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href="#Major_deposits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Major deposits </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Major_deposits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 Canada </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Athabasca" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Athabasca"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1.1 Athabasca </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Athabasca-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cold_Lake" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cold_Lake"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1.2 Cold Lake </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cold_Lake-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peace_River" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peace_River"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1.3 Peace River </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peace_River-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Venezuela" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Venezuela"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.2 Venezuela </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Venezuela-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Orinoco" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orinoco"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.2.1 Orinoco </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orinoco-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_deposits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_deposits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Other deposits </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_deposits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Production </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Production-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Production subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Canada_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Canada </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Venezuela_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Venezuela_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Venezuela </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Venezuela_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_countries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_countries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Other countries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_countries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methods_of_extraction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods_of_extraction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Methods of extraction </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Methods_of_extraction-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Methods of extraction subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Methods_of_extraction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Primary production </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Surface_mining" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surface_mining"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Surface mining </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surface_mining-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Oil_sands_tailings_ponds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oil_sands_tailings_ponds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.1 Oil sands tailings ponds </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oil_sands_tailings_ponds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cold_Heavy_Oil_Production_with_Sand_(CHOPS)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cold_Heavy_Oil_Production_with_Sand_(CHOPS)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Cold Heavy Oil Production with Sand (CHOPS) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cold_Heavy_Oil_Production_with_Sand_(CHOPS)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cyclic_Steam_Stimulation_(CSS)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cyclic_Steam_Stimulation_(CSS)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Cyclic Steam Stimulation (CSS) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cyclic_Steam_Stimulation_(CSS)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Steam-assisted_gravity_drainage_(SAGD)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Steam-assisted_gravity_drainage_(SAGD)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Steam-assisted_gravity_drainage_(SAGD)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vapor_Extraction_(VAPEX)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vapor_Extraction_(VAPEX)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Vapor Extraction (VAPEX) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vapor_Extraction_(VAPEX)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Toe_to_Heel_Air_Injection_(THAI)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Toe_to_Heel_Air_Injection_(THAI)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7 Toe to Heel Air Injection (THAI) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Toe_to_Heel_Air_Injection_(THAI)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Combustion_Overhead_Gravity_Drainage_(COGD)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Combustion_Overhead_Gravity_Drainage_(COGD)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.8 Combustion Overhead Gravity Drainage (COGD) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Combustion_Overhead_Gravity_Drainage_(COGD)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Froth_treatment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Froth_treatment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.9 Froth treatment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Froth_treatment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Energy_balance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energy_balance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Energy balance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energy_balance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Upgrading_and_blending" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Upgrading_and_blending"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Upgrading and blending </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Upgrading_and_blending-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Upgrading and blending subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Upgrading_and_blending-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Canada_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Canada </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Venezuela_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Venezuela_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Venezuela </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Venezuela_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Refining" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Refining"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Refining </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Refining-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Refining subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Refining-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Canada_4" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada_4"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Canada </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada_4-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Economics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Economics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Economics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Costs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Costs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Costs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Costs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Production_forecasts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Production_forecasts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Production forecasts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Production_forecasts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Environmental issues </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Environmental_issues-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Environmental issues subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Environmental_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Air_pollution_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Air_pollution_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Air pollution management </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Air_pollution_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Land_use_and_waste_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Land_use_and_waste_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Land use and waste management </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Land_use_and_waste_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Water_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.3 Water management </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greenhouse_gas_emissions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greenhouse_gas_emissions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.4 Greenhouse gas emissions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greenhouse_gas_emissions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aquatic_life_deformities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aquatic_life_deformities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.5 Aquatic life deformities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aquatic_life_deformities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_health_impacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_health_impacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.6 Public health impacts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_health_impacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Oil sands</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 36 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-36" aria-hidden="true" > 36 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%81%D8%B7_%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%84%D9%8A" title="نفط رملي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نفط رملي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8A%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Катранени пясъци – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Катранени пясъци" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorra_bituminosa" title="Sorra bituminosa – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Sorra bituminosa" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ropn%C3%A9_p%C3%ADsky" title="Ropné písky – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ropné písky" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tj%C3%A6resand" title="Tjæresand – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Tjæresand" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96lsand" title="Ölsand – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ölsand" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%83%CF%8E%CE%B4%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%AC%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Πισσώδης άμμος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πισσώδης άμμος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arenas_petrol%C3%ADferas" title="Arenas petrolíferas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Arenas petrolíferas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harea_bituminoso" title="Harea bituminoso – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Harea bituminoso" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D9%86%D9%81%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="ماسه‌های نفتی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ماسه‌های نفتی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sable_bitumineux" title="Sable bitumineux – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Sable bitumineux" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%98%A4%EC%9D%BC%EC%83%8C%EB%93%9C" title="오일샌드 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="오일샌드" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ol%C3%ADusandur" title="Olíusandur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Olíusandur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabbie_bituminose" title="Sabbie bituminose – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Sabbie bituminose" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%97%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%96%D7%A4%D7%AA" title="חולות זפת – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="חולות זפת" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harena_bituminosa" title="Harena bituminosa – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Harena bituminosa" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Битуменски песоци – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Битуменски песоци" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teerzand" title="Teerzand – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Teerzand" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AA%E3%82%A4%E3%83%AB%E3%82%B5%E3%83%B3%E3%83%89" title="オイルサンド – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="オイルサンド" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oljesand" title="Oljesand – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Oljesand" 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id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Type of unconventional oil deposit </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Oil_shale" title="Oil shale">Oil shale</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Athabasca_Oil_Sands_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Athabasca_Oil_Sands_map.png/220px-Athabasca_Oil_Sands_map.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="321" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Athabasca_Oil_Sands_map.png/330px-Athabasca_Oil_Sands_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Athabasca_Oil_Sands_map.png/440px-Athabasca_Oil_Sands_map.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1753" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Athabasca_oil_sands" title="Athabasca oil sands">Athabasca oil sands</a> in <a href="/wiki/Alberta" title="Alberta">Alberta</a>, Canada, are a very large source of <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">bitumen</a>, which can be <a href="/wiki/Upgrader" title="Upgrader">upgraded</a> to <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_crude" title="Synthetic crude">synthetic crude</a> heavy oil, <a href="/wiki/Western_Canadian_Select" title="Western Canadian Select">Western Canadian Select</a> (WCS)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tar_Sandstone_California.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Tar_Sandstone_California.jpg/250px-Tar_Sandstone_California.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Tar_Sandstone_California.jpg/330px-Tar_Sandstone_California.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Tar_Sandstone_California.jpg/500px-Tar_Sandstone_California.jpg 2x" data-file-width="779" data-file-height="744" /></a><figcaption>Tar sandstone from <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></figcaption></figure> Oil sands<a href="#cite_note-1">[a]</a> are a type of <a href="/wiki/Unconventional_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Unconventional oil">unconventional petroleum deposit</a>. They are either loose sands, or partially consolidated <a href="/wiki/Sandstone" title="Sandstone">sandstone</a> containing a naturally occurring mixture of <a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">sand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>, soaked with <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">bitumen</a> (a dense and extremely <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscous</a> form of <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a>). Significant bitumen deposits are reported in <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>,<a href="#cite_note-wec-2">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-AOS2008-3">[2]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a>. The estimated worldwide deposits of oil are more than 2 trillion barrels (320 billion cubic metres).<a href="#cite_note-4">[3]</a> Proven reserves of bitumen contain approximately 100 billion barrels,<a href="#cite_note-5">[4]</a> and total natural bitumen reserves are estimated at 249.67 Gbbl (39.694×10<s style="display:none">^</s>9 m3) worldwide, of which 176.8 Gbbl (28.11×10<s style="display:none">^</s>9 m3), or 70.8%, are in Alberta, Canada.<a href="#cite_note-wec-2">[1]</a> Crude bitumen is a thick, sticky form of crude oil, and is so viscous that it will not flow unless heated or diluted with lighter hydrocarbons such as <a href="/wiki/Light_crude_oil" title="Light crude oil">light crude oil</a> or <a href="/wiki/Natural-gas_condensate" title="Natural-gas condensate">natural-gas condensate</a>. At room temperature, it is much like cold <a href="/wiki/Molasses" title="Molasses">molasses</a>.<a href="#cite_note-6">[5]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Orinoco_Belt" title="Orinoco Belt">Orinoco Belt</a> in Venezuela is sometimes described as oil sands, but these deposits are non-bituminous, falling instead into the category of <a href="/wiki/Heavy_crude_oil" title="Heavy crude oil">heavy or extra-heavy oil</a> due to their lower viscosity.<a href="#cite_note-Dusseault_2001-7">[6]</a> Natural bitumen and extra-heavy oil differ in the degree by which they have been degraded from the original conventional oils by <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>. The <a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973</a> and <a href="/wiki/1979_oil_crisis" title="1979 oil crisis">1979</a> oil price increases, and the development of improved extraction technology enabled profitable extraction and processing of the oil sands. Together with other so-called <a href="/wiki/Unconventional_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Unconventional oil">unconventional oil</a> extraction practices, oil sands are implicated in the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_Tracker_Initiative" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon Tracker Initiative">unburnable carbon</a> debate but also contribute to <a href="/wiki/Energy_security" title="Energy security">energy security</a> and counteract the international price cartel <a href="/wiki/OPEC" title="OPEC">OPEC</a>. According to the Oil Climate Index, carbon emissions from <a href="/wiki/Oil-sand_crude" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil-sand crude">oil-sand crude</a> are 31% higher than from conventional oil.<a href="#cite_note-pembina-8">[7]</a> In Canada, oil sands production in general, and in-situ extraction, in particular, are the largest contributors to the increase in the nation's <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a> from 2005 to 2017, according to <a href="/wiki/Natural_Resources_Canada" title="Natural Resources Canada">Natural Resources Canada</a> (NRCan).<a href="#cite_note-NRCAN_ghgemissions_20171006-9">[8]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_Canada_(oil_sands_and_heavy_oil)" title="History of the petroleum industry in Canada (oil sands and heavy oil)">History of the petroleum industry in Canada (oil sands and heavy oil)</a></div> The use of bituminous deposits and <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_seep" title="Petroleum seep">seeps</a> dates back to <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a> times.<a href="#cite_note-10">[9]</a> The earliest known use of bitumen was by <a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthals</a>, some 40,000 years ago. Bitumen has been found adhering to <a href="/wiki/Stone_tool" title="Stone tool">stone tools</a> used by Neanderthals at sites in Syria. After the arrival of <a href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">Homo sapiens</a>, humans used bitumen for construction of buildings and waterproofing of <a href="/wiki/Reed_boat" title="Reed boat">reed boats</a>, among other uses. In ancient Egypt, the use of bitumen was important in preparing <a href="/wiki/Mummy" title="Mummy">mummies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-11">[10]</a> In ancient times, bitumen was primarily a <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesopotamian">Mesopotamian</a> commodity used by the <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumerians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonians</a>, although it was also found in the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a>. The area along the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> and <a href="/wiki/Euphrates_river" class="mw-redirect" title="Euphrates river">Euphrates rivers</a> was littered with hundreds of pure bitumen seepages. The Mesopotamians used the bitumen for waterproofing boats and buildings. In Europe, they were extensively mined near the French city of <a href="/wiki/Merkwiller-Pechelbronn" title="Merkwiller-Pechelbronn">Pechelbronn</a>, where the vapour separation process was in use in 1742.<a href="#cite_note-12">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a> In Canada, the <a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Canada" title="First Nations in Canada">First Nation</a> peoples had used bitumen from seeps along the <a href="/wiki/Athabasca_River" title="Athabasca River">Athabasca</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clearwater_River_(Alberta)" title="Clearwater River (Alberta)">Clearwater Rivers</a> to waterproof their <a href="/wiki/Birch_bark" title="Birch bark">birch bark</a> <a href="/wiki/Canoe" title="Canoe">canoes</a> from early prehistoric times. The Canadian oil sands first became known to Europeans in 1719 when a <a href="/wiki/Cree" title="Cree">Cree</a> person named Wa-Pa-Su brought a sample to <a href="/wiki/Hudson%27s_Bay_Company" title="Hudson's Bay Company">Hudson's Bay Company</a> fur trader <a href="/wiki/Henry_Kelsey" title="Henry Kelsey">Henry Kelsey</a>, who commented on it in his journals. Fur trader Peter Pond paddled down the Clearwater River to Athabasca in 1778, saw the deposits and wrote of "springs of bitumen that flow along the ground". In 1787, fur trader and explorer <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Mackenzie_(explorer)" title="Alexander Mackenzie (explorer)">Alexander MacKenzie</a> on his way to the Arctic Ocean saw the Athabasca oil sands, and commented, "At about 24 miles from the fork (of the Athabasca and Clearwater Rivers) are some bituminous fountains into which a pole of 20 feet long may be inserted without the least resistance."<a href="#cite_note-14">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cost_of_oil_sands_petroleum-mining_operations">Cost of oil sands petroleum-mining operations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Cost of oil sands petroleum-mining operations">edit</a>]</div> In their May 2019 comparison of the "cost of supply curve update" in which the Norway-based Rystad Energy—an "independent energy research and consultancy"—ranked the "worlds total recoverable liquid resources by their breakeven price", Rystad reported that the average breakeven price for oil from the oil sands was US$83 in 2019, making it the most expensive to produce, compared to all other "significant oil producing regions" in the world.<a href="#cite_note-Rystad_20200509-15">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[b]</a> The <a href="/wiki/International_Energy_Agency" title="International Energy Agency">International Energy Agency</a> made similar comparisons.<a href="#cite_note-nationalobserver_20190522-17">[15]</a> The price per <a href="/wiki/Barrel_(unit)#Oil_barrel" title="Barrel (unit)">barrel</a> of heavier, <a href="/wiki/Sour_crude_oil" title="Sour crude oil">sour crude oils</a> lacking in tidewater access—such as <a href="/wiki/Western_Canadian_Select" title="Western Canadian Select">Western Canadian Select</a> (WCS) from the Athabaska oil sands, are priced at a differential to the lighter, <a href="/wiki/Sweet_crude_oil" title="Sweet crude oil">sweeter oil</a>—such as <a href="/wiki/West_Texas_Intermediate" title="West Texas Intermediate">West Texas Intermediate</a> (WTI). The <a href="/wiki/Price_of_oil" title="Price of oil">price</a> is based on its grade—determined by factors such as its specific gravity or <a href="/wiki/API_gravity" title="API gravity">API</a> and its sulfur content—and its location—for example, its proximity to <a href="/wiki/Tidewater_(marketing)" title="Tidewater (marketing)">tidewater</a> and/or refineries. Because the cost of production is so much higher at oil sands petroleum-mining operations, the breakeven point is much higher than for sweeter lighter oils like that produced by <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, and, the United States.<a href="#cite_note-Rystad_20200509-15">[14]</a> Oil sands productions expand and prosper as the global price of oil increased to peak highs because of the <a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">Arab oil embargo of 1973</a>, the 1979 <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">1990 Persian Gulf crisis and war</a>, the <a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">11 September 2001 attacks</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">2003 invasion of Iraq</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NYT_2008-18">[16]</a> The boom periods were followed by the bust, as the global price of oil dropped during the <a href="/wiki/1980s_oil_glut" title="1980s oil glut">1980s</a> and again in the 1990s, during a period of global recessions, and again in 2003.<a href="#cite_note-CNCB_2016_oilfutures-19">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nomenclature">Nomenclature</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Nomenclature">edit</a>]</div> The name tar sands was applied to bituminous sands in the late 19th and early 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-20">[18]</a> People who saw the bituminous sands during this period were familiar with the large amounts of tar residue produced in urban areas as a <a href="/wiki/By-product" title="By-product">by-product</a> of the manufacture of <a href="/wiki/Coal_gas" title="Coal gas">coal gas</a> for urban heating and lighting.<a href="#cite_note-21">[19]</a> The word "<a href="/wiki/Tar" title="Tar">tar</a>" to describe these natural bitumen deposits is really a misnomer, since, chemically speaking, tar is a <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_oil" title="Synthetic oil">human-made</a> substance produced by the <a href="/wiki/Destructive_distillation" title="Destructive distillation">destructive distillation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Organic_material" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic material">organic material</a>, usually <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Alberta's_oil_sands-22">[20]</a> Since then, coal gas has almost completely been replaced by <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a> as a fuel, and <a href="/wiki/Coal_tar" title="Coal tar">coal tar</a> as a material for <a href="/wiki/Pavement_(material)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pavement (material)">paving roads</a> has been replaced by the petroleum product <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">asphalt</a>. Naturally occurring bitumen is chemically more similar to asphalt than to coal tar, and the term oil sands (or oilsands) is more commonly used by industry in the producing areas than tar sands because <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_oil" title="Synthetic oil">synthetic oil</a> is manufactured from the bitumen,<a href="#cite_note-Alberta's_oil_sands-22">[20]</a> and due to the feeling that the terminology of tar sands is less politically acceptable to the public.<a href="#cite_note-Dembicki-23">[21]</a> Oil sands are now an alternative to conventional crude oil.<a href="#cite_note-Evans-24">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geology">Geology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Geology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_Geology" class="mw-redirect" title="Petroleum Geology">Petroleum Geology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oil_reserves_in_Canada" title="Oil reserves in Canada">Oil reserves in Canada</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Oil_reserves_in_Venezuela" title="Oil reserves in Venezuela">Oil reserves in Venezuela</a></div> The world's largest deposits of oil sands are in Venezuela and Canada. The geology of the deposits in the two countries is generally rather similar. They are vast <a href="/wiki/Heavy_crude_oil" title="Heavy crude oil">heavy oil</a>, extra-heavy oil, and/or bitumen deposits with oil heavier than 20°API, found largely in <a href="/wiki/Compaction_(geology)" title="Compaction (geology)">unconsolidated</a> <a href="/wiki/Sandstone" title="Sandstone">sandstones</a> with similar properties. "Unconsolidated" in this context means that the sands have high porosity, no significant cohesion, and a tensile strength close to zero. The sands are saturated with oil which has prevented them from consolidating into hard sandstone.<a href="#cite_note-Dusseault_2001-7">[6]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Size_of_resources">Size of resources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Size of resources">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_proven_oil_reserves" title="List of countries by proven oil reserves">List of countries by proven oil reserves</a></div> The magnitude of the resources in the two countries is on the order of 3.5 to 4 trillion barrels (550 to 650 billion cubic metres) of original <a href="/wiki/Oil_in_place" title="Oil in place">oil in place</a> (OOIP).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Oil in place is not necessarily <a href="/wiki/Oil_reserves" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil reserves">oil reserves</a>, and the amount that can be produced depends on <a href="/wiki/Technological_change" title="Technological change">technological evolution</a>. Rapid <a href="/wiki/Technological_revolution" title="Technological revolution">technological developments</a> in Canada in the 1985–2000 period resulted in techniques such as <a href="/wiki/Steam-assisted_gravity_drainage" title="Steam-assisted gravity drainage">steam-assisted gravity drainage</a> (SAGD) that can recover a much greater <a href="/wiki/Extraction_of_petroleum" title="Extraction of petroleum">percentage of the OOIP</a> than conventional methods. The Alberta government estimates that with current technology, 10% of its bitumen and heavy oil can be recovered, which would give it about 200 billion barrels (32 billion m3) of recoverable oil reserves. Venezuela estimates its recoverable oil at 267 billion barrels (42 billion m3).<a href="#cite_note-Dusseault_2001-7">[6]</a> This places Canada and Venezuela in the same league as Saudi Arabia, having the three <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_proven_oil_reserves" title="List of countries by proven oil reserves">largest oil reserves in the world</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Major_deposits">Major deposits</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Major deposits">edit</a>]</div> There are numerous deposits of oil sands in the world, but the biggest and most important are in Canada and Venezuela, with lesser deposits in Kazakhstan and Russia. The total volume of non-conventional oil in the oil sands of these countries exceeds the reserves of conventional oil in all other countries combined. Vast deposits of bitumen—over 350 billion cubic metres (2.2 trillion barrels) of <a href="/wiki/Oil_in_place" title="Oil in place">oil in place</a>—exist in the Canadian provinces of <a href="/wiki/Alberta" title="Alberta">Alberta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saskatchewan" title="Saskatchewan">Saskatchewan</a>. If 30% of this oil could be extracted, it could supply the entire needs of <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> for over 100 years at 2002 consumption levels. These deposits represent plentiful oil, but not cheap oil. They require advanced technology to <a href="/wiki/Enhanced_oil_recovery" title="Enhanced oil recovery">extract</a> the oil and <a href="/wiki/Pipeline_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Pipeline transport">transport</a> it to <a href="/wiki/Oil_refineries" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil refineries">oil refineries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Dusseault_2002_A1-25">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Canada">Canada</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Canada">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Western_Canadian_Sedimentary_Basin#Oil_sands" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin">Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin § Oil sands</a></div> The oil sands of the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin (WCSB) are a result of the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Rocky_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian Rocky Mountains">Canadian Rocky Mountains</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific Plate">Pacific Plate</a> overthrusting the <a href="/wiki/North_American_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="North American Plate">North American Plate</a> as it pushed in from the west, carrying the formerly large island chains which now <a href="/wiki/Geology_of_British_Columbia" title="Geology of British Columbia">compose most of British Columbia</a>. The collision compressed the Alberta plains and <a href="/wiki/Geology_of_the_Rocky_Mountains#Raising_the_Rockies" title="Geology of the Rocky Mountains">raised the Rockies</a> above the plains, forming <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Rockies" title="Canadian Rockies">mountain ranges</a>. This mountain building process buried the <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_rock" title="Sedimentary rock">sedimentary rock</a> layers which underlie most of Alberta <a href="/wiki/Structural_basin" title="Structural basin">to a great depth</a>, creating high subsurface temperatures, and producing a <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_basin" title="Sedimentary basin">giant pressure cooker</a> effect that converted the <a href="/wiki/Kerogen" title="Kerogen">kerogen</a> in the deeply buried <a href="/wiki/Oil_shale_geology" title="Oil shale geology">organic-rich shales</a> to light oil and natural gas.<a href="#cite_note-Dusseault_2001-7">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hein-26">[24]</a> These <a href="/wiki/Source_rock" title="Source rock">source rocks</a> were similar to the American so-called <a href="/wiki/Oil_shale" title="Oil shale">oil shales</a>, except the latter have never been buried deep enough to convert the kerogen in them into liquid oil. This overthrusting also tilted the pre-<a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> sedimentary rock formations underlying most of the sub-surface of Alberta, <a href="/wiki/Depression_(geology)" title="Depression (geology)">depressing</a> the rock formations in southwest Alberta up to 8 km (5 miles) deep near the Rockies, but to zero depth in the northeast, where they pinched out against the <a href="/wiki/Igneous_rock" title="Igneous rock">igneous rocks</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Shield" title="Canadian Shield">Canadian Shield</a>, which outcrop on the surface. This tilting is not apparent on the surface because the resulting trench has been filled in by eroded material from the mountains. The light oil migrated up-dip through hydro-dynamic transport from the Rockies in the southwest toward the Canadian Shield in the northeast following a complex pre-Cretaceous <a href="/wiki/Unconformity" title="Unconformity">unconformity</a> that exists in the formations under Alberta. The total distance of oil migration southwest to northeast was about 500 to 700 km (300 to 400 miles). At the shallow depths of sedimentary formations in the northeast, massive <a href="/wiki/Microbial_biodegradation" title="Microbial biodegradation">microbial biodegradation</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_seep" title="Petroleum seep">oil approached the surface</a> caused the oil to become highly <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscous</a> and immobile. Almost all of the remaining oil is found in the far north of Alberta, in Middle Cretaceous (115 million-year old) <a href="/wiki/Western_Interior_Seaway" title="Western Interior Seaway">sand-silt-shale deposits</a> overlain by thick shales, although large amounts of heavy oil lighter than bitumen are found in the Heavy Oil Belt along the Alberta-Saskatchewan border, extending into Saskatchewan and approaching the Montana border. Note that, although adjacent to Alberta, Saskatchewan has no massive deposits of bitumen, only large reservoirs of heavy oil >10°API.<a href="#cite_note-Dusseault_2001-7">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hein-26">[24]</a> Most of the Canadian oil sands are in three major deposits in northern Alberta. They are the <a href="/wiki/Athabasca_oil_sands" title="Athabasca oil sands">Athabasca-Wabiskaw oil sands</a> of north northeastern Alberta, the <a href="/wiki/Cold_Lake,_Alberta" title="Cold Lake, Alberta">Cold Lake</a> deposits of east northeastern Alberta, and the <a href="/wiki/Peace_River,_Alberta" title="Peace River, Alberta">Peace River</a> deposits of northwestern Alberta. Between them, they cover over 140,000 square kilometres (54,000 sq mi)—an area larger than <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>—and contain approximately 1.75 Tbbl (280×10<s style="display:none">^</s>9 m3) of crude <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">bitumen</a> in them. About 10% of the <a href="/wiki/Oil_in_place" title="Oil in place">oil in place</a>, or 173 Gbbl (27.5×10<s style="display:none">^</s>9 m3), is estimated by the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Alberta" title="Government of Alberta">government of Alberta</a> to be recoverable at current prices, using current technology, which amounts to 97% of Canadian oil reserves and 75% of total North American petroleum reserves.<a href="#cite_note-AOS2008-3">[2]</a> Although the Athabasca deposit is the only one in the world which has areas shallow enough to mine from the surface, all three Alberta areas are suitable for production using <a href="/wiki/In-situ" class="mw-redirect" title="In-situ">in-situ</a> methods, such as cyclic steam stimulation (CSS) and <a href="/wiki/Steam-assisted_gravity_drainage" title="Steam-assisted gravity drainage">steam-assisted gravity drainage</a> (SAGD). The largest Canadian oil sands deposit, the <a href="/wiki/Athabasca_oil_sands" title="Athabasca oil sands">Athabasca oil sands</a> is in the <a href="/wiki/McMurray_Formation" title="McMurray Formation">McMurray Formation</a>, centered on the city of <a href="/wiki/Fort_McMurray,_Alberta" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort McMurray, Alberta">Fort McMurray, Alberta</a>. It outcrops on the surface (zero burial depth) about 50 km (30 miles) north of Fort McMurray, where enormous oil sands mines have been established, but is 400 m (1,300 ft) deep southeast of Fort McMurray. Only 3% of the oil sands area containing about 20% of the recoverable oil can be produced by <a href="/wiki/Surface_mining" title="Surface mining">surface mining</a>, so the remaining 80% will have to be produced using <a href="/wiki/In_situ#Petroleum_production" title="In situ">in-situ</a> wells. The other Canadian deposits are between 350 and 900 m (1,000 and 3,000 ft) deep and will require in-situ production.<a href="#cite_note-Dusseault_2001-7">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hein-26">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Athabasca">Athabasca</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Athabasca">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Wabasca_oil_sands" class="mw-redirect" title="Wabasca oil sands">Wabasca oil sands</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fort_mcmurray_aerial.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Fort_mcmurray_aerial.jpg/250px-Fort_mcmurray_aerial.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Fort_mcmurray_aerial.jpg/330px-Fort_mcmurray_aerial.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Fort_mcmurray_aerial.jpg/500px-Fort_mcmurray_aerial.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="402" /></a><figcaption>The City of Fort McMurray on the banks of the Athabasca River</figcaption></figure> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Athabasca_oil_sands" title="Athabasca oil sands">Athabasca oil sands</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Athabasca_oil_sands&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Athabasca_Oil_Sands_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Athabasca_Oil_Sands_map.png/220px-Athabasca_Oil_Sands_map.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="321" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Athabasca_Oil_Sands_map.png/330px-Athabasca_Oil_Sands_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Athabasca_Oil_Sands_map.png/440px-Athabasca_Oil_Sands_map.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1753" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Athabasca_oil_sands" title="Athabasca oil sands">Athabasca oil sands</a>, also known as the Athabasca tar sands, are large deposits of oil sands rich in <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">bitumen</a>, a heavy and viscous form of petroleum, in northeastern <a href="/wiki/Alberta" title="Alberta">Alberta</a>, Canada. These reserves are one of the largest sources of <a href="/wiki/Unconventional_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Unconventional oil">unconventional oil</a> in the world, making Canada a significant player in the global energy market.<a href="#cite_note-Athabasca_oil_sands_nationalgeographic_-27">[25]</a> As of 2023, Canada's oil sands industry, along with Western Canada and offshore petroleum facilities near Newfoundland and Labrador, continued to increase production and were projected to increase by an estimated 10% in 2024 representing a potential record high at the end of the year of approximately 5.3 million barrels per day (bpd).<a href="#cite_note-Athabasca_oil_sands_Bakx_20231012-28">[26]</a> The surge in production is attributed mainly to growth in Alberta's oilsands.<a href="#cite_note-Athabasca_oil_sands_Bakx_20231012-28">[26]</a> The expansion of the <a href="/wiki/Trans_Mountain_pipeline" title="Trans Mountain pipeline">Trans Mountain pipeline</a>—the only oil pipeline to the West Coast—will further facilitate this increase, with its capacity set to increase significantly, to 890,000 barrels per day from 300,000 bpd currently.<a href="#cite_note-Athabasca_oil_sands_CP_20240201-29">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-Athabasca_oil_sands_Bakx_20231012-28">[26]</a> Despite this growth, there are warnings that it might be short-lived, with production potentially plateauing after 2024.<a href="#cite_note-Athabasca_oil_sands_Bakx_20231012-28">[26]</a> Canada's anticipated increase in oil output exceeds that of other major producers like the United States, and the country is poised to become a significant driver of global crude oil production growth in 2024.<a href="#cite_note-Athabasca_oil_sands_Bakx_20231012-28">[26]</a> The exploitation of these resources has stirred debates regarding economic development, energy security, and environmental impacts, particularly emissions from the oilsands, prompting discussions around emissions regulations for the oil and gas sector.<a href="#cite_note-Athabasca_oil_sands_Bakx_20231012-28">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Athabasca_oil_sands_:0-30">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Athabasca_oil_sands_:1-31">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-Athabasca_oil_sands_:2-32">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-Athabasca_oil_sands_:3-33">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-Athabasca_oil_sands_:4-34">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-Athabasca_oil_sands_:5-35">[33]</a> The Athabasca oil sands, along with the nearby <a href="/wiki/Peace_River_oil_sands" title="Peace River oil sands">Peace River</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cold_Lake_oil_sands" title="Cold Lake oil sands">Cold Lake deposits</a> oil sand deposits lie under 141,000 square kilometres (54,000 sq mi) of <a href="/wiki/Boreal_forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Boreal forest">boreal forest</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muskeg" title="Muskeg">muskeg</a> (peat <a href="/wiki/Bogs" class="mw-redirect" title="Bogs">bogs</a>) according to Government of Alberta's Ministry of Energy,<a href="#cite_note-Athabasca_oil_sands_albertasoilsands2006-36">[34]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alberta_Energy_Regulator" title="Alberta Energy Regulator">Alberta Energy Regulator</a> (AER) and the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Association_of_Petroleum_Producers" title="Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers">Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers</a> (CAPP).</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Cold_Lake">Cold Lake</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Cold Lake">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cold_Lake_oil_sands" title="Cold Lake oil sands">Cold Lake oil sands</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/CFB_Cold_Lake" title="CFB Cold Lake">CFB Cold Lake</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cold_Lake_from_Meadow_Lake_Prov._Park,_Saskatchewan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Cold_Lake_from_Meadow_Lake_Prov._Park%2C_Saskatchewan.jpg/220px-Cold_Lake_from_Meadow_Lake_Prov._Park%2C_Saskatchewan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Cold_Lake_from_Meadow_Lake_Prov._Park%2C_Saskatchewan.jpg/330px-Cold_Lake_from_Meadow_Lake_Prov._Park%2C_Saskatchewan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Cold_Lake_from_Meadow_Lake_Prov._Park%2C_Saskatchewan.jpg/440px-Cold_Lake_from_Meadow_Lake_Prov._Park%2C_Saskatchewan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2880" data-file-height="2028" /></a><figcaption>Cold Lake viewed from <a href="/wiki/Meadow_Lake_Provincial_Park" title="Meadow Lake Provincial Park">Meadow Lake Provincial Park</a>, Saskatchewan</figcaption></figure> The Cold Lake oil sands are northeast of Alberta's capital, <a href="/wiki/Edmonton" title="Edmonton">Edmonton</a>, near the border with Saskatchewan. A small portion of the Cold Lake deposit lies in Saskatchewan. Although smaller than the Athabasca oil sands, the Cold Lake oil sands are important because some of the oil is <a href="/wiki/Fluid" title="Fluid">fluid</a> enough to be extracted by conventional methods. The Cold Lake bitumen contains more <a href="/wiki/Alkane" title="Alkane">alkanes</a> and less <a href="/wiki/Asphaltene" title="Asphaltene">asphaltenes</a> than the other major Alberta oil sands and the oil is more fluid.<a href="#cite_note-37">[35]</a> As a result, cyclic steam stimulation (CSS) is commonly used for production. The Cold Lake oil sands are of a roughly circular shape, centered around <a href="/wiki/Bonnyville,_Alberta" class="mw-redirect" title="Bonnyville, Alberta">Bonnyville, Alberta</a>. They probably contain over 60 billion cubic metres (370 billion barrels) of extra-heavy oil-in-place. The oil is highly viscous, but considerably less so than the Athabasca oil sands, and is somewhat less <a href="/wiki/Sulfurous" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulfurous">sulfurous</a>. The depth of the deposits is 400 to 600 metres (1,300 to 2,000 ft) and they are from 15 to 35 metres (49 to 115 ft) thick.<a href="#cite_note-Dusseault_2002_A1-25">[23]</a> They are too deep to <a href="/wiki/Surface_mine" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface mine">surface mine</a>. Much of the oil sands are on <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Forces_Base_Cold_Lake" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian Forces Base Cold Lake">Canadian Forces Base Cold Lake</a>. CFB Cold Lake's <a href="/wiki/CF-18_Hornet" class="mw-redirect" title="CF-18 Hornet">CF-18 Hornet</a> jet fighters defend the western half of Canadian air space and cover Canada's Arctic territory. Cold Lake Air Weapons Range (CLAWR) is one of the largest live-drop bombing ranges in the world, including testing of cruise missiles. As oil sands production continues to grow, various sectors vie for access to airspace, land, and resources, and this complicates oil well drilling and production significantly. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Peace_River">Peace River</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Peace River">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Peace_River_oil_sands" title="Peace River oil sands">Peace River oil sands</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peace_River_oil_sands&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Athabasca_Oil_Sands_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Athabasca_Oil_Sands_map.png/220px-Athabasca_Oil_Sands_map.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="321" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Athabasca_Oil_Sands_map.png/330px-Athabasca_Oil_Sands_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Athabasca_Oil_Sands_map.png/440px-Athabasca_Oil_Sands_map.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1753" /></a><figcaption>The Peace River oil sands deposit lies in the west of Alberta, and is deeper than the larger, better known <a href="/wiki/Athabasca_oil_sands" title="Athabasca oil sands">Athabasca oil sands</a>.</figcaption></figure> Located in northwest-central <a href="/wiki/Alberta" title="Alberta">Alberta</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Peace_River_oil_sands" title="Peace River oil sands">Peace River oil sands</a> deposit is the smallest of four large deposits of oil sands<a href="#cite_note-Peace_River_oil_sands_GovAB2013-38">[36]</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Canadian_Sedimentary_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin">Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin</a> formation.<a href="#cite_note-Peace_River_oil_sands_GovAB2013-38">[36]</a> The Peace River oil sands lie, generally, in the watershed of the <a href="/wiki/Peace_River" title="Peace River">Peace River</a>. The Peace River oil sands deposits are the smallest in the province. The largest, the <a href="/wiki/Athabasca_oil_sands" title="Athabasca oil sands">Athabasca oil sands</a>, are located to the east. The second largest the, <a href="/wiki/Cold_Lake_oil_sands" title="Cold Lake oil sands">Cold Lake oil sands</a> deposit is south of Athabaska and the <a href="/wiki/Wabasco_oil_sands" class="mw-redirect" title="Wabasco oil sands">Wabasco oil sands</a> are south of Athabaska and usually linked to it.<a href="#cite_note-Peace_River_oil_sands_GovAB2013-38">[36]</a> According to the Petroleum Economist, oil sands occur in more than 70 countries, but the bulk is found in these four regions together covering an area of some 77,000 square kilometres (30,000 sq mi).<a href="#cite_note-39">[37]</a> In 2007 the <a href="/wiki/World_Energy_Council" title="World Energy Council">World Energy Council</a> estimated that these oil sands areas contained at least two-thirds of the world's discovered <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">bitumen</a> in place at the time,<a href="#cite_note-Peace_River_oil_sands_worldenergy-40">[38]</a> with an original oil-in-place (OOIP) reserve of 260,000,000,000 cubic metres (9.2×1012 cu ft) (1.6 trn <a href="/wiki/Barrel#Oil_barrel" title="Barrel">barrels</a>), an amount comparable to the total world reserves of conventional oil. Whereas the Athabasca oil sands lie close enough to the surface that the sand can be scooped up in <a href="/wiki/Open-pit_mines" class="mw-redirect" title="Open-pit mines">open-pit mines</a>, and brought to a central location for processing, the Peace River deposits are considered too deep, and are exploited in situ using <a href="/wiki/Steam-assisted_gravity_drainage" title="Steam-assisted gravity drainage">steam-assisted gravity drainage</a> (SAGD) and Cold Heavy Oil Production with Sand (CHOPS).<a href="#cite_note-Peace_River_oil_sands_Monro2013-41">[39]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Venezuela">Venezuela</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Venezuela">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Oil_sands" title="Special:EditPage/Oil sands">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (May 2014) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> The <a href="/wiki/Orinoco#Eastern_Venezuelan_basin" title="Orinoco">Eastern Venezuelan Basin</a> has a structure similar to the WCSB, but on a shorter scale. The distance the oil has migrated up-dip from the Sierra Oriental mountain front to the <a href="/wiki/Orinoco_oil_sands" class="mw-redirect" title="Orinoco oil sands">Orinoco oil sands</a> where it pinches out against the igneous rocks of the <a href="/wiki/Guyana_Shield" class="mw-redirect" title="Guyana Shield">Guyana Shield</a> is only about 200 to 300 km (100 to 200 miles). The hydrodynamic conditions of oil transport were similar, <a href="/wiki/Source_rock" title="Source rock">source rocks</a> buried deep by the rise of the mountains of the Sierra Orientale produced light oil that moved up-dip toward the south until it was gradually immobilized by the viscosity increase caused by biodgradation near the surface. The Orinoco deposits are early <a href="/wiki/Tertiary" title="Tertiary">Tertiary</a> (50 to 60 million years old) sand-silt-shale sequences overlain by continuous thick shales, much like the Canadian deposits. In Venezuela, the <a href="/wiki/Orinoco_Belt" title="Orinoco Belt">Orinoco Belt</a> oil sands range from 350 to 1,000 m (1,000 to 3,000 ft) deep and no surface outcrops exist. The deposit is about 500 km (300 miles) long east-to-west and 50 to 60 km (30 to 40 miles) wide north-to-south, much less than the combined area covered by the Canadian deposits. In general, the Canadian deposits are found over a much wider area, have a broader range of properties, and have a broader range of reservoir types than the Venezuelan ones, but the geological structures and mechanisms involved are similar. The main differences is that the oil in the sands in Venezuela is less viscous than in Canada, allowing some of it to be produced by conventional drilling techniques, but none of it approaches the surface as in Canada, meaning none of it can be produced using surface mining. The Canadian deposits will almost all have to be produced by mining or using new non-conventional techniques. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Orinoco">Orinoco</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Orinoco">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Orinoco_oil_sands" class="mw-redirect" title="Orinoco oil sands">Orinoco oil sands</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Venezuelan_oil_industry" title="History of the Venezuelan oil industry">History of the Venezuelan oil industry</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/PDVSA" title="PDVSA">PDVSA</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Deltaorinoco.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Deltaorinoco.jpg/220px-Deltaorinoco.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Deltaorinoco.jpg/330px-Deltaorinoco.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Deltaorinoco.jpg/440px-Deltaorinoco.jpg 2x" data-file-width="856" data-file-height="664" /></a><figcaption>Panorama of the Orinoco River</figcaption></figure> The Orinoco Belt is a territory in the southern strip of the eastern <a href="/wiki/Orinoco_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Orinoco River">Orinoco River</a> Basin in <a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a> which overlies one of the world's largest deposits of petroleum. The Orinoco Belt follows the line of the river. It is approximately 600 kilometres (370 mi) from east to west, and 70 kilometres (43 mi) from north to south, with an area about 55,314 square kilometres (21,357 sq mi). The oil sands consist of large deposits of extra <a href="/wiki/Heavy_crude" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy crude">heavy crude</a>. Venezuela's heavy oil deposits of about 1,200 Gbbl (190×10<s style="display:none">^</s>9 m3) of <a href="/wiki/Oil_in_place" title="Oil in place">oil in place</a> are estimated to approximately equal the world's reserves of lighter oil.<a href="#cite_note-wec-2">[1]</a> In 2009, the <a href="/wiki/US_Geological_Survey" class="mw-redirect" title="US Geological Survey">US Geological Survey</a> (USGS) increased its estimates of the reserves to 513 Gbbl (81.6×10<s style="display:none">^</s>9 m3) of oil which is "technically recoverable (producible using currently available technology and industry practices)." No estimate of how much of the oil is economically recoverable was made.<a href="#cite_note-USGS_Venezuela-42">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_deposits">Other deposits</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Other deposits">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Melville_Island.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Melville_Island.svg/220px-Melville_Island.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Melville_Island.svg/330px-Melville_Island.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Melville_Island.svg/440px-Melville_Island.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="668" data-file-height="536" /></a><figcaption>Location of Melville Island</figcaption></figure> In addition to the three major Canadian oil sands in Alberta, there is a fourth major oil sands deposit in Canada, the <a href="/wiki/Melville_Island_oil_sands" title="Melville Island oil sands">Melville Island oil sands</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Arctic_islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian Arctic islands">Canadian Arctic islands</a>, which are too remote to expect commercial production in the foreseeable future. Apart from the megagiant<a href="#cite_note-Vassiliou-43">[41]</a> oil sands deposits in Canada and Venezuela, numerous other countries hold smaller oil sands deposits. In the United States, there are supergiant<a href="#cite_note-Vassiliou-43">[41]</a> oil sands resources primarily concentrated in Eastern <a href="/wiki/Utah" title="Utah">Utah</a>, with a total of 32 Gbbl (5.1×10<s style="display:none">^</s>9 m3) of oil (known and potential) in eight major deposits in <a href="/wiki/Carbon_County,_Utah" title="Carbon County, Utah">Carbon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Garfield_County,_Utah" title="Garfield County, Utah">Garfield</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grand_County,_Utah" title="Grand County, Utah">Grand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uintah_County,_Utah" title="Uintah County, Utah">Uintah</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wayne_County,_Utah" title="Wayne County, Utah">Wayne</a> counties.<a href="#cite_note-44">[42]</a> In addition to being much smaller than the Canadian oil sands deposits, the US oil sands are hydrocarbon-wet, whereas the Canadian oil sands are water-wet.<a href="#cite_note-USTar-45">[43]</a> This requires somewhat different extraction techniques for the Utah oil sands from those used for the Alberta oil sands. Russia holds oil sands in two main regions. Large resources are present in the <a href="/wiki/Tunguska_Basin" title="Tunguska Basin">Tunguska Basin</a>, <a href="/wiki/East_Siberia" class="mw-redirect" title="East Siberia">East Siberia</a>, with the largest deposits being <a href="/wiki/Olenyok_(river)" title="Olenyok (river)">Olenyok</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siligir" title="Siligir">Siligir</a>. Other deposits are located in the <a href="/wiki/Timan-Pechora_Basin" title="Timan-Pechora Basin">Timan-Pechora</a> and Volga-Urals basins (in and around <a href="/wiki/Tatarstan" title="Tatarstan">Tatarstan</a>), which is an important but very mature province in terms of conventional oil, holds large amounts of oil sands in a shallow Permian formation.<a href="#cite_note-wec-2">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Russia-46">[44]</a> In Kazakhstan, large bitumen deposits are located in the North Caspian Basin. In Madagascar, <a href="/wiki/Tsimiroro" title="Tsimiroro">Tsimiroro</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bemolanga" title="Bemolanga">Bemolanga</a> are two heavy oil sands deposits, with a pilot well already producing small amounts of oil in Tsimiroro.<a href="#cite_note-47">[45]</a> and larger scale exploitation in the early planning phase.<a href="#cite_note-48">[46]</a> In the Republic of the Congo reserves are estimated between 0.5 and 2.5 Gbbl (79×10<s style="display:none">^</s>6 and 397×10<s style="display:none">^</s>6 m3). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Production">Production</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Production">edit</a>]</div> Bituminous sands are a major source of unconventional oil, although only Canada has a large-scale commercial oil sands industry. In 2006, bitumen production in Canada averaged 1.25 Mbbl/d (200,000 m3/d) through 81 oil sands projects. 44% of Canadian oil production in 2007 was from oil sands.<a href="#cite_note-49">[47]</a> This proportion was (as of 2008) expected to increase in coming decades as bitumen production grows while conventional oil production declines, although due to the 2008 economic downturn work on new projects has been deferred.<a href="#cite_note-AOS2008-3">[2]</a> Petroleum is not produced from oil sands on a significant level in other countries.<a href="#cite_note-USTar-45">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canada_2">Canada</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Canada">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_production_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Petroleum production in Canada">Petroleum production in Canada</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_Canada_(oil_sands_and_heavy_oil)" title="History of the petroleum industry in Canada (oil sands and heavy oil)">History of the petroleum industry in Canada (oil sands and heavy oil)</a></div> The Alberta oil sands have been in commercial production since the original <a href="/wiki/Great_Canadian_Oil_Sands" title="Great Canadian Oil Sands">Great Canadian Oil Sands</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Suncor_Energy" title="Suncor Energy">Suncor Energy</a>) mine began operation in 1967. <a href="/wiki/Syncrude" title="Syncrude">Syncrude</a>'s second mine began operation in 1978 and is the biggest mine of any type in the world. The third mine in the Athabasca Oil Sands, the <a href="/wiki/Albian_Sands" title="Albian Sands">Albian Sands</a> consortium of <a href="/wiki/Shell_Canada" title="Shell Canada">Shell Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chevron_Corporation" title="Chevron Corporation">Chevron Corporation</a>, and Western Oil Sands Inc. (purchased by <a href="/wiki/Marathon_Oil_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Marathon Oil Corporation">Marathon Oil Corporation</a> in 2007) began operation in 2003. <a href="/wiki/Petro-Canada" title="Petro-Canada">Petro-Canada</a> was also developing a $33 billion Fort Hills Project, in partnership with UTS Energy Corporation and <a href="/wiki/Teck_Cominco" class="mw-redirect" title="Teck Cominco">Teck Cominco</a>, which lost momentum after the 2009 merger of Petro-Canada into Suncor.<a href="#cite_note-50">[48]</a> By 2013 there were nine oil sands mining projects in the Athabasca oil sands deposit: Suncor Energy Inc. (Suncor), Syncrude Canada Limited (Syncrude)'s Mildred Lake and Aurora North, Shell Canada Limited (Shell)'s Muskeg River and Jackpine, Canadian Natural Resources Limited (CNRL)'s Horizon, Imperial Oil Resources Ventures Limited (Imperial), Kearl Oil Sands Project (KOSP), Total E&P Canada Ltd. Joslyn North Mine and Fort Hills Energy Corporation (FHEC).<a href="#cite_note-ERCB2013-51">[49]</a> In 2011 alone they produced over 52 million cubic metres of bitumen.<a href="#cite_note-ERCB2013-51">[49]</a> Canadian oil sand extraction has created extensive environmental damage, and many first nations peoples, scientists, lawyers, journalists and environmental groups have described Canadian oil sands mining as an <a href="/wiki/Ecocide" title="Ecocide">ecocide</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-52">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-53">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-54">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-55">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-56">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-57">[55]</a> From the beginning of 2022 oil sands extraction in Alberta has sharply increased, overpassing by far the level of 2014. High oil prices is one of the causes.<a href="#cite_note-58">[56]</a> In 2024 it is projected to increase more, so Canada can become a leader in oil production.<a href="#cite_note-59">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Venezuela_2">Venezuela</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Venezuela">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Venezuelan_oil_industry" title="History of the Venezuelan oil industry">History of the Venezuelan oil industry</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/PDVSA" title="PDVSA">PDVSA</a></div> No significant development of Venezuela's extra-heavy oil deposits was undertaken before 2000, except for the BITOR operation which produced somewhat less than 100,000 barrels of oil per day (16,000 m3/d) of 9°API oil by primary production. This was mostly shipped as an emulsion (<a href="/wiki/Orimulsion" title="Orimulsion">Orimulsion</a>) of 70% oil and 30% water with similar characteristics as <a href="/wiki/Heavy_fuel_oil" title="Heavy fuel oil">heavy fuel oil</a> for burning in thermal power plants.<a href="#cite_note-Dusseault_2001-7">[6]</a> However, when a major strike hit the Venezuelan state oil company <a href="/wiki/PDVSA" title="PDVSA">PDVSA</a>, most of the engineers were fired as punishment.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Orimulsion had been the pride of the PDVSA engineers, so Orimulsion fell out of favor with the key political leaders. As a result, the government has been trying to "Wind Down" the Orimulsion program.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Despite the fact that the Orinoco oil sands contain extra-heavy oil which is easier to produce than Canada's similarly sized reserves of bitumen, Venezuela's oil production has been declining in recent years because of the country's political and economic problems, while Canada's has been increasing. As a result, Canadian heavy oil and bitumen exports have been backing Venezuelan heavy and extra-heavy oil out of the US market, and Canada's total exports of oil to the US have become several times as great as Venezuela's. By 2016, with the <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Venezuela" title="Economy of Venezuela">economy of Venezuela</a> in a tailspin and the country experiencing widespread shortages of food, rolling power blackouts, rioting, and anti-government protests, it was unclear how much new oil sands production would occur in the near future.<a href="#cite_note-60">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_countries">Other countries</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Other countries">edit</a>]</div> In May 2008, the <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italian</a> oil company <a href="/wiki/Eni" title="Eni">Eni</a> announced a project to develop a small oil sands deposit in the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a>. Production is scheduled to commence in 2014 and is estimated to eventually yield a total of 40,000 bbl/d (6,400 m3/d).<a href="#cite_note-61">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods_of_extraction">Methods of extraction</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Methods of extraction">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs to be updated. The reason given is: Methods discussed are from ca. 2010 and thus outdated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (April 2022)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Except for a fraction of the extra-heavy oil or bitumen which can be extracted by conventional oil well technology, oil sands must be produced by <a href="/wiki/Strip_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Strip mining">strip mining</a> or the oil made to flow into wells using sophisticated in-situ techniques. These methods usually use more water and require larger amounts of energy than conventional oil extraction. While much of Canada's oil sands are being produced using <a href="/wiki/Open-pit_mining" title="Open-pit mining">open-pit mining</a>, approximately 90% of Canadian oil sands and all of Venezuela's oil sands are too far below the surface to use surface mining.<a href="#cite_note-62">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_production">Primary production</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Primary production">edit</a>]</div> Conventional crude oil is normally extracted from the ground by drilling <a href="/wiki/Oil_well" title="Oil well">oil wells</a> into a <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_reservoir" title="Petroleum reservoir">petroleum reservoir</a>, allowing oil to flow into them under natural reservoir pressures, although <a href="/wiki/Artificial_lift" title="Artificial lift">artificial lift</a> and techniques such as <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_drilling" class="mw-redirect" title="Horizontal drilling">horizontal drilling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Water_injection_(oil_production)" title="Water injection (oil production)">water flooding</a> and gas injection are often required to maintain production. When primary production is used in the Venezuelan oil sands, where the extra-heavy oil is about 50 degrees <a href="/wiki/Celsius" title="Celsius">Celsius</a>, the typical oil recovery rates are about 8–12%. Canadian oil sands are much colder and more biodegraded, so bitumen recovery rates are usually only about 5–6%. Historically, primary recovery was used in the more fluid areas of Canadian oil sands. However, it recovered only a small fraction of the <a href="/wiki/Oil_in_place" title="Oil in place">oil in place</a>, so it is not often used today.<a href="#cite_note-63">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surface_mining">Surface mining</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Surface mining">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_Canada_(oil_sands_and_heavy_oil)#Surface_extraction" title="History of the petroleum industry in Canada (oil sands and heavy oil)">History of the petroleum industry in Canada (oil sands and heavy oil) § Surface extraction</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Athabasca_oil_sands#Surface_mining" title="Athabasca oil sands">Athabasca oil sands § Surface mining</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Surface_mining" title="Surface mining">Surface mining</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Athabasca_oil_sands.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Athabasca_oil_sands.jpg/250px-Athabasca_oil_sands.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Athabasca_oil_sands.jpg/330px-Athabasca_oil_sands.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Athabasca_oil_sands.jpg/500px-Athabasca_oil_sands.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Mining operations in the Athabasca oil sands. NASA <a href="/wiki/Earth_Observatory" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth Observatory">Earth Observatory</a> image, 2009.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Athabasca_oil_sands" title="Athabasca oil sands">Athabasca oil sands</a> are the only major oil sands deposits which are shallow enough to surface mine. In the Athabasca sands there are very large amounts of <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">bitumen</a> covered by little <a href="/wiki/Overburden" title="Overburden">overburden</a>, making surface mining the most efficient method of extracting it. The overburden consists of water-laden <a href="/wiki/Muskeg" title="Muskeg">muskeg</a> (peat bog) overtop of clay and barren sand. The oil sands themselves are typically 40 to 60 metres (130 to 200 ft) thick deposits of crude bitumen embedded in unconsolidated <a href="/wiki/Sandstone" title="Sandstone">sandstone</a>, sitting on top of flat <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> rock. Since <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_Canada_(oil_sands_and_heavy_oil)#Great_Canadian_Oil_Sands" title="History of the petroleum industry in Canada (oil sands and heavy oil)">Great Canadian Oil Sands</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Suncor_Energy" title="Suncor Energy">Suncor Energy</a>) started operation of the first large-scale oil sands mine in 1967, bitumen has been extracted on a commercial scale and the volume has grown at a steady rate ever since. A large number of oil sands mines are currently in operation and more are in the stages of approval or development. The <a href="/wiki/Syncrude_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Syncrude Canada">Syncrude Canada</a> mine was the second to open in 1978, <a href="/wiki/Shell_Canada" title="Shell Canada">Shell Canada</a> opened its <a href="/wiki/Albian_Sands" title="Albian Sands">Muskeg River mine (Albian Sands)</a> in 2003 and <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Natural_Resources" title="Canadian Natural Resources">Canadian Natural Resources</a> Ltd (CNRL) opened its <a href="/wiki/Horizon_Oil_Sands" title="Horizon Oil Sands">Horizon Oil Sands</a> project in 2009. Newer mines include Shell Canada's Jackpine mine,<a href="#cite_note-64">[62]</a> <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Oil" title="Imperial Oil">Imperial Oil</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Kearl_Oil_Sands_Project" title="Kearl Oil Sands Project">Kearl Oil Sands Project</a>, the Synenco Energy (now owned by <a href="/wiki/TotalEnergies" title="TotalEnergies">TotalEnergies</a>) Northern Lights mine, and Suncor's Fort Hills mine. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Oil_sands_tailings_ponds">Oil sands tailings ponds</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Oil sands tailings ponds">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Oil_sands_tailings_ponds_(Canada)" title="Oil sands tailings ponds (Canada)">Oil sands tailings ponds (Canada)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Syncrude_mildred_lake_plant.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Syncrude_mildred_lake_plant.jpg/250px-Syncrude_mildred_lake_plant.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Syncrude_mildred_lake_plant.jpg/330px-Syncrude_mildred_lake_plant.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Syncrude_mildred_lake_plant.jpg/500px-Syncrude_mildred_lake_plant.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Syncrude's Mildred Lake site, plant and tailings ponds <a href="/wiki/Fort_McMurray" title="Fort McMurray">Fort McMurray</a>, Alberta</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Oil_sands_tailings_ponds_(Canada)" title="Oil sands tailings ponds (Canada)">Oil sands tailings ponds</a> are engineered dam and dyke systems that contain salts, suspended solids and other dissolvable chemical compounds such as <a href="/wiki/Naphthenic_acid" title="Naphthenic acid">naphthenic acids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benzene" title="Benzene">benzene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbons" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrocarbons">hydrocarbons</a><a href="#cite_note-mena2014-65">[63]</a> residual <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">bitumen</a>, fine silts (mature fine tails MFT), and water.<a href="#cite_note-AB_FactSheet2013-66">[64]</a> Large volumes of tailings are a byproduct of surface mining of the oil sands and managing these tailings are one of the most damaging aspects of tar sands.<a href="#cite_note-AB_FactSheet2013-66">[64]</a> The Government of Alberta reported in 2013 that tailings ponds in the Alberta oil sands covered an area of about 77 square kilometres (30 sq mi).<a href="#cite_note-AB_FactSheet2013-66">[64]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Syncrude_Tailings_Dam" title="Syncrude Tailings Dam">Syncrude Tailings Dam</a> or Mildred Lake Settling Basin (MLSB) is an <a href="/wiki/Embankment_dam" title="Embankment dam">embankment dam</a> that is, by volume of construction material, the largest <a href="/wiki/Earth_structure" title="Earth structure">earth structure</a> in the world in 2001.<a href="#cite_note-SwedishMiningAssociation2001-67">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cold_Heavy_Oil_Production_with_Sand_(CHOPS)">Cold Heavy Oil Production with Sand (CHOPS)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Cold Heavy Oil Production with Sand (CHOPS)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cold_heavy_oil_production_with_sand" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold heavy oil production with sand">Cold heavy oil production with sand</a></div> Some years ago Canadian oil companies discovered that if they removed the <a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">sand</a> filters from heavy oil wells and produced as much sand as possible with the oil, production rates improved significantly. This technique became known as Cold Heavy Oil Production with Sand (CHOPS). Further research disclosed that pumping out sand opened "wormholes" in the sand formation which allowed more oil to reach the <a href="/wiki/Wellbore" class="mw-redirect" title="Wellbore">wellbore</a>. The advantage of this method is better production rates and recovery (around 10% versus 5–6% with sand filters in place) and the disadvantage that <a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">disposing</a> of the produced sand is a problem. A novel way to do this was spreading it on <a href="/wiki/Gravel_road" title="Gravel road">rural roads</a>, which rural governments liked because the <a href="/wiki/Asphalt_concrete" title="Asphalt concrete">oily sand</a> reduced dust and the oil companies did their <a href="/wiki/Road_maintenance" class="mw-redirect" title="Road maintenance">road maintenance</a> for them. However, governments have become concerned about the large volume and composition of oil spread on roads.<a href="#cite_note-68">[66]</a> so in recent years disposing of oily sand in underground <a href="/wiki/Salt_mine" class="mw-redirect" title="Salt mine">salt caverns</a> has become more common. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cyclic_Steam_Stimulation_(CSS)">Cyclic Steam Stimulation (CSS)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Cyclic Steam Stimulation (CSS)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Steam_injection_(oil_industry)" title="Steam injection (oil industry)">Steam injection (oil industry)</a></div> The use of <a href="/wiki/Steam" title="Steam">steam</a> injection to recover heavy oil has been in use in the oil fields of California since the 1950s. The cyclic steam stimulation (CSS) "huff-and-puff" method is now widely used in heavy oil production worldwide due to its quick early production rates; however recovery factors are relatively low (10–40% of oil in place) compared to SAGD (60–70% of OIP).<a href="#cite_note-69">[67]</a> CSS has been in use by <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Oil" title="Imperial Oil">Imperial Oil</a> at Cold Lake since 1985 and is also used by <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Natural_Resources" title="Canadian Natural Resources">Canadian Natural Resources</a> at Primrose and Wolf Lake and by <a href="/wiki/Shell_Canada" title="Shell Canada">Shell Canada</a> at Peace River. In this method, the well is put through cycles of steam injection, soak, and oil production. First, steam is injected into a well at a temperature of 300 to 340 degrees <a href="/wiki/Celsius" title="Celsius">Celsius</a> for a period of weeks to months; then, the well is allowed to sit for days to weeks to allow heat to soak into the formation; and, later, the hot oil is pumped out of the well for a period of weeks or months. Once the production rate falls off, the well is put through another cycle of injection, soak and production. This process is repeated until the cost of injecting steam becomes higher than the money made from producing oil.<a href="#cite_note-butler104-70">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Steam-assisted_gravity_drainage_(SAGD)">Steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Steam-assisted_gravity_drainage" title="Steam-assisted gravity drainage">Steam-assisted gravity drainage</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Steam-assisted_gravity_drainage" title="Steam-assisted gravity drainage">Steam-assisted gravity drainage</a> was developed in the 1980s by the <a href="/wiki/Alberta_Oil_Sands_Technology_and_Research_Authority" title="Alberta Oil Sands Technology and Research Authority">Alberta Oil Sands Technology and Research Authority</a> and fortuitously coincided with improvements in <a href="/wiki/Directional_drilling" title="Directional drilling">directional drilling</a> technology that made it quick and inexpensive to do by the mid 1990s. In SAGD, two horizontal wells are drilled in the oil sands, one at the bottom of the formation and another about 5 metres above it. These wells are typically <a href="/wiki/Drilling_rig" title="Drilling rig">drilled</a> in groups off central pads and can extend for miles in all directions. In each well pair, steam is injected into the upper well, the heat melts the bitumen, which allows it to flow into the lower well, where it is pumped to the surface.<a href="#cite_note-butler104-70">[68]</a> SAGD has proved to be a major breakthrough in production technology since it is cheaper than CSS, allows very high oil production rates, and recovers up to 60% of the oil in place. Because of its <a href="/wiki/Economic_feasibility" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic feasibility">economic feasibility</a> and applicability to a vast area of oil sands, this method alone quadrupled North American <a href="/wiki/Oil_reserves" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil reserves">oil reserves</a> and allowed Canada to move to second place in world oil reserves after Saudi Arabia. Most major Canadian oil companies now have SAGD projects in production or under construction in Alberta's oil sands areas and in Wyoming. Examples include <a href="/wiki/JACOS" title="JACOS">Japan Canada Oil Sands Ltd's (JACOS)</a> project, Suncor's Firebag project, <a href="/wiki/Nexen" class="mw-redirect" title="Nexen">Nexen</a>'s Long Lake project, Suncor's (formerly Petro-Canada's) MacKay River project, <a href="/wiki/Husky_Energy" title="Husky Energy">Husky Energy</a>'s Tucker Lake and Sunrise projects, Shell Canada's Peace River project, <a href="/wiki/Cenovus_Energy" title="Cenovus Energy">Cenovus Energy</a>'s Foster Creek<a href="#cite_note-71">[69]</a> and Christina Lake<a href="#cite_note-72">[70]</a> developments, <a href="/wiki/ConocoPhillips" title="ConocoPhillips">ConocoPhillips</a>' Surmont project, <a href="/wiki/Devon_Energy" title="Devon Energy">Devon Canada's</a> Jackfish project, and Derek Oil & Gas's LAK Ranch project. Alberta's OSUM Corp has combined proven underground mining technology with SAGD to enable higher recovery rates by running wells underground from within the oil sands deposit, thus also reducing energy requirements compared to traditional SAGD. This particular technology application is in its testing phase. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vapor_Extraction_(VAPEX)">Vapor Extraction (VAPEX)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Vapor Extraction (VAPEX)">edit</a>]</div> Several methods use solvents, instead of steam, to separate bitumen from sand. Some solvent extraction methods may work better in in situ production and other in mining.<a href="#cite_note-73">[71]</a> Solvent can be beneficial if it produces more oil while requiring less energy to produce steam. Vapor Extraction Process (VAPEX) is an in situ technology, similar to SAGD. Instead of steam, hydrocarbon solvents are injected into an upper well to dilute bitumen and enables the diluted bitumen to flow into a lower well. It has the advantage of much better <a href="/wiki/Energy_efficiency_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy efficiency (physics)">energy efficiency</a> over steam injection, and it does some partial upgrading of bitumen to oil right in the formation. The process has attracted attention from oil companies, who are experimenting with it. The above methods are not mutually exclusive. It is becoming common for wells to be put through one CSS injection-soak-production cycle to condition the formation prior to going to SAGD production, and companies are experimenting with combining VAPEX with SAGD to improve recovery rates and lower energy costs.<a href="#cite_note-74">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Toe_to_Heel_Air_Injection_(THAI)">Toe to Heel Air Injection (THAI)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Toe to Heel Air Injection (THAI)">edit</a>]</div> This is a very new and experimental method that combines a vertical air injection well with a horizontal production well. The process ignites oil in the reservoir and creates a vertical wall of fire moving from the "toe" of the horizontal well toward the "heel", which burns the heavier oil components and upgrades some of the heavy bitumen into lighter oil right in the formation. Historically fireflood projects have not worked out well because of difficulty in controlling the flame front and a propensity to set the producing wells on fire. However, some oil companies feel the THAI method will be more controllable and practical, and have the advantage of not requiring energy to create steam.<a href="#cite_note-75">[73]</a> Advocates of this method of extraction state that it uses less freshwater, produces 50% less <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gases" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenhouse gases">greenhouse gases</a>, and has a smaller footprint than other production techniques.<a href="#cite_note-76">[74]</a> <a href="/wiki/Petrobank_Energy_and_Resources" title="Petrobank Energy and Resources">Petrobank Energy and Resources</a> has reported encouraging results from their test wells in Alberta, with production rates of up to 400 bbl/d (64 m3/d) per well, and the oil upgraded from 8 to 12 <a href="/wiki/API_gravity" title="API gravity">API degrees</a>. The company hopes to get a further 7-degree upgrade from its CAPRI (controlled atmospheric pressure resin infusion)<a href="#cite_note-77">[75]</a> system, which pulls the oil through a <a href="/wiki/Catalyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalyst">catalyst</a> lining the lower pipe.<a href="#cite_note-78">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[78]</a> After several years of production in situ, it has become clear that current THAI methods do not work as planned. Amid steady drops in production from their THAI wells at Kerrobert, Petrobank has written down the value of their THAI patents and the reserves at the facility to zero. They have plans to experiment with a new configuration they call "multi-THAI," involving adding more air injection wells.<a href="#cite_note-81">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Combustion_Overhead_Gravity_Drainage_(COGD)">Combustion Overhead Gravity Drainage (COGD)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Combustion Overhead Gravity Drainage (COGD)">edit</a>]</div> This is an experimental method that employs a number of vertical air injection wells above a horizontal production well located at the base of the bitumen pay zone. An initial Steam Cycle similar to CSS is used to prepare the bitumen for ignition and mobility. Following that cycle, air is injected into the vertical wells, igniting the upper bitumen and mobilizing (through heating) the lower bitumen to flow into the production well. It is expected that COGD will result in water savings of 80% compared to SAGD.<a href="#cite_note-82">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Froth_treatment">Froth treatment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Froth treatment">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Froth_treatment_(Athabasca_oil_sands)" title="Froth treatment (Athabasca oil sands)">Froth treatment (Athabasca oil sands)</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Froth_treatment_(Athabasca_oil_sands)&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Froth_treatment_(Athabasca_oil_sands)" title="Froth treatment (Athabasca oil sands)">Bitumen froth treatment</a> is a process used in the <a href="/wiki/Athabasca_oil_sands" title="Athabasca oil sands">Athabasca oil sands</a> (AOS) <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">bitumen</a> recovery operations to remove fine inorganics—water and mineral particles—from <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">bitumen</a> froth, by diluting the bitumen with a light hydrocarbon solvent—either naphthenic or paraffinic—to reduce the viscosity of the froth and to remove contaminants that were not removed in previous water-based gravity recovery phases.<a href="#cite_note-Froth_treatment_(Athabasca_oil_sands)_E&F_Rao_20130130-83">[81]</a> Bitumen with a high viscosity or with too many contaminants, is not suitable for transporting through pipelines or refining. The original and conventional naphthenic froth treatment (NFT) uses a naphtha solvent with the addition of chemicals. Paraffinic Solvent Froth Treatment (PSFT), which was first used commercially in the <a href="/wiki/Albian_Sands" title="Albian Sands">Albian Sands</a> in the early 2000s, results in a cleaner bitumen with lower levels of contaminates, such as water and mineral solids.<a href="#cite_note-Froth_treatment_(Athabasca_oil_sands)_Canmet_NRCAN_20160119-84">[82]</a> Following froth treatments, bitumen can be further upgraded using "heat to produce synthetic crude oil by means of a coker unit."<a href="#cite_note-Froth_treatment_(Athabasca_oil_sands)_Canmet_NRCAN_20160119-84">[82]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Energy_balance">Energy balance</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Energy balance">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas_in_Canada" title="Natural gas in Canada">Natural gas in Canada</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Shale_gas" title="Shale gas">Shale gas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shale_gas_in_the_United_States" title="Shale gas in the United States">Shale gas in the United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Shale_gas_in_Canada" title="Shale gas in Canada">Shale gas in Canada</a></div> Approximately 1.0–1.25 gigajoules (280–350 kWh) of energy is needed to extract a barrel of bitumen and upgrade it to synthetic crude. As of 2006, most of this is produced by burning natural gas.<a href="#cite_note-85">[83]</a> Since a <a href="/wiki/Barrel_of_oil_equivalent" title="Barrel of oil equivalent">barrel of oil equivalent</a> is about 6.117 gigajoules (1,699 kWh), its <a href="/wiki/Energy_returned_on_energy_invested" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy returned on energy invested">EROEI</a> is 5–6. That means this extracts about 5 or 6 times as much energy as is consumed. Energy efficiency is expected to improve to an average of 900 cubic feet (25 m3) of natural gas or 0.945 gigajoules (262 kWh) of energy per barrel by 2015, giving an EROEI of about 6.5.<a href="#cite_note-86">[84]</a> Alternatives to natural gas exist and are available in the oil sands area. Bitumen can itself be used as the fuel, consuming about 30–35% of the raw bitumen per produced unit of synthetic crude. Nexen's Long Lake project will use a proprietary deasphalting technology to upgrade the bitumen, using asphaltene residue fed to a <a href="/wiki/Gasification" title="Gasification">gasifier</a> whose <a href="/wiki/Syngas" title="Syngas">syngas</a> will be used by a <a href="/wiki/Cogeneration" title="Cogeneration">cogeneration</a> turbine and a hydrogen producing unit, providing all the energy needs of the project: steam, hydrogen, and electricity.<a href="#cite_note-87">[85]</a> Thus, it will produce syncrude without consuming natural gas, but the capital cost is very high. Shortages of natural gas for project fuel were forecast to be a problem for Canadian oil sands production a few years ago, but recent increases in US <a href="/wiki/Shale_gas" title="Shale gas">shale gas</a> production have eliminated much of the problem for North America. With the increasing use of <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_fracturing" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic fracturing">hydraulic fracturing</a> making <a href="/wiki/Shale_gas_in_the_United_States" title="Shale gas in the United States">US largely self-sufficient in natural gas</a> and exporting more natural gas to Eastern Canada to replace Alberta gas, the Alberta government is using its powers under the <a href="/wiki/NAFTA" class="mw-redirect" title="NAFTA">NAFTA</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian Constitution">Canadian Constitution</a> to reduce shipments of natural gas to the US and Eastern Canada, and divert the gas to domestic Alberta use, particularly for oil sands fuel. The natural gas pipelines to the east and south are being converted to carry increasing oil sands production to these destinations instead of gas. Canada also has <a href="/wiki/Shale_gas_in_Canada" title="Shale gas in Canada">huge undeveloped shale gas deposits</a> in addition to those of the US, so natural gas for future oil sands production does not seem to be a serious problem. The low price of natural gas as the result of new production has considerably improved the economics of oil sands production. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Upgrading_and_blending">Upgrading and blending</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Upgrading and blending">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Upgrader" title="Upgrader">Upgrader</a></div> The extra-heavy crude oil or crude bitumen extracted from oil sands is a very viscous semisolid form of oil that does not easily flow at normal temperatures, making it difficult to transport to market by pipeline. To flow through oil pipelines, it must either be upgraded to lighter synthetic crude oil (SCO), blended with diluents to form dilbit, or heated to reduce its viscosity.<a href="#cite_note-88">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canada_3">Canada</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Canada">edit</a>]</div> In the Canadian oil sands, bitumen produced by surface mining is generally upgraded on-site and delivered as synthetic crude oil. This makes delivery of oil to market through conventional oil pipelines quite easy. On the other hand, bitumen produced by the in-situ projects is generally not upgraded but delivered to market in raw form. If the agent used to upgrade the bitumen to synthetic crude is not produced on site, it must be sourced elsewhere and transported to the site of upgrading. If the upgraded crude is being transported from the site by pipeline, and additional pipeline will be required to bring in sufficient upgrading agent. The costs of production of the upgrading agent, the pipeline to transport it and the cost to operate the pipeline must be calculated into the production cost of the synthetic crude. Upon reaching a <a href="/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery">refinery</a>, the synthetic crude is processed and a significant portion of the upgrading agent will be removed during the refining process. It may be used for other fuel fractions, but the end result is that liquid fuel has to be piped to the upgrading facility simply to make the bitumen transportable by pipeline. If all costs are considered, synthetic crude production and transfer using bitumen and an upgrading agent may prove economically unsustainable. When the first oil sands plants were built over 50 years ago, most oil refineries in their market area were designed to handle light or medium crude oil with lower sulfur content than the 4–7% that is typically found in bitumen. The original oil sands upgraders were designed to produce a high-quality synthetic crude oil (SCO) with lower density and lower sulfur content. These are large, expensive plants which are much like heavy oil refineries. Research is currently being done on designing simpler upgraders which do not produce SCO but simply treat the bitumen to reduce its viscosity, allowing to be transported unblended like conventional heavy oil. <a href="/wiki/Western_Canadian_Select" title="Western Canadian Select">Western Canadian Select</a>, launched in 2004 as a new heavy oil stream, blended at the <a href="/wiki/Husky_Energy" title="Husky Energy">Husky Energy</a> terminal in <a href="/wiki/Hardisty,_Alberta" title="Hardisty, Alberta">Hardisty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alberta" title="Alberta">Alberta</a>,<a href="#cite_note-CAPP_2013-89">[87]</a> is the largest crude oil stream coming from the Canadian oil sands and the <a href="/wiki/Benchmark_(crude_oil)" title="Benchmark (crude oil)">benchmark</a> for emerging heavy, high TAN (acidic) crudes.<a href="#cite_note-Argus_2012-90">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-NRC_Petroleum_Products-91">[89]</a>: 9 <a href="#cite_note-Platts_2012-92">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-TMX/Shorcan_Energy_Brokers-93">[91]</a> <a href="/wiki/Western_Canadian_Select" title="Western Canadian Select">Western Canadian Select</a> (WCS) is traded at <a href="/wiki/Cushing,_Oklahoma" title="Cushing, Oklahoma">Cushing, Oklahoma</a>, a major oil supply hub connecting oil suppliers to the Gulf Coast, which has become the most significant trading hub for crude oil in North America. While its major component is bitumen, it also contains a combination of sweet synthetic and <a href="/wiki/Natural-gas_condensate" title="Natural-gas condensate">condensate</a> diluents, and 25 existing streams of both conventional and unconventional oil<a href="#cite_note-Mohr_2014-94">[92]</a> making it a syndilbit—both a dilbit and a synbit.<a href="#cite_note-EA_2011-95">[93]</a>: 16  The first step in upgrading is <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_distillation" title="Vacuum distillation">vacuum distillation</a> to separate the lighter fractions. After that, <a href="/wiki/De-asphalter" title="De-asphalter">de-asphalting</a> is used to separate the asphalt from the feedstock. <a href="/wiki/Cracking_(chemistry)" title="Cracking (chemistry)">Cracking</a> is used to break the heavier hydrocarbon molecules down into simpler ones. Since cracking produces products which are rich in sulfur, <a href="/wiki/Hydrodesulfurization" title="Hydrodesulfurization">desulfurization</a> must be done to get the sulfur content below 0.5% and create sweet, light synthetic crude oil.<a href="#cite_note-96">[94]</a> In 2012, Alberta produced about 1,900,000 bbl/d (300,000 m3/d) of crude bitumen from its three major oil sands deposits, of which about 1,044,000 bbl/d (166,000 m3/d) was upgraded to lighter products and the rest sold as raw bitumen. The volume of both upgraded and non-upgraded bitumen is increasing yearly. Alberta has five oil sands upgraders producing a variety of products. These include:<a href="#cite_note-ST98-2013-97">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[96]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suncor_Energy" title="Suncor Energy">Suncor Energy</a> can upgrade 440,000 bbl/d (70,000 m3/d) of bitumen to light sweet and medium sour synthetic crude oil (SCO), plus produce diesel fuel for its oil sands operations at the upgrader.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syncrude" title="Syncrude">Syncrude</a> can upgrade 407,000 bbl/d (64,700 m3/d) of bitumen to sweet light SCO.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Natural_Resources" title="Canadian Natural Resources">Canadian Natural Resources</a> Limited (CNRL) can upgrade 141,000 bbl/d (22,400 m3/d) of bitumen to sweet light SCO.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nexen" class="mw-redirect" title="Nexen">Nexen</a>, since 2013 wholly owned by <a href="/wiki/China_National_Offshore_Oil_Corporation" title="China National Offshore Oil Corporation">China National Offshore Oil Corporation</a> (CNOOC), can upgrade 72,000 bbl/d (11,400 m3/d) of bitumen to sweet light SCO.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shell_Canada" title="Shell Canada">Shell Canada</a> operates its <a href="/wiki/Scotford_Upgrader" title="Scotford Upgrader">Scotford Upgrader</a> in combination with an oil refinery and chemical plant at <a href="/wiki/Scotford,_Alberta" class="mw-redirect" title="Scotford, Alberta">Scotford, Alberta</a>, near Edmonton. The complex can upgrade 255,000 bbl/d (40,500 m3/d) of bitumen to sweet and heavy SCO as well as a range of refinery and chemical products.</li></ul> Modernized and new large refineries such as are found in the <a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwestern United States</a> and on the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="Gulf Coast of the United States">Gulf Coast of the United States</a>, as well as many in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, can handle upgrading heavy oil themselves, so their demand is for non-upgraded bitumen and extra-heavy oil rather than SCO. The main problem is that the feedstock would be too viscous to flow through pipelines, so unless it is delivered by tanker or rail car, it must be blended with diluent to enable it to flow. This requires mixing the crude bitumen with a lighter hydrocarbon diluent such as condensate from gas wells, <a href="/wiki/Pentanes" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentanes">pentanes</a> and other light products from oil refineries or gas plants, or synthetic crude oil from oil sands upgraders to allow it to flow through pipelines to market. Typically, blended bitumen contains about 30% <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas_condensate" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural gas condensate">natural gas condensate</a> or other diluents and 70% bitumen. Alternatively, bitumen can also be delivered to market by specially designed railway <a href="/wiki/Tank_car" title="Tank car">tank cars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tank_truck" title="Tank truck">tank trucks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liquid_cargo_barge" title="Liquid cargo barge">liquid cargo barges</a>, or ocean-going <a href="/wiki/Oil_tanker" title="Oil tanker">oil tankers</a>. These do not necessarily require the bitumen be blended with diluent since the tanks can be heated to allow the oil to be pumped out. The demand for condensate for oil sands diluent is expected to be more than 750,000 bbl/d (119,000 m3/d) by 2020, double 2012 volumes. Since Western Canada only produces about 150,000 bbl/d (24,000 m3/d) of condensate, the supply was expected to become a major constraint on bitumen transport. However, the recent huge increase in US <a href="/wiki/Tight_oil" title="Tight oil">tight oil</a> production has largely solved this problem, because much of the production is too light for US refinery use but ideal for diluting bitumen. The surplus American condensate and light oil is being exported to Canada and blended with bitumen, and then re-imported to the US as feedstock for refineries. Since the diluent is simply exported and then immediately re-imported, it is not subject to the US ban on exports of crude oil. Once it is back in the US, refineries separate the diluent and re-export it to Canada, which again bypasses US crude oil export laws since it is now a refinery product. To aid in this process, <a href="/wiki/Kinder_Morgan_Energy_Partners" title="Kinder Morgan Energy Partners">Kinder Morgan Energy Partners</a> is reversing its Cochin Pipeline, which used to carry propane from Edmonton to Chicago, to transport 95,000 bbl/d (15,100 m3/d) of condensate from Chicago to Edmonton by mid-2014; and <a href="/wiki/Enbridge" title="Enbridge">Enbridge</a> is considering the expansion of its Southern Lights pipeline, which currently ships 180,000 bbl/d (29,000 m3/d) of diluent from the Chicago area to Edmonton, by adding another 100,000 bbl/d (16,000 m3/d).<a href="#cite_note-99">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Venezuela_3">Venezuela</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Venezuela">edit</a>]</div> Although Venezuelan extra-heavy oil is less viscous than Canadian bitumen, much of the difference is due to temperature. Once the oil comes out of the ground and cools, it has the same difficulty in that it is too viscous to flow through pipelines. Venezuela is now producing more extra heavy crude in the Orinoco oil sands than its four upgraders, which were built by foreign oil companies over a decade ago, can handle. The upgraders have a combined capacity of 630,000 bbl/d (100,000 m3/d), which is only half of its production of extra-heavy oil. In addition Venezuela produces insufficient volumes of <a href="/wiki/Naphtha" title="Naphtha">naphtha</a> to use as diluent to move extra-heavy oil to market. Unlike Canada, Venezuela does not produce much <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas_condensate" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural gas condensate">natural gas condensate</a> from its own gas wells, nor does it have easy access to condensate from new US <a href="/wiki/Shale_gas" title="Shale gas">shale gas</a> production. Since Venezuela also has insufficient refinery capacity to supply its domestic market, supplies of naptha are insufficient to use as pipeline diluent, and it is having to import naptha to fill the gap. Since Venezuela also has financial problems—as a result of the country's <a href="/wiki/2013-17_Venezuelan_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="2013-17 Venezuelan crisis">economic crisis</a>—and political disagreements with the US government and oil companies, the situation remains unresolved.<a href="#cite_note-100">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Refining">Refining</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Refining">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery">oil refinery</a></div> Heavy <a href="/w/index.php?title=Crude_oil_feedstock&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Crude oil feedstock (page does not exist)">crude feedstock</a> needs pre-processing before it is fit for conventional refineries, although heavy oil and bitumen refineries can do the pre-processing themselves. This pre-processing is called "upgrading", the key components of which are as follows: <ol><li>removal of water, sand, physical waste, and lighter products</li> <li>catalytic purification by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hydrodemetallisation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hydrodemetallisation (page does not exist)">hydrodemetallisation</a> (HDM), <a href="/wiki/Hydrodesulfurization" title="Hydrodesulfurization">hydrodesulfurization</a> (HDS) and <a href="/wiki/Hydrodenitrogenation" title="Hydrodenitrogenation">hydrodenitrogenation</a> (HDN)</li> <li>hydrogenation through carbon rejection or <a href="/wiki/Catalytic_hydrocracking" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalytic hydrocracking">catalytic hydrocracking</a> (HCR)</li></ol> As carbon rejection is very inefficient and wasteful in most cases, <a href="/wiki/Catalytic_hydrocracking" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalytic hydrocracking">catalytic hydrocracking</a> is preferred in most cases. All these processes take large amounts of energy and water, while emitting more carbon dioxide than conventional oil. Catalytic purification and hydrocracking are together known as <a href="/wiki/Hydroprocessing" title="Hydroprocessing">hydroprocessing</a>. The big challenge in hydroprocessing is to deal with the impurities found in heavy crude, as they poison the catalysts over time. Many efforts have been made to deal with this to ensure high activity and long life of a catalyst. Catalyst materials and pore size distributions are key parameters that need to be optimized to deal with this challenge and varies from place to place, depending on the kind of feedstock present.<a href="#cite_note-101">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canada_4">Canada</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Canada">edit</a>]</div> There are four major <a href="/wiki/Oil_refineries" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil refineries">oil refineries</a> in Alberta which supply most of <a href="/wiki/Western_Canada" title="Western Canada">Western Canada</a> with <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_products" class="mw-redirect" title="Petroleum products">petroleum products</a>, but as of 2012 these processed less than 1/4 of the approximately 1,900,000 bbl/d (300,000 m3/d) of bitumen and SCO produced in Alberta. Some of the large oil sands upgraders also produced diesel fuel as part of their operations. Some of the oil sands bitumen and SCO went to refineries in other provinces, but most of it was exported to the United States. The four major Alberta refineries are:<a href="#cite_note-102">[100]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suncor_Energy" title="Suncor Energy">Suncor Energy</a> operates the <a href="/wiki/Petro-Canada" title="Petro-Canada">Petro-Canada</a> refinery near Edmonton, which can process 142,000 bbl/d (22,600 m3/d) of all types of oil and bitumen into all types of products.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Oil" title="Imperial Oil">Imperial Oil</a> operates the <a href="/wiki/Strathcona_Refinery" title="Strathcona Refinery">Strathcona Refinery</a> near Edmonton, which can process 187,200 bbl/d (29,760 m3/d) of SCO and conventional oil into all types of products.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shell_Canada" title="Shell Canada">Shell Canada</a> operates the Scotford Refinery near Edmonton, which is integrated with the <a href="/wiki/Scotford_Upgrader" title="Scotford Upgrader">Scotford Upgrader</a>, and which can process 100,000 bbl/d (16,000 m3/d) of all types of oil and bitumen into all types of products.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Husky_Energy" title="Husky Energy">Husky Energy</a>, operates the <a href="/wiki/Husky_Lloydminster_Refinery" title="Husky Lloydminster Refinery">Husky Lloydminster Refinery</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lloydminster" title="Lloydminster">Lloydminster</a>, which can process 28,300 bbl/d (4,500 m3/d) of feedstock from the adjacent Husky Upgrader into <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">bitumen</a> and other products.</li></ul> The $8.5 billion <a href="/wiki/Sturgeon_Refinery" title="Sturgeon Refinery">Sturgeon Refinery</a>, a fifth major Alberta refinery, is under construction near <a href="/wiki/Fort_Saskatchewan" title="Fort Saskatchewan">Fort Saskatchewan</a> with a completion date of 2017.<a href="#cite_note-Howell_2015-103">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-NWU_About-104">[102]</a> The Pacific Future Energy project proposed a new refinery in British Columbia that would process bitumen into fuel for Asian and Canadian markets. Pacific Future Energy proposes to transport near-solid bitumen to the refinery using railway tank cars.<a href="#cite_note-105">[103]</a> Most of the Canadian oil refining industry is foreign-owned. Canadian refineries can process only about 25% of the oil produced in Canada. Canadian refineries, outside of Alberta and Saskatchewan, were originally built for light and medium crude oil. With new oil sands production coming on production at lower prices than international oil, market price imbalances have ruined the economics of refineries which could not process it. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_oil_refineries#United_States" title="List of oil refineries">List of oil refineries § United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_American_energy_independence" class="mw-redirect" title="North American energy independence">North American energy independence</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Western_Canadian_Select" title="Western Canadian Select">Western Canadian Select</a></div> Prior to 2013, when China surpassed it, the United States was the largest oil importer in the world.<a href="#cite_note-106">[104]</a> Unlike Canada, the US has hundreds of oil refineries, many of which have been modified to process heavy oil as US production of light and medium oil declined. The main market for Canadian bitumen as well as Venezuelan extra-heavy oil was assumed to be the US. The United States has historically been Canada's largest customer for crude oil and products, particularly in recent years. American imports of oil and products from Canada grew from 450,000 bbl/d (72,000 m3/d) in 1981 to 3,120,000 bbl/d (496,000 m3/d) in 2013 as Canada's oil sands produced more and more oil, while in the US, domestic production and imports from other countries declined.<a href="#cite_note-107">[105]</a> However, this relationship is becoming strained due to physical, economic and political influences. Export pipeline capacity is approaching its limits; Canadian oil is selling at a discount to world market prices; US demand for crude oil and product imports has declined because of US economic problems; and US oil domestic unconventional oil production (shale oil production from <a href="/wiki/Fracking" title="Fracking">fracking</a> is growing rapidly.) The US resumed export of crude oil in 2016; as of early 2019, the US produced as much oil as it consumed, with shale oil displacing Canadian imports. For the benefit of oil marketers, in 2004 Western Canadian producers created a new <a href="/wiki/Benchmark_(crude_oil)" title="Benchmark (crude oil)">benchmark crude oil</a> called <a href="/wiki/Western_Canadian_Select" title="Western Canadian Select">Western Canadian Select</a>, (WCS), a bitumen-derived heavy crude oil blend that is similar in its transportation and refining characteristics to California, Mexico Maya, or Venezuela heavy crude oils. This heavy oil has an API gravity of 19–21 and despite containing large amounts of bitumen and synthetic crude oil, flows through pipelines well and is classified as "conventional heavy oil" by governments. There are several hundred thousand barrels per day of this blend being imported into the US, in addition to larger amounts of crude bitumen and synthetic crude oil (SCO) from the oil sands. The demand from US refineries is increasingly for non-upgraded bitumen rather than SCO. The Canadian <a href="/wiki/National_Energy_Board" title="National Energy Board">National Energy Board</a> (NEB) expects SCO volumes to double to around 1,900,000 bbl/d (300,000 m3/d) by 2035, but not keep pace with the total increase in bitumen production. It projects that the portion of oil sands production that is upgraded to SCO to decline from 49% in 2010 to 37% in 2035. This implies that over 3,200,000 bbl/d (510,000 m3/d) of bitumen will have to be blended with diluent for delivery to market. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_Administration_for_Defense_Districts" title="Petroleum Administration for Defense Districts">Petroleum Administration for Defense Districts</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asia">Asia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Asia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_China" title="Petroleum industry in China">Petroleum industry in China</a></div> Demand for oil in Asia has been growing much faster than in North America or Europe. In 2013, China replaced the United States as the world's largest importer of crude oil, and its demand continues to grow much faster than its production. The main impediment to Canadian exports to Asia is pipeline capacity – The only pipeline capable of delivering oil sands production to Canada's Pacific Coast is the Trans Mountain Pipeline from Edmonton to Vancouver, which is now operating at its capacity of 300,000 bbl/d (48,000 m3/d) supplying refineries in B.C. and Washington State. However, once complete, the Northern Gateway pipeline and the Trans Mountain expansion currently undergoing government review are expected to deliver an additional 500,000 bbl/d (79,000 m3/d) to 1,100,000 bbl/d (170,000 m3/d) to tankers on the Pacific coast, from where they could deliver it anywhere in the world. There is sufficient heavy oil refinery capacity in China and India to refine the additional Canadian volume, possibly with some modifications to the refineries.<a href="#cite_note-Hackett_2013-108">[106]</a> In recent years, Chinese oil companies such as <a href="/wiki/China_Petrochemical_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="China Petrochemical Corporation">China Petrochemical Corporation</a> (Sinopec), <a href="/wiki/China_National_Offshore_Oil_Corporation" title="China National Offshore Oil Corporation">China National Offshore Oil Corporation</a> (CNOOC), and <a href="/wiki/PetroChina" title="PetroChina">PetroChina</a> have bought over $30 billion in assets in Canadian oil sands projects, so they would probably like to export some of their newly acquired oil to China.<a href="#cite_note-109">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economics">Economics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Economics">edit</a>]</div> The world's largest deposits of <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">bitumen</a> are in Canada, although Venezuela's deposits of extra-<a href="/wiki/Heavy_crude_oil" title="Heavy crude oil">heavy crude oil</a> are even bigger. Canada has vast energy resources of all types and its oil and natural gas resource base would be large enough to meet Canadian needs for generations if demand was sustained. Abundant <a href="/wiki/Hydroelectric" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroelectric">hydroelectric</a> resources account for the majority of Canada's electricity production and very little electricity is produced from oil. The <a href="/wiki/National_Energy_Board" title="National Energy Board">National Energy Board</a> (NEB) reported in 2013, that if oil prices are above $100, Canada would have more than enough energy to meet its growing needs. The excess oil production from the oil sands could be exported. The major importing country would probably continue to be the United States, although before the developments in 2014, there was increasing demand for oil, particularly heavy oil, from Asian countries such as China and India.<a href="#cite_note-NEB2013-110">[108]</a> Canada has abundant resources of bitumen and crude oil, with an estimated remaining ultimate resource potential of 54 billion cubic metres (340 billion barrels). Of this, oil sands bitumen accounts for 90 per cent. Alberta currently accounts for all of Canada's bitumen resources. "Resources" become "reserves" only after it is proven that economic recovery can be achieved. At 2013 prices using current technology, Canada had remaining oil reserves of 27 billion m3 (170 billion bbls), with 98% of this attributed to oil sands bitumen. This put its reserves in third place in the world behind <a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>. At the much lower prices of 2015, the reserves are much smaller.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Costs">Costs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Costs">edit</a>]</div> The costs of production and transportation of saleable petroleum from oil sands is typically significantly higher than from conventional global sources.<a href="#cite_note-CERI2015-111">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-CERI-June2015-112">[110]</a> Hence the economic viability of oil sands production is more vulnerable to the <a href="/wiki/Price_of_oil" title="Price of oil">price of oil</a>. The price of <a href="/wiki/Benchmark_(crude_oil)" title="Benchmark (crude oil)">benchmark</a> <a href="/wiki/West_Texas_Intermediate" title="West Texas Intermediate">West Texas Intermediate</a> (WTI) oil at <a href="/wiki/Cushing,_Oklahoma" title="Cushing, Oklahoma">Cushing, Oklahoma</a> above US$100/bbl that prevailed until late 2014 was sufficient to promote active growth in oil sands production. Major Canadian oil companies had announced expansion plans and foreign companies were investing significant amounts of capital, in many cases forming partnerships with Canadian companies. Investment had been shifting towards <a href="/wiki/In-situ" class="mw-redirect" title="In-situ">in-situ</a> <a href="/wiki/Steam-assisted_gravity_drainage" title="Steam-assisted gravity drainage">steam-assisted gravity drainage</a> (SAGD) projects and away from mining and upgrading projects, as oil sands operators foresee better opportunities from selling bitumen and heavy oil directly to refineries than from upgrading it to <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_crude_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Synthetic crude oil">synthetic crude oil</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cost_estimates" class="mw-redirect" title="Cost estimates">Cost estimates</a> for Canada include the effects of the mining when the mines are returned to the environment in "as good as or better than original condition". Cleanup of the end products of consumption are the responsibility of the consuming jurisdictions, which are mostly in provinces or countries other than the producing one. The Alberta government estimated that in 2012, the supply cost of oil sands new mining operations was $70 to $85 per barrel, whereas the cost of new SAGD projects was $50 to $80 per barrel.<a href="#cite_note-ST98-2013-97">[95]</a> These costs included capital and operating costs, royalties and taxes, plus a reasonable profit to the investors. Since the price of WTI rose to $100/bbl beginning in 2011,<a href="#cite_note-113">[111]</a> production from oil sands was then expected to be highly profitable assuming the product could be delivered to markets. The main market was the huge refinery complexes on the US Gulf Coast, which are generally capable of processing Canadian bitumen and Venezuelan extra-heavy oil without upgrading. The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Canadian_Energy_Research_Institute&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Canadian Energy Research Institute (page does not exist)">Canadian Energy Research Institute</a> (CERI) performed an analysis, estimating that in 2012 the average plant gate costs (including 10% profit margin, but excluding blending and transport) of primary recovery was $30.32/bbl, of SAGD was $47.57/bbl, of mining and upgrading was $99.02/bbl, and of mining without upgrading was $68.30/bbl.<a href="#cite_note-CERI2012-114">[112]</a> Thus, all types of oil sands projects except new mining projects with integrated upgraders were expected to be consistently profitable from 2011 onward, provided that global oil prices remained favourable. Since the larger and more sophisticated refineries preferred to buy raw bitumen and heavy oil rather than synthetic crude oil, new oil sands projects avoided the costs of building new upgraders. Although primary recovery such as is done in Venezuela is cheaper than SAGD, it only recovers about 10% of the oil in place versus 60% or more for SAGD and over 99% for mining. Canadian oil companies were in a more competitive market and had access to more capital than in Venezuela, and preferred to spend that extra money on SAGD or mining to recover more oil. Then in late 2014 the dramatic rise in U.S. production from shale formations, combined with a global economic malaise that reduced demand, caused the price of WTI to drop below $50, where it remained as of late 2015.<a href="#cite_note-Pope-115">[113]</a> In 2015, the Canadian Energy Research Institute (CERI) re-estimated the average plant gate costs (again including 10% profit margin) of SAGD to be $58.65/bbl, and 70.18/bbl for mining without upgrading. Including costs of blending and transportation, the WTI equivalent supply costs for delivery to Cushing become US$80.06/bbl for SAGD projects, and $89.71/bbl for a standalone mine.<a href="#cite_note-CERI2015-111">[109]</a> In this economic environment, plans for further development of production from oil sands have been slowed or deferred,<a href="#cite_note-Penty-116">[114]</a> <a href="#cite_note-Gloomy-117">[115]</a> or even abandoned during construction.<a href="#cite_note-ShellOut-118">[116]</a> Production of synthetic crude from mining operations may continue at a loss because of the costs of shutdown and restart, as well as commitments to supply contracts.<a href="#cite_note-MustRun-119">[117]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/2020_Russia%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_oil_price_war" title="2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war">2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war</a>, the price of Canadian heavy crude dipped below $5 per barrel.<a href="#cite_note-120">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Production_forecasts">Production forecasts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Production forecasts">edit</a>]</div> Oil sands production forecasts released by the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Association_of_Petroleum_Producers" title="Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers">Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers</a> (CAPP), the <a href="/wiki/Alberta_Energy_Regulator" title="Alberta Energy Regulator">Alberta Energy Regulator</a> (AER), and the Canadian Energy Research Institute (CERI) are comparable to <a href="/wiki/National_Energy_Board" title="National Energy Board">National Energy Board</a> (NEB) projections, in terms of total bitumen production. None of these forecasts take into account probable international constraints to be imposed on combustion of all hydrocarbons in order to limit global temperature rise, giving rise to a situation denoted by the term "<a href="/wiki/Carbon_bubble" title="Carbon bubble">carbon bubble</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Demos-121">[119]</a> Ignoring such constraints, and also assuming that the price of oil recovers from its collapse in late 2014, the list of currently proposed projects, many of which are in the early planning stages, would suggest that by 2035 Canadian bitumen production could potentially reach as much as 1.3 million m3/d (8.3 million barrels per day) if most were to go ahead. Under the same assumptions, a more likely scenario is that by 2035, Canadian oil sands bitumen production would reach 800,000 m3/d (5.0 million barrels/day), 2.6 times the production for 2012. The majority of the growth would likely occur in the in-situ category, as in-situ projects usually have better economics than mining projects. Also, 80% of Canada's oil sands reserves are well-suited to in-situ extraction, versus 20% for mining methods. An additional assumption is that there would be sufficient pipeline infrastructure to deliver increased Canadian oil production to export markets. If this were a limiting factor, there could be impacts on Canadian crude oil prices, constraining future production growth. Another assumption is that US markets will continue to absorb increased Canadian exports. Rapid growth of <a href="/wiki/Tight_oil" title="Tight oil">tight oil</a> production in the US, Canada's primary oil export market, has greatly reduced US reliance on <a href="/wiki/United_States_energy_independence" title="United States energy independence">imported crude</a>. The potential for Canadian oil exports to alternative markets such as Asia is also uncertain. There are increasing political obstacles to building any new pipelines to deliver oil in Canada and the US. In November 2015, U.S. President <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> rejected the proposal to build the <a href="/wiki/Keystone_XL_pipeline" class="mw-redirect" title="Keystone XL pipeline">Keystone XL pipeline</a> from Alberta to Steele City, Nebraska.<a href="#cite_note-NoKeystone-122">[120]</a> In the absence of new pipeline capacity, companies are increasingly shipping bitumen to US markets by railway, river barge, tanker, and other transportation methods. Other than ocean tankers, these alternatives are all more expensive than pipelines.<a href="#cite_note-CERI-June2015-112">[110]</a> A shortage of skilled workers in the Canadian oil sands developed during periods of rapid development of new projects. In the absence of other constraints on further development, the oil and gas industry would need to fill tens of thousands of job openings in the next few years as a result of industry activity levels as well as age-related attrition. In the longer term, under a scenario of higher oil and gas prices, the labor shortages would continue to get worse. A potential labor shortage can increase construction costs and slow the pace of oil sands development.<a href="#cite_note-NEB2013-110">[108]</a> The skilled worker shortage was much more severe in Venezuela because the government controlled oil company <a href="/wiki/PDVSA" title="PDVSA">PDVSA</a> fired most of its heavy oil experts after the <a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_general_strike_of_2002%E2%80%9303" class="mw-redirect" title="Venezuelan general strike of 2002–03">Venezuelan general strike of 2002–03</a>, and wound down the production of <a href="/wiki/Orimulsion" title="Orimulsion">Orimulsion</a>, which was the primary product from its oil sands. Following that, the government <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Venezuelan_oil_industry" title="History of the Venezuelan oil industry">re-nationalized the Venezuelan oil industry</a> and increased taxes on it. The result was that foreign companies left Venezuela, as did most of its elite heavy oil technical experts. In recent years, Venezuela's heavy oil production has been falling, and it has consistently been failing to meet its production targets. As of late 2015, development of new oil sand projects were deterred by the price of WTI below US$50, which is barely enough to support production from existing operations.<a href="#cite_note-Penty-116">[114]</a> Demand recovery was suppressed by economic problems that may continue indefinitely to bedevil both the <a href="/wiki/European_Community" class="mw-redirect" title="European Community">European Community</a> and China. Low-cost production by <a href="/wiki/OPEC" title="OPEC">OPEC</a> continued at maximum capacity, efficiency of production from U.S. shales continued to improve, and Russian exports were mandated even below cost of production, as their only source of hard currency.<a href="#cite_note-Shilling-123">[121]</a> There is also the possibility that there will emerge an international agreement to introduce measures to constrain the combustion of hydrocarbons in an effort to limit global temperature rise to the nominal 2 °C that is consensually predicted to limit environmental harm to tolerable levels.<a href="#cite_note-Paris-124">[122]</a> Rapid technological progress is being made to reduce the cost of competing renewable sources of energy.<a href="#cite_note-CarbonTracker-125">[123]</a> Hence there is no consensus about when, if ever, oil prices paid to producers may substantially recover.<a href="#cite_note-Shilling-123">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-CarbonTracker-125">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-Spencer-126">[124]</a> A detailed academic study of the consequences for the producers of the various hydrocarbon fuels concluded in early 2015 that a third of global oil reserves, half of gas reserves and over 80% of current coal reserves should remain underground from 2010 to 2050 in order to meet the target of 2 °C. Hence continued exploration or development of reserves would be extraneous to needs. To meet the 2 °C target, strong measures would be needed to suppress demand, such as a substantial carbon tax leaving a lower price for the producers from a smaller market. The impact on producers in Canada would be far larger than in the U.S. Open-pit mining of natural bitumen in Canada would soon drop to negligible levels after 2020 in all scenarios considered because it is considerably less economic than other methods of production.<a href="#cite_note-Dyer-127">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nature1-128">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nature2-129">[127]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Environmental_issues">Environmental issues</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Environmental issues">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_Athabasca_oil_sands" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of the Athabasca oil sands">Environmental impact of the Athabasca oil sands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_petroleum_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of the petroleum industry">Environmental impact of the petroleum industry</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Mining_Canada%27s_Oil_Sands.ogv/220px--Mining_Canada%27s_Oil_Sands.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="38" data-mwtitle="Mining_Canada's_Oil_Sands.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Mining_Canada%27s_Oil_Sands.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4c/Mining_Canada%27s_Oil_Sands.ogv/Mining_Canada%27s_Oil_Sands.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Mining_Canada%27s_Oil_Sands.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="960" data-height="540" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4c/Mining_Canada%27s_Oil_Sands.ogv/Mining_Canada%27s_Oil_Sands.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4c/Mining_Canada%27s_Oil_Sands.ogv/Mining_Canada%27s_Oil_Sands.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4c/Mining_Canada%27s_Oil_Sands.ogv/Mining_Canada%27s_Oil_Sands.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4c/Mining_Canada%27s_Oil_Sands.ogv/Mining_Canada%27s_Oil_Sands.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video><figcaption>Satellite images show the growth of pit mines over Canada's oil sands between 1984 and 2011.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US-OR-Portland-20140204_051518_LLS.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/US-OR-Portland-20140204_051518_LLS.JPG/250px-US-OR-Portland-20140204_051518_LLS.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/US-OR-Portland-20140204_051518_LLS.JPG/330px-US-OR-Portland-20140204_051518_LLS.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/US-OR-Portland-20140204_051518_LLS.JPG/500px-US-OR-Portland-20140204_051518_LLS.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Demonstration of citizens against tar sands and the <a href="/wiki/Keystone_Pipeline" title="Keystone Pipeline">Keystone Pipeline</a>.</figcaption></figure> In their 2011 commissioned report entitled "Prudent Development: Realizing the Potential of North America's Abundant Natural Gas and Oil Resources," the <a href="/wiki/National_Petroleum_Council_(US)" title="National Petroleum Council (US)">National Petroleum Council</a>, an advisory committee to the U.S. Secretary of Energy, acknowledged health and safety concerns regarding the oil sands which include "volumes of water needed to generate issues of water sourcing; removal of overburden for surface mining can fragment wildlife habitat and increase the risk of soil erosion or surface run-off events to nearby water systems; GHG and other air emissions from production."<a href="#cite_note-130">[128]</a> Oil sands extraction can affect the land when the bitumen is initially mined, water resources by its requirement for large quantities of water during separation of the oil and sand, and the air due to the release of carbon dioxide and other emissions.<a href="#cite_note-131">[129]</a> Heavy metals such as <a href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium">vanadium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">chromium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">cadmium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">selenium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> are naturally present in oil sands and may be concentrated by the extraction process.<a href="#cite_note-132">[130]</a> The environmental impact caused by oil sand extraction is frequently criticized by environmental groups such as <a href="/wiki/Greenpeace" title="Greenpeace">Greenpeace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Climate_Reality_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate Reality Project">Climate Reality Project</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pembina_Institute" title="Pembina Institute">Pembina Institute</a>, <a href="/wiki/350.org" title="350.org">350.org</a>, <a href="/wiki/MoveOn.org" class="mw-redirect" title="MoveOn.org">MoveOn.org</a>, <a href="/wiki/League_of_Conservation_Voters" title="League of Conservation Voters">League of Conservation Voters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patagonia_(clothing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Patagonia (clothing)">Patagonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Club" title="Sierra Club">Sierra Club</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Energy_Action_Coalition" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy Action Coalition">Energy Action Coalition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-133">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[132]</a> In particular, mercury contamination has been found around oil sands production in Alberta, Canada.<a href="#cite_note-135">[133]</a> The European Union has indicated that it may vote to label oil sands oil as "highly polluting". Although oil sands exports to Europe are minimal, the issue has caused friction between the EU and Canada.<a href="#cite_note-Guardian_20_February_2012-136">[134]</a> According to the California-based <a href="/wiki/Jacobs_Engineering_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacobs Engineering Group">Jacobs Consultancy</a>, the European Union used inaccurate and incomplete data in assigning a high greenhouse gas rating to gasoline derived from Alberta's oilsands. Also, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Nigeria and Russia do not provide data on how much natural gas is released via <a href="/wiki/Gas_flaring" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas flaring">flaring</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gas_venting" title="Gas venting">venting</a> in the oil extraction process. The Jacobs report pointed out that extra carbon emissions from oil-sand crude are 12 percent higher than from regular crude, although it was assigned a GHG rating 22% above the conventional benchmark by EU.<a href="#cite_note-137">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-138">[136]</a> In 2014 results of a study published in the <a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_United_States_of_America" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a> showed that official reports on emissions were not high enough. Report authors noted that, "emissions of organic substances with potential toxicity to humans and the environment are a major concern surrounding the rapid industrial development in the Athabasca oil sands region (AOSR)." This study found that tailings ponds were an indirect pathway transporting uncontrolled releases of evaporative emissions of three representative <a href="/wiki/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbon" title="Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon">polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon</a> (PAH)s (<a href="/wiki/Phenanthrene" title="Phenanthrene">phenanthrene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pyrene" title="Pyrene">pyrene</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Benzo(a)pyrene" title="Benzo(a)pyrene">benzo(a)pyrene</a>) and that these emissions had been previously unreported.<a href="#cite_note-Parajulee_Wania2014-139">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-Parajulee2014-140">[138]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Air_pollution_management">Air pollution management</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Air pollution management">edit</a>]</div> The Alberta government computes an <a href="/wiki/Air_Quality_Health_Index_(Canada)" title="Air Quality Health Index (Canada)">Air Quality Health Index</a> (AQHI) from sensors in five communities in the oil sands region, operated by a "partner" called the <a href="/wiki/Regional_Municipality_of_Wood_Buffalo" title="Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo">Wood Buffalo</a> Environmental Association (WBEA). Each of their 17 continuously monitoring stations measure 3 to 10 air quality parameters among <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> (CO), <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a> (H 2S), total reduced <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> (TRS), <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">Ammonia</a> (NH 3), <a href="/wiki/Nitric_oxide" title="Nitric oxide">nitric oxide</a> (NO), <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_dioxide" title="Nitrogen dioxide">nitrogen dioxide</a> (NO 2), <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_oxide" title="Nitrogen oxide">nitrogen oxides</a> (NOx), <a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">ozone</a> (O 3), <a href="/wiki/Particulate_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Particulate matter">particulate matter</a> (PM2.5), <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">sulfur dioxide</a> (SO 2), total <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbons" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrocarbons">hydrocarbons</a> (THC), and <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>/non-methane hydrocarbons (CH 4/NMHC).<a href="#cite_note-141">[139]</a> These AQHI are said to indicate "low risk" air quality more than 95% of the time.<a href="#cite_note-142">[140]</a> Prior to 2012, air monitoring showed significant increases in exceedances of hydrogen sulfide (H 2S) both in the Fort McMurray area and near the oil sands upgraders.<a href="#cite_note-143">[141]</a> In 2007, the Alberta government issued an environmental protection order to Suncor in response to numerous occasions when ground level concentration for H 2S) exceeded standards.<a href="#cite_note-144">[142]</a> The Alberta Ambient Air Data Management System (AAADMS) of the Clean Air Strategic Alliance<a href="#cite_note-145">[143]</a> (aka CASA Data Warehouse) records that, during the year ending on 1 November 2015, there were 6 hourly reports of values exceeding the limit of 10 <a href="/wiki/Parts_per_billion" class="mw-redirect" title="Parts per billion">ppb</a> for H 2S, and 4 in 2013, down from 11 in 2014, and 73 in 2012.<a href="#cite_note-CASA-146">[144]</a> In September 2015, the <a href="/wiki/Pembina_Institute" title="Pembina Institute">Pembina Institute</a> published a brief report about "a recent surge of odour and air quality concerns in northern Alberta associated with the expansion of oilsands development", contrasting the responses to these concerns in <a href="/wiki/Peace_River" title="Peace River">Peace River</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fort_McKay" title="Fort McKay">Fort McKay</a>. In Fort McKay, air quality is actively addressed by stakeholders represented in the WBEA, whereas the Peace River community must rely on the response of the <a href="/wiki/Alberta_Energy_Regulator" title="Alberta Energy Regulator">Alberta Energy Regulator</a>. In an effort to identify the sources of the noxious odours in the Fort McKay community, a Fort McKay Air Quality Index was established, extending the provincial Air Quality Health Index to include possible contributors to the problem: SO 2, TRS, and THC. Despite these advantages, more progress was made in remediating the odour problems in the Peace River community, although only after some families had already abandoned their homes. The odour concerns in Fort McKay were reported to remain unresolved.<a href="#cite_note-odours-147">[145]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Land_use_and_waste_management">Land use and waste management</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Land use and waste management">edit</a>]</div> A large part of oil sands mining operations involves clearing trees and brush from a site and removing the <a href="/wiki/Overburden" title="Overburden">overburden</a>—topsoil, muskeg, sand, clay and gravel—that sits atop the oil sands deposit.<a href="#cite_note-148">[146]</a> Approximately 2.5 tons of oil sands are needed to produce one barrel of oil (roughly <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>1⁄8 of a ton).<a href="#cite_note-photos-149">[147]</a> As a condition of licensing, projects are required to implement a <a href="/wiki/Mine_reclamation" title="Mine reclamation">reclamation</a> plan.<a href="#cite_note-150">[148]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Mining_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Mining industry">mining industry</a> asserts that the <a href="/wiki/Boreal_forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Boreal forest">boreal forest</a> will eventually colonize the reclaimed lands, but their operations are massive and work on long-term timeframes. As of 2013, about 715 square kilometres (276 sq mi) of land in the oil sands region have been disturbed, and 72 km2 (28 sq mi) of that land is under reclamation.<a href="#cite_note-151">[149]</a> In March 2008, Alberta issued the first-ever oil sands land reclamation certificate to Syncrude for the 1.04 square kilometres (0.40 sq mi) parcel of land known as Gateway Hill approximately 35 kilometres (22 mi) north of Fort McMurray.<a href="#cite_note-152">[150]</a> Several reclamation certificate applications for oil sands projects are expected within the next 10 years.<a href="#cite_note-153">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Water_management">Water management</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Water management">edit</a>]</div> Between 2 and 4.5 volume units of water are used to produce each volume unit of synthetic crude oil in an ex-situ mining operation. According to Greenpeace, the Canadian oil sands operations use 349×10<s style="display:none">^</s>6 m3/a (12.3×10<s style="display:none">^</s>9 cu ft/a) of water, twice the amount of water used by the city of <a href="/wiki/Calgary" title="Calgary">Calgary</a>.<a href="#cite_note-154">[152]</a> However, in SAGD operations, 90–95% of the water is recycled and only about 0.2 volume units of water is used per volume unit of bitumen produced.<a href="#cite_note-155">[153]</a> For the Athabasca oil sand operations water is supplied from the Athabasca River, the ninth longest river in Canada.<a href="#cite_note-156">[154]</a> The average flow just downstream of Fort McMurray is 633 m3/s (22,400 cu ft/s) with its highest daily average measuring 1,200 m3/s (42,000 cu ft/s).<a href="#cite_note-157">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-158">[156]</a> Oil sands industries water license allocations totals about 1.8% of the Athabasca river flow. Actual use in 2006 was about 0.4%.<a href="#cite_note-159">[157]</a> In addition, according to the Water Management Framework for the Lower Athabasca River, during periods of low river flow water consumption from the Athabasca River is limited to 1.3% of annual average flow.<a href="#cite_note-160">[158]</a> In December 2010, the Oil Sands Advisory Panel, commissioned by former environment minister Jim Prentice, found that the system in place for monitoring water quality in the region, including work by the Regional Aquatic Monitoring Program, the Alberta Water Research Institute, the Cumulative Environmental Management Association and others, was piecemeal and should become more comprehensive and coordinated.<a href="#cite_note-2010_OAP-161">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[160]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greenhouse_gas_emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Greenhouse gas emissions">edit</a>]</div> The production of bitumen and synthetic crude oil emits more greenhouse gases than the production of conventional crude oil. A 2009 study by the consulting firm <a href="/wiki/IHS_CERA" class="mw-redirect" title="IHS CERA">IHS CERA</a> estimated that production from Canada's oil sands emits "about 5% to 15% more carbon dioxide, over the "well-to-wheels" (WTW) lifetime analysis of the fuel, than average crude oil."<a href="#cite_note-163">[161]</a> Author and investigative journalist David Strahan that same year stated that IEA figures show that carbon dioxide emissions from the oil sands are 20% higher than average emissions from the petroleum production.<a href="#cite_note-164">[162]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a> study commissioned by the EU in 2011 found that oil sands crude was as much as 22% more <a href="/wiki/Emission_intensity" title="Emission intensity">carbon-intensive</a> than other fuels.<a href="#cite_note-165">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[164]</a> According to the "Carnegie Endowment for International Peace" analysis, oil sands emit 31% more GHG that the average North American crude oil.<a href="#cite_note-167">[165]</a> In 2023 a federal study found that the real emissions from oil sands are 65% higher than reported by the industry.<a href="#cite_note-168">[166]</a> Greenpeace says the oil sands industry has been identified as the largest contributor to <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a> growth in Canada, as it accounts for 40 million tons of CO 2 emissions per year.<a href="#cite_note-169">[167]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Association_of_Petroleum_Producers" title="Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers">Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Environment_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Environment Canada">Environment Canada</a> the industrial activity undertaken to produce oil sands make up about 5% of Canada's greenhouse gas emissions, or 0.1% of global greenhouse gas emissions. It predicts the oil sands will grow to make up 8% of Canada's greenhouse gas emissions by 2015.<a href="#cite_note-CAPP-170">[168]</a> While the production industrial activity emissions per barrel of bitumen produced decreased 26% over the decade 1992–2002, total emissions from production activity were expected to increase due to higher production levels.<a href="#cite_note-171">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-172">[170]</a> As of 2006, to produce one barrel of oil from the oil sands released almost 75 kilograms (165 lb) of greenhouse gases with total emissions estimated to be 67 <a href="/wiki/Tonne" title="Tonne">megatonnes</a> (66,000,000 <a href="/wiki/Long_ton" title="Long ton">long tons</a>; 74,000,000 <a href="/wiki/Short_ton" title="Short ton">short tons</a>) per year by 2015.<a href="#cite_note-173">[171]</a> A study by IHS CERA found that fuels made from Canadian oil sands resulted in significantly lower greenhouse gas emissions than many commonly cited estimates.<a href="#cite_note-174">[172]</a> A 2012 study by Swart and Weaver estimated that if only the economically viable reserve of 170 Gbbl (27×10<s style="display:none">^</s>9 m3) oil sands was burnt, the global mean temperature would increase by 0.02 to 0.05 °C. If the entire oil-in-place of 1.8 trillion barrels were to be burnt, the predicted global mean temperature increase is 0.24 to 0.50 °C.<a href="#cite_note-175">[173]</a> Bergerson et al. found that while the WTW emissions can be higher than crude oil, the lower emitting oil sands cases can outperform higher emitting conventional crude cases.<a href="#cite_note-176">[174]</a> To offset greenhouse gas emissions from the oil sands and elsewhere in Alberta, sequestering carbon dioxide emissions inside depleted oil and gas reservoirs has been proposed. This technology is inherited from <a href="/wiki/Enhanced_oil_recovery" title="Enhanced oil recovery">enhanced oil recovery</a> methods.<a href="#cite_note-177">[175]</a> In July 2008, the Alberta government announced a C$2 billion fund to support sequestration projects in Alberta power plants and oil sands extraction and upgrading facilities.<a href="#cite_note-178">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-179">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-180">[178]</a> In November 2014, <a href="/wiki/Fatih_Birol" title="Fatih Birol">Fatih Birol</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Chief_economist" title="Chief economist">chief economist</a> of the <a href="/wiki/International_Energy_Agency" title="International Energy Agency">International Energy Agency</a>, described additional greenhouse gas emissions from Canada's oil sands as "extremely low". The IEA forecasts that in the next 25 years oil sands production in Canada will increase by more than 3 million barrels per day (480,000 m3/d), but Dr. Birol said "the emissions of this additional production is equal to only 23 hours of <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions" title="List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions">emissions of China</a> — not even one day." The IEA is charged with responsibility for battling climate change, but Dr. Birol said he spends little time worrying about carbon emissions from oil sands. "There is a lot of discussion on oil sands projects in Canada and the United States and other parts of the world, but to be frank, the additional CO2 emissions coming from the oil sands is extremely low." Dr. Birol acknowledged that there is tremendous difference of opinion on the course of action regarding climate change, but added, "I hope all these reactions are based on scientific facts and sound analysis."<a href="#cite_note-181">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-182">[180]</a> In 2014, the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Congressional_Research_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Congressional Research Service">U.S. Congressional Research Service</a> published a report in preparation for the decision about permitting construction of the <a href="/wiki/Keystone_XL_pipeline" class="mw-redirect" title="Keystone XL pipeline">Keystone XL pipeline</a>. The report states in part: "Canadian oil sands crudes are generally more GHG emission-intensive than other crudes they may displace in U.S. refineries, and emit an estimated 17% more GHGs on a life-cycle basis than the average barrel of crude oil refined in the United States".<a href="#cite_note-Congress-183">[181]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Natural_Resources_Canada" title="Natural Resources Canada">Natural Resources Canada</a> (NRCan), by 2017, the 23 percent increase in GHG emissions in Canada from 2005 to 2017, was "largely from increased oil sands production, particularly in-situ extraction".<a href="#cite_note-NRCAN_ghgemissions_20171006-9">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aquatic_life_deformities">Aquatic life deformities</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Aquatic life deformities">edit</a>]</div> There is conflicting research on the effects of the oil sands development on aquatic life. In 2007, Environment Canada completed a study that shows high deformity rates in fish embryos exposed to the oil sands. <a href="/wiki/David_W._Schindler" class="mw-redirect" title="David W. Schindler">David W. Schindler</a>, a limnologist from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Alberta" title="University of Alberta">University of Alberta</a>, co-authored a study on Alberta's oil sands' contribution of <a href="/wiki/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbon" title="Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon">aromatic polycyclic compounds</a>, some of which are known <a href="/wiki/Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen">carcinogens</a>, to the Athabasca River and its tributaries.<a href="#cite_note-184">[182]</a> Scientists, local doctors, and residents supported a letter sent to the Prime Minister in September 2010 calling for an independent study of Lake Athabasca (which is downstream of the oil sands) to be initiated due to the rise of deformities and tumors found in fish caught there.<a href="#cite_note-185">[183]</a> The bulk of the research that defends the oil sands development is done by the Regional Aquatics Monitoring Program (RAMP), whose steering committee is composed largely of oil and gas companies. RAMP studies show that deformity rates are normal compared to historical data and the deformity rates in rivers upstream of the oil sands.<a href="#cite_note-186">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-187">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-188">[186]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_health_impacts">Public health impacts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Public health impacts">edit</a>]</div> In 2007, it was suggested that wildlife has been negatively affected by the oil sands; for instance, moose were found in a 2006 study to have as high as 453 times the acceptable levels of <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a> in their systems, though later studies lowered this to 17 to 33 times the acceptable level (although below international thresholds for consumption).<a href="#cite_note-189">[187]</a> Concerns have been raised concerning the negative impacts that the oil sands have on public health, including higher than normal rates of <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a> among residents of <a href="/wiki/Fort_Chipewyan" title="Fort Chipewyan">Fort Chipewyan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-190">[188]</a> However, John O'Connor, the doctor who initially reported the higher cancer rates and linked them to the oil sands development, was subsequently investigated by the <a href="/wiki/Alberta_College_of_Physicians_and_Surgeons" class="mw-redirect" title="Alberta College of Physicians and Surgeons">Alberta College of Physicians and Surgeons</a>. The College later reported that O'Connor's statements consisted of "mistruths, inaccuracies and unconfirmed information".<a href="#cite_note-foesignore-191">[189]</a> In 2010, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Canada" title="Royal Society of Canada">Royal Society of Canada</a> released a report stating that "there is currently no credible evidence of environmental contaminant exposures from oil sands reaching Fort Chipewyan at levels expected to cause elevated human cancer rates."<a href="#cite_note-foesignore-191">[189]</a> In August 2011, the Alberta government initiated a provincial health study to examine whether a link exists between the higher rates of cancer and the oil sands emissions.<a href="#cite_note-192">[190]</a> In a report released in 2014, Alberta's Chief Medical Officer of Health, Dr. James Talbot, stated that "There isn't strong evidence for an association between any of these cancers and environmental exposure [to oil sands]." Rather, Talbot suggested that the cancer rates at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Chipewyan" title="Fort Chipewyan">Fort Chipewyan</a>, which were slightly higher compared with the provincial average, were likely due to a combination of factors such as high rates of smoking, obesity, diabetes, and alcoholism as well as poor levels of vaccination.<a href="#cite_note-foesignore-191">[189]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Crystal_energy.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/29px-Crystal_energy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="29" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/44px-Crystal_energy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/59px-Crystal_energy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="124" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Energy" title="Portal:Energy">Energy portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Athabasca_oil_sands" title="Athabasca oil sands">Athabasca oil sands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_River_sandstone" title="Beaver River sandstone">Beaver River sandstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_Lake_oil_sands" title="Cold Lake oil sands">Cold Lake oil sands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_Canada_(oil_sands_and_heavy_oil)" title="History of the petroleum industry in Canada (oil sands and heavy oil)">History of the petroleum industry in Canada (oil sands and heavy oil)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melville_Island_oil_sands" title="Melville Island oil sands">Melville Island oil sands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_megaprojects" title="Oil megaprojects">Oil megaprojects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_shale" title="Oil shale">Oil shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic-rich_sedimentary_rocks" title="Organic-rich sedimentary rocks">Organic-rich sedimentary rocks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orinoco_Belt" title="Orinoco Belt">Orinoco Belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_River_oil_sands" title="Peace River oil sands">Peace River oil sands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry" title="Petroleum industry">Petroleum industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Oilsand" title="Project Oilsand">Project Oilsand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrobitumen" title="Pyrobitumen">Pyrobitumen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RAVEN_(Respecting_Aboriginal_Values_%26_Environmental_Needs)" class="mw-redirect" title="RAVEN (Respecting Aboriginal Values & Environmental Needs)">RAVEN (Respecting Aboriginal Values & Environmental Needs)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shale_gas" title="Shale gas">Shale gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam_injection_(oil_industry)" title="Steam injection (oil industry)">Steam injection (oil industry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stranded_asset" title="Stranded asset">Stranded asset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_depolymerization" title="Thermal depolymerization">Thermal depolymerization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utah_oil_sands" title="Utah oil sands">Utah oil sands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wabasca_oil_field" title="Wabasca oil field">Wabasca oil field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_energy_consumption" class="mw-redirect" title="World energy consumption">World energy consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asphalt_concrete" title="Asphalt concrete">Asphalt concrete</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> Also known as tar sands, crude bitumen, or bituminous sands. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> The "Middle East onshore market" was the "cheapest source of new oil volumes globally" with the "North American tight oil"—which includes onshore <a href="/wiki/Shale_oil" title="Shale oil">shale oil</a> in the United States—in second place.The breakeven price for North American shale oil was US$68 a barrel in 2015, making it one of the most expensive to produce. By 2019, the "average Brent breakeven price for tight oil was about US$46 per barrel. The breakeven price of oil from Saudi Arabia and other Middle Eastern countries was US$42, in comparison. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-wec-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wec_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wec_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wec_2-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wec_2-3">d</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPierre-René_Bauquis2006" class="citation web cs1">Pierre-René Bauquis (16 February 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070402100135/http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/default/tech_papers/17th_congress/3_1_04.asp">"What the future for extra heavy oil and bitumen: the Orinoco case"</a>. 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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 106 (52): 22346–22351. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009PNAS..10622346K">2009PNAS..10622346K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0912050106">10.1073/pnas.0912050106</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2789758">2789758</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19995964">19995964</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Oil+sands+development+contributes+polycyclic+aromatic+compounds+to+the+Athabasca+River+and+its+tributarie&rft.volume=106&rft.issue=52&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E22346-%3C%2Fspan%3E22351&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2789758%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19995964&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0912050106&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009PNAS..10622346K&rft.au=EN+Kelly&rft.au=JW+Short&rft.au=DW+Schindler&rft.au=PV+Hodson&rft.au=M+Ma&rft.au=AK+Kwan&rft.au=BL+Fortin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2789758&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+sands" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWeber,_Bob2010" class="citation news cs1">Weber, Bob (17 September 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/article/862603--deformed-fish-found-in-lake-downstream-from-oilsands">"Deformed fish found in lake downstream from oilsands"</a>. Toronto Star. Retrieved 19 September 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Toronto+Star&rft.atitle=Deformed+fish+found+in+lake+downstream+from+oilsands&rft.date=2010-09-17&rft.au=Weber%2C+Bob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thestar.com%2Fnews%2Fcanada%2Farticle%2F862603--deformed-fish-found-in-lake-downstream-from-oilsands&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+sands" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ramp-alberta.org/ramp/terms+of+reference/membership/members.aspx">"RAMP Steering Committee Membership - Regional Aquatics Monitoring Program (RAMP)"</a>. www.ramp-alberta.org. Retrieved 8 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ramp-alberta.org&rft.atitle=RAMP+Steering+Committee+Membership+-+Regional+Aquatics+Monitoring+Program+%28RAMP%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ramp-alberta.org%2Framp%2Fterms%2Bof%2Breference%2Fmembership%2Fmembers.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+sands" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ramp-alberta.org/ramp/news.aspx?nid=13">"RAMP responds to a request for comment on Dr. David Schindler's press conference regarding the high incidence of fish abnormalities"</a>. Regional Aquatics Monitoring Program (RAMP). 16 September 2010. Retrieved 18 February 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=RAMP+responds+to+a+request+for+comment+on+Dr.+David+Schindler%27s+press+conference+regarding+the+high+incidence+of+fish+abnormalities&rft.pub=Regional+Aquatics+Monitoring+Program+%28RAMP%29&rft.date=2010-09-16&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ramp-alberta.org%2Framp%2Fnews.aspx%3Fnid%3D13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+sands" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ramp-alberta.org/ramp/faq.aspx">"Frequently Asked Questions"</a>. Regional Aquatics Monitoring Program (RAMP). Retrieved 18 February 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Frequently+Asked+Questions&rft.pub=Regional+Aquatics+Monitoring+Program+%28RAMP%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ramp-alberta.org%2Framp%2Ffaq.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+sands" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/edmonton/mixed-reports-on-safety-of-eating-northern-alberta-game-1.646870">"Mixed reports on safety of eating northern Alberta game"</a>. CBC News. 3 April 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CBC+News&rft.atitle=Mixed+reports+on+safety+of+eating+northern+Alberta+game&rft.date=2007-04-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbc.ca%2Fnews%2Fcanada%2Fedmonton%2Fmixed-reports-on-safety-of-eating-northern-alberta-game-1.646870&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+sands" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090209193442/http://ca.reuters.com/article/topNews/idCATRE51568020090206">"High cancer rates confirmed near Canada's oil sands"</a>. Reuters. 6 February 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ca.reuters.com/article/topNews/idCATRE51568020090206">the original</a> on 9 February 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=High+cancer+rates+confirmed+near+Canada%27s+oil+sands&rft.date=2009-02-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fca.reuters.com%2Farticle%2FtopNews%2FidCATRE51568020090206&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+sands" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-foesignore-191">^ <a href="#cite_ref-foesignore_191-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-foesignore_191-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-foesignore_191-2">c</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://business.financialpost.com/2014/03/24/oil-sands-foes-ignore-the-facts-as-cancer-claims-dealt-a-blow-by-study/?__lsa=a8bb-df46">Oil sands foes ignore the facts as cancer claims dealt a blow by study</a> by Claudia Cattaneo, <a href="/wiki/Financial_Post" title="Financial Post">Financial Post</a>, March 24, 2014. </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/edmonton/cancer-rates-downstream-from-oilsands-to-be-probed-1.1030670">"Cancer rates downstream from oil sands to be probed"</a>. CBC News. 19 August 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110820032845/http://www.cbc.ca/news/health/story/2011/08/19/edm-cancer-oilsands-fort-chipewyan-study.html">Archived</a> from the original on 20 August 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CBC+News&rft.atitle=Cancer+rates+downstream+from+oil+sands+to+be+probed&rft.date=2011-08-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbc.ca%2Fnews%2Fcanada%2Fedmonton%2Fcancer-rates-downstream-from-oilsands-to-be-probed-1.1030670&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+sands" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEzra_Levant2011" class="citation book cs1">Ezra Levant (3 May 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ethicaloilcasefo0000leva">Ethical Oil: The Case for Canada's Oil Sands</a>. McClelland & Stewart. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7710-4643-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7710-4643-8"><bdi>978-0-7710-4643-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethical+Oil%3A+The+Case+for+Canada%27s+Oil+Sands&rft.pub=McClelland+%26+Stewart&rft.date=2011-05-03&rft.isbn=978-0-7710-4643-8&rft.au=Ezra+Levant&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fethicaloilcasefo0000leva&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+sands" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMarc_Humphries2010" class="citation book cs1">Marc Humphries (November 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-RHQ5U7rLUMC&pg=PP1">North American Oil Sands: History of Development, Prospects for the Future</a>. DIANE Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4379-3807-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4379-3807-4"><bdi>978-1-4379-3807-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=North+American+Oil+Sands%3A+History+of+Development%2C+Prospects+for+the+Future&rft.pub=DIANE+Publishing&rft.date=2010-11&rft.isbn=978-1-4379-3807-4&rft.au=Marc+Humphries&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-RHQ5U7rLUMC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+sands" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNikiforukDavid_Suzuki_Foundation2010" class="citation book cs1">Nikiforuk, Andrew; David Suzuki Foundation (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tarsandsdirtyoil0000niki">Tar Sands: Dirty Oil and the Future of a Continent</a> (Revised and Updated ed.). Greystone Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55365-555-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55365-555-8"><bdi>978-1-55365-555-8</bdi></a>. <q>Oil sands.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tar+Sands%3A+Dirty+Oil+and+the+Future+of+a+Continent&rft.edition=Revised+and+Updated&rft.pub=Greystone+Books&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-55365-555-8&rft.aulast=Nikiforuk&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft.au=David+Suzuki+Foundation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftarsandsdirtyoil0000niki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+sands" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLevi2009" class="citation book cs1">Levi, Michael A (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cj2wJGhT-2QC&q=Oil%20sands&pg=PP1">The Canadian oil sands: energy security vs. climate change</a>. Council on Foreign Relations, Center for Geoeconomic Studies. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0876094297" title="Special:BookSources/978-0876094297"><bdi>978-0876094297</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Canadian+oil+sands%3A+energy+security+vs.+climate+change&rft.pub=Council+on+Foreign+Relations%2C+Center+for+Geoeconomic+Studies&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0876094297&rft.aulast=Levi&rft.aufirst=Michael+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dcj2wJGhT-2QC%26q%3DOil%2520sands%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+sands" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPaul_Anthony_Chastko2004" class="citation book cs1">Paul Anthony Chastko (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LRpk1NGsvG0C&pg=PP1">Developing Alberta's oil sands: from Karl Clark to Kyoto</a>. University of Calgary Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55238-124-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55238-124-3"><bdi>978-1-55238-124-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Developing+Alberta%27s+oil+sands%3A+from+Karl+Clark+to+Kyoto&rft.pub=University+of+Calgary+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-55238-124-3&rft.au=Paul+Anthony+Chastko&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLRpk1NGsvG0C%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+sands" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAlastair_Sweeny2010" class="citation book cs1">Alastair Sweeny (12 April 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iGqZuIPJdz4C&pg=PP1">Black Bonanza: Canada's Oil Sands and the Race to Secure North America's Energy Future</a>. John Wiley and Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-16138-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-16138-8"><bdi>978-0-470-16138-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Bonanza%3A+Canada%27s+Oil+Sands+and+the+Race+to+Secure+North+America%27s+Energy+Future&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons&rft.date=2010-04-12&rft.isbn=978-0-470-16138-8&rft.au=Alastair+Sweeny&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiGqZuIPJdz4C%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+sands" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Oil_sands&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Oil_sands" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Oil sands">Oil sands</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120825132637/http://oilsandsdiscovery.com/">Oil Sands Discovery Centre, Fort McMurray, Alberta, Canada</a><a href="/wiki/Template:Usurped/doc" title="Template:Usurped/doc">[usurped]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Burtynsky" title="Edward Burtynsky">Edward Burtynsky</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/v5/content/features/oilsands/index.html">An aerial look at the Alberta Tar Sands</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090308032024/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/v5/content/features/oilsands/index.html">Archived</a> 8 March 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>G.R. Gray, R. Luhning: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/bitumen/">Bitumen</a> The Canadian Encyclopedia</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiri_Rezac" title="Jiri Rezac">Jiri Rezac</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jirirezac.com/stories/oilsands/">Alberta Oilsands</a> photo story and aerials</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090205150634/http://citizen.nfb.ca/tar-sands">Exploring the Alberta tar sands, Citizenshift, National Film Board of Canada</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.democracynow.org/2010/6/25/tar_sands">Indigenous Groups Lead Struggle Against Canada's Tar Sands</a> – video report by <a href="/wiki/Democracy_Now!" title="Democracy Now!">Democracy Now!</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02654468">Extraction of vanadium from oil sands</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHoffman2009" class="citation magazine cs1">Hoffman, Carl (1 October 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/engineering/4212552">"New Tech to Tap North America's Vast Oil Reserves"</a>. Popular Mechanics.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Mechanics&rft.atitle=New+Tech+to+Tap+North+America%27s+Vast+Oil+Reserves&rft.date=2009-10-01&rft.aulast=Hoffman&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.popularmechanics.com%2Ftechnology%2Fengineering%2F4212552&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOil+sands" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R42537.pdf">Canadian Oil Sands: Life-Cycle Assessments of Greenhouse Gas Emissions</a> <a href="/wiki/Congressional_Research_Service" title="Congressional Research Service">Congressional Research Service</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://osip.alberta.ca">Alberta Government Oil Sands Information Portal</a> Interactive Map and Data Library</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Petroleum_industry" title="Template:Petroleum industry"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Petroleum_industry" title="Template talk:Petroleum industry"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Petroleum_industry" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Petroleum industry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Petroleum_industry431" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry" title="Petroleum industry">Petroleum industry</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_energy" title="Primary energy">Primary energy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Benchmark_(crude_oil)" title="Benchmark (crude oil)">Benchmarks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argus_Sour_Crude_Index" title="Argus Sour Crude Index">Argus Sour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonny_Light_oil" title="Bonny Light oil">Bonny Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brent_Crude" title="Brent Crude">Brent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dubai_Crude" title="Dubai Crude">Dubai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Basket" title="Indian Basket">Indian Basket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_Crude_Price" title="Indonesian Crude Price">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isthmus-34_Light" title="Isthmus-34 Light">Isthmus-34 Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_Crude_Cocktail" title="Japan Crude Cocktail">Japan Cocktail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OPEC_Reference_Basket" title="OPEC Reference Basket">OPEC Reference Basket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapis_crude" title="Tapis crude">Tapis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urals_oil" title="Urals oil">Urals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Texas_Intermediate" title="West Texas Intermediate">West Texas Intermediate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Canadian_Select" title="Western Canadian Select">Western Canadian Select</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Data</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; font-weight:normal;">Natural gas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_natural_gas_consumption" title="List of countries by natural gas consumption">Consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_natural_gas_production" title="List of countries by natural gas production">Production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_natural_gas_proven_reserves" title="List of countries by natural gas proven reserves">Reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_natural_gas_imports" title="List of countries by natural gas imports">Imports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_natural_gas_exports" title="List of countries by natural gas exports">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_gas_prices" title="Natural gas prices">Price</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; font-weight:normal;">Petroleum</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_oil_consumption" title="List of countries by oil consumption">Consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_oil_production" title="List of countries by oil production">Production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_proven_oil_reserves" title="List of countries by proven oil reserves">Reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_oil_imports" title="List of countries by oil imports">Imports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_oil_exports" title="List of countries by oil exports">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posted_oil_price" title="Posted oil price">Posted oil price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_of_oil" title="Price of oil">Price</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gasoline_and_diesel_usage_and_pricing" title="Gasoline and diesel usage and pricing">of gasoline and diesel</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon_exploration" title="Hydrocarbon exploration">Exploration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Core_sample" title="Core sample">Core sampling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_geophysics" title="Exploration geophysics">Geophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_asset_modelling" title="Integrated asset modelling">Integrated asset modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_engineering" title="Petroleum engineering">Petroleum engineering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reservoir_simulation" title="Reservoir simulation">Reservoir simulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservoir_modeling" title="Reservoir modeling">Reservoir modeling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_geology" title="Petroleum geology">Petroleum geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrophysics" title="Petrophysics">Petrophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflection_seismology" title="Reflection seismology">Reflection seismology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seismic_inversion" title="Seismic inversion">Seismic inversion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismic_source" title="Seismic source">Seismic source</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Oil_well" title="Oil well">Drilling</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blowout_(well_drilling)" title="Blowout (well drilling)">Blowout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Completion_(oil_and_gas_wells)" title="Completion (oil and gas wells)">Completion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Squeeze_job" title="Squeeze job">Squeeze job</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_sticking" title="Differential sticking">Differential sticking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directional_drilling" title="Directional drilling">Directional drilling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geosteering" title="Geosteering">Geosteering</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drill_stem_test" title="Drill stem test">Drill stem test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drilling_engineering" title="Drilling engineering">Drilling engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drilling_fluid" title="Drilling fluid">Drilling fluid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drilling_fluid_invasion" title="Drilling fluid invasion">invasion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lost_circulation" title="Lost circulation">Lost circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Measurement_while_drilling" title="Measurement while drilling">Measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shale_oil_extraction" title="Shale oil extraction">Shale oil extraction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fredrik_Ljungstr%C3%B6m#Shale_oil_extraction" title="Fredrik Ljungström">Ljungström method</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tracer_use_in_the_oil_industry" title="Tracer use in the oil industry">Tracers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underbalanced_drilling" title="Underbalanced drilling">Underbalanced drilling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well_logging" title="Well logging">Well logging</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Extraction_of_petroleum" title="Extraction of petroleum">Production</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_fiscal_regime" title="Petroleum fiscal regime">Petroleum fiscal regime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_licensing" title="Petroleum licensing">Concessions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Production_sharing_agreement" title="Production sharing agreement">Production sharing agreements</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_lift" title="Artificial lift">Artificial lift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_lift" title="Gas lift">Gas lift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumpjack" title="Pumpjack">Pumpjack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submersible_pump" title="Submersible pump">Submersible pump (ESP)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downstream_(petroleum_industry)" title="Downstream (petroleum industry)">Downstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enhanced_oil_recovery" title="Enhanced oil recovery">Enhanced oil recovery (EOR)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_reinjection" title="Gas reinjection">Gas reinjection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam_injection_(oil_industry)" title="Steam injection (oil industry)">Steam injection</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midstream" title="Midstream">Midstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_product" title="Petroleum product">Petroleum product</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pipeline" title="Pipeline">Pipeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery">Refining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upstream_(petroleum_industry)" title="Upstream (petroleum industry)">Upstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_injection_(oil_production)" title="Water injection (oil production)">Water injection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well_intervention" title="Well intervention">Well intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christmas_tree_(oil_well)" title="Christmas tree (oil well)">XT</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry" title="History of the petroleum industry">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1967_Oil_Embargo" title="1967 Oil Embargo">1967 Oil Embargo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973 oil crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_oil_crisis" title="1979 oil crisis">1979 oil crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980s_oil_glut" title="1980s oil glut">1980s oil glut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990_oil_price_shock" title="1990 oil price shock">1990 oil price shock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2000s_energy_crisis" title="2000s energy crisis">2000s energy crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010s_oil_glut" title="2010s oil glut">2010s oil glut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_Russia%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_oil_price_war" title="2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war">2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalization_of_oil_supplies" title="Nationalization of oil supplies">Nationalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_Exporting_Countries_Forum" title="Gas Exporting Countries Forum">GECF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OPEC" title="OPEC">OPEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Sisters_(oil_companies)" class="mw-redirect" title="Seven Sisters (oil companies)">Seven Sisters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Oil" title="Standard Oil">Standard Oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_Canada" title="History of the petroleum industry in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_France" title="History of the petroleum industry in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_oil_industry_in_India" title="History of the oil industry in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Iraq" title="Petroleum industry in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_Norway" title="History of the petroleum industry in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_oil_industry_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="History of the oil industry in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_the_United_States" title="History of the petroleum industry in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Venezuelan_oil_industry" title="History of the Venezuelan oil industry">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Provinces and fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_gas_fields" title="List of natural gas fields">List of natural gas fields</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oil_fields" title="List of oil fields">List of oil fields</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Midlands_Oil_Province" title="East Midlands Oil Province">East Midlands Oil Province</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Texas_Oil_Field" title="East Texas Oil Field">East Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niger_Delta#Nigerian_oil" title="Niger Delta">Niger Delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_oil" title="North Sea oil">North Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permian_Basin_(North_America)" title="Permian Basin (North America)">Permian Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prudhoe_Bay_Oil_Field" title="Prudhoe Bay Oil Field">Prudhoe Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_reserves_in_Russia" title="Oil reserves in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_reserves_in_Venezuela" title="Oil reserves in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Canadian_Sedimentary_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin">Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abbreviations_in_oil_and_gas_exploration_and_production" title="List of abbreviations in oil and gas exploration and production">Abbreviations</a></li> <li>Classification <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sweet_crude_oil" title="Sweet crude oil">sweet oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sour_crude_oil" title="Sour crude oil">sour oil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_shale_gas" title="Oil shale gas">Oil shale gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphan_wells" title="Orphan wells">Orphan wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_oil" title="Peak oil">Peak oil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">fossil fuel phase-out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predicting_the_timing_of_peak_oil" title="Predicting the timing of peak oil">timing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrocurrency" title="Petrocurrency">Petrocurrency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrodollar_recycling" title="Petrodollar recycling">Petrodollar recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrofiction" title="Petrofiction">Petrofiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shale_band" title="Shale band">Shale band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shale_gas" title="Shale gas">Shale gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swing_producer" title="Swing producer">Swing producer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unconventional_(oil_and_gas)_reservoir" title="Unconventional (oil and gas) reservoir">Unconventional (oil and gas) reservoir</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_crude_oil" title="Heavy crude oil">heavy crude</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">oil sands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_shale" title="Oil shale">oil shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tight_oil" title="Tight oil">tight oil</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Companies and organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Major <a href="/wiki/List_of_oil_exploration_and_production_companies" title="List of oil exploration and production companies">petroleum companies</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Big_Oil" title="Big Oil">Supermajors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BP" title="BP">BP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chevron_Corporation" title="Chevron Corporation">Chevron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eni" title="Eni">Eni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ExxonMobil" title="ExxonMobil">ExxonMobil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shell_plc" title="Shell plc">Shell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TotalEnergies" title="TotalEnergies">TotalEnergies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/National_oil_company" title="National oil company">National oil companies</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Dhabi_National_Oil_Company" title="Abu Dhabi National Oil Company">Abu Dhabi National Oil Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANCAP_(Uruguay)" title="ANCAP (Uruguay)">ANCAP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bharat_Petroleum" title="Bharat Petroleum">Bharat Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_National_Offshore_Oil_Corporation" title="China National Offshore Oil Corporation">China National Offshore Oil Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_National_Petroleum_Corporation" title="China National Petroleum Corporation">China National Petroleum Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopetrol" title="Ecopetrol">Ecopetrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equinor" title="Equinor">Equinor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gazprom" title="Gazprom">Gazprom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindustan_Petroleum" title="Hindustan Petroleum">Hindustan Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Oil_Corporation" title="Indian Oil Corporation">Indian Oil Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_National_Oil_Company" title="Iraq National Oil Company">Iraq National Oil Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KazMunayGas" title="KazMunayGas">KazMunayGas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwait_Petroleum_Corporation" title="Kuwait Petroleum Corporation">Kuwait Petroleum Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grupa_Lotos" title="Grupa Lotos">Lotos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naftogaz" title="Naftogaz">Naftogaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Iranian_Oil_Company" title="National Iranian Oil Company">National Iranian Oil Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Iranian_South_Oil_Company" title="National Iranian South Oil Company">National Iranian South Oil Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NNPC_Limited" title="NNPC Limited">NNPC Limited</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_%26_Gas_Development_Company" title="Oil & Gas Development Company">Oil & Gas Development Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_and_Natural_Gas_Corporation" title="Oil and Natural Gas Corporation">Oil and Natural Gas Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orlen" title="Orlen">Orlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PDVSA" title="PDVSA">PDVSA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pemex" title="Pemex">Pemex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pertamina" title="Pertamina">Pertamina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrobangla" title="Petrobangla">Petrobangla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrobras" title="Petrobras">Petrobras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PetroChina" title="PetroChina">PetroChina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronas" title="Petronas">Petronas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrovietnam" title="Petrovietnam">Petrovietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PTT_Public_Company_Limited" title="PTT Public Company Limited">PTT Public Company Limited</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QatarEnergy" title="QatarEnergy">QatarEnergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosneft" title="Rosneft">Rosneft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Aramco" title="Saudi Aramco">Saudi Aramco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinopec" title="Sinopec">Sinopec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SOCAR" title="SOCAR">SOCAR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonangol_Group" title="Sonangol Group">Sonangol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonatrach" title="Sonatrach">Sonatrach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TPAO" title="TPAO">TPAO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/YPF" title="YPF">YPF</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Energy_trading" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy trading">Energy trading</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enron" title="Enron">Enron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glencore" title="Glencore">Glencore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunvor" title="Gunvor">Gunvor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercuria" title="Mercuria">Mercuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naftiran_Intertrade" title="Naftiran Intertrade">Naftiran Intertrade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trafigura" title="Trafigura">Trafigura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitol" title="Vitol">Vitol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; font-weight:normal;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/APA_Corporation" title="APA Corporation">APA Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cenovus_Energy" title="Cenovus Energy">Cenovus Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cepsa" title="Cepsa">Cepsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ConocoPhillips" title="ConocoPhillips">ConocoPhillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devon_Energy" title="Devon Energy">Devon Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eneos_Holdings" title="Eneos Holdings">Eneos Holdings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galp_Energia" title="Galp Energia">Galp Energia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hess_Corporation" title="Hess Corporation">Hess Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Husky_Energy" title="Husky Energy">Husky Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Oil" title="Imperial Oil">Imperial Oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lukoil" title="Lukoil">Lukoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marathon_Oil" title="Marathon Oil">Marathon Oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marathon_Petroleum" title="Marathon Petroleum">Marathon Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occidental_Petroleum" title="Occidental Petroleum">Occidental Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OMV" title="OMV">OMV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phillips_66" title="Phillips 66">Phillips 66</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_Harcourt_Refining_Company" title="Port Harcourt Refining Company">Port Harcourt Refining Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reliance_Industries" title="Reliance Industries">Reliance Industries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repsol" title="Repsol">Repsol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suncor_Energy" title="Suncor Energy">Suncor Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunoco" title="Sunoco">Sunoco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgutneftegas" title="Surgutneftegas">Surgutneftegas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TechnipFMC" title="TechnipFMC">TechnipFMC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TNK-BP" title="TNK-BP">TNK-BP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tullow_Oil" title="Tullow Oil">Tullow Oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCpra%C5%9F" title="Tüpraş">Tüpraş</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valero_Energy" title="Valero Energy">Valero Energy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Major <a href="/wiki/List_of_oilfield_service_companies" title="List of oilfield service companies">services companies</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amec_Foster_Wheeler" title="Amec Foster Wheeler">Amec Foster Wheeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baker_Hughes" title="Baker Hughes">Baker Hughes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cameron_International" title="Cameron International">Cameron International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CGG_(company)" class="mw-redirect" title="CGG (company)">CGG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CH2M" title="CH2M">CH2M</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Bridge_%26_Iron_Company" title="Chicago Bridge & Iron Company">Chicago Bridge & Iron Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Oilfield_Services" title="China Oilfield Services">China Oilfield Services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enbridge" title="Enbridge">Enbridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GE_Power" title="GE Power">GE Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halliburton" title="Halliburton">Halliburton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabors_Industries" title="Nabors Industries">Nabors Industries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naftiran_Intertrade" title="Naftiran Intertrade">Naftiran Intertrade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NOV_Inc." title="NOV Inc.">NOV Inc.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrofac" title="Petrofac">Petrofac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saipem" title="Saipem">Saipem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schlumberger" title="Schlumberger">Schlumberger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snam" title="Snam">Snam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsea_7" title="Subsea 7">Subsea 7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TC_Energy" title="TC Energy">TC Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transocean" title="Transocean">Transocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valaris_Limited" title="Valaris Limited">Valaris Limited</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weatherford_International" title="Weatherford International">Weatherford International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wood_Group" title="John Wood Group">John Wood Group</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Petroleum_Institute" title="American Petroleum Institute">American Petroleum Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_petroleum_companies" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian petroleum companies">Canadian petroleum companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercontinental_Exchange_Futures" title="Intercontinental Exchange Futures">Intercontinental Exchange Futures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_of_Oil_%26_Gas_Producers" title="International Association of Oil & Gas Producers">International Association of Oil & Gas Producers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Energy_Agency" title="International Energy Agency">International Energy Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Petroleum_Engineers" title="Society of Petroleum Engineers">Society of Petroleum Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Petroleum_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="World Petroleum Council">World Petroleum Council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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