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<li id="toc-Degree_of_branching" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Degree_of_branching"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Degree of branching</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Degree_of_branching-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Etymology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etymology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Etymology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etymology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Representing_hierarchies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Representing_hierarchies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Representing hierarchies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Representing_hierarchies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Visual_hierarchy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Visual_hierarchy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Visual hierarchy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Visual_hierarchy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Informal_representation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Informal_representation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Informal representation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Informal_representation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mathematical_representation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mathematical_representation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Mathematical representation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mathematical_representation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subtypes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subtypes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Subtypes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Subtypes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Subtypes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Subtypes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nested_hierarchy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nested_hierarchy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Nested hierarchy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nested_hierarchy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Containment_hierarchy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Containment_hierarchy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Containment hierarchy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Containment_hierarchy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subsumptive_containment_hierarchy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subsumptive_containment_hierarchy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Subsumptive containment hierarchy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subsumptive_containment_hierarchy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compositional_containment_hierarchy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compositional_containment_hierarchy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Compositional containment hierarchy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compositional_containment_hierarchy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contexts_and_applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contexts_and_applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Contexts and applications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Contexts_and_applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Contexts and applications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Contexts_and_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Organizations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Biology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Computer-graphic_imaging" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computer-graphic_imaging"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Computer-graphic imaging</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computer-graphic_imaging-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Linguistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linguistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Linguistics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Linguistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.5</span> <span>Music</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples_of_other_applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples_of_other_applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.6</span> <span>Examples of other applications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples_of_other_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Information-based" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Information-based"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.6.1</span> <span>Information-based</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Information-based-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-City_planning-based" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#City_planning-based"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.6.2</span> <span>City planning-based</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-City_planning-based-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Linguistics-oriented" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linguistics-oriented"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.6.3</span> <span>Linguistics-oriented</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Linguistics-oriented-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Power-_or_authority-based" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Power-_or_authority-based"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.6.4</span> <span>Power- or authority-based</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Power-_or_authority-based-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Value-related" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Value-related"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.6.5</span> <span>Value-related</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Value-related-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Perception-based" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perception-based"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.6.6</span> <span>Perception-based</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Perception-based-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History-oriented" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History-oriented"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.6.7</span> <span>History-oriented</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-oriented-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science-focussed" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science-focussed"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.6.8</span> <span>Science-focussed</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science-focussed-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technology-based" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technology-based"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.6.9</span> <span>Technology-based</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technology-based-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion-related" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion-related"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.6.10</span> <span>Religion-related</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-related-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methods_using_hierarchy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods_using_hierarchy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.7</span> <span>Methods using hierarchy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Methods_using_hierarchy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Criticisms</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criticisms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Criticisms subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Criticisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ethics,_behavioral_psychology,_philosophies_of_identity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethics,_behavioral_psychology,_philosophies_of_identity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethics,_behavioral_psychology,_philosophies_of_identity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Structure-related_concepts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structure-related_concepts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Structure-related concepts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structure-related_concepts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Footnotes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Footnotes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Works cited</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Hierarchy</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 63 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-63" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">63 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A9_%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%A8" title="سلسلة مراتب – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سلسلة مراتب" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerarqu%C3%ADa" title="Xerarquía – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Xerarquía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0yerarxiya" title="İyerarxiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İyerarxiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AE" title="স্তরানুক্রম – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="স্তরানুক্রম" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kai-ch%C3%A2n" title="Kai-chân – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kai-chân" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Іерархія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Іерархія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Герархія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Герархія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%99%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Йерархия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Йерархия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerarquia" title="Jerarquia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Jerarquia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchie" title="Hierarchie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Hierarchie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchaeth" title="Hierarchaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Hierarchaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarki" title="Hierarki – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Hierarki" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchie" title="Hierarchie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Hierarchie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarhia" title="Hierarhia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Hierarhia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%81%CF%87%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Ιεραρχία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιεραρχία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerarqu%C3%ADa" title="Jerarquía – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Jerarquía" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarkio" title="Hierarkio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Hierarkio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarkia" title="Hierarkia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hierarkia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%A8" title="سلسله‌مراتب – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سلسله‌مراتب" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hi%C3%A9rarchie" title="Hiérarchie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Hiérarchie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk mw-list-item"><a href="https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%A8" title="سلسلمراتب – Gilaki" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" data-title="سلسلمراتب" data-language-autonym="گیلکی" data-language-local-name="Gilaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>گیلکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%84%EC%B8%B5" title="계층 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="계층" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%AB%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%AD%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Հիերարխիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հիերարխիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE" title="पदानुक्रम – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पदानुक्रम" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hijerarhija" title="Hijerarhija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Hijerarhija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarkio" title="Hierarkio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Hierarkio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarki" title="Hierarki – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Hierarki" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stigveldi" title="Stigveldi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Stigveldi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerarchia" title="Gerarchia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Gerarchia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%A8%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%94" title="היררכיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היררכיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A5%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="იერარქია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="იერარქია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%8E%D8%AF%D9%95%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%9B%D9%B2%D9%85" title="پَدٕکرٛٲم – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="پَدٕکرٛٲم" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Иерархия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Иерархия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8" title="Иерархи – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Иерархи" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchia" title="Hierarchia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Hierarchia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarhija" title="Hierarhija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Hierarhija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchija" title="Hierarchija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Hierarchija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchia" title="Hierarchia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Hierarchia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Хиерархија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Хиерархија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarki" title="Hierarki – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Hierarki" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hi%C3%ABrarchie" title="Hiërarchie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Hiërarchie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%92%E3%82%A8%E3%83%A9%E3%83%AB%E3%82%AD%E3%83%BC" title="ヒエラルキー – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ヒエラルキー" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarki" title="Hierarki – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Hierarki" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarki" title="Hierarki – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Hierarki" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iyerarxiya" title="Iyerarxiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Iyerarxiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%A8%D9%88_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%87_(%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AC%D9%87_%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%8A)" title="د مراتبو سلسله (درجه بندي) – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د مراتبو سلسله (درجه بندي)" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchia" title="Hierarchia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Hierarchia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarquia" title="Hierarquia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Hierarquia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ierarhie" title="Ierarhie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Ierarhie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Иерархия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Иерархия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarkia" title="Hierarkia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Hierarkia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Hierarchy" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchia" title="Hierarchia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Hierarchia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Хијерархија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Хијерархија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hijerarhija" title="Hijerarhija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Hijerarhija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarki" title="Hierarki – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Hierarki" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyellel" title="Amyellel – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Amyellel" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B1" title="Силсиламаротиб – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Силсиламаротиб" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiyerar%C5%9Fi" title="Hiyerarşi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Hiyerarşi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%94%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Ієрархія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ієрархія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%AD%89%E7%BA%A7%E5%88%B6%E5%BA%A6" title="等级制度 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="等级制度" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%AD%89%E7%B4%9A%E5%88%B6%E5%BA%A6" title="等級制度 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="等級制度" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9A%8E%E5%B1%A4%E7%B5%90%E6%A7%8B" title="階層結構 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="階層結構" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q188619#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" 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class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">System of elements that are subordinated to each other</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Hierarchy (disambiguation)">Hierarchy (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Subordinate" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Subordination_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Subordination (disambiguation)">Subordination</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Die_Leiter_des_Auf-_und_Abstiegs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Die_Leiter_des_Auf-_und_Abstiegs.jpg/220px-Die_Leiter_des_Auf-_und_Abstiegs.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="289" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Die_Leiter_des_Auf-_und_Abstiegs.jpg/330px-Die_Leiter_des_Auf-_und_Abstiegs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Die_Leiter_des_Auf-_und_Abstiegs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="399" data-file-height="524" /></a><figcaption>The mediaeval <i>scala naturae</i> as a staircase, implying the <a href="/wiki/Orthogenesis" title="Orthogenesis">possibility of progress</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ramon_Llull" title="Ramon Llull">Ramon Llull</a>'s <i>Ladder of Ascent and Descent of the Mind</i>, 1305</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>hierarchy</b> (from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a>: <span title="Ancient Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ἱεραρχία</span></span>, <span title="Ancient Greek-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">hierarkhia</i></span>, 'rule of a high priest', from <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_(officer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordinary (officer)">hierarkhes</a></i></span>, 'president of sacred rites') is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) that are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as <a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Design" title="Design">design</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Organizational_theory" title="Organizational theory">organizational theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">systems theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Systematic_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Systematic biology">systematic biology</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a> (especially <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>). </p><p>A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's <a href="/wiki/Subordinate" class="mw-redirect" title="Subordinate">subordinates</a>, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a <a href="/wiki/Path_(graph_theory)" title="Path (graph theory)">path</a>. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two <a href="/wiki/Co-worker" title="Co-worker">co-workers</a> or <a href="/wiki/Comrade" title="Comrade">colleagues</a>; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. <a href="/wiki/Heterarchy" title="Heterarchy">Heterarchy</a> is one such form. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nomenclature">Nomenclature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Nomenclature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_graph_theory" title="Glossary of graph theory">Glossary of graph theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomy (general)">Taxonomy (general)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Structure" title="Structure">Structure</a></div> <p>Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see <a href="#Visually_representing_hierarchies">below</a>). </p><p>In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<sup id="cite_ref-Dawkins_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dawkins-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Architecture_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Architecture-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Non-physical_entity" title="Non-physical entity">Object</a></b>: one entity (e.g., a person, department or <a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">concept</a> or element of arrangement or member of a set)</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/System" title="System">System</a></b>: the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Dimension" title="Dimension">Dimension</a></b>: another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Element_(mathematics)" title="Element (mathematics)">Member</a></b>: an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)</li> <li><b>Terms about Positioning</b> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Ranking" title="Ranking">Rank</a></b>: the relative <a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">value</a>, worth, <a href="/wiki/Complexity" title="Complexity">complexity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Power_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Power (philosophy)">power</a>, importance, <a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">authority</a>, level etc. of an object</li> <li><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/level#Noun" class="extiw" title="wikt:level">Level</a> or Tier</b>: a set of objects with the same rank OR importance</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Order_of_precedence" title="Order of precedence">Ordering</a></b>: the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)</li> <li><b>Hierarchy</b>: the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure</li></ul></li> <li><b>Terms about Placement</b> <ul><li><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hierarch" class="extiw" title="wikt:hierarch">Hierarch</a></b>, the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an <a href="/wiki/Tree_structure" title="Tree structure">inverted-tree structure</a></li> <li><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/member" class="extiw" title="wikt:member">Member</a></b>, a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached</li> <li><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/orphan" class="extiw" title="wikt:orphan">Orphan</a></b>, a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level</li> <li><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/leaf" class="extiw" title="wikt:leaf">Leaf</a></b>, a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy</li> <li><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/neighbour" class="extiw" title="wikt:neighbour">Neighbour</a></b>: a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Superior_(hierarchy)" title="Superior (hierarchy)">Superior</a></b>: a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)</li> <li><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/subordinate" class="extiw" title="wikt:subordinate">Subordinate</a></b>: a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Family_of_sets" title="Family of sets">Collection</a></b>: all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)</li> <li><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/peer" class="extiw" title="wikt:peer">Peer</a></b>: an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Interpersonal_relationship" title="Interpersonal relationship">Interaction</a></b>: the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair) <ul><li>a <b>direct</b> interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a <a href="/wiki/Tree_(graph_theory)" title="Tree (graph theory)">tree</a>, the two objects have a line between them)</li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Distance_(graph_theory)" title="Distance (graph theory)">Distance</a></b>: the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a <a href="/wiki/Path_(graph_theory)" title="Path (graph theory)">path</a> from one object to another</li> <li><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Span" class="extiw" title="wikt:Span">Span</a></b>: a <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_data" class="mw-redirect" title="Qualitative data">qualitative</a> description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has</li></ul></li> <li><b>Terms about Nature</b> <ul><li><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/attribute" class="extiw" title="wikt:attribute">Attribute</a></b>: a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. <i>hair-colour</i>)</li> <li><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/attribute-value" class="extiw" title="wikt:attribute-value">Attribute-value</a></b>: the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. <i>Auburn</i>)</li></ul></li></ul> <p>In a mathematical context (in <a href="/wiki/Graph_theory" title="Graph theory">graph theory</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_graph_theory" title="Glossary of graph theory">general terminology</a> used is different. </p><p>Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with <a href="/wiki/Data_structure" title="Data structure">data structures</a>, objects are known as <a href="/wiki/Node_(computer_science)" title="Node (computer science)">nodes</a>, superiors are called <a href="/wiki/Parent_node" class="mw-redirect" title="Parent node">parents</a> and subordinates are called <a href="/wiki/Child_node" class="mw-redirect" title="Child node">children</a>. In a business setting, a superior is a <a href="/wiki/Supervisor" title="Supervisor">supervisor/boss</a> and a peer is a <a href="/wiki/Comrade" title="Comrade">colleague</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Degree_of_branching">Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Degree of branching"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Degree_(graph_theory)" title="Degree (graph theory)">Degree</a> of <a href="/wiki/Bifurcation_theory" title="Bifurcation theory">branching</a> refers to the number of direct <a href="#Terminology">subordinates</a> or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other <a href="/wiki/Vertex_(graph_theory)" title="Vertex (graph theory)">vertices</a> connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: <i>linear</i> and <i>branching</i>. </p><p>In a <b>linear hierarchy</b>, the maximum degree is 1.<sup id="cite_ref-Dawkins_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dawkins-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. This is referring to the <i>objects</i> and not the <i>levels</i>; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. </p><p>In a <b>branching hierarchy</b>, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<sup id="cite_ref-Dawkins_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dawkins-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<sup id="cite_ref-Dawkins_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dawkins-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including <a href="/wiki/Organization" title="Organization">organizations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Classification_scheme" class="mw-redirect" title="Classification scheme">classification schemes</a>. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree. </p><p>A <b>flat hierarchy</b> (also known for companies as <a href="/wiki/Flat_organization" title="Flat organization">flat organization</a>) is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<sup id="cite_ref-Architecture_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Architecture-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, <a href="/wiki/Diamond" title="Diamond">diamonds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">graphite</a> are flat hierarchies of numerous <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles. </p><p>An <b>overlapping hierarchy</b> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<sup id="cite_ref-Dawkins_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dawkins-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, a <a href="/wiki/Graduate_student" class="mw-redirect" title="Graduate student">graduate student</a> can have two <a href="/wiki/Research_supervisor" class="mw-redirect" title="Research supervisor">co-supervisors</a> to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the <a href="/wiki/University" title="University">university</a> hierarchy (i.e., they have the same <a href="/wiki/List_of_academic_ranks" title="List of academic ranks">position</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tenure" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenure">tenure</a> status). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Possibly the first use of the English word <i>hierarchy</i> cited by the <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by <a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Dionysius_the_Areopagite" title="Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite">Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite</a> (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> word (ἱεραρχία, <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">hierarchia</i></span>) both in reference to the <a href="/wiki/De_Coelesti_Hierarchia" title="De Coelesti Hierarchia">celestial hierarchy</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_polity" title="Ecclesiastical polity">ecclesiastical hierarchy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Greek term <i>hierarchia</i> means 'rule of a high priest',<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">hierarches</i></span> (ἱεράρχης, 'president of sacred rites, high-priest')<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that from <i>hiereus</i> (ἱερεύς, 'priest')<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i>arche</i> (ἀρχή, 'first place or power, rule').<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. </p><p>Since hierarchical churches, such as the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism">Roman Catholic</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_hierarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Church hierarchy">Catholic Church hierarchy</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodox</a> churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with <a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God</a> as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in <a href="/wiki/Secular" class="mw-redirect" title="Secular">secular</a> settings. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Representing_hierarchies"><span class="anchor" id="Visually_representing_hierarchies"></span>Representing hierarchies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Representing hierarchies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs.png/200px-Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs.png/300px-Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs.png/400px-Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs.png 2x" data-file-width="1717" data-file-height="1124" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs" title="Maslow's hierarchy of needs">Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</a>. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram. The hierarchical aspect represented here is that needs at lower levels of the pyramid are considered more basic and must be fulfilled before higher ones are met.</figcaption></figure> <p>A hierarchy is typically depicted as a <a href="/wiki/Pyramid_(geometry)" title="Pyramid (geometry)">pyramid</a>, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the few <a href="/wiki/Board_of_Directors" class="mw-redirect" title="Board of Directors">Directors</a> of a company could be at the <a href="/wiki/Apex_(geometry)" title="Apex (geometry)">apex</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Base_(geometry)" title="Base (geometry)">base</a> could be thousands of people who have no subordinates. </p><p>These pyramids are often <a href="/wiki/Diagram" title="Diagram">diagrammed</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Triangle" title="Triangle">triangle</a> diagram which serves to emphasize the size differences between the levels (but not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 <a href="/wiki/History_of_USDA_nutrition_guides#Food_Guide_Pyramid" class="mw-redirect" title="History of USDA nutrition guides">USDA food guide pyramid</a>). An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. </p><p>Another common representation of a hierarchical scheme is as a <a href="/wiki/Tree_structure" title="Tree structure">tree diagram</a>. <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_trees" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogenetic trees">Phylogenetic trees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charts" class="mw-redirect" title="Charts">charts</a> showing the structure of <a href="#Organizations">§ Organizations</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bracket_(tournament)" title="Bracket (tournament)">playoff brackets</a> in sports are often illustrated this way. </p><p>More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include <a href="/wiki/Fractal" title="Fractal">fractal</a> maps, <a href="/wiki/Treemapping" title="Treemapping">TreeMaps</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radial_tree" title="Radial tree">Radial Trees</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Visual_hierarchy">Visual hierarchy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Visual hierarchy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of <a href="/wiki/Visual_hierarchy" title="Visual hierarchy">visual hierarchy</a>. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers. </p><p>An example of visually representing hierarchy is through nested clusters. Nested clusters represent hierarchical relationships using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a <a href="/wiki/Venn_diagram" title="Venn diagram">Venn diagram</a>. This structure is most effective in representing simple hierarchical relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located. </p><p>For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. Child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and parent elements are at the top. This structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Informal_representation">Informal representation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Informal representation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a <a href="/wiki/Set_(mathematics)" title="Set (mathematics)">set</a> in which:<sup id="cite_ref-Dawkins_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dawkins-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>No element is superior to itself, and</li> <li>One element, the (<i>apex</i> or <i>hierarch</i>), is superior to all of the other elements in the set.</li></ol> <p>The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no <a href="/wiki/Cycle_(graph_theory)" title="Cycle (graph theory)">circular relationships</a>; the association between two objects is always <a href="/wiki/Transitive_relation" title="Transitive relation">transitive</a>. The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or <a href="/wiki/Root_node" class="mw-redirect" title="Root node">root</a> that is common to all of the objects. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mathematical_representation">Mathematical representation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Mathematical representation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_(mathematics)" title="Hierarchy (mathematics)">Hierarchy (mathematics)</a></div> <p>Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a <a href="/wiki/Partially_ordered_set" title="Partially ordered set">partially ordered set</a> or <i>poset</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lehmann_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lehmann-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="#Terminology">system</a> in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting <a href="#Terminology">levels</a> is referred to as a <a href="/wiki/Class_(set_theory)" title="Class (set theory)">class</a>. </p><p>"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parentheses is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example: (2 + 5) × (7 - 4). In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Subtypes">Subtypes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Subtypes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nested_hierarchy">Nested hierarchy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Nested hierarchy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Russian-Matroshka_no_bg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Russian-Matroshka_no_bg.jpg/200px-Russian-Matroshka_no_bg.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Russian-Matroshka_no_bg.jpg/300px-Russian-Matroshka_no_bg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Russian-Matroshka_no_bg.jpg/400px-Russian-Matroshka_no_bg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1900" data-file-height="1262" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Matryoshka_doll" title="Matryoshka doll">Matryoshka dolls</a>, also known as <i>nesting dolls</i> or <i>Russian dolls</i>. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of <i>nesting</i>. When the concept is applied to <a href="/wiki/Set_(mathematics)" title="Set (mathematics)">sets</a>, the resulting ordering is a <i>nested hierarchy</i>.</figcaption></figure> <p>A nested hierarchy or <i>inclusion hierarchy</i> is a hierarchical ordering of <a href="/wiki/Nested_set_collection" title="Nested set collection">nested sets</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-natsocsci-ch4_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-natsocsci-ch4-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian <a href="/wiki/Matryoshka_doll" title="Matryoshka doll">matryoshka dolls</a>. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\text{square}}\subset {\text{quadrilateral}}\subset {\text{polygon}}\subset {\text{shape}}\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>square</mtext> </mrow> <mo>⊂</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>quadrilateral</mtext> </mrow> <mo>⊂</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>polygon</mtext> </mrow> <mo>⊂</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>shape</mtext> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\text{square}}\subset {\text{quadrilateral}}\subset {\text{polygon}}\subset {\text{shape}}\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/cc04fb1ffcaa56b395a560769ecf76e05984dba8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:42.869ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\text{square}}\subset {\text{quadrilateral}}\subset {\text{polygon}}\subset {\text{shape}}\,}"></span></dd></dl> <p>A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can <i>only</i> be a quadrilateral; it can never be a <a href="/wiki/Triangle" title="Triangle">triangle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hexagon" title="Hexagon">hexagon</a>, etc. </p><p>Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomy (general)">taxonomies</a> and systematic classifications. For example, using the original <a href="/wiki/Linnaean_taxonomy" title="Linnaean taxonomy">Linnaean taxonomy</a> (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of <i><a href="/wiki/Systema_Naturae" title="Systema Naturae">Systema Naturae</a></i>), a human can be formulated as:<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\text{H. sapiens}}\subset {\text{Homo}}\subset {\text{Primates}}\subset {\text{Mammalia}}\subset {\text{Animalia}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>H. sapiens</mtext> </mrow> <mo>⊂</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>Homo</mtext> </mrow> <mo>⊂</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>Primates</mtext> </mrow> <mo>⊂</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>Mammalia</mtext> </mrow> <mo>⊂</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>Animalia</mtext> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\text{H. sapiens}}\subset {\text{Homo}}\subset {\text{Primates}}\subset {\text{Mammalia}}\subset {\text{Animalia}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9c9173899421069ab788f366ebbf73f3290f51cc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:57.741ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\text{H. sapiens}}\subset {\text{Homo}}\subset {\text{Primates}}\subset {\text{Mammalia}}\subset {\text{Animalia}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in <a href="/wiki/Biological_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological classification">biological taxonomy</a>), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same. </p><p>In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of <a href="/wiki/Self-similarity" title="Self-similarity">self-similarity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Recursion" title="Recursion">recursion</a>. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<sup id="cite_ref-Corballis_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Corballis-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Containment_hierarchy">Containment hierarchy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Containment hierarchy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Containment_Hierarchy_example.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Containment_Hierarchy_example.png/300px-Containment_Hierarchy_example.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Containment_Hierarchy_example.png/450px-Containment_Hierarchy_example.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Containment_Hierarchy_example.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="490" /></a><figcaption>A diagram illustrating a containment hierarchy. The set of all squares is completely contained in the larger set of quadrilaterals, and so on.</figcaption></figure> <p>A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the <a href="#Nested_hierarchy">nested hierarchy</a> concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "<a href="/wiki/Strict_subset" class="mw-redirect" title="Strict subset">strict</a>"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\text{square}}\subsetneq {\text{quadrilateral}}\subsetneq {\text{polygon}}\subsetneq {\text{shape}}\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>square</mtext> </mrow> <mo>⊊</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>quadrilateral</mtext> </mrow> <mo>⊊</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>polygon</mtext> </mrow> <mo>⊊</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>shape</mtext> </mrow> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\text{square}}\subsetneq {\text{quadrilateral}}\subsetneq {\text{polygon}}\subsetneq {\text{shape}}\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/93f98d669b46cb889a0dd5b911a554a1342c99c9" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:42.869ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\text{square}}\subsetneq {\text{quadrilateral}}\subsetneq {\text{polygon}}\subsetneq {\text{shape}}\,}"></span></dd></dl> <p>The notation <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x\subsetneq y\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>x</mi> <mo>⊊</mo> <mi>y</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x\subsetneq y\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/02a358c3abd81e0a4886f3d1a5f2faba1394ac56" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.971ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x\subsetneq y\,}"></span> means <i>x</i> is a subset of <i>y</i> but is not equal to <i>y</i>. </p><p>A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in <a href="/wiki/Inheritance_(object-oriented_programming)" title="Inheritance (object-oriented programming)">class inheritance</a> in <a href="/wiki/Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">object-oriented programming</a>. </p><p>Two types of containment hierarchies are the <i>subsumptive</i> containment hierarchy and the <i>compositional</i> containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/subsume" class="extiw" title="wikt:subsume">subsumes</a>" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/composed" class="extiw" title="wikt:composed">composed</a>" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive <i>and</i> compositional<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:AUDIENCE" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:AUDIENCE"><span title="An editor has requested that an example be provided. (August 2018)">example needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-AI_industrial_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AI_industrial-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subsumptive_containment_hierarchy">Subsumptive containment hierarchy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Subsumptive containment hierarchy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <i><a href="/wiki/Category_theory" title="Category theory">subsumptive</a></i> containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "<a href="/wiki/Is-a" title="Is-a">IS-A</a> hierarchy".<sup id="cite_ref-Lehmann_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lehmann-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ibm_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ibm-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sys_model_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sys_model-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is a member of the level <i>Mammalia</i> "is a" member of the level <i>Animalia</i>; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "<a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">concepts</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-sys_model_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sys_model-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like <i>Animalia</i> is a way to group all the species that fit the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/conceptualization" class="extiw" title="wikt:conceptualization">conceptualization</a> of an animal. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Compositional_containment_hierarchy">Compositional containment hierarchy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Compositional containment hierarchy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <i>compositional</i> containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<sup id="cite_ref-Parsons_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parsons-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner. </p><p>The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the <a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Hierarchy of life">hierarchy of life</a>. Every person can be reduced to <a href="/wiki/Organ_system" title="Organ system">organ systems</a>, which are composed of <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organs</a>, which are composed of <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissues</a>, which are composed of <a href="/wiki/Cells_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cells (biology)">cells</a>, which are composed of <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a>, which are composed of <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a>. In fact, the last two levels apply to all <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a>, at least at the <a href="/wiki/Macroscopic_scale" title="Macroscopic scale">macroscopic scale</a>. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their <a href="#Terminology">children</a>. </p><p>In this particular example, there are also <i><a href="/wiki/Emergent_properties" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergent properties">emergent properties</a></i>—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognition</a> is not a property of <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a> but is of the <a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">brain</a>)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These <i>level hierarchies</i> are characterized by bi-directional <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-natsocsci-ch4_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-natsocsci-ch4-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Upward causation</i> involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. <i><a href="/wiki/Downward_causation" title="Downward causation">Downward causation</a></i> refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity <i>x</i> into a higher-level entity can have on <i>x'</i>s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are <i><a href="/wiki/Autonomous" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous">autonomous</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contexts_and_applications">Contexts and applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Contexts and applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Kulish (2002) suggests that almost every system of organization which humans apply to the world is arranged hierarchically.<sup id="cite_ref-electrodynamics_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-electrodynamics-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="Quotation needed from source to verify. (November 2021)">need quotation to verify</span></a></i>]</sup> Some conventional definitions of the terms "nation"<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag failed verification of its source citation(s). (November 2021)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup> and "government"<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag failed verification of its source citation(s). (November 2021)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup> suggest that every <a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">nation</a> has a government and that every government is hierarchical. Sociologists can analyse socioeconomic systems in terms of stratification into a social hierarchy (the <a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">social stratification</a> of societies), and all <a href="/wiki/Systematic_name" title="Systematic name">systematic classification schemes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomy (general)">taxonomies</a>) are hierarchical.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most <a href="/wiki/Organized_religion" title="Organized religion">organized religions</a>, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under <a href="/wiki/Deities" class="mw-redirect" title="Deities">deities</a> and <a href="/wiki/Priesthood" class="mw-redirect" title="Priesthood">priesthoods</a>. Many <a href="/wiki/Christian_denomination" title="Christian denomination">Christian denominations</a> have an <a href="/wiki/Autocephalous" class="mw-redirect" title="Autocephalous">autocephalous</a> <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_polity" title="Ecclesiastical polity">ecclesiastical hierarchy</a> of <a href="/wiki/Leadership" title="Leadership">leadership</a>. Families can be viewed as hierarchical structures in terms of <a href="/wiki/Cousinship" class="mw-redirect" title="Cousinship">cousinship</a> (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), <a href="/wiki/Ancestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancestry">ancestry</a> (as depicted in a <a href="/wiki/Family_tree" title="Family tree">family tree</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Inheritance" title="Inheritance">inheritance</a> (<a href="/wiki/Order_of_succession" title="Order of succession">succession</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heir" class="mw-redirect" title="Heir">heirship</a>). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and <a href="/wiki/Lifestyle_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lifestyle (sociology)">lifestyle</a> can be organized using <a href="/wiki/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs" title="Maslow's hierarchy of needs">Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</a> - according to Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. <a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">Learning</a> steps often follow a hierarchical scheme—to master <a href="/wiki/Differential_equation" title="Differential equation">differential equations</a> one must first learn <a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">calculus</a>; to learn calculus one must first learn <a href="/wiki/Elementary_algebra" title="Elementary algebra">elementary algebra</a>; and so on. <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">Nature</a> offers hierarchical structures, as numerous schemes such as <a href="/wiki/Linnaean_taxonomy" title="Linnaean taxonomy">Linnaean taxonomy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">organization of life</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Biomass_pyramid" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomass pyramid">biomass pyramids</a> attempt to document.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="Quotation needed from source to verify. (November 2021)">need quotation to verify</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the above examples are often<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="This term requires quantification. (November 2021)">quantify</span></a></i>]</sup> clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most <a href="/wiki/Postal_code" title="Postal code">postal-code</a> systems are hierarchical. Using the <a href="/wiki/Postal_codes_in_Canada" title="Postal codes in Canada">Canadian postal code system</a> as an example, the top level's binding concept, the <a href="/wiki/Forward_sortation_area" class="mw-redirect" title="Forward sortation area">"postal district"</a>, consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an <a href="#Degree_of_branching">overlapping hierarchy</a>, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format <i>A0A 0A0</i> (the second and third letter positions allow 20 objects each). Most <a href="/wiki/Library_classification" title="Library classification">library classification</a> systems are also hierarchical. The <a href="/wiki/Dewey_Decimal_Classification" title="Dewey Decimal Classification">Dewey Decimal System</a> is infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<sup id="cite_ref-Dewey_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dewey-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Organizational_chart.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Organizational_chart.svg/200px-Organizational_chart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Organizational_chart.svg/300px-Organizational_chart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Organizational_chart.svg/400px-Organizational_chart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1011" data-file-height="707" /></a><figcaption>A simple military <a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_organization" title="Hierarchical organization">organizational hierarchy</a> depicted in the form of a <a href="/wiki/Tree_structure" title="Tree structure">tree</a>. Diagrams like this exemplify <a href="/wiki/Organizational_chart" title="Organizational chart">organizational charts</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Organizations">Organizations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Organizations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Organizational_structure" title="Organizational structure">Organizational structure</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_organization" title="Hierarchical organization">Hierarchical organization</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Organization" title="Organization">Organizations</a> can be structured as a <a href="/wiki/Dominance_hierarchy" title="Dominance hierarchy">dominance hierarchy</a>. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most <a href="/wiki/Power_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Power (philosophy)">power</a> or <a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">authority</a>, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including <a href="/wiki/Forms_of_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Forms of government">governments</a>, <a href="/wiki/Company" title="Company">companies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">armed forces</a>, <a href="/wiki/Militia" title="Militia">militia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organized_religion" title="Organized religion">organized religions</a>. The units or persons within an organization may be depicted hierarchically in an <a href="/wiki/Organizational_chart" title="Organizational chart">organizational chart</a>. </p><p>In a <a href="/wiki/Reverse_hierarchy" title="Reverse hierarchy">reverse hierarchy</a>, the conceptual <a href="/wiki/Pyramid_(geometry)" title="Pyramid (geometry)">pyramid</a> of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biology">Biology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Biology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation#Fundamentals" title="Biological organisation">Biological organisation § Fundamentals</a></div> <p>Empirically, when we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">System</a> hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> laid the empirical foundations for a <a href="/wiki/Branches_of_science" title="Branches of science">field</a> that would become, from the 1980s, <b>hierarchical ecology</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The theoretical foundations are summarized by <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a>. When <a href="/wiki/Biological_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological systems">biological systems</a> are modeled as <a href="/wiki/Physical_system" title="Physical system">physical systems</a>, in the most general abstraction, they are <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_system#Open_system" title="Thermodynamic system">thermodynamic open systems</a> that exhibit <a href="/wiki/Self-organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-organisation">self-organised</a> behavior, and the <a href="/wiki/Set_theory" title="Set theory">set/subset</a> relations between <a href="/wiki/Dissipative_structures" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissipative structures">dissipative structures</a> can be characterized<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (November 2021)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> in a hierarchy. </p><p>Other hierarchical representations related to biology include <a href="/wiki/Ecological_pyramids" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological pyramids">ecological pyramids</a> which illustrate energy flow or <a href="/wiki/Trophic_levels" class="mw-redirect" title="Trophic levels">trophic levels</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ecosystems" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystems">ecosystems</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomy (general)">taxonomic</a> hierarchies, including the <a href="/wiki/Linnean_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Linnean classification">Linnean classification</a> scheme and <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_trees" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogenetic trees">phylogenetic trees</a> that reflect inferred patterns of evolutionary relationship among living and extinct species. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computer-graphic_imaging">Computer-graphic imaging</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Computer-graphic imaging"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/3D_modeling" title="3D modeling">3D modeling</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Computer-generated_imagery" title="Computer-generated imagery">CGI</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computer_animation" title="Computer animation">computer-animation</a> <a href="/wiki/Computer_program" title="Computer program">programs</a> mostly use hierarchies for models. On a <a href="/wiki/3D_computer_graphics" title="3D computer graphics">3D</a> model of a <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">human</a> for example, the <a href="/wiki/Chest" class="mw-redirect" title="Chest">chest</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Parent" title="Parent">parent</a> of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the <a href="/wiki/Hand" title="Hand">hand</a>. This pattern is used in <a href="/wiki/3D_modeling" title="3D modeling">modeling</a> and <a href="/wiki/Animation" title="Animation">animation</a> for almost everything built as a 3D <a href="/wiki/Digital_data" title="Digital data">digital</a> model. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Linguistics">Linguistics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Linguistics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many grammatical theories, such as <a href="/wiki/Phrase-structure_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Phrase-structure grammar">phrase-structure grammar</a>, involve hierarchy. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct–inverse language">Direct–inverse languages</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Cree_language" title="Cree language">Cree</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mapudungun_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mapudungun language">Mapudungun</a> distinguish subject and object on <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verbs</a> not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons. </p><p>In this system, the three (or four with <a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian languages</a>) persons occur in a hierarchy of <a href="/wiki/Salience_(language)" title="Salience (language)">salience</a>. To distinguish which is subject and which object, <i>inverse markers</i> are used if the object outranks the subject. </p><p>On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun-phrase to which it refers commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Music">Music</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Music"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Schenker" title="Heinrich Schenker">Heinrich Schenker</a> (1768–1835, see <a href="/wiki/Schenkerian_analysis" title="Schenkerian analysis">Schenkerian analysis</a>), and in the (1985) <a href="/wiki/Generative_theory_of_tonal_music" title="Generative theory of tonal music">Generative Theory of Tonal Music</a>, by composer <a href="/wiki/Fred_Lerdahl" title="Fred Lerdahl">Fred Lerdahl</a> and linguist Ray <a href="/wiki/Jackendoff" class="mw-redirect" title="Jackendoff">Jackendoff</a>). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or <a href="/wiki/Ursatz" class="mw-redirect" title="Ursatz">Ursatz</a>, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Pitch_(music)" title="Pitch (music)">pitches</a> and <a href="/wiki/Musical_form" title="Musical form">form</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tonality" title="Tonality">tonal</a> music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a <a href="/wiki/Tonic_(music)" title="Tonic (music)">tonic</a> key, and secondary themes in other <a href="/wiki/Key_signature" title="Key signature">keys</a> are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Examples_of_other_applications">Examples of other applications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Examples of other applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Information-based">Information-based</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Information-based"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Library_classification" title="Library classification">Library classification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dewey_Decimal_Classification" title="Dewey Decimal Classification">Dewey Decimal Classification</a></li></ul></li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="City_planning-based">City planning-based</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: City planning-based"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Green_transport_hierarchy" title="Green transport hierarchy">Green transport hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_roads" class="mw-redirect" title="Hierarchy of roads">Roads</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Street_hierarchy" title="Street hierarchy">Streets</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settlement_hierarchy" title="Settlement hierarchy">Settlement hierarchy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Settlement_hierarchy#Example_of_a_settlement_hierarchy" title="Settlement hierarchy">As of 2010</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekistic_units" class="mw-redirect" title="Ekistic units">As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968)</a></li></ul></li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Linguistics-oriented">Linguistics-oriented</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Linguistics-oriented"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tree_model" title="Tree model">Language family tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levels_of_adequacy" title="Levels of adequacy">Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct%E2%80%93inverse_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct–inverse language">Direct–inverse languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_linguistics" title="Structural linguistics">Structural linguistics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parse_tree" title="Parse tree">Parse tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_grammar" title="Formal grammar">Formal grammars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_syntax_tree" title="Abstract syntax tree">Abstract syntax tree</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_terms#Basic_color_terms" class="mw-redirect" title="Color terms">Evolution of basic color terminology in languages</a></li></ul> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1216972533"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Power-_or_authority-based">Power- or authority-based</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Power- or authority-based"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Noble_ranks" class="mw-redirect" title="Noble ranks">Aristocratic hierarchies</a> <ul><li>In <a href="/wiki/Royal_and_noble_ranks#General_chart_of_"translations"_between_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal and noble ranks">Europe</a></li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Chinese_nobility#Sovereign_and_ruling_family_ranks" title="Chinese nobility">China</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_polity" title="Ecclesiastical polity">Ecclesiastical hierarchies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_hierarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Church hierarchy">Catholic Church hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priesthood_(LDS_Church)" title="Priesthood (LDS Church)">LDS Church hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimbanguism#Hierarchy" title="Kimbanguism">Kimbanguist Church hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%ABlism#Member_hierarchy" title="Raëlism">Raëlism Church hierarchy</a></li> <li>see also <a href="/wiki/Autocephaly" title="Autocephaly">autocephaly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prussian_three-class_franchise" title="Prussian three-class franchise">Prussian three-class franchise</a><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Political party hierarchies <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ranks_and_insignia_of_the_Nazi_Party" title="Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a> (<i>pace</i> overlapping fields<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SS_Ranks#Final_SS_ranks_1934–1945" class="mw-redirect" title="SS Ranks">SS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Nazi_Germany#G" title="Glossary of Nazi Germany">Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union#Structure" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_hierarchy" title="Command hierarchy">Chain of command</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_comparative_military_ranks" title="List of comparative military ranks">Military ranks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_organization#Hierarchy_of_modern_armies" title="Military organization">Military units</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_Combatant_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="Unified Combatant Command">U.S. Military Combatant Commands</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominance_hierarchy" title="Dominance hierarchy">Intraspecial dominance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pecking_order" class="mw-redirect" title="Pecking order">Pecking order</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">Social classes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_India" title="Caste system in India">Caste system in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_structure_of_Feudal_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan">Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_race#Hierarchy" title="Master race">White racist hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_Exclusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Hierarchy of Exclusion">Hierarchy of Exclusion</a> (Ender's Game)</li></ul></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Value-related">Value-related</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Value-related"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_genres" title="Hierarchy of genres">Hierarchy of genres in art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_evidence" title="Hierarchy of evidence">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs" title="Maslow's hierarchy of needs">Human needs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_precious_substances" title="Hierarchy of precious substances">Precious substances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_values" title="Hierarchy of values">Judicial hierarchy of social values</a></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Perception-based">Perception-based</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Perception-based"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_wheel" title="Color wheel">Color wheel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_colors" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary colors">Primary colors</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_colors" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary colors">Secondary colors</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tertiary_colors" class="mw-redirect" title="Tertiary colors">Tertiary colors</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1216972533"><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="History-oriented">History-oriented</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: History-oriented"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Three-age_system" title="Three-age system">Three-age system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_history" title="Comparative history">Cyclic theory of civilization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spengler%27s_civilization_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Spengler's civilization model">Oswald Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Study_of_History#List_of_civilizations" title="A Study of History">Arnold J. Toynbee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiral_dynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiral dynamics">Spiral dynamics</a></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Science-focussed">Science-focussed</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Science-focussed"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_location_in_the_universe#Earth_in_the_universe" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's location in the universe">Hierarchy of organization within the Universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_ternary_star_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Hierarchical ternary star system">Star systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological classification">Biological classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological organization">Biological organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Phylogenetic tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of evolution">Evolutionary development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_land_classification#Hierarchy_of_classification_levels_in_ecology_compared_to_other_fields" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological land classification">Hierarchy of ecological georegions</a></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-3"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Technology-based">Technology-based</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Technology-based"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memory_hierarchy" title="Memory hierarchy">Memory hierarchy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cache_hierarchy" title="Cache hierarchy">Cache hierarchy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_clustering" title="Hierarchical clustering">Clusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_(object-oriented_programming)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)">Class constructs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_database_model" title="Hierarchical database model">Data organization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_query" class="mw-redirect" title="Hierarchical query">Hierarchical query</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_Data_Format" title="Hierarchical Data Format">Data storage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_file_system" title="Hierarchical file system">Computer files</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_control_system" title="Hierarchical control system">Devices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classless_Inter-Domain_Routing" title="Classless Inter-Domain Routing">IP addresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_hierarchy" title="Memory hierarchy">Memory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_page_tables" class="mw-redirect" title="Hierarchical page tables">Virtual memory allocation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_internetworking_model" title="Hierarchical internetworking model">Networks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_cell_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Hierarchical cell structure">Radio cells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_state_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Hierarchical state machine">States (configurations)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_name_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Hierarchical name space">Web addresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structure" title="Structure">Structure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Data_Structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Data Structure">Data Structure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inheritance_(object-oriented_programming)" title="Inheritance (object-oriented programming)">Inheritance (object-oriented programming)</a></li></ul> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Religion-related">Religion-related</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Religion-related"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Levels of consciousness <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chakra#The_seven_major_chakras" title="Chakra">Chakras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_chain_of_being" title="Great chain of being">Great chain of being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ray_of_Creation" title="Ray of Creation">G.I. Gurdjieff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Circuit_Model_of_Consciousness#The_eight_circuits" class="mw-redirect" title="Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness">Timothy Leary</a></li></ul></li> <li>Levels of spiritual development <ul><li>In <a href="/wiki/Four_stages_of_enlightenment" class="mw-redirect" title="Four stages of enlightenment">Theravada Buddhism</a></li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Bhumi_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bhumi (Buddhism)">Mahayana Buddhism</a></li></ul></li> <li>Ages in the evolution of society <ul><li>In <a href="/wiki/Astrological_age#Past_ages" title="Astrological age">Astrology</a></li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Ages_of_Man" title="Ages of Man">Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispensation_(period)#Protestant_dispensations" class="mw-redirect" title="Dispensation (period)">Dispensations in Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispensation_(period)#Latter_Day_Saint_dispensations" class="mw-redirect" title="Dispensation (period)">Dispensations in Mormonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_communion" class="mw-redirect" title="Hierarchical communion">Degrees of communion between various Christian churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UFO_religion" title="UFO religion">UFO religions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Master_Jesus#Airborne_Division_of_the_Brotherhood_of_Light" title="Master Jesus">Command hierarchy of the <i>Ashtar Galactic Command</i> flying saucer fleet</a></li></ul></li> <li>Deities <ul><li>In <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Buddhist_pantheon#Hierarchical_structure_of_the_Buddhist_pantheon" title="Japanese Buddhist pantheon">Japanese Buddhism</a></li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Spiritual_Hierarchy#Levels_of_the_spiritual_hierarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiritual Hierarchy">Theosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li>Angels <ul><li>In <a href="/wiki/Christian_angelic_hierarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian angelic hierarchy">Christianity</a></li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Islamic_view_of_angels#Angel_hierarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic view of angels">Islam</a></li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Jewish_angelic_hierarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish angelic hierarchy">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kabbalistic_angelic_hierarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy">Kabbalistic</a></li></ul></li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Yazata" title="Yazata">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul></li> <li>Devils and Demons <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_devils" class="mw-redirect" title="Hierarchy of devils">Devils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_demons" class="mw-redirect" title="Hierarchy of demons">Demons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hell" title="Hell">Hells</a> <ul><li>In <a href="/wiki/Inferno_(Dante)" title="Inferno (Dante)">Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell)</a></li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Naraka_(Buddhism)" title="Naraka (Buddhism)">Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_stratification" title="Religious stratification">Religions in society</a></li> <li>(organizational hierarchies are listed under <span class="nowrap">"<a href="#Power-_or_authority-based">Power- or authority-based</a>"</span>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Methods_using_hierarchy">Methods using hierarchy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Methods using hierarchy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_Hierarchy_Process" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytic Hierarchy Process">Analytic Hierarchy Process</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_Decision_Process" class="mw-redirect" title="Hierarchical Decision Process">Hierarchical Decision Process</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HOOD_method" title="HOOD method">Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_Bayes_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Hierarchical Bayes model">Hierarchical Bayes model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_clustering" title="Hierarchical clustering">Hierarchical clustering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_clustering_of_networks" title="Hierarchical clustering of networks">Hierarchical clustering of networks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_constraint_satisfaction" title="Hierarchical constraint satisfaction">Hierarchical constraint satisfaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_linear_modeling" class="mw-redirect" title="Hierarchical linear modeling">Hierarchical linear modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_modulation" title="Hierarchical modulation">Hierarchical modulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_proportion" title="Hierarchical proportion">Hierarchical proportion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_RBF" title="Hierarchical RBF">Hierarchical radial basis function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_storage_management" title="Hierarchical storage management">Hierarchical storage management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_task_network" title="Hierarchical task network">Hierarchical task network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_temporal_memory" title="Hierarchical temporal memory">Hierarchical temporal memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_Token_Bucket" class="mw-redirect" title="Hierarchical Token Bucket">Hierarchical token bucket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_visitor_pattern" class="mw-redirect" title="Hierarchical visitor pattern">Hierarchical visitor pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presentation-abstraction-control" class="mw-redirect" title="Presentation-abstraction-control">Presentation-abstraction-control</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller" class="mw-redirect" title="Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller">Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller</a></li></ul></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticisms">Criticisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Criticisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Hierarchy" title="Special:EditPage/Hierarchy">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In the work of diverse theorists such as <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a> (1842 to 1910), <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a> (1926 to 1984) and <a href="/wiki/Hayden_White" title="Hayden White">Hayden White</a> (1928 to 2018), important critiques of hierarchical <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> are advanced. James famously asserts in his work <a href="/wiki/Radical_Empiricism" class="mw-redirect" title="Radical Empiricism">Radical Empiricism</a> that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Feminists" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminists">Feminists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marxists" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxists">Marxists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anarchists" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarchists">anarchists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Communists" class="mw-redirect" title="Communists">communists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Critical_theorists" class="mw-redirect" title="Critical theorists">critical theorists</a> and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethics,_behavioral_psychology,_philosophies_of_identity"><span id="Ethics.2C_behavioral_psychology.2C_philosophies_of_identity"></span>Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hierarchy_Of_Purposes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Hierarchy_Of_Purposes.jpg/220px-Hierarchy_Of_Purposes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Hierarchy_Of_Purposes.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="225" /></a><figcaption>Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, various <a href="/wiki/Virtues" class="mw-redirect" title="Virtues">virtues</a> are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of <a href="/wiki/Virtue_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Virtue theory">virtue theory</a>. </p><p>In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 26em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchy" title="Anarchy">Anarchy</a> – Society without rulers</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_browser" title="Class browser">Class browser</a> – Feature of coding platforms</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forms_of_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Forms of government">Forms of government</a> – System or group governing an organized community<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graph_theory" title="Graph theory">Graph theory</a> – Area of discrete mathematics</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterarchy" title="Heterarchy">Heterarchy</a> – System of organization where the elements of the organization are unranked</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_classifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Hierarchical classifier">Hierarchical classifier</a> – classification system based on hierarchical rules<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_epistemology" title="Hierarchical epistemology">Hierarchical epistemology</a> – A theory of knowledge</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_hidden_Markov_model" title="Hierarchical hidden Markov model">Hierarchical hidden Markov model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_INTegration" title="Hierarchical INTegration">Hierarchical INTegration</a> – computer benchmark<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_organization" title="Hierarchical organization">Hierarchical organization</a> – Type of organizational structure</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_Music_Specification_Language" title="Hierarchical Music Specification Language">Hierarchical Music Specification Language</a> – Music programming language</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_Open_Service_Interface_Definition" class="mw-redirect" title="Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition">Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition</a> – programmatic interface specifications describing services<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_problem" title="Hierarchy problem">Hierarchy problem</a> – Unsolved problem in physics</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holarchy#Different_meanings" class="mw-redirect" title="Holarchy">Holarchy § Different meanings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumental value">Instrumental value</a> – Philosophical concept<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Layer_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Layer (disambiguation)">Layer (disambiguation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilevel_model" title="Multilevel model">Multilevel model</a> – Statistical models of parameters that vary at more than one level</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multitree" title="Multitree">Multitree</a> – Directed acyclic graph with ≤1 directed paths between any two nodes</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_(officer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordinary (officer)">Ordinary (officer)</a> – Ecclesiastical title for local authorities<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Characters_of_Halo#High_Prophets" class="mw-redirect" title="Characters of Halo">Characters of Halo § High Prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Coptic_Orthodox_Popes_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria">List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Principle">Peter Principle</a> – Management concept by Laurence J. Peter<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_(computer_security)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ring (computer security)">Ring (computer security)</a> – Layer of protection in computer systems<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_dominance_theory" title="Social dominance theory">Social dominance theory</a> – Theory of intergroup relations</li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structure-related_concepts">Structure-related concepts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Structure-related concepts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>(For example, in <a href="#Subtypes">§ Subtypes</a>)</i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Is-a" title="Is-a">Is-a</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypernymy" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypernymy">Hypernymy</a> (and <a href="/wiki/Supertype" class="mw-redirect" title="Supertype">supertype</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyponymy" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyponymy">Hyponymy</a> (and <a href="/wiki/Subtyping" title="Subtyping">subtype</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Has-a" title="Has-a">Has-a</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holonymy" class="mw-redirect" title="Holonymy">Holonymy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meronymy" class="mw-redirect" title="Meronymy">Meronymy</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Footnotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRuse1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Ruse" title="Michael Ruse">Ruse, Michael</a> (1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/monadtomanconcep0000ruse"><i>Monad to man: the Concept of Progress in Evolutionary Biology</i></a></span>. Harvard University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/monadtomanconcep0000ruse/page/21">21</a>–23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03248-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03248-4"><bdi>978-0-674-03248-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Monad+to+man%3A+the+Concept+of+Progress+in+Evolutionary+Biology&rft.pages=21-23&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-674-03248-4&rft.aulast=Ruse&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmonadtomanconcep0000ruse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dawkins-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dawkins_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dawkins_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dawkins_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dawkins_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dawkins_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dawkins_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDawkins1976" class="citation conference cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Dawkins, Richard</a> (1976). Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon; Hinde, Robert A. (eds.). <i>Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology</i>. Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 7–54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-29086-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-29086-4"><bdi>0-521-29086-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Hierarchical+organization%3A+a+candidate+principle+for+ethology&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pages=7-54&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=0-521-29086-4&rft.aulast=Dawkins&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Architecture-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Architecture_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Architecture_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimon1962" class="citation journal cs1">Simon, Herbert A. (12 December 1962). "The Architecture of Complexity". <i><a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_American_Philosophical_Society" title="Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society">Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society</a></i>. <b>106</b> (6). Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a>: 467–482. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.110.961">10.1.1.110.961</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-049X">0003-049X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/985254">985254</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=The+Architecture+of+Complexity&rft.volume=106&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=467-482&rft.date=1962-12-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.110.961%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft.issn=0003-049X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F985254%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Simon&rft.aufirst=Herbert+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span><span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Access_to_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">registration required</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm">"Catholic Encyclopedia: Hierarchy"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210126072002/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-01-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2005-04-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia%3A+Hierarchy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F07322c.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy">"hierarchy"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180704153523/https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-07-04.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=hierarchy&rft.btitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Fword%2Fhierarchy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenry_George_LiddellRobert_Scott" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Henry George Liddell; Robert Scott. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs">"ἱεράρχης"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/A_Greek%E2%80%93English_Lexicon" title="A Greek–English Lexicon">A Greek–English Lexicon</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210703031946/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=i(era/rxhs">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-07-03 – via Perseus Digital Library.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%E1%BC%B1%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AC%CF%81%CF%87%CE%B7%CF%82&rft.btitle=A+Greek%E2%80%93English+Lexicon&rft.au=Henry+George+Liddell&rft.au=Robert+Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.04.0057%253Aentry%253Di%2528era%252Frxhs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenry_George_LiddellRobert_Scott" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Henry George Liddell; Robert Scott. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs">"ἱερεύς"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/A_Greek%E2%80%93English_Lexicon" title="A Greek–English Lexicon">A Greek–English Lexicon</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200928172550/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di(ereu%2Fs">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-09-28 – via Perseus Digital Library.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%E1%BC%B1%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B5%CF%8D%CF%82&rft.btitle=A+Greek%E2%80%93English+Lexicon&rft.au=Henry+George+Liddell&rft.au=Robert+Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.04.0057%253Aentry%253Di%2528ereu%252Fs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenry_George_LiddellRobert_Scott" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Henry George Liddell; Robert Scott. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F">"ἀρχή"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/A_Greek%E2%80%93English_Lexicon" title="A Greek–English Lexicon">A Greek–English Lexicon</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110606125340/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=a)rxh%2F">Archived</a> from the original on 2011-06-06 – via Perseus Digital Library.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%E1%BC%80%CF%81%CF%87%CE%AE&rft.btitle=A+Greek%E2%80%93English+Lexicon&rft.au=Henry+George+Liddell&rft.au=Robert+Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.04.0057%253Aentry%253Da%2529rxh%252F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouglas_Lemke2002" class="citation book cs1">Douglas Lemke (2002). <i>Regions of War and Peace</i>. Cambridge: University of Cambridge. p. 49.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Regions+of+War+and+Peace&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=49&rft.pub=University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=2002&rft.au=Douglas+Lemke&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lehmann-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lehmann_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lehmann_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLehmann1996" class="citation conference cs1">Lehmann, Fritz (1996). Eklund, Peter G.; Ellis, Gerard; Mann, Graham (eds.). <i>Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles</i>. Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings. Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115. Germany: Springer. pp. 50–74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-540-61534-2" title="Special:BookSources/3-540-61534-2"><bdi>3-540-61534-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Big+Posets+of+Participatings+and+Thematic+Roles&rft.place=Germany&rft.series=Lecture+Notes+in+Artificial+Intelligence+115&rft.pages=50-74&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=3-540-61534-2&rft.aulast=Lehmann&rft.aufirst=Fritz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-natsocsci-ch4-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-natsocsci-ch4_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-natsocsci-ch4_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLane2006" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Lane, David (2006). "Hierarchy, Complexity, Society". In Pumain, Denise (ed.). <i>Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences</i>. New York, New York: <a href="/wiki/Springer-Verlag" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer-Verlag">Springer-Verlag</a>. pp. 81–120. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4126-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4126-6"><bdi>978-1-4020-4126-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hierarchy%2C+Complexity%2C+Society&rft.btitle=Hierarchy+in+Natural+and+Social+Sciences&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pages=81-120&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6&rft.aulast=Lane&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLinnaei1959" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Linnaei, Carl von</a> (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542"><i>Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis</i></a> (in Latin) (10th ed.). <a href="/wiki/Stockholm" title="Stockholm">Stockholm</a>: Impensis Direct. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-665-53008-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-665-53008-0"><bdi>0-665-53008-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081010032456/http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542">Archived</a> from the original on 2008-10-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-09-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Systema+naturae+per+regna+tria+naturae+%3Asecundum+classes%2C+ordines%2C+genera%2C+species%2C+cum+characteribus%2C+differentiis%2C+synonymis%2C+locis&rft.place=Stockholm&rft.edition=10th&rft.pub=Impensis+Direct&rft.date=1959&rft.isbn=0-665-53008-0&rft.aulast=Linnaei&rft.aufirst=Carl+von&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biodiversitylibrary.org%2Fbibliography%2F542&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Corballis-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Corballis_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCorballis2011" class="citation book cs1">Corballis, Michael (2011). <i>The Recursive Mind</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691145471" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691145471"><bdi>978-0691145471</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Recursive+Mind&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0691145471&rft.aulast=Corballis&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AI_industrial-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AI_industrial_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKopischGünther1992" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Kopisch, Manfred; Günther, Andreas (1992). "Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control". In Belli, Fevzi (ed.). <i>Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems</i>. <i>Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings</i>. Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series. Vol. 602. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer</a>. pp. 424–427. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBFb0024994">10.1007/BFb0024994</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-540-55601-X" title="Special:BookSources/3-540-55601-X"><bdi>3-540-55601-X</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0302-9743">0302-9743</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Industrial+and+Engineering+Applications+of+Artificial+Intelligence+and+Expert+Systems&rft.btitle=Industrial+and+engineering+applications+of+artificial+intelligence+and+expert+systems%3A+5th+international+conference%2C+IEA%2FAIE-92%2C+Paderborn%2C+Germany%2C+June+9%E2%80%9312%2C+1992+%3A+proceedings&rft.series=Lecture+Notes+in+Computer+Science+Series&rft.pages=424-427&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1992&rft.issn=0302-9743&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBFb0024994&rft.isbn=3-540-55601-X&rft.aulast=Kopisch&rft.aufirst=Manfred&rft.au=G%C3%BCnther%2C+Andreas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ibm-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ibm_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm">"Compositional hierarchy"</a>. <i>WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm">the original</a> on 3 January 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 October</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WebSphere+Transformation+Extender+Design+Studio&rft.atitle=Compositional+hierarchy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpublib.boulder.ibm.com%2Finfocenter%2Fwtxdoc%2Fv8r2m0%2Findex.jsp%3Ftopic%3D%2Fcom.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc%2Fconcepts%2Fc_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sys_model-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sys_model_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sys_model_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFunkeSebastian1999" class="citation book cs1">Funke, Birger; Sebastian, Hans-Jürgen (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366">"An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach"</a>. In Polis, Michael P.; Dontchev, Asen L.; Kall, Peter; Lascieka, Irena; Olbrot, Andrzej W. (eds.). <i>Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference</i>. Research notes in mathematics series. Vol. 396. <a href="/wiki/CRC_Press" title="CRC Press">CRC Press</a>. pp. 366–75. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-0607-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-0607-5"><bdi>978-0-8493-0607-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=An+advanced+modeling+environment+based+on+a+hybrid+AI-OR+approach&rft.btitle=Systems+modelling+and+optimization%3A+proceedings+of+the+18th+IFIP+TC7+conference&rft.series=Research+notes+in+mathematics+series&rft.pages=366-75&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5&rft.aulast=Funke&rft.aufirst=Birger&rft.au=Sebastian%2C+Hans-J%C3%BCrgen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dds2eIQ6XZy0C%26pg%3DPA366&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Parsons-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Parsons_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParsons2002" class="citation book cs1">Parsons, David (2002). <i>Object Oriented Programming in C++</i>. Cengage Learning. pp. 110–185. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8264-5428-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8264-5428-3"><bdi>0-8264-5428-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Object+Oriented+Programming+in+C%2B%2B&rft.pages=110-185&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-8264-5428-3&rft.aulast=Parsons&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-electrodynamics-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-electrodynamics_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKulish2002" class="citation book cs1">Kulish, V. V. (2002). <i>Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics</i>. Vol. 1. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer</a>. pp. xvii–xx, 49–71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4020-0757-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-4020-0757-4"><bdi>1-4020-0757-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hierarchical+Methods%3A+Hierarchy+and+hierarchical+asymptotic+methods+in+electrodynamics&rft.pages=xvii-xx%2C+49-71&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=1-4020-0757-4&rft.aulast=Kulish&rft.aufirst=V.+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSoanesHawker1991" class="citation book cs1">Soanes, Catherine; Hawker, Sara (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070929230000/http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk">"nation"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary"><i>Compact Oxford English Dictionary</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-861022-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-861022-9"><bdi>978-0-19-861022-9</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk">the original</a> on 2007-09-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-10-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=nation&rft.btitle=Compact+Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-19-861022-9&rft.aulast=Soanes&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rft.au=Hawker%2C+Sara&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.askoxford.com%2Fconcise_oed%2Fnation%3Fview%3Duk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSoanesHawker1991" class="citation book cs1">Soanes, Catherine; Hawker, Sara (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070929082941/http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk">"government"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary"><i>Compact Oxford English Dictionary</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-861022-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-861022-9"><bdi>978-0-19-861022-9</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk">the original</a> on 2007-09-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-10-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=government&rft.btitle=Compact+Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-19-861022-9&rft.aulast=Soanes&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rft.au=Hawker%2C+Sara&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.askoxford.com%2Fconcise_oed%2Fgovernment%3Fview%3Duk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://study.com/academy/lesson/social-stratification-definition-theories-examples.html">"Social Stratification | Overview, Theories & Examples - Video & Lesson Transcript"</a>. <i>study.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220624105232/https://study.com/academy/lesson/social-stratification-definition-theories-examples.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-06-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-06-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=study.com&rft.atitle=Social+Stratification+%26%23124%3B+Overview%2C+Theories+%26+Examples+-+Video+%26+Lesson+Transcript&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstudy.com%2Facademy%2Flesson%2Fsocial-stratification-definition-theories-examples.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDawkins1976" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Dawkins, Richard</a> (7 October 1976). "Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology". In <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Bateson" title="Patrick Bateson">Bateson, P. P. G.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hinde" title="Robert Hinde">Hinde, R. A.</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xIg8AAAAIAAJ"><i>Growing Points in Ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (published 1976). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521212878" title="Special:BookSources/9780521212878"><bdi>9780521212878</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hierarchical+organization%3A+a+candidate+principle+for+ethology&rft.btitle=Growing+Points+in+Ethology%3A+based+on+a+conference+sponsored+by+St.+John%27s+College+and+King%27s+College%2C+Cambridge&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1976-10-07&rft.isbn=9780521212878&rft.aulast=Dawkins&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxIg8AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKulish2006" class="citation book cs1">Kulish, Viktor Vasylevych (11 April 2006) [2002]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0RXnBwAAQBAJ"><i>Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and Hierarchical Asymptotic Methods in Electrodynamics</i></a>. Volume 123 of Fundamental Theories of Physics. Vol. 1. New York: Springer Science & Business Media (published 2006). p. xviii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780306480614" title="Special:BookSources/9780306480614"><bdi>9780306480614</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 November</span> 2021</span>. <q>At the same time, it is a trivial phenomenon of everyday life, too. Indeed, one can be convinced that there is a hierarchy in everyday life everywhere. We can affirm once more that a person lives in a completely hierarchical world.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hierarchical+Methods%3A+Hierarchy+and+Hierarchical+Asymptotic+Methods+in+Electrodynamics&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Volume+123+of+Fundamental+Theories+of+Physics&rft.pages=xviii&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2006-04-11&rft.isbn=9780306480614&rft.aulast=Kulish&rft.aufirst=Viktor+Vasylevych&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0RXnBwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dewey-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dewey_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalker2009" class="citation web cs1">Walker, Randy (May–June 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF">"Tracking Nuclear Sources"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. wellservicingmagazine.com. pp. 28–30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tracking+Nuclear+Sources&rft.pages=28-30&rft.pub=wellservicingmagazine.com&rft.date=2009-05%2F2009-06&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=Randy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwellservicingmagazine.com%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fpdfmag%2FWSM_MAYJUN09.PDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged November 2017">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://study.com/academy/lesson/organizational-chart-and-hierarchy-definition-examples.html">"Organizational Chart and Hierarchy: Definition & Examples - Video & Lesson Transcript"</a>. <i>study.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220624105529/https://study.com/academy/lesson/organizational-chart-and-hierarchy-definition-examples.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-06-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"Politics, Governance, and Diplomacy between Neoclassicism and Modernism". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SQGMYLJRdXoC"><i>A History of Modern Germany Since 1815</i></a>. London: A&C Black (published 2003). p. 239. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780826449108" title="Special:BookSources/9780826449108"><bdi>9780826449108</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 November</span> 2021</span>. <q>Kühne believes the Prussian franchise lasted for over sixty years because it accurately reflected the social realities of the relatively closed, hierarchical, and conformist communities of rural Prussia.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Politics%2C+Governance%2C+and+Diplomacy+between+Neoclassicism+and+Modernism&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Modern+Germany+Since+1815&rft.place=London&rft.pages=239&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2003-01&rft.isbn=9780826449108&rft.aulast=Tipton&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSQGMYLJRdXoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Compare: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2016" class="citation book cs1">Lee, Stephen J. (12 February 2016) [1987]. "Dictatorship in Germany". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D32PCwAAQBAJ"><i>European Dictatorships 1918-1945</i></a> (4, revised ed.). London: Routledge (published 2016). p. 217. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317294221" title="Special:BookSources/9781317294221"><bdi>9781317294221</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 November</span> 2021</span>. <q>[...] Nazi administration is now regarded as an overlapping and confusing 'polycracy'. The basis of the criticism is that the multi-layering of agencies and the lack of proper delineation between them generated conflict and hampered efficiency. There was, for example, extensive rivalry between the Four-Year plan Office, the Ministry of Economics, the War ministry and the Plenipotentiary for Economics.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Dictatorship+in+Germany&rft.btitle=European+Dictatorships+1918-1945&rft.place=London&rft.pages=217&rft.edition=4%2C+revised&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016-02-12&rft.isbn=9781317294221&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Stephen+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DD32PCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span> </span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvans1951" class="citation cs2">Evans, F. C. (1951), "Ecology and urban areal research", <i>Scientific Monthly</i> (73)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Monthly&rft.atitle=Ecology+and+urban+areal+research&rft.issue=73&rft.date=1951&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=F.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvans1956" class="citation cs2">Evans, F. C. (1956), "Ecosystem as basic unit in ecology", <i>Science</i>, <b>123</b> (3208): 1127–8, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1956Sci...123.1127E">1956Sci...123.1127E</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.123.3208.1127">10.1126/science.123.3208.1127</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17793430">17793430</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Ecosystem+as+basic+unit+in+ecology&rft.volume=123&rft.issue=3208&rft.pages=1127-8&rft.date=1956&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17793430&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.123.3208.1127&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1956Sci...123.1127E&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=F.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJordanJørgensen2012" class="citation cs2">Jordan, F.; Jørgensen, S. E. (2012), <i>Models of the Ecological Hierarchy: From Molecules to the Ecosphere</i>, Newnes, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780444593962" title="Special:BookSources/9780444593962"><bdi>9780444593962</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Models+of+the+Ecological+Hierarchy%3A+From+Molecules+to+the+Ecosphere&rft.pub=Newnes&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780444593962&rft.aulast=Jordan&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.au=J%C3%B8rgensen%2C+S.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMargalef1975" class="citation cs2">Margalef, R. (1975), "External factors and ecosystem stability", <i>Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Hydrologie</i>, <b>37</b> (1): 102–117, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1975AqSci..37..102M">1975AqSci..37..102M</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02505181">10.1007/BF02505181</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10261%2F337692">10261/337692</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:20521602">20521602</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Schweizerische+Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Hydrologie&rft.atitle=External+factors+and+ecosystem+stability&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=102-117&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10261%2F337692&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A20521602%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF02505181&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1975AqSci..37..102M&rft.aulast=Margalef&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Neill1986" class="citation cs2">O'Neill, R. V. (1986), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hierarchicalconc00onei"><i>A Hierarchical Concept of Ecosystems</i></a></span>, Princeton University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0691084378" title="Special:BookSources/0691084378"><bdi>0691084378</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Hierarchical+Concept+of+Ecosystems&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0691084378&rft.aulast=O%27Neill&rft.aufirst=R.+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhierarchicalconc00onei&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWickenUlanowicz1988" class="citation cs2">Wicken, J. S.; Ulanowicz, R. E. (1988), "On quantifying hierarchical connections in ecology", <i>Journal of Social and Biological Systems</i>, <b>11</b> (3): 369–377, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0140-1750%2888%2990066-8">10.1016/0140-1750(88)90066-8</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Social+and+Biological+Systems&rft.atitle=On+quantifying+hierarchical+connections+in+ecology&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=369-377&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0140-1750%2888%2990066-8&rft.aulast=Wicken&rft.aufirst=J.+S.&rft.au=Ulanowicz%2C+R.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhlAllen1996" class="citation book cs1">Ahl, Valerie; <a href="/wiki/Timothy_F._H._Allen" title="Timothy F. H. Allen">Allen, Timothy F. H.</a> (1996). <i>Hierarchy Theory</i>. New York: Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-08481-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-08481-1"><bdi>0-231-08481-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hierarchy+Theory&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-231-08481-1&rft.aulast=Ahl&rft.aufirst=Valerie&rft.au=Allen%2C+Timothy+F.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAklTaylor1983" class="citation conference cs1"><a href="/wiki/Selim_Akl" title="Selim Akl">Akl, Selim G.</a>; Taylor, Peter D. (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF"><i>Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Advances in Cryptology – Proceedings of <a href="/wiki/CRYPTO" class="mw-redirect" title="CRYPTO">CRYPTO</a> '82. New York: <a href="/wiki/Plenum_Publishing_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Plenum Publishing Corporation">Plenum Publishing Corporation</a>. pp. 237–249. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-306-41366-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-306-41366-3"><bdi>0-306-41366-3</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2002-12-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Cryptographic+solution+to+a+multilevel+security+problem&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=237-249&rft.pub=Plenum+Publishing+Corporation&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-306-41366-3&rft.aulast=Akl&rft.aufirst=Selim+G.&rft.au=Taylor%2C+Peter+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw%2Fresearch%2Fcrypto%2FHTML%2FPDF%2FC82%2F237.PDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarboneCahn2013" class="citation journal cs1">Carbone, June; Cahn, Naomi (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6">"Is marriage for rich men?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Nevada_Law_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Nevada Law Journal">Nevada Law Journal</a></i>. <b>13</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/William_S._Boyd_School_of_Law" title="William S. Boyd School of Law">William S. Boyd School of Law</a>: 6.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nevada+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=Is+marriage+for+rich+men%3F&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=6&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Carbone&rft.aufirst=June&rft.au=Cahn%2C+Naomi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscholars.law.unlv.edu%2Fnlj%2Fvol13%2Fiss2%2F6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCkurshumova2007" class="citation thesis cs1">Ckurshumova, Wenzislava (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1807/118234"><i>Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development</i></a> (PhD thesis). University of Toronto. Section B. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1807%2F118234">1807/118234</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-494-27682-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-494-27682-2"><bdi>978-0-494-27682-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Regulatory+hierarchies+in+auxin+signal+transduction+and+vascular+tissue+development&rft.degree=PhD&rft.inst=University+of+Toronto&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1807%2F118234&rft.isbn=978-0-494-27682-2&rft.aulast=Ckurshumova&rft.aufirst=Wenzislava&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhdl.handle.net%2F1807%2F118234&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalindoFernández-Madrigal2007" class="citation book cs1">Galindo, Cipriano; Fernández-Madrigal, Juan-Antonio (2007). Kacprzyk, Janusz (ed.). <i>Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments</i>. Studies in Computational Intelligence. Berlin: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-72688-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-72688-3"><bdi>978-3-540-72688-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Multiple+Abstraction+Hierarchies+for+Mobile+Robot+Operation+in+Large+Environments&rft.place=Berlin&rft.series=Studies+in+Computational+Intelligence&rft.pub=Springer+Berlin+Heidelberg&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-3-540-72688-3&rft.aulast=Galindo&rft.aufirst=Cipriano&rft.au=Fern%C3%A1ndez-Madrigal%2C+Juan-Antonio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNelson1992" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Julie_Nelson_(economist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Julie Nelson (economist)">Nelson, Julie</a> (1992). "Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics". <i>Economics and Philosophy</i>. <b>8</b> (1): 103–25. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS026626710000050X">10.1017/S026626710000050X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146493891">146493891</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Economics+and+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Gender%2C+Metaphor+and+the+Definition+of+Economics&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=103-25&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS026626710000050X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146493891%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Nelson&rft.aufirst=Julie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPumain2006" class="citation book cs1">Pumain, Denise (2006). <i>Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences</i>. New York, New York: <a href="/wiki/Springer-Verlag" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer-Verlag">Springer-Verlag</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4126-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4126-6"><bdi>978-1-4020-4126-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hierarchy+in+Natural+and+Social+Sciences&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6&rft.aulast=Pumain&rft.aufirst=Denise&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenbaum2000" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Alexis_Rosenbaum" title="Alexis Rosenbaum">Rosenbaum, A.</a> (2000). <i>Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie</i> (in French). Paris: Desclee de Brouwer.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Les+repr%C3%A9sentations+hi%C3%A9rarchiques+en+philosophie&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Desclee+de+Brouwer&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Rosenbaum&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShahbaba2007" class="citation thesis cs1">Shahbaba, Babak (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1807/119833"><i>Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available</i></a> (PhD thesis). University of Toronto. Section B. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1807%2F119833">1807/119833</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-494-28076-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-494-28076-8"><bdi>978-0-494-28076-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Improving+classification+models+when+a+class+hierarchy+is+available&rft.degree=PhD&rft.inst=University+of+Toronto&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1807%2F119833&rft.isbn=978-0-494-28076-8&rft.aulast=Shahbaba&rft.aufirst=Babak&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhdl.handle.net%2F1807%2F119833&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li>Also includes full copies of:</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShahbabaNeal2007" class="citation journal cs1">Shahbaba, Babak; Neal, Radford M. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf">"Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Bayesian Analysis</i>. <b>2</b> (1). <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Mellon_University" title="Carnegie Mellon University">Carnegie Mellon University</a>, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: <a href="/wiki/International_Society_for_Bayesian_Analysis" title="International Society for Bayesian Analysis">International Society for Bayesian Analysis</a>: 221–228. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/math/0510449">math/0510449</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005math.....10449S">2005math.....10449S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1214%2F07-ba209">10.1214/07-ba209</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1936-0975">1936-0975</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10611032">10611032</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2015-09-03.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bayesian+Analysis&rft.atitle=Improving+Classification+When+a+Class+Hierarchy+is+Available+Using+a+Hierarchy-Based+Prior&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=221-228&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A10611032%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005math.....10449S&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fmath%2F0510449&rft.issn=1936-0975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1214%2F07-ba209&rft.aulast=Shahbaba&rft.aufirst=Babak&rft.au=Neal%2C+Radford+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fba.stat.cmu.edu%2Fjournal%2F2007%2Fvol02%2Fissue01%2Fshahbaba.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShahbabaNeal2006" class="citation journal cs1">Shahbaba, Babak; Neal, Radford M. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1618412">"Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/BMC_Bioinformatics" title="BMC Bioinformatics">BMC Bioinformatics</a></i>. <b>7</b>. London, England: <a href="/wiki/BioMed_Central" title="BioMed Central">BioMed Central</a>: 448. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/q-bio/0605015">q-bio/0605015</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006q.bio.....5015S">2006q.bio.....5015S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1471-2105-7-448">10.1186/1471-2105-7-448</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1471-2105">1471-2105</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1618412">1618412</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17038174">17038174</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMC+Bioinformatics&rft.atitle=Gene+function+classification+using+Bayesian+models+with+hierarchy-based+priors&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=448&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1618412%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006q.bio.....5015S&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fq-bio%2F0605015&rft.issn=1471-2105&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2F1471-2105-7-448&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17038174&rft.aulast=Shahbaba&rft.aufirst=Babak&rft.au=Neal%2C+Radford+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1618412&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHierarchy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchy&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: External 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title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People" title="People">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">Regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">Bellum omnium contra omnes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">Noble lie</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern<br />period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hobbes%27s_moral_and_political_philosophy" title="Hobbes's moral and political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal%27s_political_philosophy" title="Muhammad Iqbal's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 375 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(51 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1274)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchia</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1313)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1532)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1651)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1689)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1762)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1790)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1791)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1848)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1859)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Masses" title="The Revolt of the Masses">The Revolt of the Masses</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1929)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1944)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1945)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1992)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism and individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(politics)" title="Machiavellianism (politics)">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy" title="Category:Political philosophy">Category:Political philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188619#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188619#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a 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