothing)">Kasaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahabodhi_Temple" title="Mahabodhi Temple">Mahabodhi Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">Mantra</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Om_mani_padme_hum" title="Om mani padme hum">Om mani padme hum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudra" title="Mudra">Mudra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_music" title="Buddhist music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_pilgrimage_sites" title="Buddhist pilgrimage sites">Pilgrimage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lumbini" title="Lumbini">Lumbini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Devi_Temple,_Lumbini" title="Maya Devi Temple, Lumbini">Maya Devi Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodh_Gaya" title="Bodh Gaya">Bodh Gaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarnath" title="Sarnath">Sarnath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushinagar" title="Kushinagar">Kushinagar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_poetry" title="Buddhist poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japamala" title="Japamala">Prayer beads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hama_yumi" title="Hama yumi">Hama yumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_wheel" title="Prayer wheel">Prayer wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_symbolism" title="Buddhist symbolism">Symbolism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharmachakra" title="Dharmachakra">Dharmachakra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_flag" title="Buddhist flag">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhavacakra" title="Bhavacakra">Bhavacakra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swastika" title="Swastika">Swastika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thangka" title="Thangka">Thangka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_the_Tooth" title="Temple of the Tooth">Temple of the Tooth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_vegetarianism" title="Buddhist vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles" title="Index of Buddhism-related articles">Miscellaneous</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhij%C3%B1%C4%81" title="Abhijñā">Abhijñā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitābha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahm%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Brahmā (Buddhism)">Brahmā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma_talk" title="Dharma talk">Dharma talk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinayana" title="Hinayana">Hinayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iddhi" title="Iddhi">Iddhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(time)" title="Kalpa (time)">Kalpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koliya" title="Koliya">Koliya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lineage_(Buddhism)" title="Lineage (Buddhism)">Lineage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mara_(demon)" title="Mara (demon)">Māra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddhi" title="Siddhi">Siddhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_language" title="Sacred language">Sacred languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pāḷi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Comparative_Buddhism" title="Category:Comparative Buddhism">Comparison</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_Buddhism" title="Baháʼí Faith and Buddhism">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Christianity" title="Buddhism and Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_influences_on_Christianity" title="Buddhist influences on Christianity">Influences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_Buddhism_and_Christianity" title="Comparison of Buddhism and Christianity">Comparison</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Eastern_religions" title="Buddhism and Eastern religions">East Asian religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Gnosticism" title="Buddhism and Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Hinduism" title="Buddhism and Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Jainism" title="Buddhism and Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Buddhist" title="Jewish Buddhist">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_psychology" title="Buddhism and psychology">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_science" title="Buddhism and science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Theosophy" title="Buddhism and Theosophy">Theosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_violence" title="Buddhism and violence">Violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Western_philosophy" title="Buddhism and Western philosophy">Western 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