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subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Draining_and_subsequent_restoration_efforts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Draining_and_subsequent_restoration_efforts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Draining and subsequent restoration efforts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Draining_and_subsequent_restoration_efforts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Threats_From_Climate_Change_and_Pollution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Threats_From_Climate_Change_and_Pollution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Threats From Climate Change and Pollution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Threats_From_Climate_Change_and_Pollution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Mesopotamian Marshes</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 18 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-18" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">18 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D9%87%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82" title="أهوار العراق – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أهوار العراق" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%8F%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE" title="মেসোপটেমীয় হাওর এলাকা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মেসোপটেমীয় হাওর এলাকা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezopotamsk%C3%A1_n%C3%AD%C5%BEina" title="Mezopotamská nížina – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Mezopotamská nížina" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marismas_de_Mesopotamia" title="Marismas de Mesopotamia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Marismas de Mesopotamia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezopotamiaj_Mar%C4%89oj" title="Mezopotamiaj Marĉoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Mezopotamiaj Marĉoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamiako_padurak" title="Mesopotamiako padurak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Mesopotamiako padurak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%A8%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%87%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86" title="مرداب‌های بین‌النهرین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مرداب‌های بین‌النهرین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marais_de_M%C3%A9sopotamie" title="Marais de Mésopotamie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Marais de Mésopotamie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palude_salata_alluvionale_del_Tigri_e_dell%27Eufrate" title="Palude salata alluvionale del Tigri e dell'Eufrate – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Palude salata alluvionale del Tigri e dell'Eufrate" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dei_mesopotamiske_sumpane" title="Dei mesopotamiske sumpane – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Dei mesopotamiske sumpane" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A2ntanos_da_Mesopot%C3%A2mia" title="Pântanos da Mesopotâmia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Pântanos da Mesopotâmia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D1%8C-%D0%90%D1%85%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Эль-Ахвар – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Эль-Ахвар" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezopot%C3%A1mska_n%C3%AD%C5%BEina" title="Mezopotámska nížina – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Mezopotámska nížina" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezopotamsko_mo%C4%8Dvirje" title="Mezopotamsko močvirje – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Mezopotamsko močvirje" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="மெசொப்பொத்தேமியாவின் சதுப்பு நிலங்கள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மெசொப்பொத்தேமியாவின் சதுப்பு நிலங்கள்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezopotamya_Batakl%C4%B1klar%C4%B1" title="Mezopotamya Bataklıkları – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Mezopotamya Bataklıkları" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Месопотамські болота – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Месопотамські болота" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E7%B4%A2%E4%B8%8D%E9%81%94%E7%B1%B3%E4%BA%9E%E6%B2%BC%E6%BE%A4" title="美索不達米亞沼澤 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="美索不達米亞沼澤" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span 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class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">31.000°N 47.000°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">31.000; 47.000</span></span></span></a></span></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Wetlands in Iraq, Iran and Kuwait</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width:25em;line-height:1.5em;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:#cde5b2;">Mesopotamian Marshes<br /><small>Tigris-Euphrates alluvial salt marsh</small></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chibaish_Marches,_Iraq_-_An_Nasiriyah.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Chibaish_Marches%2C_Iraq_-_An_Nasiriyah.jpg/272px-Chibaish_Marches%2C_Iraq_-_An_Nasiriyah.jpg" decoding="async" width="272" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Chibaish_Marches%2C_Iraq_-_An_Nasiriyah.jpg/408px-Chibaish_Marches%2C_Iraq_-_An_Nasiriyah.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Chibaish_Marches%2C_Iraq_-_An_Nasiriyah.jpg/544px-Chibaish_Marches%2C_Iraq_-_An_Nasiriyah.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1186" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Chibaish Marshes</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ecoregion_PA0906.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Ecoregion_PA0906.svg/272px-Ecoregion_PA0906.svg.png" decoding="async" width="272" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Ecoregion_PA0906.svg/408px-Ecoregion_PA0906.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Ecoregion_PA0906.svg/544px-Ecoregion_PA0906.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1816" data-file-height="1443" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Location of the Mesopotamian Marshes (Tigris-Euphrates alluvial salt marsh)</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#cde5b2;">Ecology</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Biogeographic_realm" title="Biogeographic realm">Realm</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Palearctic_realm" title="Palearctic realm">Palearctic</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biome</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Flooded_grasslands_and_savannas" title="Flooded grasslands and savannas">flooded grasslands and savannas</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Borders</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_Desert" title="Arabian Desert">Arabian Desert</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/South_Iran_Nubo-Sindian_desert_and_semi-desert" class="mw-redirect" title="South Iran Nubo-Sindian desert and semi-desert">South Iran Nubo-Sindian desert and semi-desert</a>,</li><li><a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains_forest_steppe" title="Zagros Mountains forest steppe">Zagros Mountains forest steppe</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#cde5b2;">Geography</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Area</th><td class="infobox-data">35,572 km<sup>2</sup> (13,734 sq mi)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Countries</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a><sup id="cite_ref-iop_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iop-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MesoMarshes_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MesoMarshes-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mesopotamian_Marsh_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mesopotamian_Marsh-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#cde5b2;">Conservation</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Ecoregion_conservation_status" title="Ecoregion conservation status">Conservation status</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Critical/endangered<sup id="cite_ref-wwf_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wwf-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Protected</th><td class="infobox-data">3,070 km² (9%)<sup id="cite_ref-Ecoreg_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ecoreg-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Mesopotamian Marshes</b>, also known as the <b>Iraqi Marshes</b>, are a <a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">wetland</a> area located in Southern <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> and southwestern <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-iop_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iop-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MesoMarshes_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MesoMarshes-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mesopotamian_Marsh_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mesopotamian_Marsh-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The marshes are primarily located on the floodplains of the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> rivers bound by the cities of <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nasiriyah" title="Nasiriyah">Nasiriyah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amarah" title="Amarah">Amarah</a> and a portion of southwestern Iran. Historically the <a href="/wiki/Marsh" title="Marsh">marshlands</a>, mainly composed of the separate but adjacent <a href="/wiki/Central_Marshes" title="Central Marshes">Central</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hawizeh_Marshes" title="Hawizeh Marshes">Hawizeh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hammar_Marshes" title="Hammar Marshes">Hammar Marshes</a>, used to be the largest wetland <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a> of Western <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a>. The unique wetland landscape is home to the <a href="/wiki/Marsh_Arabs" title="Marsh Arabs">Marsh people</a>, who have developed a unique culture tightly coupled to the landscape – harvesting reeds and rice, fishing, and herding water buffalo.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Draining of portions of the marshes began in the 1950s and continued through the 1970s to reclaim land for agriculture and oil exploration. In the late 1980s and 1990s, during the presidency of <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a>, this work was expanded and accelerated to evict <a href="/wiki/Marsh_Arabs" title="Marsh Arabs">Marsh people</a> from the marshes.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before 2003, the marshes were drained to 10% of their original size.<sup id="cite_ref-res_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-res-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the American overthrow of Hussein in 2003, the marshes have partially recovered but drought along with upstream dam construction and operation in <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> and Iran have hindered the process.<sup id="cite_ref-bbcmar_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbcmar-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since 2016 the Mesopotamian marshes have been listed as an <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">UNESCO Heritage Site</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geography">Geography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesopotamian_Marshes&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Geography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mesopotamian_Marshes_2000-2009.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Mesopotamian_Marshes_2000-2009.gif/220px-Mesopotamian_Marshes_2000-2009.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Mesopotamian_Marshes_2000-2009.gif/330px-Mesopotamian_Marshes_2000-2009.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Mesopotamian_Marshes_2000-2009.gif/440px-Mesopotamian_Marshes_2000-2009.gif 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Satellite image of the Mesopotamian Marshes, 2000–2009</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IraqMarshesAnnotated.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/IraqMarshesAnnotated.jpg/220px-IraqMarshesAnnotated.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/IraqMarshesAnnotated.jpg/330px-IraqMarshesAnnotated.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/IraqMarshesAnnotated.jpg/440px-IraqMarshesAnnotated.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Mesopotamian Marshes in 2007</figcaption></figure> <p>As their name suggests, the Mesopotamian Marshes are located in the larger region which used to be called Mesopotamia. Modern day Mesopotamia is now occupied by Iraq, parts of eastern Syria, south-eastern Turkey, southwest Iran, and northern Kuwait. The marshes lie mostly within southern Iraq and a portion of southwestern Iran and northern Kuwait. Originally covering an area of 20,000 km<sup>2</sup> (7,700 sq mi) and divided into three major areas, the Central Marshes lie between the <a href="/wiki/Tigris%E2%80%93Euphrates_river_system" title="Tigris–Euphrates river system">Tigris and Euphrates</a>, while the <a href="/wiki/Hammar_Marshes" title="Hammar Marshes">Hammar Marshes</a> lie south of the Euphrates and the <a href="/wiki/Hawizeh_Marshes" title="Hawizeh Marshes">Hawizeh Marshes</a> are bound east of the Tigris. Before the <a href="/wiki/2003_Invasion_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="2003 Invasion of Iraq">2003 Invasion of Iraq</a>, about 90% of the marshes had been drained. </p><p>The marshes lie on a flat <a href="/wiki/Alluvial_plain" title="Alluvial plain">alluvial plain</a>, as the Euphrates decreases only 12 m (39 ft) in elevation during its last 300 km (190 mi) while the Tigris falls 24 m (79 ft). This delta provides an environment that allows the Tigris and Euphrates to <a href="/wiki/Meander" title="Meander">meander</a>, forming <a href="/wiki/Distributaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Distributaries">distributaries</a>. The Euphrates has often terminated near <a href="/wiki/Nasiriyah" title="Nasiriyah">Nasiriyah</a> into the Hammar Marshes as its flow slows. The Tigris can distribute some of its flow into the Central and Hawizeh marshes as it slows near <a href="/wiki/Amarah" title="Amarah">Amarah</a>. Downstream of Amarah, though, several of its tributaries originating in Iran allow the Tigris's flow to increase, and it maintains a steady course thereafter. The three marshes once provided an intertwined environment, particularly during periods of flooding as the rivers overflowed.<sup id="cite_ref-reno_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reno-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Central">Central</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesopotamian_Marshes&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Central"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Central_Marshes" title="Central Marshes">Central Marshes</a></div> <p>The Central Marshes receive water from influxes of the Tigris's distributaries, namely the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shatt_al-Muminah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shatt al-Muminah (page does not exist)">Shatt al-Muminah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Majar_al-Kabir" title="Majar al-Kabir">Majar al-Kabir</a> south of <a href="/wiki/Amarah" title="Amarah">Amarah</a>. The Tigris serves as the marshes' eastern boundary while the Euphrates serves as its southern boundary. Covering an area of 3,000 km<sup>2</sup> (1,200 sq mi), the marshes consist of <a href="/wiki/Reed_bed" title="Reed bed">reed beds</a> and several permanent lakes including <a href="/wiki/Umm_al_Binni_lake" title="Umm al Binni lake">Umm al Binni lake</a>. The Al-Zikri and Hawr Umm Al-Binni lakes are two of the notable lakes and are 3 m (9.8 ft) deep.<sup id="cite_ref-reno_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reno-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hammar">Hammar</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesopotamian_Marshes&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Hammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hammar_Marshes" title="Hammar Marshes">Hammar Marshes</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kerkini_lake_-_Kerkini_village.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Kerkini_lake_-_Kerkini_village.jpg/220px-Kerkini_lake_-_Kerkini_village.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Kerkini_lake_-_Kerkini_village.jpg/330px-Kerkini_lake_-_Kerkini_village.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Kerkini_lake_-_Kerkini_village.jpg/440px-Kerkini_lake_-_Kerkini_village.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5400" data-file-height="4033" /></a><figcaption>Water buffalos are found in the marshes. The seal of a scribe employed by an <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a> king shows the sacrifice of water buffaloes.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The Hammar Marshes are primarily fed by the Euphrates and lie south of it with a western extent to <a href="/wiki/Nasiriyah" title="Nasiriyah">Nasiriyah</a>, eastern border of the <a href="/wiki/Shatt_al-Arab" title="Shatt al-Arab">Shatt al-Arab</a> and southern extent of <a href="/wiki/Basrah" class="mw-redirect" title="Basrah">Basrah</a>. Normally, the marshes are a 2,800 km<sup>2</sup> (1,100 sq mi) area of permanent marsh and lake but during period of flooding can extend to 4,500 km<sup>2</sup> (1,700 sq mi). In periods of flooding, water from the Central Marsh, fed by the Tigris can overflow and supply the marshes with water. <a href="/wiki/Hammar_Lake" class="mw-redirect" title="Hammar Lake">Hammar Lake</a> is the largest water body within the marsh and has an area of 120 km (75 mi) by 250 km (160 mi), with depths ranging between 1.8 m (5.9 ft)-3 m (9.8 ft). In the summer, large portion of the marshes' and lake's shore are exposed, revealing islands that are used for agriculture.<sup id="cite_ref-reno_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reno-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hawizeh">Hawizeh</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesopotamian_Marshes&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Hawizeh"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hawizeh_Marshes" title="Hawizeh Marshes">Hawizeh Marshes</a></div> <p>The Hawizeh Marshes lie east of the Tigris and a portion lie in <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>. The Iranian side of the marshes, known as Hawr Al-Azim, is fed by the <a href="/wiki/Karkheh_River" title="Karkheh River">Karkheh River</a>, while the Tigris distributaries <a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Musharrah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Musharrah (page does not exist)">Al-Musharrah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al-Kahla" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Kahla">Al-Kahla</a> supply the Iraqi side, only with much less water than the Karkheh. During spring flooding, the Tigris may directly flow into the marshes. The marshes are drained by the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Kassarah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Kassarah (page does not exist)">Al-Kassarah</a>. This river plays a critical role in maintaining the Al-Hawizeh marshes as a flow-through system and preventing it from becoming a closed saline basin. </p><p>The marshes are 80 km (50 mi) from north to south and about 30 km (19 mi) from east to west, covering a total area of 3,000 km<sup>2</sup> (1,200 sq mi). Permanent portions of the marshes include the northern and central portion while the southern part is generally seasonal. Moderately dense vegetation can be found in the permanent areas along with large 6 m (20 ft)-deep lakes in the northern portions.<sup id="cite_ref-reno_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reno-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the Hawizeh Marshes fared the best during the draining, they can facilitate the reproduction of flora, fauna and other species in Central and Hammar marshes.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecology">Ecology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesopotamian_Marshes&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Ecology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82_%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%A7.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82_%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%A7.jpg/220px-%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82_%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%A7.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82_%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%A7.jpg/330px-%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82_%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%A7.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82_%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%A7.jpg/440px-%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82_%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%A7.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5873" data-file-height="3952" /></a><figcaption>Mesopotamian Marshes at night, southern Iraq; reed house (<a href="/wiki/Mudhif" title="Mudhif">Mudhif</a>) and narrow canoe (<a href="/wiki/Mashoof" title="Mashoof">Mashoof</a>) in the water, 2019</figcaption></figure> <p>The marshes constitute a <a href="/wiki/Flooded_grasslands_and_savannas" title="Flooded grasslands and savannas">flooded grasslands and savannas</a> <a href="/wiki/Ecoregion" title="Ecoregion">ecoregion</a>, also known as the <b>Tigris-Euphrates alluvial salt marsh</b>. The ecoregion includes both the Mesopotamian Marshes and the <a href="/wiki/Shadegan_Ponds" title="Shadegan Ponds">Shadegan Ponds</a>, a wetland on the lower <a href="/wiki/Karun_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Karun River">Karun River</a> in neighboring Iran.<sup id="cite_ref-wwf1_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wwf1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The marshes are integral to coastal health, filtering out pollutants and waste before they reach the Gulf,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though this capacity was significantly degraded after their draining.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The marshes also serve as spawning and nursery sites for coastal fish and <a href="/wiki/Penaeidae" title="Penaeidae">shrimp</a> species.<sup id="cite_ref-Richardson,_Curtis_J._2005_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richardson,_Curtis_J._2005-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The seasonal and permanent marshlands are dominated by aquatic plants, including reeds (<i><a href="/wiki/Phragmites_australis" title="Phragmites australis">Phragmites australis</a></i>), cattail rushes (<i><a href="/wiki/Typha_domingensis" title="Typha domingensis">Typha domingensis</a></i>), and <a href="/wiki/Cyperus_papyrus" title="Cyperus papyrus">papyrus sedge</a> (<i>Cyperus papyrus</i>). Riparian forests of poplar (mainly <i><a href="/wiki/Populus_euphratica" title="Populus euphratica">Populus euphratica</a></i>), <a href="/wiki/Tamarisk" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamarisk">tamarisk</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Tamarix_pentandra" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamarix pentandra">Tamarix pentandra</a></i> and <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tamarix_meyeri&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tamarix meyeri (page does not exist)">Tamarix meyeri</a></i>), and willow (mainly <i><a href="/wiki/Salix_acmophylla" title="Salix acmophylla">Salix acmophylla</a></i>) occur on islands and river banks.<sup id="cite_ref-wwf_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wwf-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The marshes are home to 40 species of bird and several species of fish. It demarcates a range limit for a number of bird species. <a href="/wiki/Flamingo" title="Flamingo">Flamingos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pelican" title="Pelican">pelicans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heron" title="Heron">herons</a> inhabit the marshes. The marshes were once home to a large number of birds and the stopover for many other migratory birds as they traveled from <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> to <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>. At risk are 40% to 60% of the world's <a href="/wiki/Marbled_teal" class="mw-redirect" title="Marbled teal">marbled teal</a> population that live in the marshes, along with 90% of the world's population of <a href="/wiki/Basra_reed-warbler" class="mw-redirect" title="Basra reed-warbler">Basra reed-warbler</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also at risk are the <a href="/wiki/Sacred_ibis" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred ibis">sacred ibis</a> and <a href="/wiki/African_darter" title="African darter">African darter</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A subspecies of the <a href="/wiki/Hooded_crow" title="Hooded crow">hooded crow</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_crow" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesopotamian crow">Mesopotamian crow</a> is found in this part of southern Iraq.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seven species are now extinct from the marshes, including the <a href="/wiki/Indian_crested_porcupine" title="Indian crested porcupine">Indian crested porcupine</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bunn%27s_short-tailed_bandicoot_rat" title="Bunn's short-tailed bandicoot rat">Bunn's short-tailed bandicoot rat</a> and the marsh <a href="/wiki/Gray_wolf" class="mw-redirect" title="Gray wolf">gray wolf</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-irqeco_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-irqeco-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The draining of the marshes caused a significant decline in bioproductivity; following the <a href="/wiki/Multi-National_Force_%E2%80%93_Iraq" title="Multi-National Force – Iraq">Multi-National Force</a> overthrow of the Saddam Hussein regime, water flow to the marshes was restored and the ecosystem has begun to recover.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Considerable confusion has existed relating to the status of the <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_otter" title="Eurasian otter">Eurasian otter</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">endemic</a> <i>maxwelli</i> subspecies of the <a href="/wiki/Smooth-coated_otter" title="Smooth-coated otter">smooth-coated otter</a> in the region, but recent surveys have confirmed that both still survive.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Inhabitants">Inhabitants</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesopotamian_Marshes&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Inhabitants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Marsh_Arabs" title="Marsh Arabs">Marsh Arabs</a></div> <p>Maʻdān live in secluded villages of elaborate reed houses throughout the marshes, often only reached by boat. Fish, rice cultivation, water buffalo and other resources are also used in their daily lives. In the 1950s, there were an estimated 500,000 Marsh Arabs. This population shrank to about 20,000 following the draining and Saddam's violent reprisals, and between 80,000 and 120,000 fled to neighboring Iran.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the 2003 Iraq invasion, Marsh Arabs have begun to return to the marshes.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Many hacked down the dikes and dams that Saddam had built.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Iraqi government has provided support via channels like the Iraq Cultural Health Fund, which funds Marsh Arabs in their efforts to protect traditional cultural practices.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, Marsh Arabs remain one of Iraq’s most underserved populations, struggling to obtain healthcare, clean drinking water, and adequate nutrition.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the marshes become increasingly saline and polluted, many Marsh Arabs are once again being forced to relocate.<sup id="cite_ref-Reuters_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reuters-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For those who remain, their traditional lifestyle is threatened.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The marshes supplied 60 percent of Iraq’s fish; that number has dwindled to the single digits.<sup id="cite_ref-Martin_Fletcher_2016_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martin_Fletcher_2016-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This, combined with the lack of potable water for raising water buffalo, is driving some Marsh Arabs to marsh perimeters, where they farm grain.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesopotamian_Marshes&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Campaign_in_southern_Iraq_of_Ashurbanipal_-_fighting_in_the_marshes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Campaign_in_southern_Iraq_of_Ashurbanipal_-_fighting_in_the_marshes.jpg/220px-Campaign_in_southern_Iraq_of_Ashurbanipal_-_fighting_in_the_marshes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Campaign_in_southern_Iraq_of_Ashurbanipal_-_fighting_in_the_marshes.jpg/330px-Campaign_in_southern_Iraq_of_Ashurbanipal_-_fighting_in_the_marshes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Campaign_in_southern_Iraq_of_Ashurbanipal_-_fighting_in_the_marshes.jpg/440px-Campaign_in_southern_Iraq_of_Ashurbanipal_-_fighting_in_the_marshes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5720" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Campaign in the marshes of southern <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a> during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Ashurbanipal" title="Ashurbanipal">Ashurbanipal</a>. Showing Assyrian soldiers on boat chasing enemies trying to run away; some are hiding in the reeds.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the 4th millennium BCE, the first literate societies emerged in Southern <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, often referred to as the "<a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Cradle of Civilization">Cradle of Civilization</a>", and the first cities and complex state bureaucracies were developed there during the <a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a>. Due to the geographical location and ecological factors of the <a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a>, a crescent-shape fertile area running from the basins of the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a> in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, northwards along the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a> coast in <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>, and southwards again along the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> towards the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>, civilizations were able to develop agricultural and technological programmes. The crucial trigger was the availability of wild edible plant species. Farming arose early in the Fertile Crescent because the area had a large quantity of wild wheat and pulse species that were nutritious and easy to domesticate.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 10th and 11th centuries, the marshes were the site of the <a href="/wiki/Batihah" title="Batihah">state of Batihah</a> founded by <a href="/wiki/%27Imran_ibn_Shahin" title="'Imran ibn Shahin">'Imran ibn Shahin</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Draining_and_subsequent_restoration_efforts">Draining and subsequent restoration efforts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesopotamian_Marshes&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Draining and subsequent restoration efforts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Draining_of_the_Mesopotamian_Marshes" title="Draining of the Mesopotamian Marshes">Draining of the Mesopotamian Marshes</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iraq_marshes_1994.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Iraq_marshes_1994.jpg/300px-Iraq_marshes_1994.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Iraq_marshes_1994.jpg/450px-Iraq_marshes_1994.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Iraq_marshes_1994.jpg/600px-Iraq_marshes_1994.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1296" data-file-height="1296" /></a><figcaption>1994 map of the Mesopotamian Marshes with draining features</figcaption></figure> <p>The draining of Mesopotamian Marshes began in the 1950s with the Central Marshes and gradually accelerated as it affected the two other main marshes until early in the 21st century with the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The draining of the marshes was intended at first to reclaim land for agriculture along with oil exploration but later served as a punishment for Shia Arabs in response to the <a href="/wiki/1991_uprisings_in_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="1991 uprisings in Iraq">1991 uprisings in Iraq</a>. The draining of the marshes was largely due to <a href="/wiki/Dam" title="Dam">dams</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dyke_(construction)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyke (construction)">dykes</a> and other diversion structures constructed into Iraq but were exacerbated by upstream dam construction in Syria and Turkey.<sup id="cite_ref-irqeco_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-irqeco-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the British engineers worked with the Iraqi government, Frank Haigh developed the Haigh Report in 1951. His report recommended a complex of <a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">canals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sluice_gate" class="mw-redirect" title="Sluice gate">sluices</a>, and dykes on the lower portions of both the Tigris and Euphrates. These water control structures could be used to drain marshes therefore creating profitable farmland. In 1953, construction began on the Third River or Main Outfall Drain and later the Saddam River which would drain water from the Central Marsh under the Euphrates and through a canal eventually into the Persian Gulf.<sup id="cite_ref-irqeco_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-irqeco-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Work on the Third River and other draining projects, particularly for the Hawizeh Marsh, quickly progressed in the 1980s during the <a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a> in order to afford Iraqis a tactical advantage in the marshes.<sup id="cite_ref-reno_14-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reno-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Part of the Hammar Marshes was also drained in 1985 to clear area for <a href="/wiki/Oil_exploration" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil exploration">oil exploration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the 1991 <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a>, Shia Muslims in southern Iraq rebelled against Saddam Hussein, who in turn crushed the rebellion and further accelerated the draining of the Central and Hammar marshes in order to evict Shias that have taken refuge in the marshes.<sup id="cite_ref-reno_14-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reno-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the exception of the <a href="/wiki/Nasiriyah_Drainage_Pump_Station" title="Nasiriyah Drainage Pump Station">Nasiriyah Drainage Pump Station</a>, the 565 km (351 mi) Third River was completed in 1992 and two other canals were constructed south and nearly parallel to it. One, the Mother of Battles canal, was constructed to divert the flow of the Euphrates south below the Hammar Marsh. Second, the 240 km Loyalty to Leader Canal also known as the Basrah Sweetwater Canal, which originates in the lower Euphrates region, collected water from the terminus of the <a href="/wiki/Gharraf_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Gharraf River">Gharraf River</a> and diverted it under the Euphrates, away from the Central Marshes and below the Hammar Marshes towards Basrah.<sup id="cite_ref-reno_14-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reno-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Glory_River" title="Glory River">Glory River</a> was also constructed to divert water from the Tigris's southern-flowing distributaries east and parallel along the Tigris until they reached the Euphrates near its confluence with the Tigris at <a href="/wiki/Al-Qurnah" title="Al-Qurnah">Qurna</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-reno_14-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reno-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the marshes had lost 90% of their size from the previous decades.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The Central and Hammar Marshes were nearly drained and only 35% of the Hawizeh Marshes remained.<sup id="cite_ref-res_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-res-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the invasion, locals destroyed dikes. The combined efforts of the Iraq government, United Nations, U.S. agencies and record precipitation in Turkey helped begin a restoration of the marshes.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of late 2006, 58% of the original marshes had been reinundated.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Nasiriyah Drainage Pump Station was completed in 2009, affording the Third River to be used for agricultural drainage.<sup id="cite_ref-jans9_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jans9-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recent drought and continued upstream dam construction and operation in Turkey, Syria, and Iran have reduced the marshes to around 30% of their original size by 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-bbcmar_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbcmar-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Turkey has built at least 34 dams on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, threatening marsh recovery.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Richardson,_Curtis_J._2005_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richardson,_Curtis_J._2005-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From a high of around 75% restored in 2008, the wetlands receded to 58% of their average pre-drained level by spring 2015. Meanwhile, as the water level fell, salinity increased to 15,000 parts per million in some areas, up from 300 to 500 ppm in the 1980s. "When the river water levels were high, the low-saline Tigris washed over the marshes, cleansed them, and pushed the salty residue into the saltier Euphrates, which flows along the western edge. But now the Tigris is so low that the Euphrates provides most of the water in the marshes."<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The government prioritizes providing water to cities along the Tigris and Shatt al-Arab, resulting in reduced flow to the marshes.<sup id="cite_ref-Reuters_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reuters-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Threats_From_Climate_Change_and_Pollution">Threats From Climate Change and Pollution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesopotamian_Marshes&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Threats From Climate Change and Pollution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa">Temperatures</a> in the region have risen over 0.5 degrees Celsius per decade, causing drought in Iraq and in neighbors whose waters flow into the Tigris and Euphrates.<sup id="cite_ref-Reuters_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reuters-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Combined with upriver dams, this reduction in water has caused the three primary marshes to fragment into ten smaller marshes.<sup id="cite_ref-Martin_Fletcher_2016_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martin_Fletcher_2016-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Massive amounts of untreated <a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">sewage</a> and other pollutants are dumped into the Tigris and Euphrates, moving downstream into the marshes and further degrading the water quality.<sup id="cite_ref-Reuters_33-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reuters-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesopotamian_Marshes&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Atchafalaya_Basin.jpg/32px-Atchafalaya_Basin.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Atchafalaya_Basin.jpg/48px-Atchafalaya_Basin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Atchafalaya_Basin.jpg/64px-Atchafalaya_Basin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1001" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Wetlands" title="Portal:Wetlands">Wetlands portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Marshes" title="Battle of the Marshes">Battle of the Marshes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris%E2%80%93Euphrates_river_system" title="Tigris–Euphrates river system">Tigris–Euphrates river system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shatt_al-Arab" title="Shatt al-Arab">Shatt al-Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Iraq" title="Geography of Iraq">Geography of Iraq</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesopotamian_Marshes&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-iop-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-iop_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iop_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFIrzoqyIbrahimAl-Tufaily2022" class="citation journal cs1">Irzoqy, Israa Mahmooed Mohammed; Ibrahim, Lamia Flaieh; Al-Tufaily, Hodoud Mohamed Abboud (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1755-1315%2F1002%2F1%2F012010">"Analysis of the environmental reality of the marshes and its sustainable development"</a>. <i>IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science</i>. <b>1002</b> (1): 7–15. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022E&ES.1002a2010I">2022E&ES.1002a2010I</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1755-1315%2F1002%2F1%2F012010">10.1088/1755-1315/1002/1/012010</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IOP+Conference+Series%3A+Earth+and+Environmental+Science&rft.atitle=Analysis+of+the+environmental+reality+of+the+marshes+and+its+sustainable+development&rft.volume=1002&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=7-15&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1755-1315%2F1002%2F1%2F012010&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022E%26ES.1002a2010I&rft.aulast=Irzoqy&rft.aufirst=Israa+Mahmooed+Mohammed&rft.au=Ibrahim%2C+Lamia+Flaieh&rft.au=Al-Tufaily%2C+Hodoud+Mohamed+Abboud&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1088%252F1755-1315%252F1002%252F1%252F012010&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamian+Marshes" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MesoMarshes-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MesoMarshes_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MesoMarshes_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHurst2019" class="citation book cs1">Hurst, Christon J. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Iraqi+Marshlands+Observation+System+%28IMOS%29&rft.atitle=UNEP+project+to+help+manage+and+restore+the+Iraqi+Marshlands&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fimos.grid.unep.ch%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamian+Marshes" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jans9-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jans9_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110717015121/http://www.sigir.mil/files/quarterlyreports/January2009/Report_-_January_2009.pdf#view=fit">"January 30th, 2009 Report to Congress"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Special Inspector General for Iraq Reconstruction. January 2009. p. 65. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sigir.mil/files/quarterlyreports/January2009/Report_-_January_2009.pdf#view=fit">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 17 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=January+30th%2C+2009+Report+to+Congress&rft.pages=65&rft.pub=Special+Inspector+General+for+Iraq+Reconstruction&rft.date=2009-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sigir.mil%2Ffiles%2Fquarterlyreports%2FJanuary2009%2FReport_-_January_2009.pdf%23view%3Dfit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamian+Marshes" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apnews.com/article/europe-middle-east-iraq-environment-and-nature-c5e6c8ae4a4ea24f11fdd54417d986e5">"In Iraq's iconic marshlands, a quest for endangered otters"</a>. <i>AP News</i>. 2021-05-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-07-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=AP+News&rft.atitle=In+Iraq%27s+iconic+marshlands%2C+a+quest+for+endangered+otters&rft.date=2021-05-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapnews.com%2Farticle%2Feurope-middle-east-iraq-environment-and-nature-c5e6c8ae4a4ea24f11fdd54417d986e5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamian+Marshes" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwartzstein2017" class="citation news cs1">Schwartzstein, Peter (2017-01-18). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2017/jan/18/iraq-marsh-arabs-test-the-waters-wetlands-ruined-by-saddam-reborn-southern-marshes">"Iraq's Marsh Arabs test the waters as wetlands ruined by Saddam are reborn"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-07-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Iraq%27s+Marsh+Arabs+test+the+waters+as+wetlands+ruined+by+Saddam+are+reborn&rft.date=2017-01-18&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Schwartzstein&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fglobal-development%2F2017%2Fjan%2F18%2Firaq-marsh-arabs-test-the-waters-wetlands-ruined-by-saddam-reborn-southern-marshes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamian+Marshes" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatrick2022" class="citation web cs1">Patrick (2022-01-28). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.policyforum.net/water-justice-in-iraq-in-the-aftermath-of-war/">"Water justice in Iraq in the aftermath of war"</a>. <i>Policy Forum</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-07-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Policy+Forum&rft.atitle=Water+justice+in+Iraq+in+the+aftermath+of+war&rft.date=2022-01-28&rft.au=Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.policyforum.net%2Fwater-justice-in-iraq-in-the-aftermath-of-war%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamian+Marshes" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150711065752/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/07/150709-iraq-marsh-arabs-middle-east-water-environment-world/">"Iraq's Famed Marshes Are Disappearing—Again"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_(magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Geographic (magazine)">National Geographic</a>. July 9, 2015. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/07/150709-iraq-marsh-arabs-middle-east-water-environment-world">the original</a> on July 11, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 October</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Iraq%27s+Famed+Marshes+Are+Disappearing%E2%80%94Again&rft.pub=National+Geographic&rft.date=2015-07-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.nationalgeographic.com%2F2015%2F07%2F150709-iraq-marsh-arabs-middle-east-water-environment-world&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamian+Marshes" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lewis, Philip, Ali Nasser Al-Muthanna, Preeti Patel, and Baroness Nicholson of Winterbourne. “Effect of Armed Conflict on Health of Marsh Arabs in Southern Iraq.” <i>The Lancet</i> 381, no. 9870 (March 16, 2013): 959–60. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0140-6736%2813%2960282-2">10.1016/s0140-6736(13)60282-2</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Al‐mudaffar Fawzi, Nadia, Kelly P. Goodwin, Bayan A. Mahdi, and Michelle L. Stevens. “Effects of Mesopotamian Marsh (Iraq) Desiccation on the Cultural Knowledge and Livelihood of Marsh Arab Women.” <i>Ecosystem Health and Sustainability</i> 2, no. 3 (January 2016): 4, 12. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fehs2.1207">10.1002/ehs2.1207</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div> <ul><li>U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061013185956/http://www.visibleearth.nasa.gov/view_rec.php?id=6630">NASA Visible Earth from 2004 satellite photography</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesopotamian_Marshes&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/pa0906">"Tigris-Euphrates alluvial salt marsh"</a>. <i>Terrestrial Ecoregions</i>. World Wildlife Fund.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Terrestrial+Ecoregions&rft.atitle=Tigris-Euphrates+alluvial+salt+marsh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldwildlife.org%2Fecoregions%2Fpa0906&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesopotamian+Marshes" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1T_rVWsF7Q0">Mesopotamian Marshes in Basra erea</a> (VIDEO)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070519163552/http://www.crimesofwar.org/special/Iraq/news-marshArabs.html">Saddam Hussein's Crimes of War</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rferl.org/content/Article/1347569.html">Radio Free Europe Radio Liberty</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Upper Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Mesopotamia" title="Lower Mesopotamia">Lower Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mesopotamian Marshes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taurus_Mountains" title="Taurus Mountains">Taurus Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris%E2%80%93Euphrates_river_system" title="Tigris–Euphrates river system">Tigris–Euphrates river system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamrin_Mountains" title="Hamrin Mountains">Hamrin Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinjar_Mountains" title="Sinjar Mountains">Sinjar Mountains</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkad_(city)" title="Akkad (city)">Akkad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armani_(kingdom)" title="Armani (kingdom)">Armani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_people" title="Gutian people">Gutium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamazi" title="Hamazi">Hamazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subartu" title="Subartu">Subartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suhum" title="Suhum">Suhum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turukkaeans" title="Turukkaeans">Tukri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="List of cities of the ancient Near East">Cities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ishtar_Gate.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Ishtar Gate in the city of Babylon"><img alt="Ishtar Gate in the city of Babylon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif/110px-Ishtar_Gate.gif" decoding="async" width="110" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif/165px-Ishtar_Gate.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif/220px-Ishtar_Gate.gif 2x" data-file-width="275" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">(Pre)history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Mesopotamia" title="Prehistory of Mesopotamia">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acheulean" title="Acheulean">Acheulean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mousterian" title="Mousterian">Mousterian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trialetian" class="mw-redirect" title="Trialetian">Trialetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarzian_culture" title="Zarzian culture">Zarzian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natufian_culture" title="Natufian culture">Natufian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemrik_9" title="Nemrik 9">Nemrik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khiamian" class="mw-redirect" title="Khiamian">Khiamian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_A" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic A">Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_B" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic B">Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassuna_culture" title="Hassuna culture">Hassuna</a>/<a href="/wiki/Samarra_culture" title="Samarra culture">Samarra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kish_civilization" title="Kish civilization">Kish civilization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mesopotamia" title="History of Mesopotamia">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_rule_in_Mesopotamia" title="Gutian rule in Mesopotamia">Gutians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Ur III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isin-Larsa_period" title="Isin-Larsa period">Isin-Larsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassite_dynasty" title="Kassite dynasty">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Babylonian_period" title="Middle Babylonian period">Middle Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Assyria" title="Achaemenid Assyria">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Assyriology" title="Assyriology">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amorite_language" title="Amorite language">Amorite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eblaite_language" title="Eblaite language">Eblaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_language" title="Gutian language">Gutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_language" title="Hittite language">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurrian_language" title="Hurrian language">Hurrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassite_language" title="Kassite language">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luwian_language" title="Luwian language">Luwian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Median_language" title="Median language">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Persian" title="Old Persian">Old Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_language" title="Parthian language">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Armenian_language" title="Proto-Armenian language">Proto-Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutean_language" title="Sutean language">Sutean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartian_language" title="Urartian language">Urartian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture/society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Mesopotamia" title="Architecture of Mesopotamia">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Mesopotamia" title="Art of Mesopotamia">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akitu" title="Akitu">Akitu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Cuneiform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_mathematics" title="Babylonian mathematics">Babylonian mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_literature" title="Akkadian literature">Akkadian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Sumer" title="Economy of Sumer">Economy of Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warfare_in_Sumer" title="Warfare in Sumer">Warfare in Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire">Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sumerian_cuisine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sumerian cuisine (page does not exist)">Sumerian cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_literature" title="Sumerian literature">Sumerian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Mesopotamia" title="Music of Mesopotamia">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus-Mesopotamia relations">Indus-Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt-Mesopotamia relations">Egypt-Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_royal_titulary" title="Akkadian royal titulary">Royal titles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mesopotamian_dynasties" title="List of Mesopotamian dynasties">List of rulers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archaeology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_looting_in_Iraq" title="Archaeological looting in Iraq">Looting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_cultural_heritage_by_ISIL" class="mw-redirect" title="Destruction of cultural heritage by ISIL">Destruction by ISIL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_(archaeology)" title="Tell (archaeology)">Tell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Ancient Mesopotamian religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_religion" title="Sumerian religion">Sumerian religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mesopotamian_deities" title="List of Mesopotamian deities">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_myths" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesopotamian myths">Mesopotamian myths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_divination" title="Mesopotamian divination">Divination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_prayer" title="Mesopotamian prayer">Prayers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">Ziggurat (Temple)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assyriology" title="Assyriology">Assyriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Assyriologists" title="List of Assyriologists">Assyriologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittitology" title="Hittitology">Hittitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Sumerian_Dictionary" title="Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary">Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Assyrian_Dictionary" title="Chicago Assyrian Dictionary">Chicago Assyrian Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Hittite_Dictionary" title="Chicago Hittite Dictionary">Chicago Hittite Dictionary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Iraq&#124;link=Iraq_Iraq_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Iraq_topics" title="Template:Iraq topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Iraq_topics" title="Template talk:Iraq topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Iraq_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Iraq topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Iraq&#124;link=Iraq_Iraq_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="position:relative; bottom:1px;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq"><img alt="Iraq" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg/23px-Flag_of_Iraq.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg/35px-Flag_of_Iraq.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg/45px-Flag_of_Iraq.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraq" title="History of Iraq">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraq" title="History of Iraq">Chronology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassuna_culture" title="Hassuna culture">Hassuna culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf-Ubaid_Transitional_period" title="Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period">Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samarra_culture" title="Samarra culture">Samarra culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subartu" title="Subartu">Subartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_rule_in_Mesopotamia" title="Gutian rule in Mesopotamia">Gutian dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isin-Larsa_period" title="Isin-Larsa period">Isin-Larsa period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">First Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Assyrian Period">Old Assyrian Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite dynasty of the Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Babylonian captivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Assyria" title="Achaemenid Assyria">Achaemenid Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asoristan" title="Asoristan">Sassanid Asorestan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">638–1958</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qara_Qoyunlu" title="Qara Qoyunlu">Qara Qoyunlu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Aq Qoyunlu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Iraq" title="Ottoman Iraq">Ottoman Iraq</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_dynasty_(Iraq)" title="Mamluk dynasty (Iraq)">Mamluk dynasty</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Mesopotamia" title="Mandate for Mesopotamia">Mandate for Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Iraq" title="Mandatory Iraq">Mandatory Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iraq" title="Kingdom of Iraq">Kingdom of Iraq</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Iraq" title="List of kings of Iraq">Kings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Federation" title="Arab Federation">Arab Federation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Republic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Republic_(1958%E2%80%931968)" title="Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)">1958–1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Iraq">1968–2003</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Iraq_(2003%E2%80%932011)" title="Occupation of Iraq (2003–2011)">2003–2011</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">2011–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">National Command</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_conflict" title="Iraqi–Kurdish conflict">Iraqi–Kurdish conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1974%E2%80%9375_Shatt_al-Arab_conflict" title="1974–75 Shatt al-Arab conflict">1974–1975 Shatt al-Arab clashes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Shia_uprising_in_Iraq" title="1977 Shia uprising in Iraq">1977 Shia uprising in Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979%E2%80%931980_Shia_uprising_in_Iraq" title="1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq">1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Iraq and weapons of mass destruction">Weapons of mass destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Opera" title="Operation Opera">Operation Opera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Kuwait" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of Kuwait">Invasion of Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1991_Iraqi_uprisings" title="1991 Iraqi uprisings">1991 uprisings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanctions_against_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanctions against Iraq">Sanctions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">U.S. invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_insurgency_(2003%E2%80%932011)" title="Iraqi insurgency (2003–2011)">Iraqi insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Withdrawal_of_United_States_troops_from_Iraq_(2007%E2%80%932011)" title="Withdrawal of United States troops from Iraq (2007–2011)">U.S. troop withdrawal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_insurgency_(2011%E2%80%932013)" title="Iraqi insurgency (2011–2013)">Insurgency (2011–2013)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Iraq_(2013%E2%80%932017)" title="War in Iraq (2013–2017)">War (2014–2017)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Mosul" title="Fall of Mosul">Fall of Mosul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mosul_(2016%E2%80%932017)" title="Battle of Mosul (2016–2017)">Mosul liberation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_insurgency_in_Iraq_(2017%E2%80%93present)" title="Islamic State insurgency in Iraq (2017–present)">Insurgency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2019%E2%80%932021_Iraqi_protests" title="2019–2021 Iraqi protests">2019–2021 protests</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021%E2%80%932022_Iraqi_political_crisis" title="2021–2022 Iraqi political crisis">2021–2022 Iraqi political crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Geography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Iraq" title="Geography of Iraq">Geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Faw_peninsula" title="Al-Faw peninsula">Faw peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Upper Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Mesopotamia" title="Lower Mesopotamia">Lower Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Iraq" title="Template:Borders of Iraq">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamrin_Mountains" title="Hamrin Mountains">Hamrin Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Kurdistan" title="Iraqi Kurdistan">Iraqi Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lakes_of_Iraq" title="Category:Lakes of Iraq">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Iraq" title="List of islands of Iraq">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mesopotamian Marshes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_in_Iraq" title="List of places in Iraq">Places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shatt_al-Arab" title="Shatt al-Arab">Shatt al-Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_Qasr" title="Umm Qasr">Umm Qasr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Iraq" title="Wildlife of Iraq">Wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinjar_Mountains" title="Sinjar Mountains">Sinjar Mountains</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Politics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Iraq" title="Politics of Iraq">Politics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governorates_of_Iraq" title="Governorates of Iraq">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Iraq" title="Constitution of Iraq">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Representatives_of_Iraq" title="Council of Representatives of Iraq">Council of Representatives <span style="font-size:85%;">(legislative)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_Iraq" title="Democracy in Iraq">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Iraq" title="Elections in Iraq">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_aid_to_Iraq" title="Foreign aid to Iraq">Foreign aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Iraq" title="Foreign relations of Iraq">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_Iraq" title="Federal government of Iraq">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Iraq)" title="Council of Ministers (Iraq)">Council of Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_Council_of_Iraq" title="Presidency Council of Iraq">Presidency Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Iraq" title="President of Iraq">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Iraq" title="List of presidents of Iraq">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Iraq" title="Prime Minister of Iraq">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Iraq" title="List of prime ministers of Iraq">List</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Iraq" title="Human rights in Iraq">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_pre-Saddam_Iraq" title="Human rights in pre-Saddam Iraq">in pre-Saddam Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Saddam_Hussein%27s_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Human rights in Saddam Hussein's Iraq">in Saddam Hussein's Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_post-invasion_Iraq" title="Human rights in post-invasion Iraq">in post-invasion Iraq</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Islamic_State-controlled_territory" title="Human rights in Islamic State-controlled territory">in ISIL-controlled territory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Iraq">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_Iraq" title="Freedom of religion in Iraq">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Iraq" title="Women in Iraq">Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Iraq" title="Law of Iraq">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Armed_Forces" title="Iraqi Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Police" title="Iraqi Police">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Iraq" title="List of political parties in Iraq">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Iraq" title="Judiciary of Iraq">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Iraq" title="List of wars involving Iraq">Wars and conflicts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Economy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Iraq" title="Economy of Iraq">Economy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Iraq" title="List of banks in Iraq">Banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Iraq" title="Central Bank of Iraq">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Iraq" title="List of companies of Iraq">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Iraq" title="Corruption in Iraq">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_dinar" title="Iraqi dinar">Dinar <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_of_Iraq" title="Infrastructure of Iraq">Infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investment_in_post-invasion_Iraq" title="Investment in post-invasion Iraq">Foreign Investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Iraq" title="Petroleum industry in Iraq">Oil Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_reserves_in_Iraq" title="Oil reserves in Iraq">Oil reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investment_in_post-invasion_Iraq" title="Investment in post-invasion Iraq">Reconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_Stock_Exchange" title="Iraq Stock Exchange">Stock Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Iraq" title="Telecommunications in Iraq">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Iraq" title="Transport in Iraq">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_airlines_of_Iraq" title="List of airlines of Iraq">Airlines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Republic_Railways" title="Iraqi Republic Railways">Railways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Iraq" title="Tourism in Iraq">Tourism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Iraq" title="Category:Society of Iraq">Society</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Iraq" title="Demographics of Iraq">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqis" title="Iraqis">Iraqis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Iraq" title="Languages of Iraq">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_languages" title="Neo-Aramaic languages">Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_language" title="Kurdish language">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Turkmen#Language" title="Iraqi Turkmen">Iraqi Turkmen/Turkoman dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minorities_in_Iraq" title="Minorities in Iraq">Minorities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Armenians" title="Iraqi Armenians">Armenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassians_in_Iraq" title="Circassians in Iraq">Circassians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Iraq" title="Kurds in Iraq">Kurds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaeans" title="Mandaeans">Mandaeans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsh_Arabs" title="Marsh Arabs">Marsh Arabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajam_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Ajam of Iraq">Persians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solluba" title="Solluba">Solluba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Turkmen" title="Iraqi Turkmen">Iraqi Turkmen</a>/Turkoman</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq" title="History of the Jews in Iraq">Jews</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iraq" title="Religion in Iraq">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism_in_Iraq" title="Secularism in Iraq">Secularism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Iraq" title="Islam in Iraq">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Iraq" title="Christianity in Iraq">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaeism" title="Mandaeism">Mandaeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazidis" title="Yazidis">Yazidis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_Iraq" title="Irreligion in Iraq">Irreligion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_art" title="Iraqi art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Iraq" title="Cinema of Iraq">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_cuisine" title="Iraqi cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Iraq" title="Culture of Iraq">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Iraq">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Iraq" title="Education in Iraq">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Iraq" title="Health in Iraq">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Iraq" title="Mass media in Iraq">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Iraq" title="Television in Iraq">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Iraq" title="Music of Iraq">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_Iraq" title="Smoking in Iraq">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Iraq" title="Sport in Iraq">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting_in_Iraq" title="Squatting in Iraq">Squatting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Iraq" title="Public holidays in Iraq">Public holidays</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akitu" title="Akitu">Mesopotamian spring festival (Akitu)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehwa_Rabba" title="Dehwa Rabba">Mandaean New Year</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span 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