CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Politics (Aristotle) - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"ff547d7c-3e67-4b52-940a-31d26e3d523c","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Politics_(Aristotle)","wgTitle":"Politics (Aristotle)","wgCurRevisionId":1240864809,"wgRevisionId":1240864809,"wgArticleId":1692804,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text","Commons category link from Wikidata","Articles with LibriVox links","Articles containing Latin-language text","Articles containing French-language text","Ancient Greek law","Books in political philosophy","Political philosophy in ancient Greece","Works about the theory of history","Works by Aristotle"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en", "wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Politics_(Aristotle)","wgRelevantArticleId":1692804,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":50000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q69539", "wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc", "skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Politics (Aristotle) - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Politics_(Aristotle)&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Politics_Aristotle rootpage-Politics_Aristotle skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Politics+%28Aristotle%29" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Politics+%28Aristotle%29" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Politics+%28Aristotle%29" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Politics+%28Aristotle%29" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Political_context" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_context"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Political context</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_context-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Overview" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overview"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Overview</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Overview-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Overview subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Overview-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Structure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Book_I" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Book_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Book I</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Book_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Book_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Book_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Book II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Book_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Book_III" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Book_III"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Book III</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Book_III-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Book_IV" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Book_IV"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Book IV</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Book_IV-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Book_V" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Book_V"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Book V</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Book_V-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Book_VI" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Book_VI"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Book VI</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Book_VI-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Book_VII" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Book_VII"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Book VII</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Book_VII-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Book_VIII" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Book_VIII"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Book VIII</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Book_VIII-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9.1</span> <span>Education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9.2</span> <span>Music</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification_of_constitutions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification_of_constitutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Classification of constitutions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification_of_constitutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Composition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Composition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Composition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Composition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Translations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Translations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Translations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Translations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greek_text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greek_text"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Greek text</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greek_text-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><i>Politics</i> (Aristotle)</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 38 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-38" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">38 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A9_(%D8%A3%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%88)" title="السياسة (أرسطو) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="السياسة (أرسطو)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF_(%E0%A6%8F%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%B2)" title="রাজনীতি (এরিস্টটল) – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="রাজনীতি (এরিস্টটল)" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_(%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB)" title="Политика (Аристотел) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Политика (Аристотел)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politika_(Aristotel)" title="Politika (Aristotel) – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Politika (Aristotel)" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pol%C3%ADtica_(Arist%C3%B2til)" title="Política (Aristòtil) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Política (Aristòtil)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politika_(Aristotel%C3%A9s)" title="Politika (Aristotelés) – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Politika (Aristotelés)" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dag mw-list-item"><a href="https://dag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siyaasa" title="Siyaasa – Dagbani" lang="dag" hreflang="dag" data-title="Siyaasa" data-language-autonym="Dagbanli" data-language-local-name="Dagbani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dagbanli</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politik_(Aristoteles)" title="Politik (Aristoteles) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Politik (Aristoteles)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AC_(%CE%91%CF%81%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%84%CE%AD%CE%BB%CE%B7%CF%82)" title="Πολιτικά (Αριστοτέλης) – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πολιτικά (Αριστοτέλης)" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pol%C3%ADtica_(Arist%C3%B3teles)" title="Política (Aristóteles) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Política (Aristóteles)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politiko_(Aristotelo)" title="Politiko (Aristotelo) – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Politiko (Aristotelo)" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politika_(Aristoteles)" title="Politika (Aristoteles) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Politika (Aristoteles)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA_(%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%88)" title="سیاست (ارسطو) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سیاست (ارسطو)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politique_(Aristote)" title="Politique (Aristote) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Politique (Aristote)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%95%EC%B9%98%ED%95%99_(%EC%95%84%EB%A6%AC%EC%8A%A4%ED%86%A0%ED%85%94%EB%A0%88%EC%8A%A4)" title="정치학 (아리스토텔레스) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="정치학 (아리스토텔레스)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%94%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%A1%D6%84%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6_(%D4%B1%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%AC)" title="Քաղաքականություն (Արիստոտել) – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Քաղաքականություն (Արիստոտել)" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8" title="पोलिटिक्स – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पोलिटिक्स" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politika_(Aristotel)" title="Politika (Aristotel) – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Politika (Aristotel)" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politika_(Aristoteles)" title="Politika (Aristoteles) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Politika (Aristoteles)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stj%C3%B3rnspekin" title="Stjórnspekin – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Stjórnspekin" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politica_(Aristotele)" title="Politica (Aristotele) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Politica (Aristotele)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politica_(Aristoteles)" title="Politica (Aristoteles) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Politica (Aristoteles)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_(%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB)" title="Политика (Аристотел) – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Политика (Аристотел)" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8A%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE_(%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B5%BD)" title="പൊളിറ്റികാ (അരിസ്റ്റോട്ടിൽ) – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പൊളിറ്റികാ (അരിസ്റ്റോട്ടിൽ)" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politika_(Aristoteles)" title="Politika (Aristoteles) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Politika (Aristoteles)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%AD%A6_(%E3%82%A2%E3%83%AA%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88%E3%83%86%E3%83%AC%E3%82%B9)" title="政治学 (アリストテレス) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="政治学 (アリストテレス)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politika_(Aristotel)" title="Politika (Aristotel) – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Politika (Aristotel)" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polityka_(Arystoteles)" title="Polityka (Arystoteles) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Polityka (Arystoteles)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pol%C3%ADtica_(Arist%C3%B3teles)" title="Política (Aristóteles) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Política (Aristóteles)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politica_(Aristotel)" title="Politica (Aristotel) – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Politica (Aristotel)" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_(%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C)" title="Политика (Аристотель) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Политика (Аристотель)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politika_(Aristotel)" title="Politika (Aristotel) – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Politika (Aristotel)" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politiikka_(Aristoteles)" title="Politiikka (Aristoteles) – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Politiikka (Aristoteles)" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politiken_(Aristoteles)" title="Politiken (Aristoteles) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Politiken (Aristoteles)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politika_(Aristoteles)" title="Politika (Aristoteles) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Politika (Aristoteles)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_(%D0%90%D1%80%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C)" title="Політика (Арістотель) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Політика (Арістотель)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%ADnh_tr%E1%BB%8B_lu%E1%BA%ADn" title="Chính trị luận – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chính trị luận" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%AD%A6_(%E4%BA%9A%E9%87%8C%E5%A3%AB%E5%A4%9A%E5%BE%B7)" title="政治学 (亚里士多德) – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="政治学 (亚里士多德)" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q69539#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Politics_(Aristotle)" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politics_(Aristotle)&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politics_(Aristotle)&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politics_(Aristotle)&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politics_(Aristotle)&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Politics_(Aristotle)" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politics_(Aristotle)&oldid=1240864809" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politics_(Aristotle)&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Politics_%28Aristotle%29&id=1240864809&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FPolitics_%28Aristotle%29"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FPolitics_%28Aristotle%29"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Politics_%28Aristotle%29&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politics_(Aristotle)&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Politics_(Aristotle)" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" hreflang="en"><span>Wikiquote</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikisource mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" hreflang="en"><span>Wikisource</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q69539" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Aristotle's comparative politics and theory, grounded in virtue ethics and natural philosophy</div> <p> <i><b>Politics</b></i> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Πολιτικά</span></span>, <i><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">Politiká</i></span></i>) is a work of <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a> by <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, a 4th-century BC Greek philosopher. </p><p>At the end of the <a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics#Book_X._Chapters_6–9:_Politics" title="Nicomachean Ethics"><i>Nicomachean Ethics</i></a>, Aristotle declared that the inquiry into ethics leads into a discussion of politics. The two works are frequently considered to be parts of a larger treatise — or perhaps connected lectures — dealing with the "philosophy of human affairs". In Aristotle's hierarchical system of philosophy he considers politics, the study of communities, to be of higher priority than ethics, which concerns individuals. </p><p>The title of <i>Politics</i> literally means "the things concerning the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">πόλις</span></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">polis</a></i></span>)", and is the origin of the modern English word <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>. As Aristotle explains, this is understood by him to be a study of how people should best live together in communities — the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">polis</a></i></span> being seen by him as the best and most natural community for humans. </p><p>The history of Greek city-states, their wars and intrigues and political churning, was well-documented. In addition to such documentation, Aristotle pursued a research project of collecting 158 <a href="/wiki/Constitutions_(Aristotle)" title="Constitutions (Aristotle)">constitutions</a> of various city-states in order to examine them for their strong and weak points. This evidence-based, descriptive approach to the study of politics was a hallmark of Aristotle's method, and a contrast with the more idealistic from-first-principles approach of <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, as seen for example in the <i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i>. </p><p>As with the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i>, the <i>Politics</i> is not a polished work as Aristotle would have written it for publication. There are various theories about the text which has come down to us. It may have been assembled from a set of shorter works on certain political themes, combined with or interlaced with his marginal notes or with the notes taken by those who attended his Lyceum lectures. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_context">Political context</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politics_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Political context"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aristotle was <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian</a>. He attended <a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Plato's Academy</a> in <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Athens</a> for about twenty years. He returned to Macedonia for a while, in part to tutor a young <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, and then went back to Athens to found his own school, the <a href="/wiki/Lyceum_(classical)" title="Lyceum (classical)">Lycaeum</a>. Though he spent most of his life and career in Athens, he was never an Athenian citizen, but more of a <a href="/wiki/Metic" title="Metic">resident alien</a>, with few political rights (he could not own property, for instance). Indeed, throughout his life, he was never a fully-fledged citizen of any Greek <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">polis</i></span>. </p><p>Citizenship in Greek city-states was usually limited to a minority of adult males. It included more responsibilities than the more passive matter-of-fact citizenship that is typical today. And it usually assumed that those who were citizens shared common goals, a common outlook, and a mutual interest in the success of the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">polis</i></span>. </p><p>Greece was divided politically into territories ruled by many independent city-states. These often formed alliances and sometimes centrally-governed confederations (particularly in times of war). Some developed colonies, both as ways of finding new agricultural land and as ways of giving a restive underclass something to do at some distance from the ruling class. </p><p>There is a reference in the <i>Politics</i> to the assassination of <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</a>, which happened in 336 BC. So we know that at least some of the work was composed after <a href="/wiki/Expansion_of_Macedonia_under_Philip_II" title="Expansion of Macedonia under Philip II">the expansion of the Macedonian kingdom under Philip II</a> which resulted in its dominion over Athens and much of the rest of Greece, subordinating Greece's many city-states to a foreign empire. </p><p>As a Macedonian and tutor to Alexander the Great, Aristotle was well-placed to be in the good graces of the political leadership of his time, until <a href="/wiki/Lamian_War" title="Lamian War">Athens challenged Macedonian power</a> towards the end of Aristotle's life, and he went into exile from Athens to avoid the possibility of being attacked by anti-Macedonian Athenians. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politics_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structure">Structure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politics_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aristotle's <i>Politics</i> is divided into eight books, which are each further divided into chapters. Citations of this work, as with the rest of the <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Aristotelicum" class="mw-redirect" title="Corpus Aristotelicum">works of Aristotle</a>, are often made by referring to the <a href="/wiki/Bekker_numbering" title="Bekker numbering">Bekker section numbers</a>. <i>Politics</i> spans the Bekker sections 1252a to 1342b. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Book_I">Book I</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politics_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Book I"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the first book, Aristotle discusses the city (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">πόλις</span></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">polis</a></i></span>) or "political community" (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">κοινωνία πολιτική</span></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">koinōnía politikē</i></span>) in comparison with other types of communities and partnerships such as the household (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">οἶκος</span></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">oikos</i></span>), the master/slave relationship, and the village. </p><p>The highest form of community is the polis. Aristotle comes to this conclusion because he believes the public life is far more virtuous than the private and because "man is by nature a political animal".<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: I.2 (1253a)">: I.2 (1253a) </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Alan_Ebenstein_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alan_Ebenstein-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He begins with the relationship between the city and man,<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: I.1–2">: I.1–2 </span></sup> and then specifically discusses the household.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: I.3–13">: I.3–13 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lord_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lord-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 27">: 27 </span></sup> </p><p>He takes issue with the view that political rule, kingly rule, and rule over a household or village are only different in size, but rule over slaves was a different kind of rule. He then examines in what way the city may be said to be <a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)#Classical_nature_and_Aristotelian_metaphysics" title="Nature (philosophy)">natural</a>. He concludes that "the state is a creation of nature"<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: I.2 (1253a)">: I.2 (1253a) </span></sup>: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>[W]hile the state came about as a means of securing life itself, it continues in being to secure the <i>good</i> life.… This association is the end of those others [the household and the village], and nature is itself an end; for whatever is the end-product of the coming into existence of any object, that is what we call its nature… Moreover the aim and the end is perfection; and self-sufficiency [<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">αὐτάρκεια</span></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">autarkeia</i></span>] is both end and perfection.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: I.2 (1252b–1253a)">: I.2 (1252b–1253a) </span></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Aristotle discusses the parts of the household, which includes slaves. He considers whether slavery can ever be just and better for the person enslaved or is always unjust and bad. He distinguishes between those who are slaves because the law says they are and those who are <a href="/wiki/Natural_slavery" title="Natural slavery">slaves by nature</a>, saying the inquiry hinges on whether there are any such natural slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: I.5–6">: I.5–6 </span></sup> </p><p>Only someone as different from other people as the body is from the soul or beasts are from human beings would be a slave by nature, Aristotle concludes, all others being slaves solely by law or convention. Some scholars have therefore concluded that the qualifications for natural slavery preclude the existence of such a being (though Aristotle was convinced that natural slaves were a thing).<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aristotle then moves to the question of property in general, arguing that the acquisition of property does not form a part of household management (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">οἰκονομική</span></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">oikonomikē</i></span>) and criticizing those who engage in excessive <a href="/wiki/Chrematistics" title="Chrematistics">chrematistics</a>. Wealth accumulation is necessary to a point, but that does not make it a part of household management any more than it makes medicine a part of household management just because health is necessary.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: I.9–10">: I.9–10 </span></sup> </p><p>He criticizes income based upon <a href="/wiki/Trade" title="Trade">trade</a> and upon <a href="/wiki/Interest" title="Interest">interest</a>, saying that those who become avaricious do so because they forget that money merely symbolizes wealth without being wealth, and that interest is "contrary to nature" because it increases by itself not through exchange.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: I.10">: I.10 </span></sup> </p><p>Book I concludes with Aristotle's assertion that the proper object of household rule is the virtuous character of one's wife and children, not the management of slaves or the acquisition of property. Rule over the slaves is despotic, rule over children kingly, and rule over one's wife political (except there is no rotation in office). Aristotle questions whether it is sensible to speak of the "virtue" of a slave and whether the "virtues" of a wife and children are the same as those of a man. He thinks that such people have their own sort of virtues, though not the same set as those of free men, and that even to the extent that they have virtues with the same names as those of free men, they mean somewhat different things.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: I.13">: I.13 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Book_II">Book II</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politics_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Book II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Book II examines various views concerning the best regime.<sup id="cite_ref-Lord_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lord-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 27">: 27 </span></sup> It opens with an analysis of the regime presented in <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)"><i>Republic</i></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: II.1–5">: II.1–5 </span></sup> Aristotle maintains that, contrary to Plato's assertions, communal share of property between the <a href="/wiki/Philosopher_king" title="Philosopher king">guardians</a> will increase rather than decrease dissensions, and sharing of wives and children will destroy natural affection. He concludes that common sense is against this arrangement for good reason, and claims that experiment shows it to be impractical. He next analyzes the regime presented in Plato's <a href="/wiki/Laws_(Plato)" class="mw-redirect" title="Laws (Plato)"><i>Laws</i></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: II.6">: II.6 </span></sup> Aristotle then discusses the systems presented by two other philosophers, <a href="/wiki/Phaleas_of_Chalcedon" title="Phaleas of Chalcedon">Phaleas of Chalcedon</a><sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: II.7">: II.7 </span></sup> (who promoted methods of enforcing wealth egalitarianism) and <a href="/wiki/Hippodamus_of_Miletus" title="Hippodamus of Miletus">Hippodamus of Miletus</a><sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: II.8">: II.8 </span></sup> (who had detailed plans for utopian communities). </p><p>After addressing regimes invented by theorists, Aristotle moves to the examination of three existing regimes that were commonly held to be well managed. These are the <a href="/wiki/Spartan_Constitution" title="Spartan Constitution">Spartan</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: II.9">: II.9 </span></sup> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Crete#Classical,_Hellenistic,_Roman,_Byzantine_and_Arab_Crete" title="History of Crete">Cretan</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: II.10">: II.10 </span></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Carthage#Government" title="Carthage">Carthaginian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: II.11">: II.11 </span></sup> The book concludes with some observations on regimes and legislators, and on the reforms of <a href="/wiki/Solon" title="Solon">Solon</a> in Athens.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: II.12">: II.12 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Book_III">Book III</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politics_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Book III"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aristotle considers citizenship and who counts as a citizen. He asserts that a citizen is anyone who is "entitled to participate in office, deliberative or judicial".<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: III.1–2">: III.1–2 </span></sup> This excludes honorary citizens, resident aliens, slaves, women, foreigners even if they have some access to the legal system through commercial treaties, boys too young for military service, or people who have been exiled or stripped of their citizenship. Aristotle is also doubtful about whether citizenship should extend to the <a href="/wiki/Banausos" title="Banausos">banausos</a> or working classes.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: III.5">: III.5 </span></sup> </p><p>He next considers what sort of entity a state is, whether it is a single thing, and under what circumstances it can be considered to have changed or, alternatively, to have been supplanted by a new state.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: III.3">: III.3 </span></sup> He then turns to the question of how the virtues of a person qua person line up with the virtues of a person qua citizen: where they are coincident and where they may differ.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: III.4">: III.4 </span></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotle-constitutions-2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Aristotle-constitutions-2.png/300px-Aristotle-constitutions-2.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="504" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Aristotle-constitutions-2.png/450px-Aristotle-constitutions-2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Aristotle-constitutions-2.png/600px-Aristotle-constitutions-2.png 2x" data-file-width="912" data-file-height="1531" /></a><figcaption>Aristotle's classification of <a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">constitutions</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Next, Aristotle classifies varieties of <a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">constitution</a>, in their good and bad forms (in good ones, the rulers rule in the interest of the <a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">common good</a>; in bad ones, for the benefit of the rulers themselves).<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: III.6–8">: III.6–8 </span></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Varieties of Constitution </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>who rules?</th> <th>good form</th> <th>bad form </th></tr> <tr> <td>one person</td> <td>monarchy</td> <td>tyranny </td></tr> <tr> <td>few people</td> <td>aristocracy</td> <td>oligarchy </td></tr> <tr> <td>many people</td> <td>polity / timocracy</td> <td>democracy </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>"The state is an association intended to enable its members, in their households and the kinships, to live well," says Aristotle, "its purpose is a perfect and self-sufficient life." So what is important is not so much who has the power, but whether that power is deployed skillfully toward that end. Political organizations based on equality of power, or on power distributed proportionally to wealth or nobility, are at best approximations to this. Ideally, those who contribute most to the association of people living together for the sake of noble action are entitled to a larger share of state authority.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: III.9&12">: III.9&12 </span></sup> Justice means more than just conformity to constitutional norms; whatever destroys the health of society is not just, even if it was accomplished legally.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: III.10">: III.10 </span></sup> </p><p>In chapter 11, Aristotle explains the <a href="/wiki/Wisdom_of_the_crowd" title="Wisdom of the crowd">wisdom of the crowd</a> phenomenon: "[I]t is possible that the many, no one of whom taken singly is a sound man, may yet, taken all together, be better than the few, not individually but collectively."<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: III.11">: III.11 </span></sup> This is one argument for letting a broad base of people engage in political decision-making even though none of them are individually particularly qualified to do so. </p><p>He argues against the idea that extraordinarily virtuous people ought to be given the reins of the state. Rather, "such men we must take not to be part of the state... there is no law that embraces men of that calibre: they are themselves law." Indeed, a wise state might be better off showing such people the door so that they do not become sources of political instability.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: III.13">: III.13 </span></sup> </p><p>Finally, he returns to his division of varieties of constitution, and begins to analyze them in greater detail, beginning with varieties of monarchy/tyranny.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: III.14–18">: III.14–18 </span></sup> </p><p>He also explores the idea that there is a sort of natural lifecycle of states: A state begins when it is founded by an outstanding individual, capable of conferring benefits on others, who becomes the monarch. As more people of good character emerge in the state, they begin to agitate for more political power, and an aristocracy emerges. But corruption then sets in as the aristocracy leverages their political power over the commons for economic gain. Oligarchy sets in, followed by tyranny, and then democracy, such that "one might say that it is hard to avoid having a democratic constitution."<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: III.14–16">: III.14–16 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Book_IV">Book IV</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politics_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Book IV"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Political science, says Aristotle, should address the following questions:<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: IV.1–2">: IV.1–2 </span></sup> </p> <ul><li>What sorts of constitution are there, and which are ideally best?</li> <li>For a particular real-world population, given its present circumstances and capabilities, which constitution would be best?</li> <li>What are the dynamics of actual states as we find them; how do they develop and decay; and how can we affect this?</li> <li>Are there cookie-cutter constitutional forms that can be recommended?</li></ul> <p>He distinguishes laws from constitutions:<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: IV.1">: IV.1 </span></sup> </p> <dl><dt>a constitution</dt> <dd>"the organization of a polis, in respect of its offices generally, but especially in respect of that petticoat office whis is sovereign in all issues."</dd> <dt>the laws</dt> <dd>"are those according to which the rulers shall rule and shall watch out for those that transgress them"</dd></dl> <p>Of the constitutional varieties Aristotle categorized in the previous book, he ranks them as follows (best to worst):<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: IV.2">: IV.2 </span></sup> </p> <ol><li>monarchy</li> <li>aristocracy</li> <li>polity</li> <li>democracy</li> <li>oligarchy</li> <li>tyranny</li></ol> <p>Aristotle says that states, and the citizenry, can be divided up in various ways, depending on the constitutional order, the purpose of the state, and the nature of the society it governs. At minimum, a state will have "organs" (analogous to the functional organs of a body) of sorts like agricultural, mechanical (manufacturing), commercial, labor, capital, military, judicial & deliberative/legislative, and executive/bureaucratic.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: IV.3–4">: IV.3–4 </span></sup> </p><p>He next considers varieties of democracy, including those in which the majority rules but has restraints into what they can do with that rule, and those in which the majority rules utterly. He says that <a href="/wiki/Demagogues" class="mw-redirect" title="Demagogues">demagogues</a> are typically the catalyst for a democracy going rogue and exercising power irresponsibly. Demagogues have a similar role in a decaying democracy as toadies have in a decaying monarchy: they flatter the ruler(s) into ever more arbitrary and selfish exercises of power.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: IV.4">: IV.4 </span></sup> </p><p>There are four varieties of oligarchy: those based on property; those originally based on property but that you cannot just buy your way into; those that are hereditary but limited by law and precedent; and those that are hereditary and arbitrary.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: IV.5–6">: IV.5–6 </span></sup> </p><p>A polity is a sort of mix of democracy and oligarchy: "A constitution which is a really well-made combination of oligarchy and democracy," Aristotle says, "ought to look like both and like neither." It tends to most empower the middle-class, and is most healthy if economic inequality is kept within reasonable bounds.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: IV.8–9,11–12">: IV.8–9,11–12 </span></sup> </p><p>To prevent the majority from seizing power by force of numbers, you can use a variety of financial incentives that nominally disadvantage the wealthy to keep the lower classes satisfied with giving the wealthy more power (for example you can fine the wealthy for neglecting to serve on a jury but let the poor skip out without penalty).<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: IV.13">: IV.13 </span></sup> </p><p>Aristotle next discusses the legislative element of government, which he says has the following responsibilities:<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: IV.14">: IV.14 </span></sup> </p> <ul><li>“decisions as to war and peace”</li> <li>“the making and dissolving of alliances”</li> <li>“legislation”</li> <li>“the penalties of death, exile, and confiscation of goods”</li> <li>“the choosing of officials, and the scrutiny of their conduct on expiry of tenure”</li></ul> <p>The executive branch has more variety, depending on the particular government, its constitutional structure, and how its members are chosen. The judicial branch varies in this way as well. It is typically divided into different varieties of court, each specializing in a different sort of dispute or auditing function.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: IV.15–16">: IV.15–16 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Book_V">Book V</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politics_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Book V"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aristotle next examines political instability in greater detail, beginning with factionalism. According to Aristotle, factionalism can arise due to ordinary human biases: people are biased toward self-interest. They usually find that people in situations like their own are not getting as much power, status, or resources as they deserve, and they are drawn to join with others of their situation to try to improve their lot.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: V.1–3">: V.1–3 </span></sup> The following causes are examples of situations that can also lead to destabilizing factionalism: </p> <ul><li>Two large factions in a power struggle are closely-matched in capabilities, without a more powerful buffer institution between them, such that the fruits of victory in a power struggle seem especially tempting.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: V.4">: V.4 </span></sup></li> <li>The form of government in your polis is different from those in the surrounding ones (e.g. an oligarchy surrounded by democracies)<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: V.7">: V.7 </span></sup></li></ul> <p>If conditions like these prevail, a spark can set off a fire that burns down the constitutional order. That spark can be something seemingly trivial and far-removed from the actual underlying causes that are causing the constitutional order to decay. By the time this happens, it's too late. It's important to address constitutional instability before the straw breaks the camel's back.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: V.4">: V.4 </span></sup> </p><p>Different sorts of constitutional orders fall in different ways. Democracies are most easily toppled by demagogues who either become tyrants themselves or who provoke a threatened oligarchy into seizing power to prevent a populist uprising that threatens their property and status. They can also decay slowly into worse forms of democracy if too many people are given the vote and electioneering and pandering to voters becomes the main way to get political power.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: V.5">: V.5 </span></sup> </p><p>Oligarchies become vulnerable when the oligarchs become haughty and abusive, when powerful and jealous people are denied entry to the oligarchy, or when internal intrigue divides the oligarchs. Demagogues can exploit these things to lead populist democratic uprisings. Oligarchies may also fall by "temporarily" ceding power to a military leader during time of war, who then either refuses to relinquish power or decides to devolve it to a military junta rather than to the original oligarchs. Independent, "non-political" militaries can evolve into political factions of their own that can undermine oligarchies. Reforms (for example a relaxing of property requirements to be considered a qualified oligarch) can also gradually transform an oligarchy into something more resembling a democracy.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: V.6">: V.6 </span></sup> </p><p>Aristocracies and polities most often fall when they economically exploit and unjustly mistreat the lower classes. As in oligarchies, demagogues will exploit this to agitate the lower classes and peel them away their loyalty to the constitutional order. Polities that lean towards oligarchy or towards democracy tend to continue to slide gradually in the direction of their lean, with occasional lurches in the opposite direction when the people on the other side feel wronged enough to do something about it.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: V.7">: V.7 </span></sup> </p><p>Monarchies and tyrannies are undermined by resentment of injustice and ill-treatment, fear of things getting worse (we'd better overthrow the tyrant now while we still can), contempt for the tyrant's character (for example, when the heir to the throne turns out to be inept), when the tyranny confiscates property, or when someone has ambitions to seize some of the honor and riches the tyrant is hoarding. Some of this is similar to the sources of instability in other constitutional orders, but in a monarchy it's more personal: the target of the resentment is usually the monarch himself rather than the constitutional order. And therefore the threat is also usually to the monarch and not to the constitution: the revolutionaries want vengeance more than they want to seize power.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: V.10">: V.10 </span></sup> </p><p>Aristotle gives some advice about how to preserve and stabilize various types of constitutional order:<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: V.8–9,11">: V.8–9,11 </span></sup> </p> <ul><li>Beware of the accumulation of minor illegalities; these can add up to a general contempt of the laws.</li> <li>Give non-citizens a seat at the table, do not deny the ambitious the honor they seek, do not lock the masses out of the economy, and keep those parts of the government that are democratic in nature operating in a spirit of equality and power-sharing.</li> <li>Short tenures of office reduce the problem of malevolent, tyrannical, incompetent, or factional office-holders,.</li> <li>While it is good for the stability of a state that threats be kept well at bay, it can also be useful to have threats close at hand, because this rallies citizens around the flag and discourages internal division. So it can help to invent fanciful threats if none are handy.</li> <li>If you use wealth-qualification in your oligarchy, be sure to index it for inflation and changes in property values so it does not unintentionally evaporate, leaving a de facto democracy behind.</li> <li>Power corrupts, so do not give too much power to any individual for long.</li> <li>Beware concentrations of wealth or the accumulation of power outside of legal channels by wealthy people; exile them if you have to if they grow too powerful. Balance any offices that have become dominated by wealthy interests. Strengthen the middle-class.</li> <li>You may need to set up some authority whose sole job it is to keep the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">polis</i></span> operating according to its constitution.</li> <li>Ensure that political offices are not sources of financial profit for the officials who hold them. People resent office-holders robbing the public treasury or being otherwise corrupt. Note that if you cannot profit from being in office, your institutions can be nominally democratic but only already-wealthy people will be willing to take positions in them, which satisfies both the democrats and the oligarchs.</li> <li>Publicly audit office-holders at the end of their terms in order to prevent theft of public funds.</li> <li>Honor officials who develop a reputation for honesty in office.</li> <li>Avoid “soak the rich” or redistribution policies, and don't encourage showy expenditures on public goods by the wealthy. Instead arrange your laws such that they do not facilitate the accumulation of great estates.</li> <li>Discourage ill-treatment or injustice toward the poor by the rich.</li> <li>If you can, improve the balance by giving your attention and authority to those who are currently most excluded by your constitution. For instance, in an oligarchy, consult the people; in a democracy, consult the oligarchs. Similarly, your rhetoric should face in the opposite direction from your power base: as head of the oligarchy call yourself the champion of the common man; as head of the democracy vow to respect private property.</li> <li>Office-holders should have respect for the constitution, skill & experience, and those virtues and that sense of justice that is appropriate to the variety of constitution. But given that all of these qualities are rarely found in the same person, choose officials wisely and based on the requirements of the office.</li> <li>The health of the constitution depends on more people wanting to maintain it than to overthrow it. Avoid alienating any portion of the population, but instead try to bring everybody to the table. Beware of taking good-sounding principles to extremes: Either absolute democracy or absolute oligarchy will fall victim to its excesses.</li> <li>Most importantly, educate the citizenry in the virtues necessary to the constitutional order. Make virtuous, lawful behavior the habitual norm through careful training. Teach democratic citizens how to exercise their roles responsibly; teach oligarchs theirs as well. Too often in an oligarchy, the sons of the rich lead idle, frivolous lives, and so the poor become more politically sophisticated and thereby revolutionary. Democracies also fail in this regard, and confuse what is just and right with whatever whim the majority happens to will at any particular time.</li> <li>A monarchy can preserve itself best by being moderate and being willing to share power or refrain from exercising power. A tyrant can try this too, if he cares to, and ought at least to make a show of being restrained and dignified (and pious) in public.</li> <li>A tyrant can maintain power by identifying and eliminating potential rivals, banning independent organizations, discouraging people from working together, making people dependent on the government, having spies among the people so that it's hard for them to know whom to trust, keeping the masses at each other's throats, keeping them poor so they're too busy making ends meet to rise up, being often at war or on the brink of it, and keeping women and slaves subjugated so that the main power struggle in society is within the people not between the people and the tyrant.</li> <li>A tyrant should bestow honors personally, but delegate the imposition of punishments to others. It is dangerous to humiliate or abuse people.</li> <li>If you raise someone to prominence, keep an eye on them and empower their rivals as well. If you have to take someone down a notch, do it gradually.</li> <li>As a tyrant, identify whether the common people or the propertied people are the most powerful faction, and, whichever it is, declare yourself to be their champion.</li></ul> <p>Finally, Aristotle criticizes Plato's suggestion from the <i>Republic</i> that there is a natural lifecycle of constitutions in which they begin as aristocracies and then progressively decay through the stages of timocracy, oligarchy, democracy, and finally tyranny. Aristotle says that this is oversimplified, does not make theoretical sense, and fails the empirical test of looking at regime change in the historical record. History shows a much larger variety of transformations than these have taken place.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: V.12">: V.12 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Book_VI">Book VI</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politics_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Book VI"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aristotle next looks more closely at democratic and at oligarchic constitutions. He begins with the democratic.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: VI.1–4">: VI.1–4 </span></sup> </p><p>"Liberty" is the usual principle behind democracy, Aristotle says, and what is typically meant by this is that people take turns being the ruler and being the ruled, the majority makes the decisions, and people are generally left alone to live as they please (or, to the extent that they are ruled over, they at least get to rule over others in turn). </p><p>Common features of democratic constitutions include: </p> <ul><li>Everyone can vote and can be elected for office.</li> <li>The rule of all over each, and of each (by turns) over all.</li> <li>Offices are filled by lot (unless they require some specialized skill).</li> <li>There is no property qualification for office.</li> <li>Office holders are term-limited and cannot hold the same office twice in succession.</li> <li>Important cases are tried by jury.</li> <li>The legislature is the most powerful and sovereign body.</li> <li>Government service is a paid position.</li> <li>Officials are not typically distinguished by birth, wealth, or education.</li></ul> <p>The issue with defining equality in the manner a democratic constitution states, is that the majority are "more equal" than those in a minority, who are not represented. In particular, the more numerous poor can plunder the less-numerous rich using their majoritarian power. A possible remedy for this is a sort of <a href="/wiki/Bicameralism" title="Bicameralism">bicameralism</a> in which a popular assembly and an oligarchical one each vote on the same questions. Where they agree, the polis is in consensus, and can proceed. Where they disagree, appeal next to a combined assembly in which everyone's vote is weighted by their property value; this proportionally-voting assembly has the final word. </p><p>Democracies work best in agriculture-based communities of small farm holders. This is in large part because the common people are located far from the government seat and are busy with their farms, so they are not often tempted to use their democratic rights: if they can elect and audit their rulers, they are usually satisfied to let them be otherwise. Such a system is nominally democratic, which flatters the people, but the people who actually hold office and take part in government affairs are usually the wealthy urbanites, which pleases the oligarchs. </p><p>Among the things that can make a democracy more stable:<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: VI.4–5">: VI.4–5 </span></sup> </p> <ul><li>Preserve small-farm holdings by passing laws discouraging <a href="/wiki/Concentration_of_land_ownership" title="Concentration of land ownership">concentration of land ownership</a> or mortgaging farms.</li> <li>Don't enfranchise any more classes of citizens than you have to.</li> <li>Disrupt old allegiances, groups, and traditions in favor of new ones that are centered on the democracy.</li> <li>Make it more difficult for the government to use money confiscated from the rich to bribe the voters or for populist free-money giveaways.</li></ul> <p>Aristotle believed that a polis should be made from borrowing elements from both an oligarchy and democracy. </p><p>Oligarchies are most likely to thrive if an expensive military branch is necessary. For instance, if your <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">polis</i></span> relies on cavalry, your military will be dominated by those who can afford to keep horses, which will reinforce oligarchical norms. If your military is dominated by the more democratic light infantry or navy, however, an oligarchy will have a harder time justifying itself and will find the military has become a democratic power center that may pose a challenge to it. In such a case, consider enlisting the sons of the oligarchs in your military so that it does not become a hotbed of democratic sentiment.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: VI.7">: VI.7 </span></sup> </p><p>If you require oligarchical office holders to fund public activities, establish public works, throw banquets, and the like, the common people will be more satisfied with a constitution that otherwise neglects them. Such things are also a sort of public relations campaign for the oligarchy.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: VI.7">: VI.7 </span></sup> </p><p>Finally, Aristotle describes the necessary bureaucracy of a <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">polis</i></span>, which at minimum needs officials who superintend:<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: VI.8">: VI.8 </span></sup> </p> <ul><li>religion (temple management, ritual supervision)</li> <li>defense and war</li> <li>the treasury</li> <li>commerce (keeps the marketplace in good order and ensures honesty in its workings)</li> <li>public works (keeps streets in good order, repairs dilapidated public buildings and walls and harbors, fixes property boundaries)</li> <li>land management (similar responsibilities, but covers the territory outside the urban center)</li> <li>the courts</li> <li>records (keeps track of contracts, legal decisions, and other documents)</li> <li>law enforcement (enforces judgments, imprisons offenders)</li> <li>audits (into the accounts of the various offices and the conduct of officials)</li> <li>presiding (over governing bodies and secular rituals)</li></ul> <p>Law enforcement is particularly difficult to get right. The people it is directed against naturally resent it, and so it is difficult and unrewarding. Respectable people avoid becoming law enforcement officers, which leads the office to be peopled by the worst sort "who are themselves more in need of guarding than capable of guarding others." Aristotle recommends that instead of making this a professional position, that law enforcement officers be drafted from those doing militia duty, who then rotate out at the end of their duty period.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: VI.8">: VI.8 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Book_VII">Book VII</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politics_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Book VII"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The purpose of political association is to promote human flourishing (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonia</a></i></span>), something Aristotle defined and further examined in the <i><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: VII.1,13–17">: VII.1,13–17 </span></sup> </p><p>Human flourishing requires the basics of biological survival, a good character (the virtues), and the finer things of life. Virtues are especially important, as they can help you achieve the other two things, but also because (in the best of us, anyway) we only acquire biological necessities and additional material luxuries in order that we may practice the virtues in a complete and unimpeded way.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: VII.1">: VII.1 </span></sup> Don't make the mistake of pursuing material goods for the sake of wealth, or political authority for the sake of power.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: VII.13–17">: VII.13–17 </span></sup> </p><p>A state is in some ways analogous to a person, and also needs virtues in order to thrive. Some people think that the virtues of a state are limited to military virtues (courage, honor, boldness), but Aristotle thinks this is too narrow.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: VII.2–3">: VII.2–3 </span></sup> </p><p>An individual is best off neither as an <a href="/wiki/Ambition_(character_trait)" title="Ambition (character trait)">ambitious</a> political climber, nor as an aloof hermit, but as someone who engages politically in a just and restrained way. The most virtuous people will not be the rulers, nor will they care to be.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: VII.3">: VII.3 </span></sup> </p><p>Aristotle examines certain down-to-earth but important considerations for the success of political organizations: the extent of territory and the size of population, access to the sea, and the influence of climate.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: VII.4–7,11–12">: VII.4–7,11–12 </span></sup> In addition, a successful state will need:<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: VII.8–10">: VII.8–10 </span></sup> </p> <ul><li>a food supply</li> <li>a skilled workforce</li> <li>arms</li> <li>money</li> <li>religion, and a dedicated priesthood</li> <li>a decision-making and adjudication process</li> <li>a comfortably wealthy ruling class</li></ul> <p>The purpose of a good state is to promote the virtues of its citizens, but it takes virtuous citizens to govern (and be governed in turn by) a good state. The problem of how to make sure the citizens are virtuous people is vital and of first importance to the person who wants to create or defend a sound state.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: VII.13–17">: VII.13–17 </span></sup> </p><p>Three parts of the characters of citizens shape their virtuousness: their nature as a human being, their irrational part (the subconscious, habits, things of that sort), and their rational part. The first is largely out of the statesman's control, though eugenics is a possibility Aristotle thinks is worth exploring, and prenatal/postnatal care and nutrition is also important. The second is best formed when the citizen is a youth and their habits and appetites have not yet solidified. The third comes later, when the rational part of a person matures.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: VII.13–17">: VII.13–17 </span></sup> </p><p>Aristotle recommends a deliberate regimen of education to mold citizens' characters well from childhood.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: VII.17–VIII.4">: VII.17–VIII.4 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Book_VIII">Book VIII</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politics_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Book VIII"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This book begins where the previous one left off, with a discussion of education. But it then concerns itself with musical education and music theory exclusively until the conclusion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Education">Education</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politics_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The quality of a state depends on the character of the citizenry, which is a function of the virtues actively practiced by them. This requires education, training, and practice, starting from an early age. The state needs to make sure this happens.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: VIII.1–2">: VIII.1–2 </span></sup> </p><p>Aristotle recommends beginning with gymnastic training at an early age, before children are ready for much intellectual effort. However, Aristotle stresses the need for moderation in this, and that one should not pursue physical education to such an extreme as the Spartans, for example.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: VIII.2–4">: VIII.2–4 </span></sup> </p><p>Education needs to be about more than learning arts and crafts, or becoming a competent scholar. It should attempt to craft the student into a better person. This does not necessarily mean a more <i>useful</i> person: indeed a good person is one who best knows how to deploy his leisure time toward the end of living a good life.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: VIII.3">: VIII.3 </span></sup> </p><p>Musical education is one way of teaching people how to produce and to appreciate something meant for leisurely delight.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: VIII.3,5">: VIII.3,5 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Music">Music</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politics_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Music"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aristotle considers a variety of perspectives on musical education. For instance: is it better designed to teach good taste <i>about</i> music, or skill in <i>making</i> music? </p><p>Music is an <i>end</i>, which is to say that it is something desired for its own sake, not as a means to something else. Choosing our ends wisely is key to living well, so musical education is kind of a microcosmic way of learning how to live. </p><p>Different varieties of music can also provoke emotional reactions in people. If you learn to like music that evokes noble changes in your soul, this can help you to learn noble behavior. For example <a href="/wiki/Dorian_mode" title="Dorian mode">dorian mode</a> is preferred for its manly qualities, over <a href="/wiki/Phrygian_mode" title="Phrygian mode">phrygian mode</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ionian_mode" title="Ionian mode">ionian mode</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Politics_1-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: VIII.5–7">: VIII.5–7 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification_of_constitutions">Classification of constitutions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politics_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Classification of constitutions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After studying a number of real and theoretical city-states' constitutions, Aristotle classified them according to various criteria. On one side stand the true (or good) constitutions, which are considered such because they aim for the common good, and on the other side the perverted (or deviant) ones, considered such because they aim for the well-being of only a part of the city. The constitutions are then sorted according to the "number" of those who participate to the magistracies: one, a few, or many. Aristotle's sixfold classification is slightly different from the one found in <i><a href="/wiki/Statesman_(dialogue)" title="Statesman (dialogue)">The Statesman</a></i> by Plato. The diagram above illustrates Aristotle's classification. Moreover, following Plato's vague ideas, he developed a coherent theory of integrating various forms of power into a so-called mixed state: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> It is … constitutional to take … from oligarchy that offices are to be elected, and from democracy that this is not to be on a property-qualification. This then is the mode of the mixture; and the mark of a good mixture of democracy and oligarchy is when it is possible to speak of the same constitution as a democracy and as an oligarchy. </p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Aristotle. <i>Politics</i>, Book 4, 1294b.10–18</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Composition">Composition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politics_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Composition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The literary character of the <i>Politics</i> is subject to some dispute, growing out of the textual difficulties that attended the <a href="/wiki/Aristotle#Loss_and_preservation" title="Aristotle">loss of Aristotle's works</a>. Book III ends with a sentence that is repeated almost verbatim at the start of Book VII, while the intervening Books IV–VI seem to have different flavor from the rest; Book IV seems to refer several times back to the discussion of the best regime contained in Books VII–VIII.<sup id="cite_ref-Lord_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lord-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 15">: 15 </span></sup> Some editors have therefore inserted Books VII–VIII after Book III. At the same time, however, references to the "discourses on politics" that occur in the <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> suggest that the treatise as a whole ought to conclude with the discussion of education that occurs in Book VIII of the <i>Politics</i>, although it is not certain that Aristotle is referring to the <i>Politics</i> here.<sup id="cite_ref-Lord_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lord-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Location: 19, 246 n. 53">: 19, 246 n. 53 </span></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Werner_Jaeger" title="Werner Jaeger">Werner Jaeger</a> suggested that the <i>Politics</i> actually represents the conflation of two, distinct treatises.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first (Books I–III, VII–VIII) would represent a less mature work from when Aristotle had not yet fully broken from <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, and consequently show a greater emphasis on the best regime. The second (Books IV–VI) would be more empirically minded, and thus belong to a later stage of development. </p><p>Carnes Lord, a scholar on Aristotle, has argued against the sufficiency of this view, however, noting the numerous cross-references between Jaeger's supposedly separate works and questioning the difference in tone that Jaeger saw between them. For example, Book IV explicitly notes the utility of examining actual regimes (Jaeger's "empirical" focus) in determining the best regime (Jaeger's "Platonic" focus). Instead, Lord suggests that the <i>Politics</i> is indeed a finished treatise, and that Books VII and VIII do belong in between Books III and IV; he attributes their current ordering to a merely mechanical transcription error.<sup id="cite_ref-Lord_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lord-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 15–16">: 15–16 </span></sup> </p><p>It is uncertain whether <i>Politics</i> was translated into Arabic like most of his major works.<sup id="cite_ref-Pines_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pines-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 147, 156">: 147, 156 </span></sup> Its influence and ideas were, however, carried over to Arabic philosophers.<sup id="cite_ref-Pines_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pines-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 156">: 156 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Translations">Translations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politics_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Translations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAristotle1948" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle (1948). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/embed/dli.ernet.260148"><i>The Politics</i></a>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Barker" title="Ernest Barker">Barker, Sir Ernest</a>. Oxford: Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1948&rft.au=Aristotle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fembed%2Fdli.ernet.260148&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle1912" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle (1912). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/embed/in.ernet.dli.2015.277006"><i>The Politics, or a Treatise on Government</i></a>. Everyman's Library. Translated by Ellis, William. London: J.M. Dent & Sons.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics%2C+or+a+Treatise+on+Government&rft.place=London&rft.series=Everyman%27s+Library&rft.pub=J.M.+Dent+%26+Sons&rft.date=1912&rft.au=Aristotle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fembed%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.277006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle1885" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle (1885). <i>The Politics</i>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Jowett" title="Benjamin Jowett">Jowett, Benjamin</a>. Oxford: Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1885&rft.au=Aristotle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span> (volumes <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/embed/politicsofaristo01arisuoft">1</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/embed/politicsofaristo02arisuoft">2</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle2013" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle (2013). <i>Politics</i>. Translated by Lord, Carnes (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-92183-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-92183-9"><bdi>978-0-226-92183-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Politics&rft.place=Chicago&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-226-92183-9&rft.au=Aristotle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle1984" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle (1984). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/politics0000aris"><i>The Politics</i></a></span>. Translated by Lord, Carnes. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-02669-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-02669-5"><bdi>978-0-226-02669-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-226-02669-5&rft.au=Aristotle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpolitics0000aris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle1887" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle (1887). <i>The Politics</i>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/W._L._Newman" title="W. L. Newman">Newman, W.L.</a> Oxford: Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1887&rft.au=Aristotle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span> (volumes <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/embed/thepoliticsofari00arisuoft">1</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/embed/thepoliticsofari02arisuoft">2</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/embed/in.ernet.dli.2015.37183">3</a>, and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/embed/politicsofaristo0004wlne">4</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle1932" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle (1932). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/embed/politicsrackh00arisuoft"><i>Politics</i></a>. The Loeb Classical Library. Translated by Rackham, H. London: William Heinmann.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Politics&rft.place=London&rft.series=The+Loeb+Classical+Library&rft.pub=William+Heinmann&rft.date=1932&rft.au=Aristotle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fembed%2Fpoliticsrackh00arisuoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle1998" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle (1998). <i>Politics</i>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/C._D._C._Reeve" title="C. D. C. Reeve">Reeve, C.D.C.</a> Indianapolis: Hackett. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-388-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-388-4"><bdi>978-0-87220-388-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Politics&rft.place=Indianapolis&rft.pub=Hackett&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-87220-388-4&rft.au=Aristotle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle2012" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle (2012). <i>Politics</i>. Translated by Sachs, Joe. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Focus. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1585103768" title="Special:BookSources/978-1585103768"><bdi>978-1585103768</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Politics&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Focus&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1585103768&rft.au=Aristotle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle1997" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle (1997). <i>The Politics: Translation, Analysis, and Notes</i>. Translated by Simpson, Peter L. P. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-2327-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-2327-9"><bdi>978-0-8078-2327-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics%3A+Translation%2C+Analysis%2C+and+Notes&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-2327-9&rft.au=Aristotle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle1981" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle (1981). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/politicspenguinc00aris"><i>The Politics</i></a></span>. Translated by Sinclair, T. A. Harmondsworth: Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-044421-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-044421-6"><bdi>978-0-14-044421-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics&rft.place=Harmondsworth&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-14-044421-6&rft.au=Aristotle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpoliticspenguinc00aris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle1894" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle (1894). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/embed/politicsaristot00hickgoog"><i>The Politics, a Revised Text</i></a>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Franz_Susemihl" title="Franz Susemihl">Susemihl, Franz</a>; <a href="/wiki/Robert_Drew_Hicks" title="Robert Drew Hicks">Hicks, R.D.</a> London: MacMillan and Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics%2C+a+Revised+Text&rft.place=London&rft.pub=MacMillan+and+Co.&rft.date=1894&rft.au=Aristotle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fembed%2Fpoliticsaristot00hickgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle1853" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle (1853). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/embed/politicsandecon01gillgoog"><i>The Politics and Economics</i></a>. Translated by Walford, Edward. London: Henry G. Bohn.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics+and+Economics&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Henry+G.+Bohn&rft.date=1853&rft.au=Aristotle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fembed%2Fpoliticsandecon01gillgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle1883" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle (1883). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/embed/politicsaristot02wellgoog"><i>The Politics, with an Analysis and Critical Notes</i></a>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/James_Welldon" title="James Welldon">Welldon, J.E.C.</a> London: MacMillan and Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics%2C+with+an+Analysis+and+Critical+Notes&rft.place=London&rft.pub=MacMillan+and+Co.&rft.date=1883&rft.au=Aristotle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fembed%2Fpoliticsaristot02wellgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Greek_text">Greek text</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politics_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Greek text"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle1855" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle (1855). <a href="/wiki/Richard_Congreve" title="Richard Congreve">Congreve, Richard</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/embed/politicsofaristo00aris_0"><i>The Politics, with English Notes</i></a>. London: John W. Parker and Son.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics%2C+with+English+Notes&rft.place=London&rft.pub=John+W.+Parker+and+Son&rft.date=1855&rft.au=Aristotle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fembed%2Fpoliticsofaristo00aris_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politics_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kyklos" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyklos">Kyklos</a></i>, the cycle of governments in a society</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_five_regimes" class="mw-redirect" title="Plato's five regimes">Plato's five regimes</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politics_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Politics-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-21"><sup><i><b>v</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-22"><sup><i><b>w</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-23"><sup><i><b>x</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-24"><sup><i><b>y</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-25"><sup><i><b>z</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-26"><sup><i><b>aa</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-27"><sup><i><b>ab</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-28"><sup><i><b>ac</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-29"><sup><i><b>ad</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-30"><sup><i><b>ae</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-31"><sup><i><b>af</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-32"><sup><i><b>ag</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-33"><sup><i><b>ah</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-34"><sup><i><b>ai</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-35"><sup><i><b>aj</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-36"><sup><i><b>ak</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-37"><sup><i><b>al</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-38"><sup><i><b>am</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-39"><sup><i><b>an</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-40"><sup><i><b>ao</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-41"><sup><i><b>ap</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-42"><sup><i><b>aq</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-43"><sup><i><b>ar</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-44"><sup><i><b>as</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-45"><sup><i><b>at</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-46"><sup><i><b>au</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-47"><sup><i><b>av</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-48"><sup><i><b>aw</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-49"><sup><i><b>ax</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-50"><sup><i><b>ay</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-51"><sup><i><b>az</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-52"><sup><i><b>ba</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-53"><sup><i><b>bb</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-54"><sup><i><b>bc</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-55"><sup><i><b>bd</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-56"><sup><i><b>be</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-57"><sup><i><b>bf</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-58"><sup><i><b>bg</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-59"><sup><i><b>bh</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-60"><sup><i><b>bi</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-61"><sup><i><b>bj</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-62"><sup><i><b>bk</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-63"><sup><i><b>bl</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-64"><sup><i><b>bm</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-65"><sup><i><b>bn</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-66"><sup><i><b>bo</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-67"><sup><i><b>bp</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Politics_1-68"><sup><i><b>bq</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle. <i>Politics</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Politics&rft.au=Aristotle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Alan_Ebenstein-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Alan_Ebenstein_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEbenstein2002" class="citation book cs1">Ebenstein, Alan (2002). <i>Introduction to Political Thinkers</i>. Boston, MA: Wadsworth.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Political+Thinkers&rft.place=Boston%2C+MA&rft.pub=Wadsworth&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Ebenstein&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lord-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lord_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lord_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lord_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lord_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lord_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLord1982" class="citation book cs1">Lord, Carnes (1982). "Introduction". <i>Education and Culture in the Political Thought of Aristotle</i>. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801414121" title="Special:BookSources/9780801414121"><bdi>9780801414121</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Education+and+Culture+in+the+Political+Thought+of+Aristotle&rft.place=Ithaca&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=9780801414121&rft.aulast=Lord&rft.aufirst=Carnes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNichols1992" class="citation book cs1">Nichols, Mary (1992). <i>Citizens and Statesmen</i>. Maryland: Rowman and Little field Publishers, Inc.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Citizens+and+Statesmen&rft.place=Maryland&rft.pub=Rowman+and+Little+field+Publishers%2C+Inc&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Nichols&rft.aufirst=Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Werner Jaeger, <i>Aristoteles: Grundlegung einer Geschichte seiner Entwicklung</i> (1923).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pines-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pines_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pines_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPines1986" class="citation book cs1">Pines, Shlomo (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V3ruXCPvV_wC&pg=PA156">"Aristotle's Politics in Arabic Philosophy"</a>. <i>Collected works of Shlomo Pines: Studies in Arabic Versions of Greek texts and in Medieval Science</i>. Vol. 2. Jerusalem: The Magnes Press. pp. 146–156. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/965-223-626-8" title="Special:BookSources/965-223-626-8"><bdi>965-223-626-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Aristotle%27s+Politics+in+Arabic+Philosophy&rft.btitle=Collected+works+of+Shlomo+Pines%3A+Studies+in+Arabic+Versions+of+Greek+texts+and+in+Medieval+Science&rft.place=Jerusalem&rft.pages=146-156&rft.pub=The+Magnes+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=965-223-626-8&rft.aulast=Pines&rft.aufirst=Shlomo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV3ruXCPvV_wC%26pg%3DPA156&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politics_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAquinas1272" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas, St. Thomas</a> (1272). <i>Commentary on Aristotle's Politics</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Commentary+on+Aristotle%27s+Politics&rft.date=1272&rft.aulast=Aquinas&rft.aufirst=St.+Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarker1906" class="citation book cs1">Barker, Sir Ernest (1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/politicalthought00bark"><i>The Political Thought of Plato and Aristotle</i></a>. London: Methuen.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Political+Thought+of+Plato+and+Aristotle&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Methuen&rft.date=1906&rft.aulast=Barker&rft.aufirst=Sir+Ernest&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpoliticalthought00bark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis1996" class="citation book cs1">Davis, Michael (1996). <i>The Politics of Philosophy: A Commentary on Aristotle's Politics</i>. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics+of+Philosophy%3A+A+Commentary+on+Aristotle%27s+Politics&rft.place=Lanham&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrank2005" class="citation book cs1">Frank, Jill (2005). <i>A Democracy of Distinction: Aristotle and the Work of Politics</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Democracy+of+Distinction%3A+Aristotle+and+the+Work+of+Politics&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Frank&rft.aufirst=Jill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodmanTalisse2007" class="citation book cs1">Goodman, Lenn E.; <a href="/wiki/Robert_B._Talisse" title="Robert B. Talisse">Talisse, Robert B.</a>, eds. (2007). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/aristotlespoliti0000unse_k5o9"><i>Aristotle's Politics Today</i></a></span>. Albany: State University of New York Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780791472279" title="Special:BookSources/9780791472279"><bdi>9780791472279</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aristotle%27s+Politics+Today&rft.place=Albany&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780791472279&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Faristotlespoliti0000unse_k5o9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeytMiller1991" class="citation book cs1">Keyt, David; Miller, Fred D. (1991). <i>A Companion to Aristotle's Politics</i>. Cambridge: Blackwell.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Aristotle%27s+Politics&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Keyt&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Miller%2C+Fred+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrautSkultety2005" class="citation book cs1">Kraut, Richard; Skultety, Steven, eds. (2005). <i>Aristotle's Politics: Critical Essays</i>. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aristotle%27s+Politics%3A+Critical+Essays&rft.place=Lanham&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLang1886" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Lang" title="Andrew Lang">Lang, Andrew</a> (1886). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/embed/politicsofaristo00langrich"><i>The Politics of Aristotle: Introductory Essays</i></a>. London: Longmans, Green, and Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics+of+Aristotle%3A+Introductory+Essays&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Longmans%2C+Green%2C+and+Co.&rft.date=1886&rft.aulast=Lang&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fembed%2Fpoliticsofaristo00langrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMara1995" class="citation journal cs1">Mara, Gerald (1995). "The Near Made Far Away". <i>Political Theory</i>. <b>23</b> (2): 280–303. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0090591795023002005">10.1177/0090591795023002005</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143561538">143561538</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Political+Theory&rft.atitle=The+Near+Made+Far+Away&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=280-303&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0090591795023002005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143561538%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Mara&rft.aufirst=Gerald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayhew1997" class="citation book cs1">Mayhew, Robert (1997). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/aristotlescritic0000mayh"><i>Aristotle's Criticism of Plato's Republic</i></a></span>. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0847686558" title="Special:BookSources/0847686558"><bdi>0847686558</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aristotle%27s+Criticism+of+Plato%27s+Republic&rft.place=Lanham&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0847686558&rft.aulast=Mayhew&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Faristotlescritic0000mayh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller1995" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Fred D. (1995). <i>Nature, Justice, and Rights in Aristotle's Politics</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nature%2C+Justice%2C+and+Rights+in+Aristotle%27s+Politics&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Fred+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNussbaum1986" class="citation book cs1">Nussbaum, Martha (1986). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fragilityofgoodn0000nuss_x3b8"><i>The Fragility of Goodness</i></a></span>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521277027" title="Special:BookSources/0521277027"><bdi>0521277027</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fragility+of+Goodness&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0521277027&rft.aulast=Nussbaum&rft.aufirst=Martha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffragilityofgoodn0000nuss_x3b8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalkever2009" class="citation book cs1">Salkever, Stephen, ed. (2009). <i>Ancient Greek Political Thought</i>. Cambridge Companions to the Ancient World. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCCOL9780521867535">10.1017/CCOL9780521867535</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521867535" title="Special:BookSources/9780521867535"><bdi>9780521867535</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Greek+Political+Thought&rft.series=Cambridge+Companions+to+the+Ancient+World&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCCOL9780521867535&rft.isbn=9780521867535&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalkever1990" class="citation book cs1">Salkever, Stephen G. (1990). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/findingmeantheor0000salk"><i>Finding the Mean: Theory and Practice in Aristotelian Political Philosophy</i></a></span>. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0691078033" title="Special:BookSources/0691078033"><bdi>0691078033</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Finding+the+Mean%3A+Theory+and+Practice+in+Aristotelian+Political+Philosophy&rft.place=Princeton%2C+N.J.&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0691078033&rft.aulast=Salkever&rft.aufirst=Stephen+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffindingmeantheor0000salk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimpson1998" class="citation book cs1">Simpson, Peter L. (1998). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/philosophicalcom00simp"><i>A Philosophical Commentary on the Politics of Aristotle</i></a></span>. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780807823804" title="Special:BookSources/9780807823804"><bdi>9780807823804</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Philosophical+Commentary+on+the+Politics+of+Aristotle&rft.place=Chapel+Hill&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9780807823804&rft.aulast=Simpson&rft.aufirst=Peter+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fphilosophicalcom00simp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrauss1964" class="citation book cs1">Strauss, Leo (1964). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cityman0000stra"><i>The City and Man</i></a></span>. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Ch. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0226777014" title="Special:BookSources/0226777014"><bdi>0226777014</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/78-57567">78-57567</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+City+and+Man&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=Ch.+1&rft.pub=The+University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F78-57567&rft.isbn=0226777014&rft.aulast=Strauss&rft.aufirst=Leo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcityman0000stra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politics_(Aristotle)&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Politics_(Aristotle)" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Politics (Aristotle)">Politics (Aristotle)</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Politics (Aristotle)"><i>Politics</i></a></b></div></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-pol/">Aristotle: <i>Politics</i></a> entry by Edward Clayton in the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Miller, Fred. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-politics/">"Aristotle's Political Theory"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Aristotle%27s+Political+Theory&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Fred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Faristotle-politics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitics+%28Aristotle%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00f8530">Aristotle's <i>Politics</i></a> on <a href="/wiki/In_Our_Time_(radio_series)" title="In Our Time (radio series)"><i>In Our Time</i></a> at the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a></li></ul> <p><b>Versions</b> </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/6762"><i>Politics</i></a>, full text by <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a>, trans. by William Ellis</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0058">English translation at Perseus Digital Library</a>, translation by Harris Rackham</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040627222354/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/a/a8po/">Australian copy</a>, trans. by <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Jowett" title="Benjamin Jowett">Benjamin Jowett</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/politics.html">HTML </a>, trans. by Benjamin Jowett</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130722201525/http://socserv2.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/aristotle/Politics.pdf">PDF at McMaster</a>, trans. by Benjamin Jowett</li> <li><span class="skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/search?title=Politics&author=Aristotle&reader=&keywords=&genre_id=0&status=all&project_type=either&recorded_language=&sort_order=catalog_date&search_page=1&search_form=advanced"><i>Politics</i></a> public domain audiobook at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Aristotelianism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Aristotelianism" title="Template:Aristotelianism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Aristotelianism" title="Template talk:Aristotelianism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Aristotelianism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Aristotelianism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Aristotelianism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Term_logic" title="Term logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyceum_(classical)" title="Lyceum (classical)">Lyceum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideas and interests</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_intellect" title="Active intellect">Active intellect</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Antiperistasis" title="Antiperistasis">Antiperistasis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arete" title="Arete">Arete</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" class="mw-redirect" title="Category of being">Category of being</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Catharsis" title="Catharsis">Catharsis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correspondence_theory_of_truth" title="Correspondence theory of truth">Correspondence theory of truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a>–<a href="/wiki/Accident_(philosophy)" title="Accident (philosophy)">accident</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_causes" title="Four causes">Four causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_future_contingents" title="Problem of future contingents">Future contingents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genus%E2%80%93differentia_definition" title="Genus–differentia definition">Genus–differentia</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hexis" title="Hexis">Hexis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hylomorphism" title="Hylomorphism">Hylomorphism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lexis_(Aristotle)" title="Lexis (Aristotle)">Lexis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnanimity" title="Magnanimity">Magnanimity</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mimesis#Aristotle" title="Mimesis">Mimesis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Minima_naturalia" title="Minima naturalia">Minima naturalia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderate_realism" title="Moderate realism">Moderate realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythos_(Aristotle)" title="Mythos (Aristotle)">Mythos</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Philia" title="Philia">Philia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horror_vacui_(physics)" title="Horror vacui (physics)">Horror vacui (physics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_animal" title="Rational animal">Rational animal</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">Phronesis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potentiality_and_actuality" title="Potentiality and actuality">Potentiality and actuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">Substance theory</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Hypokeimenon" title="Hypokeimenon">hypokeimenon</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Ousia" title="Ousia">ousia</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">Syllogism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Telos" title="Telos">Telos</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporal_finitism" title="Temporal finitism">Temporal finitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quiddity" title="Quiddity">Quiddity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haecceity" title="Haecceity">Haecceity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_realist_philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Aristotelian realist philosophy of mathematics">Mathematical realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Works_of_Aristotle" title="Works of Aristotle">Works</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Organon" title="Organon">Organon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Categories_(Aristotle)" title="Categories (Aristotle)">Categories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Interpretation" title="On Interpretation">On Interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prior_Analytics" title="Prior Analytics">Prior Analytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_Analytics" title="Posterior Analytics">Posterior Analytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topics_(Aristotle)" title="Topics (Aristotle)">Topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophistical_Refutations" title="Sophistical Refutations">Sophistical Refutations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_physics" title="Aristotelian physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)" title="Physics (Aristotle)">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Heavens" title="On the Heavens">On the Heavens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Generation_and_Corruption" title="On Generation and Corruption">On Generation and Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteorology_(Aristotle)" title="Meteorology (Aristotle)">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Soul" title="On the Soul">On the Soul</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_biology" title="Aristotle's biology">On Animals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Animals" title="History of Animals">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parts_of_Animals" title="Parts of Animals">Parts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_of_Animals" title="Movement of Animals">Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progression_of_Animals" title="Progression of Animals">Progression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generation_of_Animals" title="Generation of Animals">Generation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Metaphysics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_ethics" title="Aristotelian ethics">Ethics</a> and politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudemian_Ethics" title="Eudemian Ethics">Eudemian Ethics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Athenians_(Aristotle)" title="Constitution of the Athenians (Aristotle)">Constitution of the Athenians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rhetoric and poetics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_(Aristotle)" title="Rhetoric (Aristotle)">Rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)">Poetics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Parva_Naturalia" title="Parva Naturalia">Parva Naturalia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sense_and_Sensibilia_(Aristotle)" title="Sense and Sensibilia (Aristotle)">Sense and Sensibilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Memory" title="On Memory">On Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Sleep" title="On Sleep">On Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Dreams" title="On Dreams">On Dreams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Divination_in_Sleep" title="On Divination in Sleep">On Divination in Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Length_and_Shortness_of_Life" title="On Length and Shortness of Life">On Length and Shortness of Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Youth,_Old_Age,_Life_and_Death,_and_Respiration" title="On Youth, Old Age, Life and Death, and Respiration">On Youth, Old Age, Life and Death, and Respiration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lost</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protrepticus_(Aristotle)" title="Protrepticus (Aristotle)">Protrepticus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Aristotle" title="Pseudo-Aristotle">Pseudepigrapha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/On_Breath" title="On Breath">On Breath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Colors" title="On Colors">On Colors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Plants" title="On Plants">On Plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Indivisible_Lines" title="On Indivisible Lines">On Indivisible Lines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Melissus,_Xenophanes,_and_Gorgias" title="On Melissus, Xenophanes, and Gorgias">On Melissus, Xenophanes, and Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Universe" title="On the Universe">On the Universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Things_Heard" title="On Things Heard">On Things Heard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiognomonics" title="Physiognomonics">Physiognomonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Marvellous_Things_Heard" title="On Marvellous Things Heard">On Marvellous Things Heard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanics_(Aristotle)" title="Mechanics (Aristotle)">Mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problems_(Aristotle)" title="Problems (Aristotle)">Problems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Situations_and_Names_of_Winds" title="The Situations and Names of Winds">The Situations and Names of Winds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Virtues_and_Vices" title="On Virtues and Vices">On Virtues and Vices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_(Aristotle)" title="Economics (Aristotle)">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_to_Alexander" title="Rhetoric to Alexander">Rhetoric to Alexander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Moralia" title="Magna Moralia">Magna Moralia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Followers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Peripatetic_school" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristoxenus" title="Aristoxenus">Aristoxenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clearchus_of_Soli" title="Clearchus of Soli">Clearchus of Soli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dicaearchus" title="Dicaearchus">Dicaearchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudemus_of_Rhodes" title="Eudemus of Rhodes">Eudemus of Rhodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strato_of_Lampsacus" title="Strato of Lampsacus">Strato of Lampsacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyco_of_Troas" title="Lyco of Troas">Lyco of Troas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristo_of_Ceos" title="Aristo of Ceos">Aristo of Ceos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critolaus" title="Critolaus">Critolaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_of_Tyre" title="Diodorus of Tyre">Diodorus of Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erymneus" title="Erymneus">Erymneus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andronicus_of_Rhodes" title="Andronicus of Rhodes">Andronicus of Rhodes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Islamic_Golden_Age" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Jewish" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Jewish</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Scholasticism" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Lombard" title="Peter Lombard">Peter Lombard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albertus Magnus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_of_Spain" title="Peter of Spain">Peter of Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacopo_Zabarella" title="Jacopo Zabarella">Jacopo Zabarella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietro_Pomponazzi" title="Pietro Pomponazzi">Pietro Pomponazzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Cremonini_(philosopher)" title="Cesare Cremonini (philosopher)">Cesar Cremonini</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Modern" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Newman" title="John Henry Newman">Newman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Adolf_Trendelenburg" title="Friedrich Adolf Trendelenburg">Trendelenburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Brentano" title="Franz Brentano">Brentano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortimer_J._Adler" title="Mortimer J. Adler">Adler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Smith" title="Wolfgang Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Hursthouse" title="Rosalind Hursthouse">Hursthouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_of_the_Greek_Classics" title="Transmission of the Greek Classics">Transmission of the Greek Classics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commentaries_on_Aristotle" title="Commentaries on Aristotle">Commentaries on Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabasis_paradox" title="Metabasis paradox">Metabasis paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_views_on_women" title="Aristotle's views on women">Views on women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_wheel_paradox" title="Aristotle's wheel paradox">Wheel paradox</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Aristotle" title="Category:Aristotle">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/21px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Political_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_philosophy" title="Template talk:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" title="Legitimacy (political)">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People" title="People">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">Regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">Bellum omnium contra omnes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">Noble lie</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern<br />period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hobbes%27s_moral_and_political_philosophy" title="Hobbes's moral and political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal%27s_political_philosophy" title="Muhammad Iqbal's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 375 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Politics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(51 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1274)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchia</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1313)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1532)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1651)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1689)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1762)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1790)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1791)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1848)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1859)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Masses" title="The Revolt of the Masses">The Revolt of the Masses</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1929)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1944)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1945)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1992)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism and individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(politics)" title="Machiavellianism (politics)">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy" title="Category:Political philosophy">Category:Political philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q69539#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q69539#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q69539#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/316365805">VIAF</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/942151002097830280002">2</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/2074159478137827990001">3</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4125035-7">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79019736">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb120476029">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb120476029">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an36085189">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=aun2006372203&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX2967467">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000362061&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810584440605606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=492/976">Vatican</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007520684005171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027299600">IdRef</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/028692241">2</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Politics_(Aristotle)&oldid=1240864809">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Politics_(Aristotle)&oldid=1240864809</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Greek_law" title="Category:Ancient Greek law">Ancient Greek law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Books_in_political_philosophy" title="Category:Books in political philosophy">Books in political philosophy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy_in_ancient_Greece" title="Category:Political philosophy in ancient Greece">Political philosophy in ancient Greece</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Works_about_the_theory_of_history" title="Category:Works about the theory of history">Works about the theory of history</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Works_by_Aristotle" title="Category:Works by Aristotle">Works by Aristotle</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Ancient_Greek_(to_1453)-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text">Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link from Wikidata">Commons category link from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_LibriVox_links" title="Category:Articles with LibriVox links">Articles with LibriVox links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Latin-language text">Articles containing Latin-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_French-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing French-language text">Articles containing French-language text</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 17 August 2024, at 22:12<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Politics_(Aristotle)&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-knhz5","wgBackendResponseTime":136,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.544","walltime":"1.839","ppvisitednodes":{"value":33425,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":225988,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":13220,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":18,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":2,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":130421,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1635.737 1 -total"," 35.57% 581.829 73 Template:R"," 34.43% 563.155 73 Template:R/ref"," 23.79% 389.080 76 Template:R/superscript"," 19.11% 312.597 35 Template:Cite_book"," 11.55% 188.899 228 Template:R/where"," 9.66% 158.005 9 Template:Navbox"," 9.57% 156.468 23 Template:Lang"," 8.58% 140.355 1 Template:Commons_category"," 8.54% 139.658 2 Template:Sister_project"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.797","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":15900692,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-jqmcq","timestamp":"20241122141502","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Politics (Aristotle)","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Politics_(Aristotle)","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q69539","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q69539","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2005-04-04T19:43:24Z","dateModified":"2024-08-17T22:12:24Z","headline":"work of political philosophy by Aristotle"}</script> </body> </html>