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<span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>Naval aspects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Naval_aspects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_World_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_World_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Second World War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_World_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Post-war</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-AA_warfare_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#AA_warfare_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>AA warfare systems</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-AA_warfare_systems-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle AA warfare systems subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-AA_warfare_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Anti-UAV_defences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anti-UAV_defences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Anti-UAV defences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anti-UAV_defences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Future_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Future_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Future developments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Future_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Force_structures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Force_structures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Force structures</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Force_structures-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Force structures subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Force_structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Navy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Navy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Navy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Navy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Layered_air_defence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Layered_air_defence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1</span> <span>Layered air defence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Layered_air_defence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Army" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Army"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Army</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Army-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Air_force" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Air_force"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Air force</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Air_force-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Area_air_defence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Area_air_defence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Area air defence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Area_air_defence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tactics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tactics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Tactics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Tactics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Tactics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Tactics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mobility" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mobility"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Mobility</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mobility-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Air_defence_versus_air_defence_suppression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Air_defence_versus_air_defence_suppression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Air defence versus air defence suppression</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Air_defence_versus_air_defence_suppression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Insurgent_tactics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Insurgent_tactics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Insurgent tactics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Insurgent_tactics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" 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href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_antia%C3%A9reo" title="Sistema antiaéreo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sistema antiaéreo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%B6%D8%AF%D9%87%D9%88%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="جنگ ضدهوایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنگ ضدهوایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerre_antia%C3%A9rienne" title="Guerre antiaérienne – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Guerre antiaérienne" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8C%80%EA%B3%B5%EC%A0%84" title="대공전 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="대공전" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%22%D7%9E" title="נ"מ – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="נ"מ" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AF%BE%E7%A9%BA%E6%88%A6" title="対空戦 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="対空戦" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luftvern" title="Luftvern – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Luftvern" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obrona_powietrzna" title="Obrona powietrzna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Obrona powietrzna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lufta_kund%C3%ABr-ajrore" title="Lufta kundër-ajrore – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Lufta kundër-ajrore" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-aircraft&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-aircraft">Anti-aircraft</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Surface-to-air_missile" title="Surface-to-air missile">Surface-to-air missile</a></div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Measures to combat enemy aerial forces</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Flak_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Flak (disambiguation)">Flak (disambiguation)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ack_Ack_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Ack Ack (disambiguation)">Ack Ack (disambiguation)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anti-Aircraft_(video_game)" title="Anti-Aircraft (video game)">Anti-Aircraft (video game)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DGLC_systemen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/DGLC_systemen.jpg/300px-DGLC_systemen.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/DGLC_systemen.jpg/450px-DGLC_systemen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/DGLC_systemen.jpg/600px-DGLC_systemen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1365" /></a><figcaption>Artist's rendition of short and long range AA systems used by the Dutch <a href="/wiki/Joint_Ground-based_Air_Defence_Command" title="Joint Ground-based Air Defence Command">Joint Ground-based Air Defence Command</a></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="width:"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:150%;"><span style="font-size:120%"><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></span><br /><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Outline_of_war" title="Outline of war">outline</a>)</span></span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:War,_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers,_artist._LCCN91480633_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3691" data-file-height="1076" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_warfare" title="Prehistoric warfare">Prehistoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_warfare" title="Ancient warfare">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_warfare" title="Medieval warfare">Post-classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_fortification" title="Medieval fortification">castles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_warfare" title="Early modern warfare">Early modern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_Revolution" title="Military Revolution">military revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pike_and_shot" title="Pike and shot">pike and shot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_weaponry_and_warfare" title="Napoleonic weaponry and warfare">napoleonic warfare</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_warfare" title="Modern warfare">Late modern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_warfare" title="Industrial warfare">industrial warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth-generation_warfare" title="Fourth-generation warfare">fourth-gen warfare</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_organization" title="Military organization">Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_and_control" title="Command and control">Command and control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_ministry" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense ministry">Defense ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army" title="Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navy" title="Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_force" title="Air force">Air force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marines" title="Marines">Marines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coast_guard" title="Coast guard">Coast guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_force" title="Space force">Space force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_reserve_force" title="Military reserve force">Reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regular_army" title="Regular army">Regular</a> / <a href="/wiki/Irregular_military" title="Irregular military">Irregular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_rank" title="Military rank">Ranks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standing_army" title="Standing army">Standing army</a> / <a href="/wiki/Militia" title="Militia">Militia</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Specialties:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rifleman" title="Rifleman">Rifleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staff_(military)" title="Staff (military)">Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_engineer" title="Combat engineer">Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_intelligence" title="Military intelligence">Intel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance" title="Reconnaissance">Recon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_corps" title="Medical corps">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_police" title="Military police">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_diving" title="Military diving">Diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_communications" title="Military communications">Comms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_pilot" title="Aircraft pilot">Pilot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_commissar" title="Political commissar">Commissar</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Land units:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">Infantry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mechanized_infantry" title="Mechanized infantry">Mechanized</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armoured_fighting_vehicle" title="Armoured fighting vehicle">Armor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">Cavalry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">Artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_forces" title="Special forces">Special forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_corps" title="Signal corps">Signal corps</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Naval units:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frogman" title="Frogman">Frogman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warship" title="Warship">Warships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">Submarines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_carrier" title="Aircraft carrier">Aircraft carriers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landing_craft" title="Landing craft">Landing craft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_ship" title="Auxiliary ship">Auxiliary ships</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Air units:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighter_aircraft" title="Fighter aircraft">Fighters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bomber" title="Bomber">Bombers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_early_warning_and_control" title="Airborne early warning and control">Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Close_air_support" title="Close air support">Close air support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic-warfare_aircraft" title="Electronic-warfare aircraft">Electronic-warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance_aircraft" title="Reconnaissance aircraft">Reconnaissance</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Combat systems:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-control_system" title="Fire-control system">Fire-control system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-control_radar" title="Fire-control radar">Fire-control radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Director_(military)" title="Director (military)">Director (military)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_information_center" title="Combat information center">Combat information center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonar" title="Sonar">Sonar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">Radar</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Historical:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship_gun_fire-control_system" title="Ship gun fire-control system">Ship gun fire-control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_data_computer" title="Gun data computer">Gun data computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torpedo_Data_Computer" title="Torpedo Data Computer">Torpedo data computer</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Development:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic training">Basic training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_exercise" title="Military exercise">Military manoeuvrers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Combat training">Combat training</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Battlespace" title="Battlespace">Battlespace</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li>Aerospace <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_warfare" title="Aerial warfare">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_forces" title="Airborne forces">Airborne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_warfare" title="Space warfare">Space</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_warfare" title="Land warfare">Land</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold-weather_warfare" title="Cold-weather warfare">Cold-region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desert_warfare" title="Desert warfare">Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortification" title="Fortification">Fortification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jungle_warfare" title="Jungle warfare">Jungle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_warfare" title="Mountain warfare">Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_warfare" title="Urban warfare">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_warfare" title="Subterranean warfare">Subterranean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_warfare" title="Tunnel warfare">Tunnel</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare" title="Naval warfare">Sea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphibious_warfare" title="Amphibious warfare">Amphibious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue-water_navy" title="Blue-water navy">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown-water_navy" title="Brown-water navy">Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green-water_navy" title="Green-water navy">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_warfare" title="Surface warfare">Surface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_warfare" title="Underwater warfare">Underwater</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seabed_warfare" title="Seabed warfare">Seabed</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_warfare" title="Information warfare">Information</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Weapon" title="Weapon">Weapons</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Air defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armoured_warfare" title="Armoured warfare">Armor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">Artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrage_(artillery)" title="Barrage (artillery)">Barrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_camouflage" title="Military camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">Cavalry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Horses_in_warfare" title="Horses in warfare">Horses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry_tactics#Cavalry_in_modern_warfare" title="Cavalry tactics">Air cavalry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_arms" title="Combined arms">Combined arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventional_warfare" title="Conventional warfare">Conventional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberweapon" title="Cyberweapon">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_denial_weapon" title="Area denial weapon">Denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation" title="Disinformation">Disinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drone_warfare" title="Drone warfare">Drone</a> / <a href="/wiki/Military_robot" title="Military robot">Robot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic warfare">Electromagnetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">Infantry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loitering_munition" title="Loitering munition">Loitering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missile_defense" title="Missile defense">Missile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_music" title="Martial music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">Psychological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiological_warfare" title="Radiological warfare">Radiological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_warfare" title="Submarine warfare">Submarine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unconventional_warfare" title="Unconventional warfare">Unconventional</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_tactics" title="Military tactics">Tactics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_tactics" title="List of military tactics">List of military tactics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_combat_manoeuvring" title="Air combat manoeuvring">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airlift" title="Airlift">Airlift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_assault" title="Air assault">Air assault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airbridge_(logistics)" title="Airbridge (logistics)">Airbridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airdrop" title="Airdrop">Airdrop</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Anti-aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare" title="Anti-submarine warfare">Anti-sub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-tank_warfare" title="Anti-tank warfare">Anti-tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle" title="Battle">Battle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry_tactics" title="Cavalry tactics">Cavalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charge_(warfare)" title="Charge (warfare)">Charge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterattack" title="Counterattack">Counterattack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterinsurgency" title="Counterinsurgency">Counterinsurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy" title="Convoy">Convoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defeat_in_detail" title="Defeat in detail">Defeat in detail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defensive_fighting_position" title="Defensive fighting position">Foxhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drone_warfare" title="Drone warfare">Drone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Envelopment" title="Envelopment">Envelopment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_formation" title="Tactical formation">Formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">Guerrilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_tactics" title="Naval tactics">Naval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shock_and_awe" title="Shock and awe">Rapid dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encirclement" title="Encirclement">Encirclement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investment_(military)" title="Investment (military)">Investment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege" title="Siege">Siege</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarming_(military)" title="Swarming (military)">Swarm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screening_(tactical)" title="Screening (tactical)">Screen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_objective" title="Tactical objective">Tactical objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturation_attack" title="Saturation attack">Target saturation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="Trench warfare">Trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Withdrawal_(military)" title="Withdrawal (military)">Withdrawal</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Operational_level_of_war" title="Operational level of war">Operational</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_operation" title="Military operation">Military operation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Special_operations" title="Special operations">Special</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg" title="Blitzkrieg">Blitzkrieg</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expeditionary_warfare" title="Expeditionary warfare">Expeditionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_operation" title="Deep operation">Deep operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maneuver_warfare" title="Maneuver warfare">Maneuver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operational_manoeuvre_group" title="Operational manoeuvre group">Operational manoeuvre group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_(military)" title="Raid (military)">Raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covert_operation" title="Covert operation">Covert</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_strategy" title="Military strategy">Strategy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_strategies_and_concepts" title="List of military strategies and concepts">List of military strategies and concepts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_campaign" title="Military campaign">Military campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-access/area_denial" title="Anti-access/area denial">Anti-access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attrition_warfare" title="Attrition warfare">Attrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commerce_raiding" title="Commerce raiding">Commerce raiding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-offensive">Counter-offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culminating_point" title="Culminating point">Culminating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defence_in_depth" title="Defence in depth">Defence in depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabian_strategy" title="Fabian strategy">Fabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empty_Fort_Strategy" title="Empty Fort Strategy">Empty fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_Warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosaic Warfare">Mosaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_deception" title="Military deception">Deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_defence" title="Strategic defence">Defensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_depth" title="Strategic depth">Depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_goal_(military)" title="Strategic goal (military)">Goal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_strategy" title="Nuclear strategy">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_strategy" title="Naval strategy">Naval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offensive_(military)" title="Offensive (military)">Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">Scorched earth</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Grand_strategy" title="Grand strategy">Grand strategy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asymmetric_warfare" title="Asymmetric warfare">Asymmetric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade" title="Blockade">Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broken-backed_war_theory" title="Broken-backed war theory">Broken-backed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_war_(general_term)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold war (general term)">Cold war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_war" title="Colonial war">Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest" title="Conquest">Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Containment" title="Containment">Containment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divide_and_rule" title="Divide and rule">Divide and conquer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_warfare" title="Economic warfare">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemic_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Endemic warfare">Endemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleet_in_being" title="Fleet in being">Fleet in being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irregular_warfare" title="Irregular warfare">Irregular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_national_liberation" title="Wars of national liberation">Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limited_war" title="Limited war">Limited</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network-centric_warfare" title="Network-centric warfare">Network-centric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_generation_warfare" title="New generation warfare">New generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_war" title="Perpetual war">Perpetual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_warfare" title="Political warfare">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princely_rebellion" title="Princely rebellion">Princely</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxy_war" title="Proxy war">Proxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_war" title="Resource war">Resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_studies" title="Strategic studies">Strategic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_succession" title="War of succession">Succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_technology" title="Military technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theater_(warfare)" title="Theater (warfare)">Theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_war" title="Total war">Total war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_war" title="World war">World war</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_administration" title="Military administration">Administrative</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_branch" title="Military branch">Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_policy" title="Military policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staff_(military)" title="Staff (military)">Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_education_and_training" title="Military education and training">Training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_service" title="Military service">Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_sociology" title="Military sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_organization" title="Military organization">Organization</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Area_of_responsibility" title="Area of responsibility">Area of responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_hierarchy" title="Command hierarchy">Chain of command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_and_control" title="Command and control">Command and control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_doctrine" title="Military doctrine">Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_war" title="Principles of war">Principles of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_force" title="Economy of force">Economy of force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_medicine" title="Military medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_engineering" title="Military engineering">Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_intelligence" title="Military intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_rank" title="Military rank">Ranks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_technology" title="Military technology">Technology and equipment</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_personnel" title="Military personnel">Personnel</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_recruitment" title="Military recruitment">Recruitment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counter-recruitment" title="Counter-recruitment">counter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobilization" title="Mobilization">Mobilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruit_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Recruit training">Training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_specialism" title="Military specialism">Specialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morale" title="Morale">Morale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_military" title="Women in the military">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_in_the_military" title="Children in the military">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_people_and_military_service" title="Transgender people and military service">Transgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment_in_the_military" title="Sexual harassment in the military">Harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objector" title="Conscientious objector">Conscientious objector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_volunteer" title="Military volunteer">Volunteer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_foreign_volunteers" title="List of foreign volunteers">foreign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercenary" title="Mercenary">Mercenary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soldier" title="Soldier">Soldier</a> / <a href="/wiki/Warrior" title="Warrior">Warrior</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_logistics" title="Military logistics">Logistics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_military_logistics" title="History of military logistics">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_economy" title="War economy">War economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military%E2%80%93industrial_complex" title="Military–industrial complex">Military–industrial complex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arms_industry" title="Arms industry">Arms industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materiel" title="Materiel">Materiel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_supply-chain_management" title="Military supply-chain management">Supply-chain management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_base" title="Military base">Base</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Main_operating_base" title="Main operating base">MOB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forward_operating_base" title="Forward operating base">FOB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outpost_(military)" title="Outpost (military)">Outpost</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_science" title="Military science">Science</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Power_projection" title="Power projection">Power projection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss-of-strength_gradient" title="Loss-of-strength gradient">Loss-of-strength gradient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lanchester%27s_laws" title="Lanchester's laws">Lanchester's laws</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Force_multiplication" title="Force multiplication">Force multiplication</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_war" title="Law of war">Law</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_occupation" title="Military occupation">Occupation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice" title="Armistice">Armistice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceasefire" title="Ceasefire">Ceasefire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a> / <a href="/wiki/Military_volunteer" title="Military volunteer">Volunteer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court-martial" title="Court-martial">Court-martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertion" title="Desertion">Desertion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conventions" title="Geneva Conventions">Geneva Conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Protocol" title="Geneva Protocol">Geneva Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_military_jurisprudence" title="Islamic military jurisprudence">Islamic rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_justice" title="Military justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combatant" title="Combatant">Lawful</a> / <a href="/wiki/Unlawful_combatant" title="Unlawful combatant">Unlawful combatant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letter_of_marque" title="Letter of marque">Letter of marque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perfidy" title="Perfidy">Perfidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_military_company" title="Private military company">Private military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_foreign_volunteers" title="List of foreign volunteers">Foreign expatriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercenary" title="Mercenary">Mercenary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privateer" title="Privateer">Privateer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_laws_on_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish laws on war">Jewish laws on war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_conquest" title="Right of conquest">Right of conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rules_of_engagement" title="Rules of engagement">Rules of engagement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_law" title="Martial law">Martial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_military_unit" title="Penal military unit">Penal military unit</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_theory" title="Military theory">Theory</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_supremacy" title="Air supremacy">Air supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeasement" title="Appeasement">Appeasement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_of_the_sea" title="Command of the sea">Command of the sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deterrence_theory" title="Deterrence theory">Deterrence theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full-spectrum_dominance" title="Full-spectrum dominance">Full-spectrum dominance</a></li> <li><a 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class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_war" title="Women in war">Women in war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_resister" title="War resister">War resister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_studies" title="War studies">War studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horses_in_warfare" title="Horses in warfare">Horses in warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wartime_sexual_violence" title="Wartime sexual violence">Wartime sexual violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_column" title="Fifth column">Fifth column</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_lists" title="Category:Military lists">Lists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_battles" title="Lists of battles">Battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_occupations" title="List of military occupations">Military occupations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_established_military_terms" title="List of established military terms">Military terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_operations" title="List of military operations">Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sieges" title="List of sieges">Sieges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_war_crimes" title="List of war crimes">War crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_war#Wars" title="Outline of war">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_weapons" title="Lists of weapons">Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_writers" title="List of military writers">Writers</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:War" title="Template:War"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:War" title="Template talk:War"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:War"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Anti-aircraft warfare</b> is the counter to <a href="/wiki/Aerial_warfare" title="Aerial warfare">aerial warfare</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and includes "all measures designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of hostile air action".<sup id="cite_ref-AAP-6_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AAP-6-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It encompasses surface-based, subsurface (<a href="/wiki/Submarine#Armament" title="Submarine">submarine-launched</a>), and air-based weapon systems, in addition to associated sensor systems, command and control arrangements, and passive measures (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Barrage_balloon" title="Barrage balloon">barrage balloons</a>). It may be used to protect <a href="/wiki/Naval" class="mw-redirect" title="Naval">naval</a>, <a href="/wiki/Army" title="Army">ground</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Air_force" title="Air force">air forces</a> in any location. However, for most countries, the main effort has tended to be <a href="/wiki/Homeland_defence" class="mw-redirect" title="Homeland defence">homeland defence</a>. <a href="/wiki/Missile_defense" title="Missile defense">Missile defence</a> is an extension of air defence, as are initiatives to adapt air defence to the task of intercepting any projectile in flight. </p><p>Most modern anti-aircraft (AA) weapons systems are optimized for short-, medium-, or long-range air defence, although some systems may incorporate multiple weapons (such as both <a href="/wiki/Autocannons" class="mw-redirect" title="Autocannons">autocannons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Surface-to-air_missiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface-to-air missiles">surface-to-air missiles</a>). ‘Layered air defence’ usually refers to multiple ‘tiers’ of air defence systems which, when combined, an airborne threat must penetrate in order to reach its target; This defence is usually accomplished via the combined use of systems optimized for either short-, medium-, or long-range air defence. </p><p>In some countries, such as Britain and Germany during the <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">Second World War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, and modern NATO and the United States, ground-based air defence and air defence aircraft have been under integrated command and control. However, while overall air defence may be for homeland defence (including military facilities), forces in the field, wherever they are, provide their own defences against airborne threats. </p><p>Until the 1950s, guns firing ballistic munitions ranging from 7.62 mm (.30 in) to 152.4 mm (6 in) were the standard weapons; guided missiles then became dominant, except at the very shortest ranges (as with <a href="/wiki/Close-in_weapon_system" title="Close-in weapon system">close-in weapon systems</a>, which typically use <a href="/wiki/Rotary_cannon" title="Rotary cannon">rotary autocannons</a> or, in very modern systems, surface-to-air adaptations of short-range <a href="/wiki/Air-to-air_missile" title="Air-to-air missile">air-to-air missiles</a>, often combined in one system with rotary cannons). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-aircraft_warfare&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It may also be called <i>counter-air</i>, <i>anti-air</i>, <i>AA</i>, <i>flak</i>, <i>layered air defence</i> or <i>air defence forces</i>. </p><p>The term <i>air defence</i> was probably first used by the UK when <a href="/wiki/Air_Defence_of_Great_Britain" title="Air Defence of Great Britain">Air Defence of Great Britain</a> (ADGB) was created as a <a href="/wiki/Royal_Air_Force" title="Royal Air Force">Royal Air Force</a> command in 1925. However, arrangements in the UK were also called "anti-aircraft", abbreviated as <i>AA</i>, a term that remained in general use into the 1950s. After the <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">First World War</a> it was sometimes prefixed by "light" or "heavy" (LAA or HAA) to classify a type of gun or unit. Nicknames for anti-aircraft guns include "AA", "AAA" or "triple-A" (abbreviations of "anti-aircraft artillery"), "flak" (from the German <i>Flugzeugabwehrkanone</i>), "ack-ack" (from the <a href="/wiki/Spelling_alphabet" title="Spelling alphabet">spelling alphabet</a> used by the British for voice transmission of "AA");<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and "archie" (a World War I British term probably coined by <a href="/wiki/Amyas_Borton" title="Amyas Borton">Amyas Borton</a>, and believed to derive via the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Flying_Corps" title="Royal Flying Corps">Royal Flying Corps</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/Music-hall" class="mw-redirect" title="Music-hall">music-hall</a> comedian <a href="/wiki/George_Robey" title="George Robey">George Robey</a>'s line "Archibald, certainly not!"<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). </p><p>NATO defines anti-aircraft warfare (AAW) as "measures taken to defend a maritime force against attacks by airborne weapons launched from aircraft, ships, submarines and land-based sites".<sup id="cite_ref-AAP-6_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AAP-6-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some armies the term <i>all-arms air defence</i> (AAAD) is used for air defence by nonspecialist troops. Other terms from the late 20th century include "ground based air defence" (GBAD) with related terms "<a href="/wiki/Short_range_air_defense" title="Short range air defense">short range air defense</a>" (SHORAD) and <a href="/wiki/Man-portable_air-defense_system" title="Man-portable air-defense system">man-portable air-defense system</a> (MANPADS). Anti-aircraft missiles are variously called <a href="/wiki/Surface-to-air_missile" title="Surface-to-air missile">surface-to-air missiles</a>, ("SAMs") and surface-to-air guided weapons (SAGWs). Examples are the <a href="/wiki/RIM-66_Standard" title="RIM-66 Standard">RIM-66 Standard</a>, <a href="/wiki/RIM-174_Standard_ERAM" title="RIM-174 Standard ERAM">Raytheon Standard Missile 6</a>, or the <a href="/wiki/Aster_(missile_family)" title="Aster (missile family)">MBDA Aster</a> missile. </p><p>Non-English terms for air defence include the German <i>Flak</i> or <i>FlaK</i> (<i>Fliegerabwehrkanone</i>, 'aircraft defence cannon',<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also cited as <i>Flugabwehrkanone</i>), whence English <i>flak</i>, and the Russian term <i>Protivovozdushnaya oborona</i> (<a href="/wiki/Cyrillic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyrillic">Cyrillic</a>: Противовозду́шная оборо́на), a literal translation of 'anti-air defence', abbreviated as PVO.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellamy1986219_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBellamy1986219-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Russian, the AA systems are called <i>zenitnye</i> (i.e., 'pointing to <a href="/wiki/Zenith" title="Zenith">zenith</a>') systems. In French, air defence is called <i>Défense contre les aéronefs (DCA)</i> , <i>aéronef</i> meaning 'aircraft'.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The maximum distance at which a gun or missile can engage an aircraft is an important figure. However, many different definitions are used and unless the same definition is used, performance of different guns or missiles cannot be compared. For AA guns only the ascending part of the trajectory can be usefully used. One term is "ceiling", the maximum ceiling being the height a projectile would reach if fired vertically, not practically useful in itself as few AA guns are able to fire vertically, and the maximum fuse duration may be too short, but potentially useful as a standard to compare different weapons. </p><p>The British adopted "effective ceiling", meaning the altitude at which a gun could deliver a series of shells against a moving target; this could be constrained by maximum fuse running time as well as the gun's capability. By the late 1930s the British definition was "that height at which a directly approaching target at 400 mph [640 km/h] can be engaged for 20 seconds before the gun reaches 70 degrees elevation".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_description">General description</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-aircraft_warfare&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: General description"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The essence of air defence is to detect hostile aircraft and destroy them. The critical issue is to hit a target moving in three-dimensional space; an attack must not only match these three coordinates, but must do so at the time the target is at that position. This means that projectiles either have to be guided to hit the target, or aimed at the predicted position of the target at the time the projectile reaches it, taking into account the speed and direction of both the target and the projectile. </p><p>Throughout the 20th century, air defence was one of the fastest-evolving areas of military technology, responding to the evolution of aircraft and exploiting technology such as radar, guided missiles and computing (initially electromechanical analogue computing from the 1930s on, as with equipment described below). Improvements were made to sensors, technical fire control, weapons, and command and control. At the start of the 20th century these were either very primitive or non-existent. </p><p>Initially sensors were optical and acoustic devices developed during World War I and continued into the 1930s,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but were quickly superseded by radar, which in turn was supplemented by <a href="/wiki/Optoelectronics" title="Optoelectronics">optoelectronics</a> in the 1980s. Command and control remained primitive until the late 1930s, when Britain created an integrated system<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for ADGB that linked the ground-based air defence of the British Army's <a href="/wiki/Anti-Aircraft_Command" title="Anti-Aircraft Command">Anti-Aircraft Command</a>, although field-deployed air defence relied on less sophisticated arrangements. NATO later called these arrangements an "air defence ground environment", defined as "the network of ground radar sites and command and control centres within a specific theatre of operations which are used for the tactical control of air defence operations".<sup id="cite_ref-AAP-6_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AAP-6-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rules of engagement are critical to prevent air defences engaging friendly or neutral aircraft. Their use is assisted but not governed by <a href="/wiki/Identification_friend_or_foe" title="Identification friend or foe">identification friend or foe</a> (IFF) electronic devices originally introduced during the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>. While these rules originate at the highest authority, different rules can apply to different types of air defence covering the same area at the same time. AAAD usually operates under the tightest rules. </p><p>NATO calls these rules "weapon control orders" (WCO), they are: </p> <ul><li><i>Weapons free</i>: weapons may be fired at any target not positively recognised as friendly.</li> <li><i>Weapons tight</i>: weapons may be fired only at targets recognised as hostile.</li> <li><i>Weapons hold</i>: weapons may only be fired in self-defence or in response to a formal order.<sup id="cite_ref-AAP-6_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AAP-6-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Until the 1950s, guns firing ballistic munitions were the standard weapon; guided missiles then became dominant, except at the very shortest ranges. However, the type of shell or warhead and its fuzing and, with missiles, the guidance arrangement were and are varied. Targets are not always easy to destroy; nonetheless, damaged aircraft may be forced to abort their mission and, even if they manage to return and land in friendly territory, may be out of action for days or permanently. Ignoring small arms and smaller machine-guns, ground-based air defence guns have varied in calibre from 20 mm to at least 152 mm.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoutledge1994456_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoutledge1994456-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ground-based air defence is deployed in several ways: </p> <ul><li>Self-defence by ground forces using their organic weapons, AAAD.</li> <li>Accompanying defence, specialist air defence elements accompanying armoured or infantry units.</li> <li>Point defence around a key target, such as a bridge, critical government building or ship.</li> <li>Area air defence, typically "belts" of air defence to provide a barrier, but sometimes an umbrella covering an area. Areas can vary widely in size. They may extend along a nation's border, e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> <a href="/wiki/MIM-23_Hawk" title="MIM-23 Hawk">MIM-23 Hawk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nike_(rocket)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nike (rocket)">Nike</a> belts that ran north–south across Germany, across a military formation's manoeuvre area, or above a city or port. In ground operations air defence areas may be used offensively by rapid redeployment across current aircraft transit routes.</li></ul> <p>Air defence has included other elements, although after the Second World War most fell into disuse: </p> <ul><li>Tethered <a href="/wiki/Barrage_balloons" class="mw-redirect" title="Barrage balloons">barrage balloons</a> to deter and threaten aircraft flying below the height of the balloons, where they are susceptible to damaging collisions with steel tethers.</li> <li>Cables strung across valleys, sometimes forming a "curtain" with vertical cables hanging from them.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Searchlight" title="Searchlight">Searchlights</a> to illuminate aircraft at night for both gun-layers and optical instrument operators. During World War II searchlights became radar controlled.</li> <li>Large <a href="/wiki/Smoke_screen" title="Smoke screen">smoke screens</a> created by large smoke canisters on the ground to screen targets and prevent accurate weapon aiming by aircraft.</li></ul> <p>Passive air defence is defined by NATO as "Passive measures taken for the physical defence and protection of personnel, essential installations and equipment in order to minimise the effectiveness of air and/or missile attack".<sup id="cite_ref-AAP-6_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AAP-6-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It remains a vital activity by ground forces and includes camouflage and concealment to avoid detection by reconnaissance and attacking aircraft. Measures such as camouflaging important buildings were common in the Second World War. During the Cold War the runways and taxiways of some airfields were painted green. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organization">Organization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-aircraft_warfare&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Organization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While navies are usually responsible for their own air defence—at least for ships at sea—organisational arrangements for land-based air defence vary between nations and over time. </p><p>The most extreme case was the Soviet Union and this model may still be followed in some countries: it was a separate service, on a par with the army, navy, or air force. In the Soviet Union, this was called <i><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Air_Defence_Forces" title="Soviet Air Defence Forces">Voyska PVO</a></i>, and had both fighter aircraft, separate from the air force, and ground-based systems. This was divided into two arms, <i>PVO Strany,</i> the Strategic Air defence Service responsible for Air Defence of the Homeland, created in 1941 and becoming an independent service in 1954, and <i>PVO SV,</i> Air Defence of the Ground Forces. Subsequently, these became part of the air force and ground forces respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellamy198682_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBellamy198682-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellamy1986213_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBellamy1986213-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the other extreme, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">United States Army</a> has an <a href="/wiki/Air_Defense_Artillery_Branch" title="Air Defense Artillery Branch">Air Defense Artillery Branch</a> that provides ground-based air defence for both homeland and the army in the field; however, it is operationally under the <a href="/wiki/Joint_Force_Air_Component_Commander" title="Joint Force Air Component Commander">Joint Force Air Component Commander</a>. Many other nations also deploy an air-defence branch in the army. Some, such as Japan or Israel, choose to integrate their ground based air defence systems into their air force. </p><p>In Britain and some other armies, the single artillery branch has been responsible for both home and overseas ground-based air defence, although there was divided responsibility with the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> for air defence of the British Isles in <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. However, during the <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">Second World War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/RAF_Regiment" title="RAF Regiment">RAF Regiment</a> was formed to protect airfields everywhere, and this included light air defences. In the later decades of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> this included the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">United States Air Force</a>'s operating bases in the UK. All ground-based air defence was removed from Royal Air Force (RAF) jurisdiction in <a href="/wiki/2004" title="2004">2004</a>. The British Army's <a href="/wiki/Anti-Aircraft_Command" title="Anti-Aircraft Command">Anti-Aircraft Command</a> was disbanded in March 1955,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but during the 1960s and 1970s the RAF's Fighter Command operated long-range air-defence missiles to protect key areas in the UK. During World War II, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Marines" title="Royal Marines">Royal Marines</a> also provided air defence units; formally part of the mobile naval base defence organisation, they were handled as an integral part of the army-commanded ground based air defences. </p><p>The basic air defence unit is typically a battery with 2 to 12 guns or missile launchers and fire control elements.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> These batteries, particularly with guns, usually deploy in a small area, although batteries may be split; this is usual for some missile systems. SHORAD missile batteries often deploy across an area with individual launchers several kilometres apart. When MANPADS is operated by specialists, batteries may have several dozen teams deploying separately in small sections; self-propelled air defence guns may deploy in pairs. </p><p>Batteries are usually grouped into battalions or equivalent. In the field army, a light gun or SHORAD battalion is often assigned to a manoeuvre division. Heavier guns and long-range missiles may be in air-defence brigades and come under corps or higher command. Homeland air defence may have a full military structure. For example, the UK's Anti-Aircraft Command, commanded by a full <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Alfred_Pile" title="Frederick Alfred Pile">British Army general</a> was part of ADGB. At its peak in 1941–42 it comprised three AA corps with 12 AA divisions between them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoutledge1994396–397_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoutledge1994396–397-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-aircraft_warfare&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Earliest_use">Earliest use</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-aircraft_warfare&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Earliest use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The use of balloons by the U.S. Army during the American Civil War compelled the Confederates to develop methods of combating them. These included the use of artillery, small arms, and saboteurs. They were unsuccessful, and internal politics led the United States Army's <a href="/wiki/Union_Army_Balloon_Corps" title="Union Army Balloon Corps">Balloon Corps</a> to be disbanded mid-war. The Confederates experimented with balloons as well.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Turks carried out the first ever anti-airplane operation in history during the <a href="/wiki/Italo-Turkish_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Italo-Turkish war">Italo-Turkish war</a>. Although lacking anti-aircraft weapons, they were the first to shoot down an airplane by rifle fire. The first aircraft to crash in a war was the one of Lieutenant Piero Manzini, shot down on August 25, 1912.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest known use of weapons specifically made for the anti-aircraft role occurred during the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a> of 1870. After the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sedan" title="Battle of Sedan">disaster at Sedan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Paris_(1870%E2%80%9371)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Paris (1870–71)">Paris was besieged</a> and French troops outside the city started an attempt at communication via <a href="/wiki/Balloon_(aircraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Balloon (aircraft)">balloon</a>. Gustav <a href="/wiki/Krupp" title="Krupp">Krupp</a> mounted a modified 1-pounder (37 mm) gun – the <i>Ballonabwehrkanone</i> (Balloon defence cannon) or <i>BaK</i> — on top of a horse-drawn carriage for the purpose of shooting down these balloons.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (October 2012)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Canon_antiballons.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Ballonabwehrkanone by Krupp"><img alt="Ballonabwehrkanone by Krupp" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Canon_antiballons.JPG/120px-Canon_antiballons.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Canon_antiballons.JPG/180px-Canon_antiballons.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Canon_antiballons.JPG/240px-Canon_antiballons.JPG 2x" data-file-width="624" data-file-height="867" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i>Ballonabwehrkanone</i> by Krupp</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ballonkanone.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Ballonabwehrkanone by Krupp"><img alt="Ballonabwehrkanone by Krupp" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Ballonkanone.JPG/120px-Ballonkanone.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Ballonkanone.JPG/180px-Ballonkanone.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Ballonkanone.JPG/240px-Ballonkanone.JPG 2x" data-file-width="612" data-file-height="816" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i>Ballonabwehrkanone</i> by Krupp</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Balloon_gun_on_Prussian_corvette_Nymphe_1872_NLV.jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ballonabwehrkanone on the Prussian corvette Nymphe 1872"><img alt="Ballonabwehrkanone on the Prussian corvette Nymphe 1872" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Balloon_gun_on_Prussian_corvette_Nymphe_1872_NLV.jpeg/120px-Balloon_gun_on_Prussian_corvette_Nymphe_1872_NLV.jpeg" decoding="async" width="120" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Balloon_gun_on_Prussian_corvette_Nymphe_1872_NLV.jpeg/180px-Balloon_gun_on_Prussian_corvette_Nymphe_1872_NLV.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Balloon_gun_on_Prussian_corvette_Nymphe_1872_NLV.jpeg/240px-Balloon_gun_on_Prussian_corvette_Nymphe_1872_NLV.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="772" data-file-height="522" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i>Ballonabwehrkanone</i> on the Prussian corvette <a href="/wiki/SMS_Nymphe_(1863)" title="SMS Nymphe (1863)">Nymphe</a> 1872</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 210px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Becker_Flab_1917.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="20 mm Becker-Oerlikon Model 1917 AA-gun"><img alt="20 mm Becker-Oerlikon Model 1917 AA-gun" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Becker_Flab_1917.jpg/116px-Becker_Flab_1917.jpg" decoding="async" width="116" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Becker_Flab_1917.jpg/175px-Becker_Flab_1917.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Becker_Flab_1917.jpg/233px-Becker_Flab_1917.jpg 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="834" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">20 mm Becker-Oerlikon Model 1917 AA-gun </div> </li> </ul> <p>By the early 20th century balloon, or airship, guns, for land and naval use were attracting attention. Various types of ammunition were proposed, high explosive, incendiary, bullet-chains, rod bullets and shrapnel. The need for some form of tracer or smoke trail was articulated. Fuzing options were also examined, both impact and time types. Mountings were generally pedestal type but could be on field platforms. Trials were underway in most countries in Europe but only Krupp, Erhardt, <a href="/wiki/Vickers" title="Vickers">Vickers</a> Maxim, and <a href="/wiki/Schneider-Creusot" title="Schneider-Creusot">Schneider</a> had published any information by 1910. Krupp's designs included adaptations of their 65 mm 9-pounder, a 75 mm 12-pounder, and even a 105 mm gun. Erhardt also had a 12-pounder, while Vickers Maxim offered a 3-pounder and Schneider a 47 mm. The French balloon gun appeared in 1910, it was an 11-pounder but mounted on a vehicle, with a total uncrewed weight of two tons. However, since balloons were slow moving, sights were simple. But the challenges of faster moving aeroplanes were recognised.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1913 only France and Germany had developed field guns suitable for engaging balloons and aircraft and addressed issues of military organisation. Britain's Royal Navy would soon introduce the <a href="/wiki/QF_3-inch_20_cwt" title="QF 3-inch 20 cwt">QF 3-inch</a> and <a href="/wiki/QF_4-inch_Mk_V_naval_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="QF 4-inch Mk V naval gun">QF 4-inch</a> AA guns and also had <a href="/wiki/QF_1-pounder_pom-pom" title="QF 1-pounder pom-pom">Vickers 1-pounder quick firing "pom-poms"</a> that could be used in various mountings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoutledge19943_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoutledge19943-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoutledge19944_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoutledge19944-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first US anti-aircraft cannon was a 1-pounder concept design by <a href="/wiki/Nathan_Crook_Twining" title="Nathan Crook Twining">Admiral Twining</a> in 1911 to meet the perceived threat of airships, that eventually was used as the basis for the US Navy's first operational anti-aircraft cannon: the <a href="/wiki/3%22/23_caliber_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="3"/23 caliber gun">3-inch/23 caliber gun</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_World_War">First World War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-aircraft_warfare&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: First World War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Krupps_9_pounder_1909.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Krupps_9_pounder_1909.jpg/220px-Krupps_9_pounder_1909.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Krupps_9_pounder_1909.jpg/330px-Krupps_9_pounder_1909.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Krupps_9_pounder_1909.jpg/440px-Krupps_9_pounder_1909.jpg 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="549" /></a><figcaption>1909 vintage Krupp 9-pounder anti-aircraft gun</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Canadian_1918_antiaircraft_team.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Canadian_1918_antiaircraft_team.jpg/220px-Canadian_1918_antiaircraft_team.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Canadian_1918_antiaircraft_team.jpg/330px-Canadian_1918_antiaircraft_team.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Canadian_1918_antiaircraft_team.jpg/440px-Canadian_1918_antiaircraft_team.jpg 2x" data-file-width="838" data-file-height="586" /></a><figcaption>A Canadian anti-aircraft unit of 1918 "taking post"</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anti-aircraft_motor_battery_against_Zeppelin_in_Horseless_Age_v37_n7_p261.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Anti-aircraft_motor_battery_against_Zeppelin_in_Horseless_Age_v37_n7_p261.png/170px-Anti-aircraft_motor_battery_against_Zeppelin_in_Horseless_Age_v37_n7_p261.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Anti-aircraft_motor_battery_against_Zeppelin_in_Horseless_Age_v37_n7_p261.png/255px-Anti-aircraft_motor_battery_against_Zeppelin_in_Horseless_Age_v37_n7_p261.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Anti-aircraft_motor_battery_against_Zeppelin_in_Horseless_Age_v37_n7_p261.png/340px-Anti-aircraft_motor_battery_against_Zeppelin_in_Horseless_Age_v37_n7_p261.png 2x" data-file-width="1765" data-file-height="2601" /></a><figcaption>A French anti-aircraft motor battery (motorized AAA battery) that brought down a <a href="/wiki/Zeppelin" title="Zeppelin">Zeppelin</a> near Paris. From the journal <i>Horseless Age</i>, 1916.</figcaption></figure> <p>On the 30th of September, 1915, troops of the <a href="/wiki/Serbian_Army" title="Serbian Army">Serbian Army</a> observed three enemy aircraft approaching <a href="/wiki/Kragujevac" title="Kragujevac">Kragujevac</a>. Soldiers fired at them with shotguns and machine-guns but failed to prevent them from dropping 45 bombs over the city, hitting military installations, the railway station and many other, mostly civilian, targets in the city. During the bombing raid, <a href="/wiki/Private_(rank)" title="Private (rank)">private</a> <a href="/wiki/Radoje_Ljutovac" title="Radoje Ljutovac">Radoje Ljutovac</a> fired his cannon at the enemy aircraft and successfully shot one down. It crashed in the city and both pilots died from their injuries. The cannon Ljutovac used was not designed as an anti-aircraft gun; it was a slightly modified Turkish cannon captured during the <a href="/wiki/First_Balkan_War" title="First Balkan War">First Balkan War</a> in 1912. This was the first occasion in military history that a military aircraft was shot down with <a href="/wiki/Ground-to-air" class="mw-redirect" title="Ground-to-air">ground-to-air</a> artillery fire.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The British recognised the need for anti-aircraft capability a few weeks before World War I broke out; on 8 July 1914, the <i>New York Times</i> reported that the British government had decided to "dot the coasts of the British Isles with a series of towers, each armed with two quick-firing guns of special design," while "a complete circle of towers" was to be built around "naval installations" and "at other especially vulnerable points". By December 1914 the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Naval_Volunteer_Reserve" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve">Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve</a> (RNVR) was manning AA guns and searchlights assembled from various sources at some nine ports. The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Garrison_Artillery" title="Royal Garrison Artillery">Royal Garrison Artillery</a> (RGA) was given responsibility for AA defence in the field, using motorised two-gun sections. The first were formally formed in November 1914. Initially they used <a href="/wiki/QF_1-pounder_pom-pom" title="QF 1-pounder pom-pom">QF 1-pounder "pom-pom"s</a> (37 mm versions of the <a href="/wiki/Maxim_Gun" class="mw-redirect" title="Maxim Gun">Maxim Gun</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoutledge19944_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoutledge19944-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoutledge19945_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoutledge19945-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maxim_anti-aircraft_machine_gun.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Maxim_anti-aircraft_machine_gun.JPG/170px-Maxim_anti-aircraft_machine_gun.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Maxim_anti-aircraft_machine_gun.JPG/255px-Maxim_anti-aircraft_machine_gun.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Maxim_anti-aircraft_machine_gun.JPG/340px-Maxim_anti-aircraft_machine_gun.JPG 2x" data-file-width="683" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>A Maxim anti-aircraft machine gun in the anti-aircraft museum in Finland, 2006</figcaption></figure> <p>All armies soon deployed AA guns often based on their smaller field pieces, notably the French 75 mm and Russian 76.2 mm, typically simply propped up on some sort of embankment to get the muzzle pointed skyward. The <a href="/wiki/British_Army" title="British Army">British Army</a> adopted the 13-pounder quickly producing new mountings suitable for AA use, the <a href="/wiki/QF_13-pounder_6_cwt_AA_gun" title="QF 13-pounder 6 cwt AA gun">13-pdr QF 6 cwt Mk III</a> was issued in 1915. It remained in service throughout the war but 18-pdr guns were lined down to take the 13-pdr shell with a larger cartridge producing the <a href="/wiki/QF_13-pounder_9_cwt" title="QF 13-pounder 9 cwt">13-pr QF 9 cwt</a> and these proved much more satisfactory.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoutledge19946_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoutledge19946-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in general, these ad hoc solutions proved largely useless. With little experience in the role, no means of measuring target, range, height or speed the difficulty of observing their shell bursts relative to the target gunners proved unable to get their fuse setting correct and most rounds burst well below their targets. The exception to this rule was the guns protecting spotting balloons, in which case the altitude could be accurately measured from the length of the cable holding the balloon. </p><p>The first issue was ammunition. Before the war it was recognised that ammunition needed to explode in the air. Both high explosive (HE) and <a href="/wiki/Shrapnel_shell" title="Shrapnel shell">shrapnel</a> were used, mostly the former. Airburst fuses were either igniferious (based on a burning fuse) or mechanical (clockwork). Igniferious fuses were not well suited for anti-aircraft use. The fuse length was determined by time of flight, but the burning rate of the gunpowder was affected by altitude. The British pom-poms had only contact-fused ammunition. <a href="/wiki/Zeppelin" title="Zeppelin">Zeppelins</a>, being hydrogen-filled balloons, were targets for incendiary shells and the British introduced these with airburst fuses, both shrapnel type-forward projection of incendiary "pot" and base ejection of an incendiary stream. The British also fitted tracers to their shells for use at night. Smoke shells were also available for some AA guns, these bursts were used as targets during training.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>German air attacks on the British Isles increased in 1915 and the AA efforts were deemed somewhat ineffective, so a <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> gunnery expert, Admiral Sir <a href="/wiki/Percy_Scott" title="Percy Scott">Percy Scott</a>, was appointed to make improvements, particularly an integrated AA defence for London. The air defences were expanded with more RNVR AA guns, 75 mm and 3-inch, the pom-poms being ineffective. The naval 3-inch was also adopted by the army, the <a href="/wiki/QF_3-inch_20_cwt" title="QF 3-inch 20 cwt">QF 3-inch 20 cwt</a> (76 mm), a new field mounting was introduced in 1916. Since most attacks were at night, searchlights were soon used, and acoustic methods of detection and locating were developed. By December 1916 there were 183 AA sections defending Britain (most with the 3-inch), 74 with the BEF in France and 10 in the Middle East.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoutledge19948–17_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoutledge19948–17-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>AA gunnery was a difficult business. The problem was of successfully aiming a shell to burst close to its target's future position, with various factors affecting the shells' predicted trajectory. This was called deflection gun-laying, where "off-set" angles for range and elevation were set on the gunsight and updated as their target moved. In this method, when the sights were on the target, the barrel was pointed at the target's future position. Range and height of the target determined fuse length. The difficulties increased as aircraft performance improved. </p><p>The British dealt with range measurement first, when it was realised that range was the key to producing a better fuse setting. This led to the <a href="/wiki/Height_finder#Optical" title="Height finder">height/range finder</a> (HRF), the first model being the <a href="/wiki/Barr_%26_Stroud" class="mw-redirect" title="Barr & Stroud">Barr & Stroud</a> UB2, a two-metre <a href="/wiki/Coincidence_rangefinder" title="Coincidence rangefinder">optical coincident rangefinder</a> mounted on a tripod. It measured the distance to the target and the elevation angle, which together gave the height of the aircraft. These were complex instruments and various other methods were also used. The HRF was soon joined by the height/fuse indicator (HFI), this was marked with elevation angles and height lines overlaid with fuse length curves, using the height reported by the HRF operator, the necessary fuse length could be read off.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoutledge199414–15_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoutledge199414–15-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, the problem of deflection settings — "aim-off" — required knowing the rate of change in the target's position. Both France and the UK introduced tachymetric devices to track targets and produce vertical and horizontal deflection angles. The French Brocq system was electrical; the operator entered the target range and had displays at guns; it was used with their 75 mm. The British Wilson-Dalby gun director used a pair of trackers and mechanical tachymetry; the operator entered the fuse length, and deflection angles were read from the instruments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoutledge199414–20_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoutledge199414–20-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the start of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, the 77 mm had become the standard German weapon, and came mounted on a large traverse that could be easily transported on a wagon. Krupp 75 mm guns were supplied with an optical sighting system that improved their capabilities. The German Army also adapted a revolving cannon that came to be known to Allied fliers as the "<a href="/wiki/Flaming_onion" title="Flaming onion">flaming onion</a>" from the shells in flight. This gun had five barrels that quickly launched a series of 37 mm artillery shells.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>As aircraft started to be used against ground targets on the battlefield, the AA guns could not be traversed quickly enough at close targets and, being relatively few, were not always in the right place (and were often unpopular with other troops), so changed positions frequently. Soon the forces were adding various <a href="/wiki/Machine-gun" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine-gun">machine-gun</a> based weapons mounted on poles. These short-range weapons proved more deadly, and the "<a href="/wiki/Manfred_von_Richthofen" title="Manfred von Richthofen">Red Baron</a>" is believed to have been shot down by an anti-aircraft <a href="/wiki/Vickers_machine_gun" title="Vickers machine gun">Vickers machine gun</a>. When the war ended, it was clear that the increasing capabilities of aircraft would require better means of acquiring targets and aiming at them. Nevertheless, a pattern had been set: anti-aircraft warfare would employ heavy weapons to attack high-altitude targets and lighter weapons for use when aircraft came to lower altitudes. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AA-Predictor-Nr1MarkIII-001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/AA-Predictor-Nr1MarkIII-001.jpg/220px-AA-Predictor-Nr1MarkIII-001.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/AA-Predictor-Nr1MarkIII-001.jpg/330px-AA-Predictor-Nr1MarkIII-001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/AA-Predictor-Nr1MarkIII-001.jpg/440px-AA-Predictor-Nr1MarkIII-001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>The No. 1 Mark III Predictor that was used with the <a href="/wiki/QF_3.7-inch_AA_gun" title="QF 3.7-inch AA gun">QF 3.7-inch AA gun</a> was a mechanical computer.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Antiaircraft_defence_Sweden_1934.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Antiaircraft_defence_Sweden_1934.jpg/220px-Antiaircraft_defence_Sweden_1934.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Antiaircraft_defence_Sweden_1934.jpg/330px-Antiaircraft_defence_Sweden_1934.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Antiaircraft_defence_Sweden_1934.jpg/440px-Antiaircraft_defence_Sweden_1934.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3070" data-file-height="2131" /></a><figcaption>Shooting with anti-aircraft gun in Sweden 1934</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interwar_years">Interwar years</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-aircraft_warfare&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Interwar years"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>World War I demonstrated that aircraft could be an important part of the battlefield, but in some nations it was the prospect of strategic air attack that was the main issue, presenting both a threat and an opportunity. The experience of four years of air attacks on London by Zeppelins and <a href="/wiki/Gotha_G.V" title="Gotha G.V">Gotha G.V</a> bombers had particularly influenced the British and was one of if not the main driver for forming an independent air force. As the capabilities of aircraft and their engines improved it was clear that their role in future war would be even more critical as their range and weapon load grew. However, in the years immediately after World War I, the prospect of another major war seemed remote, particularly in Europe, where the most militarily capable nations were, and little financing was available. </p><p>Four years of war had seen the creation of a new and technically demanding branch of military activity. Air defence had made huge advances, albeit from a very low starting point. However, it was new and often lacked influential 'friends' in the competition for a share of limited defence budgets. Demobilisation meant that most AA guns were taken out of service, leaving only the most modern. </p><p>However, there were lessons to be learned. In particular the British, who had had AA guns in most theatres in action in daylight and used them against night attacks at home. Furthermore, they had also formed an <a href="/wiki/Anti-Aircraft_Experimental_Section" title="Anti-Aircraft Experimental Section">Anti-Aircraft Experimental Section</a> during the war and accumulated large amounts of data that was subjected to extensive analysis. As a result, they published the two-volume <i>Textbook of Anti-Aircraft Gunnery</i> in 1924–1925. It included five key recommendations for HAA equipment: </p> <ul><li>Shells of improved ballistic shape with HE fillings and mechanical time fuses</li> <li>Higher rates of fire assisted by automation</li> <li>Height finding by long-base optical instruments</li> <li>Centralised control of fire on each gun position, directed by tachymetric instruments incorporating the facility to apply corrections of the moment for meteorological and wear factors</li> <li>More accurate sound-location for the direction of searchlights and to provide plots for barrage fire</li></ul> <p>Two assumptions underpinned the British approach to HAA fire; first, aimed fire was the primary method and this was enabled by predicting gun data from visually tracking the target and having its height. Second, that the target would maintain a steady course, speed and height. This HAA was to engage targets up to 24,000 ft (7.3 km). Mechanical time fuses were required because the speed of powder burning varied with height, so fuse length was not a simple function of time of flight. Automated fire ensured a constant rate of fire that made it easier to predict where each shell should be individually aimed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoutledge199448_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoutledge199448-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoutledge199449_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoutledge199449-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1925 the British adopted a new instrument developed by Vickers. It was a mechanical <a href="/wiki/Analog_computer" title="Analog computer">analogue computer</a> - the Predictor AA No 1. Given the target height, its operators tracked the target and the predictor produced bearing, quadrant elevation and fuse setting. These were passed electrically to the guns, where they were displayed on repeater dials to the layers who "matched pointers" (target data and the gun's actual data) to lay the guns. This system of repeater electrical dials built on the arrangements introduced by British coast artillery in the 1880s, and coast artillery was the background of many AA officers. Similar systems were adopted in other countries and for example the later Sperry M3A3 in the US, was also used by Britain as the Predictor AA No 2. Height finders were also increasing in size; in Britain, the seven-foot optical base World War I <a href="/wiki/Barr_%26_Stroud" class="mw-redirect" title="Barr & Stroud">Barr & Stroud</a> UB 2 <a href="/wiki/Stereoscopic_rangefinder" title="Stereoscopic rangefinder">stereoscopic rangefinder</a> was replaced by the nine-foot optical base UB 7 and the eighteen-foot optical base UB 10 (only used on static AA sites). Goertz in Germany and Levallois in France produced five m (16 ft) instruments. However, in most countries the main effort in HAA guns until the mid-1930s was improving existing ones, although various new designs were on drawing boards.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoutledge199449_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoutledge199449-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoutledge199450_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoutledge199450-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the early 1930s eight countries <a href="/wiki/History_of_radar" title="History of radar">developed radar</a>; these developments were sufficiently advanced by the late 1930s for development work on <a href="/wiki/Acoustic_location" title="Acoustic location">sound-locating acoustic devices</a> to be generally halted, although equipment was retained. Furthermore, in Britain the volunteer <a href="/wiki/Royal_Observer_Corps" title="Royal Observer Corps">Observer Corps</a> formed in 1925 provided a network of observation posts to report hostile aircraft flying over Britain. Initially radar was used for airspace surveillance to detect approaching hostile aircraft. However, the German <a href="/wiki/W%C3%BCrzburg_radar" title="Würzburg radar">Würzburg radar</a> put into use in 1940 was capable of providing data suitable for controlling AA guns, and the British <a href="/wiki/GL_Mk._I_radar" title="GL Mk. I radar">Radar, Gun Laying, Mark I</a>, was designed to be used on AA gun positions and was in use by 1939.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoutledge199495-97_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoutledge199495-97-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> prevented Germany having AA weapons, and for example, the Krupps designers joined Bofors in Sweden. Some World War I guns were retained and some covert AA training started in the late 1920s. Germany introduced the 8.8 cm FlaK 18 in 1933, the 36 and 37 models followed with various improvements, but ballistic performance was unchanged. In the late 1930s the <a href="/wiki/10.5_cm_FlaK_38" class="mw-redirect" title="10.5 cm FlaK 38">10.5 cm FlaK 38</a> appeared, soon followed by the 39; this was designed primarily for static sites but had a mobile mounting, and the unit had 220 V 24 kW generators. In 1938 design started on the <a href="/wiki/12.8_cm_FlaK_40" title="12.8 cm FlaK 40">12.8 cm FlaK</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHogg199714_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHogg199714-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHogg1997162–177_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHogg1997162–177-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Britain had successfully tested a new 3.6-inch gun, in 1918. In 1928 a 3.7-inch (94 mm) gun became the preferred solution, but it took six years to gain funding. Production of the <a href="/wiki/QF_3.7-inch_AA_gun" title="QF 3.7-inch AA gun">QF 3.7-inch gun</a> began in 1937; this gun was used on mobile carriages with the field army and transportable guns on fixed mountings for static positions. At the same time the Royal Navy adopted a new <a href="/wiki/QF_4.5-inch_Mk_I_%E2%80%93_V_naval_gun" title="QF 4.5-inch Mk I – V naval gun">4.5-inch (113 mm) gun</a> in a twin turret, which the army adopted in simplified single-gun mountings for static positions, mostly around ports where naval ammunition was available. The performance of the new guns was limited by their standard fuse No 199, with a 30-second running time, although a new mechanical time fuse giving 43 seconds was nearing readiness. In 1939 a machine fuse setter was introduced to eliminate manual fuse setting.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The US ended World War I with two 3-inch AA guns and improvements were developed throughout the inter-war period. However, in 1924 work started on a new 105 mm static mounting AA gun, but only a few were produced by the mid-1930s because by this time work had started on the 90 mm AA gun, with mobile carriages and static mountings able to engage air, sea and ground targets. The M1 version was approved in 1940. During the 1920s there was some work on a 4.7-inch which lapsed, but revived in 1937, leading to a new gun in 1944.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While HAA and its associated target acquisition and fire control was the primary focus of AA efforts, low-level close-range targets remained and by the mid-1930s were becoming an issue. </p><p>Until this time the British, at RAF insistence, continued their use of World War I machine guns, and introduced twin MG mountings for AAAD. The army was forbidden from considering anything larger than .50-inch.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> However, in 1935 their trials showed that the minimum effective round was an impact-fused 2 lb HE shell. The following year they decided to adopt the <a href="/wiki/Bofors_40_mm_L/60_gun" title="Bofors 40 mm L/60 gun">Bofors 40 mm</a> and a <a href="/wiki/QF_2-pounder_naval_gun" title="QF 2-pounder naval gun">twin barrel Vickers 2-pdr</a> (40 mm) on a modified naval mount. The air-cooled Bofors was vastly superior for land use, being much lighter than the water-cooled "pom-pom", and UK production of the Bofors 40 mm was licensed. The Predictor AA No 3, as the <a href="/wiki/Kerrison_Predictor" title="Kerrison Predictor">Kerrison Predictor</a> was officially known, was introduced with it.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 40 mm Bofors had become available in 1931. In the late 1920s the <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Navy" title="Swedish Navy">Swedish Navy</a> had ordered the development of a 40 mm naval anti-aircraft gun from the Bofors company. It was light, rapid-firing and reliable, and a mobile version on a four-wheel carriage was soon developed. Known simply as the <a href="/wiki/Bofors_40_mm_Automatic_Gun_L/60" class="mw-redirect" title="Bofors 40 mm Automatic Gun L/60">40 mm</a>, it was adopted by some 17 different nations just before World War II and is still in use today in some applications such as on coastguard frigates. </p><p>Rheinmetall in Germany developed an automatic 20 mm in the 1920s and Oerlikon in Switzerland had acquired the patent to an automatic 20 mm gun designed in Germany during World War I. Germany introduced the rapid-fire <a href="/wiki/2_cm_Flak_30,_Flak_38_and_Flakvierling_38" title="2 cm Flak 30, Flak 38 and Flakvierling 38">2 cm FlaK 30</a> and later in the decade it was redesigned by Mauser-Werke and became the 2 cm FlaK 38.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHogg1997144–147_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHogg1997144–147-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, while 20 mm was better than a machine gun and mounted on a very small trailer made it easy to move, its effectiveness was limited. Germany therefore added a 3.7 cm. The first, the <a href="/wiki/3.7_cm_Flak_18/36/37" title="3.7 cm Flak 18/36/37">3.7 cm FlaK 18</a> developed by Rheinmetall in the early 1930s, was basically an enlarged 2 cm FlaK 30. It was introduced in 1935 and production stopped the following year. A redesigned gun 3.7 cm FlaK 36 entered service in 1938, it too had a two-wheel carriage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHogg1997150–152_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHogg1997150–152-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, by the mid-1930s the Luftwaffe realised that there was still a coverage gap between 3.7 cm and 8.8 cm guns. They started development of a 5 cm gun on a four-wheel carriage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHogg1997155–156_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHogg1997155–156-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After World War I the US Army started developing a dual-role (AA/ground) automatic 37 mm cannon, designed by <a href="/wiki/John_Browning" title="John Browning">John M. Browning</a>. It was standardised in 1927 as the T9 AA cannon, but trials quickly revealed that it was worthless in the ground role. However, while the shell was a bit light (well under 2 lbs) it had a good effective ceiling and fired 125 rounds per minute; an AA carriage was developed and it entered service in 1939 as the <a href="/wiki/37_mm_gun_M1" title="37 mm gun M1">37 mm gun M1</a>. It proved prone to jamming, and was eventually replaced in AA units by the Bofors 40 mm. The Bofors had attracted attention from the US Navy, but none were acquired before 1939.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, in 1931 the US Army worked on a mobile anti-aircraft machine mount on the back of a heavy truck having four .30 calibre water-cooled machine guns and an optical director. It proved unsuccessful and was abandoned.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The USSR introduced a new 76 mm <i>M1931</i> in 1937, an 85 mm <i>M1938</i><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and developed the <a href="/wiki/37_mm_automatic_air_defense_gun_M1939_(61-K)" title="37 mm automatic air defense gun M1939 (61-K)">37 mm M1939 (61-K)</a>, which appears to have been copied from the Bofors 40 mm. A Bofors 25 mm, essentially a scaled down 40 mm, was also copied as the <a href="/wiki/25_mm_automatic_air_defense_gun_M1940_(72-K)" title="25 mm automatic air defense gun M1940 (72-K)">25 mm M1939</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 1930s solid-fuel rockets were under development in the Soviet Union and Britain. In Britain the interest was for anti-aircraft fire, it quickly became clear that guidance would be required for precision. However, rockets, or "<a href="/wiki/Unrotated_Projectile" title="Unrotated Projectile">unrotated projectiles</a>" as they were called, could be used for anti-aircraft barrages. A two-inch rocket using HE or wire obstacle warheads - the <a href="/wiki/Z_Battery" title="Z Battery">Z battery</a> - was introduced first to deal with low-level or dive bombing attacks on smaller targets such as airfields. The three-inch was in development at the end of the inter-war period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoutledge199456_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoutledge199456-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Naval_aspects">Naval aspects</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-aircraft_warfare&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Naval aspects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>WWI had been a war in which air warfare blossomed, but had not matured to the point of being a real threat to naval forces. The prevailing assumption was that a few relatively small caliber naval guns could manage to keep enemy aircraft beyond a range where harm might be expected. In 1939 radio controlled <a href="/wiki/Target_drone" title="Target drone">target drones</a> became available to the US Navy in quantity allowing a more realistic testing of existing anti-aircraft suites against actual flying and manoeuvring targets.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The results were sobering to an unexpected degree. </p><p>The United States was still emerging from the effects of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> and funds for the military had been sparse to the degree that 50% of shells used were still powder fused.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The US Navy found that a significant portion of its shells were duds or low order detonations (incomplete detonation of the explosive contained by the shell). Virtually every major country involved in combat in World War II invested in aircraft development. The cost of aircraft research and development was small and the results could be large.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> So rapid was the performance leaps of evolving aircraft that the British <a href="/wiki/HACS" title="HACS">High Angle Control System</a> (HACS) was obsolete and designing a successor very difficult for the British establishment.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Electronics would prove to be an enabler for effective anti-aircraft systems and both the US and UK had a growing electronics industry.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1939 radio controlled drones became available to actually test existing systems in British and American service. The results were disappointing by any measure. High-level manoeuvring drones were virtually immune to shipboard AA systems. The US drones could simulate dive bombing which showed the dire need for autocannons. Japan introduced powered gliders in 1940 as drones but apparently was unable to dive bomb.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is no evidence of other powers using drones in this application at all. It may have caused a major underestimation of the threat and an inflated view of their AA systems.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_World_War">Second World War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-aircraft_warfare&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Second World War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Anti-aircraft_warfare" title="Special:EditPage/Anti-aircraft warfare">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2013</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Poland's AA defences were no match for the German attack, and the situation was similar in other European countries.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Significant AAW (Anti-Air Warfare) started with the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Britain" title="Battle of Britain">Battle of Britain</a> in the summer of 1940. <a href="/wiki/QF_3.7-inch_AA_gun" title="QF 3.7-inch AA gun">QF 3.7-inch AA guns</a> provided the backbone of the ground-based AA defences, although initially significant numbers of <a href="/wiki/QF_3-inch_20_cwt" title="QF 3-inch 20 cwt">QF 3-inch 20 cwt</a> were also used. The Army's Anti-aircraft command, which was under operational command of <a href="/wiki/RAF_Fighter_Command" title="RAF Fighter Command">RAF Fighter Command</a> within Air Defence GB, grew to 12 AA divisions in three AA corps. <a href="/wiki/Bofors_40_mm_Automatic_Gun_L/60" class="mw-redirect" title="Bofors 40 mm Automatic Gun L/60">Bofors 40 mm guns</a> entered service in increasing numbers. In addition, the RAF regiment was formed in 1941 with responsibility for airfield air defence, eventually with Bofors 40 mm as their main armament. Fixed AA defences, using HAA and LAA, were established by the Army in key overseas places, notably <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suez_Canal" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Singapore_in_the_Straits_Settlements" title="Singapore in the Straits Settlements">Singapore</a>. </p><p>While the 3.7-inch was the main HAA gun in fixed defences and the only mobile HAA gun with the field army, the <a href="/wiki/QF_4.5-inch_Mk_I_%E2%80%93_V_naval_gun" title="QF 4.5-inch Mk I – V naval gun">QF 4.5-inch gun</a>, manned by artillery, was used in the vicinity of naval ports and made use of the naval ammunition supply. The 4.5-inch at Singapore had the first success in shooting down Japanese bombers. Mid war <a href="/wiki/QF_5.25-inch_naval_gun" title="QF 5.25-inch naval gun">QF 5.25-inch naval guns</a> started being emplaced in some permanent sites around London. This gun was also deployed in dual-role coast defence/AA positions. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-635-3999-24,_Deutschland,_Flak-Batterie_in_Feuerstellung.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-635-3999-24%2C_Deutschland%2C_Flak-Batterie_in_Feuerstellung.jpg/170px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-635-3999-24%2C_Deutschland%2C_Flak-Batterie_in_Feuerstellung.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-635-3999-24%2C_Deutschland%2C_Flak-Batterie_in_Feuerstellung.jpg/255px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-635-3999-24%2C_Deutschland%2C_Flak-Batterie_in_Feuerstellung.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-635-3999-24%2C_Deutschland%2C_Flak-Batterie_in_Feuerstellung.jpg/340px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-635-3999-24%2C_Deutschland%2C_Flak-Batterie_in_Feuerstellung.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="796" /></a><figcaption>German <a href="/wiki/8.8_cm_Flak_18/36/37/41" title="8.8 cm Flak 18/36/37/41">88 mm</a> flak gun in action against Allied bombers</figcaption></figure> <p>Germany's high-altitude needs were originally going to be filled by a 75 mm gun from <a href="/wiki/Krupp" title="Krupp">Krupp</a>, designed in collaboration with their Swedish counterpart <a href="/wiki/Bofors" title="Bofors">Bofors</a>, but the specifications were later amended to require much higher performance. In response Krupp's engineers presented a new 88 mm design, the <a href="/wiki/88_mm_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="88 mm gun">FlaK 36</a>. First used in Spain during the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a>, the gun proved to be one of the best anti-aircraft guns in the world, as well as particularly deadly against light, medium, and even early heavy tanks. </p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Chastise" title="Operation Chastise">Dambusters raid</a> in 1943 an entirely new system was developed that was required to knock down any low-flying aircraft with a single hit. The first attempt to produce such a system used a 50 mm gun, but this proved inaccurate and a new 55 mm gun replaced it. The system used a centralised control system including both search and targeting <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a>, which calculated the aim point for the guns after considering windage and ballistics, and then sent electrical commands to the guns, which used <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic">hydraulics</a> to point themselves at high speeds. Operators simply fed the guns and selected the targets. This system, modern even by today's standards, was in late development when the war ended. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wehrmacht_Flugabwehr_Airdefence.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Wehrmacht_Flugabwehr_Airdefence.jpeg/170px-Wehrmacht_Flugabwehr_Airdefence.jpeg" decoding="async" width="170" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Wehrmacht_Flugabwehr_Airdefence.jpeg/255px-Wehrmacht_Flugabwehr_Airdefence.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Wehrmacht_Flugabwehr_Airdefence.jpeg/340px-Wehrmacht_Flugabwehr_Airdefence.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1733" data-file-height="2491" /></a><figcaption>German soldier manning an <a href="/wiki/MG_34" title="MG 34">MG34</a> anti-aircraft gun in WWII</figcaption></figure> <p>The British had already arranged licence building of the Bofors 40 mm, and introduced these into service. These had the power to knock down aircraft of any size, yet were light enough to be mobile and easily swung. The gun became so important to the British war effort that they even produced a movie, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Gun_(1940_film)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Gun (1940 film) (page does not exist)">The Gun</a></i>, that encouraged workers on the assembly line to work harder. The Imperial measurement production drawings the British had developed were supplied to the Americans who produced their own (unlicensed) copy of the 40 mm at the start of the war, moving to licensed production in mid-1941. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:B-24_hit_by_Flak.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/B-24_hit_by_Flak.jpg/220px-B-24_hit_by_Flak.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/B-24_hit_by_Flak.jpg/330px-B-24_hit_by_Flak.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/B-24_hit_by_Flak.jpg/440px-B-24_hit_by_Flak.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3615" data-file-height="2912" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/USAAF" class="mw-redirect" title="USAAF">USAAF</a> <a href="/wiki/Consolidated_B-24_Liberator" title="Consolidated B-24 Liberator">Consolidated B-24 Liberator</a> hit by flak over Italy, 10 April 1945</figcaption></figure> <p>Service trials demonstrated another problem however: that ranging and tracking the new high-speed targets was almost impossible. At short range, the apparent target area is relatively large, the trajectory is flat and the time of flight is short, allowing to correct lead by watching the tracers. At long range, the aircraft remains in firing range for a long time, so the necessary calculations can, in theory, be done by slide rules—though, because small errors in distance cause large errors in shell fall height and detonation time, exact ranging is crucial. For the ranges and speeds that the Bofors worked at, neither answer was good enough. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hyde_Park_Anti-aircraft_guns_H_993.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Hyde_Park_Anti-aircraft_guns_H_993.jpg/220px-Hyde_Park_Anti-aircraft_guns_H_993.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Hyde_Park_Anti-aircraft_guns_H_993.jpg/330px-Hyde_Park_Anti-aircraft_guns_H_993.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Hyde_Park_Anti-aircraft_guns_H_993.jpg/440px-Hyde_Park_Anti-aircraft_guns_H_993.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="597" /></a><figcaption>British <a href="/wiki/QF_3.7-inch_AA" class="mw-redirect" title="QF 3.7-inch AA">QF 3.7-inch</a> gun in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> in 1939</figcaption></figure> <p>The solution was <a href="/wiki/Automation" title="Automation">automation</a>, in the form of a mechanical computer, the <a href="/wiki/Kerrison_Predictor" title="Kerrison Predictor">Kerrison Predictor</a>. Operators kept it pointed at the target, and the Predictor then calculated the proper aim point automatically and displayed it as a pointer mounted on the gun. The gun operators simply followed the pointer and loaded the shells. The Kerrison was fairly simple, but it pointed the way to future generations that incorporated radar, first for ranging and later for tracking. Similar predictor systems were introduced by Germany during the war, also adding radar ranging as the war progressed. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20-mm-AA-cannon.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/20-mm-AA-cannon.gif/220px-20-mm-AA-cannon.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/20-mm-AA-cannon.gif/330px-20-mm-AA-cannon.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/20-mm-AA-cannon.gif/440px-20-mm-AA-cannon.gif 2x" data-file-width="2937" data-file-height="2383" /></a><figcaption>US coast guardsmen in the South Pacific man a 20 mm anti-aircraft cannon</figcaption></figure> <p>A plethora of anti-aircraft gun systems of smaller calibre was available to the German Wehrmacht combined forces, and among them the 1940-origin <a href="/wiki/2_cm_Flak_30/38/Flakvierling#2_cm_Flakvierling_38" class="mw-redirect" title="2 cm Flak 30/38/Flakvierling"><i> Flakvierling</i></a> quadruple-20 mm-<a href="/wiki/Autocannon" title="Autocannon">autocannon</a>-based anti-aircraft weapon system was one of the most often-seen weapons, seeing service on both land and sea. The similar <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied</a> smaller-calibre air-defence weapons of the American forces were also quite capable. Their needs could cogently be met with smaller-calibre ordnance beyond using the usual singly-mounted <a href="/wiki/M2_Browning_machine_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="M2 Browning machine gun">M2</a> <a href="/wiki/.50_BMG" title=".50 BMG">.50 caliber</a> machine gun atop a tank's turret, as four of the ground-used "heavy barrel" (M2HB) guns were mounted together on the American Maxson <a href="/wiki/M45_Quadmount" title="M45 Quadmount">M45 Quadmount</a> weapon (as a direct answer to the <i>Flakvierling</i>), which were often mounted on the back of a <a href="/wiki/Half-track" title="Half-track">half-track</a> to form the <a href="/wiki/M16_Multiple_Gun_Motor_Carriage" title="M16 Multiple Gun Motor Carriage">M16 Multiple Gun Motor Carriage</a>. Although of less power than Germany's 20 mm systems, the typical four or five combat batteries of an Army AAA battalion were often spread many kilometres apart from each other, rapidly attaching and detaching to larger ground combat units to provide welcome defence from enemy aircraft. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anti-aircraft_BrenGun.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Anti-aircraft_BrenGun.jpg/220px-Anti-aircraft_BrenGun.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Anti-aircraft_BrenGun.jpg/330px-Anti-aircraft_BrenGun.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Anti-aircraft_BrenGun.jpg/440px-Anti-aircraft_BrenGun.jpg 2x" data-file-width="774" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Indian troops manning a <a href="/wiki/Bren_light_machine_gun" title="Bren light machine gun">Bren light machine gun</a> in an anti-aircraft mount in 1941</figcaption></figure> <p>AAA battalions were also used to help suppress ground targets. Their larger <a href="/wiki/90_mm_M3_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="90 mm M3 gun">90 mm M3 gun</a> would prove, as did the eighty-eight, to make an excellent anti-tank gun as well, and was widely used late in the war in this role. Also available to the Americans at the start of the war was the <a href="/wiki/120_mm_M1_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="120 mm M1 gun">120 mm M1 gun</a> <i>stratosphere gun</i>, which was the most powerful AA gun with an impressive 60,000 ft (18 km) altitude capability, however no 120 M1 was ever fired at an enemy aircraft. The 90 mm and 120 mm guns continued to be used into the 1950s. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a> had also put some thought into the problem, When the US Navy began to rearm in 1939 in many ships the primary short ranged gun was the M2 .50 caliber machine gun. While effective in fighters at 300 to 400 yards this is point blank range in naval anti-aircraft ranges. Production of the Swiss Oerlikon 20 mm had already started to provide protection for the British and this was adopted in exchange for the M2 machine guns.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From December 1941 to January 1942, production had risen to not only cover all British requirements but also allowed 812 units to be actually delivered to the US Navy.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of 1942 the 20 mm had accounted for 42% of all aircraft destroyed by the US Navy's shipboard AA. However, the King Board had noted that the balance was shifting towards the larger guns used by the fleet. The US Navy had intended to use the British pom-pom, however, the weapon required the use of cordite which BuOrd had found objectionable for US service.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further investigation revealed that US powders would not work in the pom-pom.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bureau of Ordnance was well aware of the Bofors 40 mm gun. The firm York Safe and Lock was negotiating with Bofors to attain the rights to the air-cooled version of the weapon. At the same time Henry Howard, an engineer, and businessman became aware of it and contacted RADM W. R. Furlong, chief of the Bureau of Ordnance. He ordered the Bofors weapon system to be investigated. York Safe and Lock would be used as the contracting agent. The system had to be redesigned for both the English measurement system and mass production, as the original documents recommended hand fitting parts and drilling to shape.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As early as 1928 the US Navy saw the need to replace the .50 caliber machine gun with something heavier. The 1.1"/75 (28 mm) Mark 1 was designed. Placed in quadruple mounts with a 500 rpm rate of fire it would have fit the requirements. However, the gun was suffering teething issues being prone to jamming. While this could have been solved the weight of the system was equal to that of the quad-mount Bofors 40 mm while lacking the range and power that the Bofors provided. The gun was relegated to smaller less vital ships by the end of the war.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/5-inch/38-caliber_gun" title="5-inch/38-caliber gun">5"/38 naval gun</a> rounded out the US Navy's AA suite. A dual purpose mount, it was used in both the surface and AA roles with great success. </p><p> Mated with the Mark 37 director and the proximity fuse it could routinely knock drones out of the sky at ranges as far as 13,000 yards.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USS_New_Mexico_Flak_Kamikaze_Battle_of_Okinawa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/USS_New_Mexico_Flak_Kamikaze_Battle_of_Okinawa.jpg/220px-USS_New_Mexico_Flak_Kamikaze_Battle_of_Okinawa.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/USS_New_Mexico_Flak_Kamikaze_Battle_of_Okinawa.jpg/330px-USS_New_Mexico_Flak_Kamikaze_Battle_of_Okinawa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/USS_New_Mexico_Flak_Kamikaze_Battle_of_Okinawa.jpg/440px-USS_New_Mexico_Flak_Kamikaze_Battle_of_Okinawa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="969" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/5-inch/38-caliber_gun" title="5-inch/38-caliber gun">5-inch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bofors_40_mm_L/60_gun" title="Bofors 40 mm L/60 gun">40 mm</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oerlikon_20_mm_cannon" title="Oerlikon 20 mm cannon">20 mm</a> fire directed from <a href="/wiki/USS_New_Mexico_(BB-40)" title="USS New Mexico (BB-40)">USS <i>New Mexico</i></a> at a <a href="/wiki/Kamikaze" title="Kamikaze">Kamikaze</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa" title="Battle of Okinawa">Battle of Okinawa</a>, 1945</figcaption></figure><p>A 3"/50 MK 22 semiautomatic dual gun was produced but not employed before the end of the war and therefore beyond the scope of this article. However early marks of the 3"/50 were employed in destroyer escorts and on merchant ships. 3″/50 <a href="/wiki/Caliber_(artillery)" title="Caliber (artillery)">caliber</a> guns (Marks 10, 17, 18, and 20) first entered service in 1915 as a refit to <a href="/wiki/USS_Texas_(BB-35)" title="USS Texas (BB-35)">USS <i>Texas</i> (BB-35)</a>, and were subsequently mounted on many types of ships as the need for anti-aircraft protection was recognized. During World War II, they were the primary gun armament on <a href="/wiki/Destroyer_escort" title="Destroyer escort">destroyer escorts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patrol_frigate" class="mw-redirect" title="Patrol frigate">patrol frigates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Submarine_chaser" title="Submarine chaser">submarine chasers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Minesweeper_(ship)" class="mw-redirect" title="Minesweeper (ship)">minesweepers</a>, some fleet <a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">submarines</a>, and other auxiliary vessels, and were used as a secondary dual-purpose battery on some other types of ships, including some older battleships. They also replaced the original low-angle <a href="/wiki/4%22/50_caliber_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="4"/50 caliber gun">4"/50 caliber guns</a> (Mark 9) on "flush-deck" <a href="/wiki/Wickes-class_destroyer" title="Wickes-class destroyer"><i>Wickes</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/Clemson-class_destroyer" title="Clemson-class destroyer"><i>Clemson</i>-class destroyers</a> to provide better anti-aircraft protection. The gun was also used on specialist destroyer conversions; the "AVD" <a href="/wiki/Seaplane_tender" title="Seaplane tender">seaplane tender</a> conversions received two guns; the "APD" <a href="/wiki/High-speed_transport" title="High-speed transport">high-speed transports</a>, "DM" <a href="/wiki/Minelayer" title="Minelayer">minelayers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Destroyer_minesweeper" title="Destroyer minesweeper">"DMS" minesweeper</a> conversions received three guns, and those retaining destroyer classification received six.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vienna_flak_tower_dsc01594.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Vienna_flak_tower_dsc01594.jpg/170px-Vienna_flak_tower_dsc01594.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Vienna_flak_tower_dsc01594.jpg/255px-Vienna_flak_tower_dsc01594.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Vienna_flak_tower_dsc01594.jpg/340px-Vienna_flak_tower_dsc01594.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>One of eight <a href="/wiki/Flak_tower" title="Flak tower">flak towers</a> built during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> in <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Royal_Navy_during_the_Second_World_War_A26878.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/The_Royal_Navy_during_the_Second_World_War_A26878.jpg/220px-The_Royal_Navy_during_the_Second_World_War_A26878.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/The_Royal_Navy_during_the_Second_World_War_A26878.jpg/330px-The_Royal_Navy_during_the_Second_World_War_A26878.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/The_Royal_Navy_during_the_Second_World_War_A26878.jpg/440px-The_Royal_Navy_during_the_Second_World_War_A26878.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2283" data-file-height="1772" /></a><figcaption>A British North Sea World War II <a href="/wiki/Maunsell_Fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Maunsell Fort">Maunsell Fort</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Germans developed massive reinforced-concrete <a href="/wiki/Blockhouse" title="Blockhouse">blockhouses</a>, some more than six stories high, which were known as <i><a href="/wiki/Air_raid_shelter#Hochbunker" title="Air raid shelter">Hochbunker</a></i> 'high bunkers' or "<i>Flaktürme</i><span style="padding-left:.15em;">"</span> <a href="/wiki/Flak_tower" title="Flak tower">flak towers</a>, on which they placed anti-aircraft artillery. Those in cities attacked by the Allied land forces became fortresses. Several in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> were some of the last buildings to fall to the Soviets during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Berlin" title="Battle of Berlin">Battle of Berlin</a> in 1945. The British built structures such as the <a href="/wiki/Maunsell_Forts" title="Maunsell Forts">Maunsell Forts</a> in the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Thames_Estuary" title="Thames Estuary">Thames Estuary</a> and other tidal areas upon which they based guns. After the war most were left to rot. Some were outside territorial waters, and had a second life in the 1960s as platforms for <a href="/wiki/Pirate_radio_in_Europe#From_international_waters" title="Pirate radio in Europe">pirate radio</a> stations, while another became the base of a <a href="/wiki/Micronation" title="Micronation">micronation</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Sealand" title="Principality of Sealand">Principality of Sealand</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:B-24_Flak.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/B-24_Flak.jpg/220px-B-24_Flak.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/B-24_Flak.jpg/330px-B-24_Flak.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/B-24_Flak.jpg/440px-B-24_Flak.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1180" /></a><figcaption>A USAAF <a href="/wiki/Consolidated_B-24_Liberator" title="Consolidated B-24 Liberator">B-24</a> bomber emerges from a cloud of flak with its No. 2 engine smoking.</figcaption></figure> <p>Some nations started rocket research before World War II, including for anti-aircraft use. Further research started during the war. The first step was unguided missile systems like the British <a href="/wiki/2-inch_RP" title="2-inch RP">2-inch RP</a> and 3-inch, which was fired in large numbers from <i>Z batteries</i>, and were also fitted to warships. The firing of one of these devices during an air raid is suspected to have caused the <a href="/wiki/Bethnal_Green_Tube_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Bethnal Green Tube disaster">Bethnal Green disaster</a> in 1943.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Facing the threat of Japanese <a href="/wiki/Kamikaze" title="Kamikaze">Kamikaze</a> attacks the British and US developed surface-to-air rockets like British <a href="/wiki/Fairey_Stooge" title="Fairey Stooge">Fairey Stooge</a> or the American <a href="/wiki/SAM-N-2_Lark" title="SAM-N-2 Lark">Lark</a> as counter measures, but none of them were ready at the end of the war. The Germans missile research was the most advanced of the war as the Germans put considerable effort in the research and development of rocket systems for all purposes. Among them were several <a href="/wiki/List_of_German_guided_weapons_of_World_War_II" title="List of German guided weapons of World War II">guided and unguided systems</a>. Unguided systems involved the <a href="/wiki/Fliegerfaust" title="Fliegerfaust">Fliegerfaust</a> (literally "aircraft fist") rocket launcher as the first <a href="/wiki/MANPADS" class="mw-redirect" title="MANPADS">MANPADS</a>. Guided systems were several sophisticated radio, wire, or radar guided missiles like the <i><a href="/wiki/Wasserfall" title="Wasserfall">Wasserfall</a></i> ('waterfall') rocket. Owing to the severe war situation for Germany all of those systems were only produced in small numbers and most of them were only used by training or trial units. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ellgaard_Flak_im_Balkan_1942.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Ellgaard_Flak_im_Balkan_1942.jpg/220px-Ellgaard_Flak_im_Balkan_1942.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Ellgaard_Flak_im_Balkan_1942.jpg/330px-Ellgaard_Flak_im_Balkan_1942.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Ellgaard_Flak_im_Balkan_1942.jpg/440px-Ellgaard_Flak_im_Balkan_1942.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1788" data-file-height="1251" /></a><figcaption><i>Flak in the Balkans, 1942</i> (drawing by <a href="/wiki/Helmuth_Ellgaard" title="Helmuth Ellgaard">Helmuth Ellgaard</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>Another aspect of anti-aircraft defence was the use of <a href="/wiki/Barrage_balloon" title="Barrage balloon">barrage balloons</a> to act as physical obstacle initially to bomber aircraft over cities and later for ground attack aircraft over the <a href="/wiki/Normandy_Landings" class="mw-redirect" title="Normandy Landings">Normandy invasion</a> fleets. The balloon, a simple blimp tethered to the ground, worked in two ways. Firstly, it and the steel cable were a danger to any aircraft that tried to fly among them. Secondly, to avoid the balloons, bombers had to fly at a higher altitude, which was more favourable for the guns. Barrage balloons were limited in application, and had minimal success at bringing down aircraft, being largely immobile and passive defences. </p><p>The Allies' most advanced technologies were showcased by the anti-aircraft defence against the German <a href="/wiki/V-1_flying_bomb" title="V-1 flying bomb">V-1</a> cruise missiles (V stands for <i>Vergeltungswaffe</i>, 'retaliation weapon'). The 419th and 601st anti-aircraft gun battalions of the US Army were first allocated to the Folkestone-Dover coast to defend London, and then moved to Belgium to become part of the "Antwerp X" project coordinated from the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Le_Grand_Veneur&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Le Grand Veneur (page does not exist)">Le Grand Veneur</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Grand_Veneur" class="extiw" title="nl:Le Grand Veneur">nl</a>]</span><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in <a href="/wiki/Keerbergen" title="Keerbergen">Keerbergen</a>. With the liberation of Antwerp, the port city immediately became the highest priority target, and received the largest number of V-1 and V-2 missiles of any city. The smallest tactical unit of the operation was a gun battery consisting of four 90 mm guns firing shells equipped with a radio <a href="/wiki/Proximity_fuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Proximity fuse">proximity fuse</a>. Incoming targets were acquired and automatically tracked by <a href="/wiki/SCR-584_radar" title="SCR-584 radar">SCR-584 radar</a>,. Output from the gun-laying radar was fed to the <a href="/wiki/M9_Gun_Director" class="mw-redirect" title="M9 Gun Director">M9 gun director</a>, an electronic analogue computer to calculate the lead and elevation corrections for the guns. With the help of these three technologies, close to 90% of the V-1 missiles, on track to the defence zone around the port, were destroyed.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-war">Post-war</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-aircraft_warfare&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Post-war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RIM-8_Talos_launched.JPEG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/RIM-8_Talos_launched.JPEG/220px-RIM-8_Talos_launched.JPEG" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/RIM-8_Talos_launched.JPEG/330px-RIM-8_Talos_launched.JPEG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/RIM-8_Talos_launched.JPEG/440px-RIM-8_Talos_launched.JPEG 2x" data-file-width="2674" data-file-height="1685" /></a><figcaption>A 1970s-era <a href="/wiki/RIM-8_Talos" title="RIM-8 Talos">Talos</a> anti-aircraft missile, fired from a <a href="/wiki/Cruiser" title="Cruiser">cruiser</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Post-war analysis demonstrated that even with newest anti-aircraft systems employed by both sides, the vast majority of bombers reached their targets successfully, on the order of 90%. While these figures were undesirable during the war, the advent of the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear bomb">nuclear bomb</a> considerably altered the acceptability of even a single bomber reaching its target. </p><p>The developments during World War II continued for a short time into the post-war period as well. In particular the US Army set up a huge air defence network around its larger cities based on radar-guided 90 mm and 120 mm guns. US efforts continued into the 1950s with the 75 mm <a href="/wiki/M51_Skysweeper" title="M51 Skysweeper">Skysweeper</a> system, an almost fully automated system including the radar, computers, power, and auto-loading gun on a single powered platform. The Skysweeper replaced all smaller guns then in use in the Army, notably the 40 mm Bofors. By 1955, the US military deemed the 40 mm Bofors obsolete due to its reduced capability to shoot down jet powered aircraft, and turned to SAM development, with the <a href="/wiki/MIM-3_Nike_Ajax" title="MIM-3 Nike Ajax">Nike Ajax</a> and the <a href="/wiki/RSD_58" title="RSD 58">RSD-58</a>. In Europe NATO's Allied Command Europe developed an integrated air defence system, NATO Air Defence Ground Environment (NADGE), that later became the <a href="/wiki/NATO_Integrated_Air_Defense_System" title="NATO Integrated Air Defense System">NATO Integrated Air Defence System</a>. </p><p>The introduction of the guided missile resulted in a significant shift in anti-aircraft strategy. Although Germany had been desperate to introduce anti-aircraft missile systems, none became operational during World War II. Following several years of post-war development, however, these systems began to mature into viable weapons. The US started an upgrade of their defences using the Nike Ajax missile, and soon the larger anti-aircraft guns disappeared. The same thing occurred in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">USSR</a> after the introduction of their <a href="/wiki/SA-2_Guideline" class="mw-redirect" title="SA-2 Guideline">SA-2 Guideline</a> systems. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Type_91_SAM_fire.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Type_91_SAM_fire.JPG/200px-Type_91_SAM_fire.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Type_91_SAM_fire.JPG/300px-Type_91_SAM_fire.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Type_91_SAM_fire.JPG/400px-Type_91_SAM_fire.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2832" data-file-height="4029" /></a><figcaption>A three-person <a href="/wiki/Japan_Air_Self-Defense_Force" title="Japan Air Self-Defense Force">JASDF</a> fireteam practices using a rocket target with a training variant of a <a href="/wiki/Type_91_surface-to-air_missile" title="Type 91 surface-to-air missile">Type 91 Kai</a> <a href="/wiki/Man-portable_air-defense_system" title="Man-portable air-defense system">MANPADS</a> during an exercise at <a href="/wiki/Eielson_Air_Force_Base" title="Eielson Air Force Base">Eielson Air Force Base</a>, Alaska, as part of Red Flag – Alaska</figcaption></figure> <p>As this process continued, the missile found itself being used for more and more of the roles formerly filled by guns. First to go were the large weapons, replaced by equally large missile systems of much higher performance. Smaller missiles soon followed, eventually becoming small enough to be mounted on armoured cars and tank chassis. These started replacing, or at least supplanting, similar gun-based <a href="/wiki/SPAAG" class="mw-redirect" title="SPAAG">SPAAG</a> systems in the 1960s, and by the 1990s had replaced almost all such systems in modern armies. Man-portable missiles, MANPADS, as they are known today, were introduced in the 1960s and have supplanted or replaced even the smallest guns in most advanced armies. </p><p>In the 1982 <a href="/wiki/Falklands_War" title="Falklands War">Falklands War</a>, the Argentine armed forces deployed the newest west European weapons including the 35 mm <a href="/wiki/Oerlikon_GDF" title="Oerlikon GDF">Oerlikon GDF-002 twin cannon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roland_(missile)" title="Roland (missile)">Roland missile</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Rapier_(missile)" title="Rapier (missile)">Rapier</a> missile system was the primary GBAD system, used by both British artillery and RAF regiment, a few brand-new <a href="/wiki/FIM-92_Stinger" title="FIM-92 Stinger">FIM-92 Stinger</a> were used by British special forces. Both sides also used the <a href="/wiki/Blowpipe_(missile)" title="Blowpipe (missile)">Blowpipe missile</a>. British naval missiles used included <a href="/wiki/Sea_Dart" title="Sea Dart">Sea Dart</a> and the older <a href="/wiki/Seaslug_(missile)" title="Seaslug (missile)">Sea Slug</a> longer range systems, <a href="/wiki/Seacat_(missile)" title="Seacat (missile)">SeaCat</a> and the new <a href="/wiki/Sea_Wolf_(missile)" title="Sea Wolf (missile)">Sea Wolf</a> short range systems. Machine guns in AA mountings were used both ashore and afloat. </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/2008_South_Ossetia_war" class="mw-redirect" title="2008 South Ossetia war">2008 South Ossetia war</a> air power faced off against powerful SAM systems, like the 1980s <a href="/wiki/Buk-M1" class="mw-redirect" title="Buk-M1">Buk-M1</a>. </p><p>In February 2018, an Israeli F-16 fighter was downed in the occupied <a href="/wiki/Golan_Heights" title="Golan Heights">Golan Heights</a> province, after it had attacked an Iranian target in Syria.<sup id="cite_ref-A2_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-A2-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-A6_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-A6-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-A1_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-A1-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-A7_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-A7-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2006, Israel also lost a helicopter over Lebanon, shot down by a Hezbollah rocket.<sup id="cite_ref-A8_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-A8-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="AA_warfare_systems">AA warfare systems</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-aircraft_warfare&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: AA warfare systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flugabwehrkanonenpanzer_Gepard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Flugabwehrkanonenpanzer_Gepard.jpg/220px-Flugabwehrkanonenpanzer_Gepard.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Flugabwehrkanonenpanzer_Gepard.jpg/330px-Flugabwehrkanonenpanzer_Gepard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Flugabwehrkanonenpanzer_Gepard.jpg/440px-Flugabwehrkanonenpanzer_Gepard.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2739" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Flakpanzer_Gepard" title="Flakpanzer Gepard">Gepard</a> in motion at the 2015 Military Day in <a href="/wiki/Uffenheim" title="Uffenheim">Uffenheim</a>. The Gepard is an autonomous all-weather-capable German <a href="/wiki/Self-propelled_anti-aircraft_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-propelled anti-aircraft gun">self-propelled anti-aircraft gun</a> system armed with twin <a href="/wiki/Oerlikon_GDF" title="Oerlikon GDF">Oerlikon GDF</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bangladesh_Army_CS_AA3_35_mm_AA_gun_with_the_FW-2_fire_control_system_on_display.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Bangladesh_Army_CS_AA3_35_mm_AA_gun_with_the_FW-2_fire_control_system_on_display.jpg/220px-Bangladesh_Army_CS_AA3_35_mm_AA_gun_with_the_FW-2_fire_control_system_on_display.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Bangladesh_Army_CS_AA3_35_mm_AA_gun_with_the_FW-2_fire_control_system_on_display.jpg/330px-Bangladesh_Army_CS_AA3_35_mm_AA_gun_with_the_FW-2_fire_control_system_on_display.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Bangladesh_Army_CS_AA3_35_mm_AA_gun_with_the_FW-2_fire_control_system_on_display.jpg/440px-Bangladesh_Army_CS_AA3_35_mm_AA_gun_with_the_FW-2_fire_control_system_on_display.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh_Army" title="Bangladesh Army">Bangladesh Army</a> CS/AA3 35 mm twin anti-aircraft gun system along with its FW-2 <a href="/wiki/Fire_control_radar" class="mw-redirect" title="Fire control radar">fire control radar</a> system behind. CS/AA3 is a Chinese variant of the Oerlikon GDF.</figcaption></figure> <p>Although the firearms used by the infantry, particularly machine guns, can be used to engage low altitude air targets, on occasion with notable success, their effectiveness is generally limited and the muzzle flashes reveal infantry positions. Speed and altitude of modern jet aircraft limit target opportunities, and critical systems may be armoured in aircraft designed for the <a href="/wiki/Ground-attack_aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Ground-attack aircraft">ground attack role</a>. Adaptations of the standard <a href="/wiki/Autocannon" title="Autocannon">autocannon</a>, originally intended for air-to-ground use, and heavier <a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">artillery</a> systems were commonly used for most anti-aircraft gunnery, starting with standard pieces on new mountings, and evolving to specially designed guns with much higher performance prior to World War II. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Shell_(projectile)" title="Shell (projectile)">shells</a> fired by these weapons are usually fitted with different types of <a href="/wiki/Fuse_(explosives)" title="Fuse (explosives)">fuses</a> (<a href="/wiki/Barometric_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Barometric pressure">barometric</a>, time-delay, or <a href="/wiki/Proximity_fuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Proximity fuse">proximity</a>) to explode close to the airborne target, releasing a shower of fast metal fragments. For shorter-range work, a lighter weapon with a higher <a href="/wiki/Rate_of_fire" title="Rate of fire">rate of fire</a> is required, to increase a hit probability on a fast airborne target. Weapons between <a href="/wiki/20_mm_caliber" title="20 mm caliber">20 mm</a> and 40 mm calibre have been widely used in this role. Smaller weapons, typically .50 calibre or even 8 mm rifle calibre guns have been used in the smallest mounts. </p><p>Unlike the heavier guns, these smaller weapons are in widespread use due to their low cost and ability to quickly follow the target. Classic examples of autocannons and large calibre guns are the <a href="/wiki/Bofors_40_mm_L/60_gun" title="Bofors 40 mm L/60 gun">40 mm autocannon from Bofors</a> and the <a href="/wiki/8.8_cm_Flak_18/36/37/41" title="8.8 cm Flak 18/36/37/41">8.8 cm FlaK 18, 36 gun</a> designed by Krupp. Artillery weapons of this sort have for the most part been superseded by the effective surface-to-air missile systems that were introduced in the 1950s, although they were still retained by many nations. The development of surface-to-air missiles began in <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> during the late World War II with missiles such as the <a href="/wiki/Wasserfall" title="Wasserfall">Wasserfall</a>, though no working system was deployed before the war's end, and represented new attempts to increase effectiveness of the <a href="/wiki/Anti-aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-aircraft">anti-aircraft systems</a> faced with growing threat from <a href="/wiki/Bomber" title="Bomber">bombers</a>. Land-based SAMs can be deployed from fixed installations or mobile launchers, either wheeled or tracked. The tracked vehicles are usually armoured vehicles specifically designed to carry SAMs. </p><p>Larger SAMs may be deployed in fixed launchers, but can be towed/re-deployed at will. The SAMs launched by individuals are known in the United States as the Man-Portable Air Defence Systems (MANPADS). MANPADS of the former Soviet Union have been exported around the World, and can be found in use by many armed forces. Targets for non-ManPAD SAMs will usually be acquired by air-search <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a>, then tracked before/while a SAM is "locked-on" and then fired. Potential targets, if they are military aircraft, will be <a href="/wiki/Identification_Friend_or_Foe" class="mw-redirect" title="Identification Friend or Foe">identified as friend or foe</a> before being engaged. The developments in the latest and relatively cheap short-range missiles have begun to replace autocannons in this role. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anti_aircraft_Leningrad_1941.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Anti_aircraft_Leningrad_1941.JPG/220px-Anti_aircraft_Leningrad_1941.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Anti_aircraft_Leningrad_1941.JPG/330px-Anti_aircraft_Leningrad_1941.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Anti_aircraft_Leningrad_1941.JPG/440px-Anti_aircraft_Leningrad_1941.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2041" data-file-height="1495" /></a><figcaption>Soviet <a href="/wiki/85_mm_air_defense_gun_M1939_(52-K)" title="85 mm air defense gun M1939 (52-K)">85mm</a> anti-aircraft guns deployed in the neighborhood of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Isaac%27s_Cathedral" title="Saint Isaac's Cathedral">St Isaac's Cathedral</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leningrad" title="Siege of Leningrad">Siege of Leningrad</a> (formerly Petrograd, now called St. Petersburg) in 1941.</figcaption></figure> <p>The interceptor aircraft (or simply interceptor) is a type of <a href="/wiki/Fighter_aircraft" title="Fighter aircraft">fighter aircraft</a> designed specifically to intercept and destroy enemy aircraft, particularly <a href="/wiki/Bomber_aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Bomber aircraft">bombers</a>, usually relying on high speed and <a href="/wiki/Altitude#Altitude_in_aviation_and_in_spaceflight" title="Altitude">altitude</a> capabilities. A number of jet interceptors such as the <a href="/wiki/F-102_Delta_Dagger" class="mw-redirect" title="F-102 Delta Dagger">F-102 Delta Dagger</a>, the <a href="/wiki/F-106_Delta_Dart" class="mw-redirect" title="F-106 Delta Dart">F-106 Delta Dart</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Mikoyan-Gurevich_MiG-25" title="Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25">MiG-25</a> were built in the period starting after the end of World War II and ending in the late 1960s, when they became less important due to the shifting of the <a href="/wiki/Strategic_bombing" title="Strategic bombing">strategic bombing</a> role to <a href="/wiki/ICBM" class="mw-redirect" title="ICBM">ICBMs</a>. Invariably the type is differentiated from other fighter aircraft designs by higher speeds and shorter operating ranges, as well as much reduced ordnance payloads. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> systems use <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic</a> waves to identify the range, altitude, direction, or speed of aircraft and <a href="/wiki/Weather_forecasting" title="Weather forecasting">weather formations</a> to provide tactical and operational warning and direction, primarily during defensive operations. In their functional roles they provide target search, threat detection, <a href="/wiki/Missile_guidance#Radar_homing" title="Missile guidance">guidance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance" title="Reconnaissance">reconnaissance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radar_navigation" title="Radar navigation">navigation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Instrumentation" title="Instrumentation">instrumentation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Weather_radar" title="Weather radar">weather reporting</a> support to combat operations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anti-UAV_defences"><span class="anchor" id="AUDS"></span> Anti-UAV defences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-aircraft_warfare&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Anti-UAV defences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle#Counter_unmanned_air_system" title="Unmanned aerial vehicle">Unmanned aerial vehicle § Counter unmanned air system</a></div> <p>An <i>anti-UAV defence system</i> (AUDS) is a system for defence against military <a href="/wiki/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle" title="Unmanned aerial vehicle">unmanned aerial vehicles</a>. A variety of designs have been developed, using lasers,<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> net-guns and air-to-air netting, signal jamming, and hi-jacking by means of in-flight hacking.<sup id="cite_ref-popmech_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-popmech-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anti-UAV defence systems have been deployed against <a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Iraq_and_the_Levant" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant">ISIL</a> drones during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mosul_(2016%E2%80%932017)" title="Battle of Mosul (2016–2017)">Battle of Mosul (2016–2017)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Alternative approaches for dealing with UAVs have included using a <a href="/wiki/Shotgun" title="Shotgun">shotgun</a> at close range, and for smaller drones, training eagles to snatch them from the air.<sup id="cite_ref-popmech_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-popmech-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This only works on relatively small UAVs and <a href="/wiki/Loitering_munition" title="Loitering munition">loitering munitions</a> (also called "suicide drones"). Larger UCAVs such as the <a href="/wiki/MQ-1_Predator" class="mw-redirect" title="MQ-1 Predator">MQ-1 Predator</a> can be (and frequently are) shot down like manned aircraft of similar sizes and flight profiles.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_Navy_Type_45_destroyer_HMS_Daring_MOD_45154175.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Royal_Navy_Type_45_destroyer_HMS_Daring_MOD_45154175.jpg/220px-Royal_Navy_Type_45_destroyer_HMS_Daring_MOD_45154175.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Royal_Navy_Type_45_destroyer_HMS_Daring_MOD_45154175.jpg/330px-Royal_Navy_Type_45_destroyer_HMS_Daring_MOD_45154175.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Royal_Navy_Type_45_destroyer_HMS_Daring_MOD_45154175.jpg/440px-Royal_Navy_Type_45_destroyer_HMS_Daring_MOD_45154175.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2473" data-file-height="1979" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Type_45_destroyer" title="Type 45 destroyer">Type 45 destroyers</a> are advanced air defence ships</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Future_developments">Future developments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-aircraft_warfare&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Future developments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Guns are being increasingly pushed into specialist roles, such as the Dutch <a href="/wiki/Goalkeeper_CIWS" title="Goalkeeper CIWS">Goalkeeper CIWS</a>, which uses the <a href="/wiki/GAU-8_Avenger" title="GAU-8 Avenger">GAU-8 Avenger</a> 30 mm seven-barrel <a href="/wiki/Gatling_gun" title="Gatling gun">Gatling gun</a> for last ditch anti-missile and anti-aircraft defence. Even this formerly front-line weapon is currently being replaced by new missile systems, such as the <a href="/wiki/RIM-116_Rolling_Airframe_Missile" title="RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile">RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile</a>, which is smaller, faster, and allows for mid-flight course correction (guidance) to ensure a hit. To bridge the gap between guns and missiles, Russia in particular produces the <a href="/wiki/Kashtan_CIWS" title="Kashtan CIWS">Kashtan CIWS</a>, which uses both guns and missiles for final defence with two six-barrelled 30 mm <a href="/wiki/Gryazev-Shipunov_GSh-6-30" title="Gryazev-Shipunov GSh-6-30">Gsh-6-30</a> rotary canon and eight <a href="/wiki/9M311" class="mw-redirect" title="9M311">9M311</a> surface-to-air missiles provide for its defensive capabilities. </p><p>Upsetting this development to all-missile systems is the current move to <a href="/wiki/Stealth_aircraft" title="Stealth aircraft">stealth aircraft</a>. Long range missiles depend on long-range detection to provide significant lead. Stealth designs cut detection ranges so much that the aircraft is often never even seen, and when it is, it is often too late for an intercept. Systems for detection and tracking of stealthy aircraft are a major problem for anti-aircraft development. </p><p>However, as <a href="/wiki/Stealth_technology" title="Stealth technology">stealth technology</a> grows, so does anti-stealth technology. Multiple transmitter radars such as those from <a href="/wiki/Bistatic_radar" title="Bistatic radar">bistatic radars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Low-frequency_radar" title="Low-frequency radar">low-frequency radars</a> are said to have the capabilities to detect stealth aircraft. Advanced forms of <a href="/wiki/Thermographic_camera" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermographic camera">thermographic cameras</a> such as those that incorporate <a href="/wiki/Quantum_well_infrared_photodetector" title="Quantum well infrared photodetector">QWIPs</a> would be able to optically see a stealth aircraft regardless of the aircraft's <a href="/wiki/Radar_cross-section" class="mw-redirect" title="Radar cross-section">radar cross-section</a> (RCS). In addition, side-looking radars, high-powered <a href="/wiki/Optical" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical">optical</a> <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellites</a>, and sky-scanning, high-<a href="/wiki/Aperture" title="Aperture">aperture</a>, high sensitivity <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radars</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Radio_telescope" title="Radio telescope">radio telescopes</a>, would all be able to narrow down the location of a stealth aircraft under certain parameters.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The newest SAMs have a claimed ability to be able to detect and engage stealth targets, with the most notable being the Russian <a href="/wiki/S-400_(SAM)" class="mw-redirect" title="S-400 (SAM)">S-400</a>, which is claimed to be able to detect a target with a 0.05-square metre RCS from 90 km away.<sup id="cite_ref-aus_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aus-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another potential weapon system for anti-aircraft use is the <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">laser</a>. Although air planners have imagined lasers in combat since the late 1960s, only the most modern laser systems are currently reaching what could be considered "experimental usefulness". In particular the <a href="/wiki/Tactical_High_Energy_Laser" title="Tactical High Energy Laser">Tactical High Energy Laser</a> can be used in the anti-aircraft and anti-missile role. The <a href="/wiki/ALKA_(weapon)" title="ALKA (weapon)">ALKA</a> <a href="/wiki/Directed-energy_weapon" title="Directed-energy weapon">directed-energy weapon</a> (DEW) system is a Turkish dual electromagnetic/laser weapon developed by <a href="/wiki/Roketsan" title="Roketsan">Roketsan</a> allegedly used to destroy one of <a href="/wiki/General_National_Congress" title="General National Congress">GNC's</a> <a href="/wiki/Wing_Loong_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Wing Loong II">Wing Loong II</a> <a href="/wiki/Unmanned_Aerial_Vehicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Unmanned Aerial Vehicle">UAVs</a>; if true, this would represent the first known time a vehicle mounted combat laser was used to destroy another combat vehicle during genuine wartime conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The future of projectile based weapons may be found in the <a href="/wiki/Railgun" title="Railgun">railgun</a>. Currently tests are underway on developing systems that could create as much damage as a <a href="/wiki/Tomahawk_(missile_family)" title="Tomahawk (missile family)">Tomahawk</a>, but at a fraction of the cost. In February 2008 the <a href="/wiki/US_Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="US Navy">US Navy</a> tested a railgun; it fired a shell at 5,600 miles (9,000 km) per hour using 10 megajoules of energy. Its expected performance is over 13,000 miles (21,000 km) per hour muzzle velocity, accurate enough to hit a 5-metre target from 200 nautical miles (370 km) away while shooting at 10 shots per minute. It is expected to be ready in 2020 to 2025.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These systems, while currently designed for static targets, would only need the ability to be retargeted to become the next generation of AA system. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Force_structures">Force structures</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-aircraft_warfare&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Force structures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Category:Air_defence_forces" title="Category:Air defence forces">Category:Air defence forces</a></div> <p>Most Western and Commonwealth militaries integrate air defence purely with the traditional services of the military (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Army" title="Army">army</a>, <a href="/wiki/Navy" title="Navy">navy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Air_force" title="Air force">air force</a>), as a <a href="/wiki/Military_branch" title="Military branch">separate arm</a> or as part of artillery. In the <a href="/wiki/British_Army" title="British Army">British Army</a> for instance, air defence is part of the artillery arm, while in the <a href="/wiki/Pakistan_Army" title="Pakistan Army">Pakistan Army</a>, it was split off from the artillery to form a separate arm of its own in 1990. This is in contrast to some (largely communist or ex-communist) countries where not only are there provisions for air defence in the army, navy and air force but there are specific branches that deal only with the air defence of territory, for example, the Soviet <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Air_Defence_Forces" title="Soviet Air Defence Forces">PVO Strany</a>. The <a href="/wiki/USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR">USSR</a> also had a separate strategic rocket force in charge of <a href="/wiki/Thermonuclear_weapon" title="Thermonuclear weapon">nuclear</a> <a href="/wiki/Intercontinental_ballistic_missile" title="Intercontinental ballistic missile">intercontinental ballistic missiles</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Navy">Navy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-aircraft_warfare&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Navy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AK-630_30_mm_naval_CIWS_gun.JPEG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/AK-630_30_mm_naval_CIWS_gun.JPEG/220px-AK-630_30_mm_naval_CIWS_gun.JPEG" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/AK-630_30_mm_naval_CIWS_gun.JPEG/330px-AK-630_30_mm_naval_CIWS_gun.JPEG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/AK-630_30_mm_naval_CIWS_gun.JPEG/440px-AK-630_30_mm_naval_CIWS_gun.JPEG 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1993" /></a><figcaption>Soviet/Russian <a href="/wiki/AK-630" title="AK-630">AK-630</a> <a href="/wiki/Close-in_weapon_system" title="Close-in weapon system">CIWS (close-in weapon system)</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BGT_IDAS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/BGT_IDAS.jpg/220px-BGT_IDAS.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/BGT_IDAS.jpg/330px-BGT_IDAS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/BGT_IDAS.jpg/440px-BGT_IDAS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1711" data-file-height="917" /></a><figcaption>Model of the multirole <a href="/wiki/IDAS_(missile)" title="IDAS (missile)">IDAS missile</a> of the <a href="/wiki/German_Navy" title="German Navy">German Navy</a>, which can be fired from submerged anti-aircraft weapon systems</figcaption></figure><p> Smaller boats and ships typically have machine-guns or fast cannons, which can often be deadly to low-flying aircraft if linked to a <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a>-directed <a href="/wiki/Fire-control_system" title="Fire-control system">fire-control system</a> <a href="/wiki/Close-in_weapon_system" title="Close-in weapon system">radar-controlled cannon</a> for point defence. Some vessels like <a href="/wiki/Aegis_combat_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Aegis combat system">Aegis</a>-equipped destroyers and cruisers are as much a threat to aircraft as any land-based air defence system. In general, naval vessels should be treated with respect by aircraft, however the reverse is equally true. <a href="/wiki/Carrier_battle_group" title="Carrier battle group">Carrier battle groups</a> are especially well defended, as not only do they typically consist of many vessels with heavy air defence armament but they are also able to launch <a href="/wiki/Fighter_jet" class="mw-redirect" title="Fighter jet">fighter jets</a> for <a href="/wiki/Combat_air_patrol" title="Combat air patrol">combat air patrol</a> overhead to intercept incoming airborne threats. </p><p>Nations such as Japan use their SAM-equipped vessels to create an outer air defence perimeter and <a href="/wiki/Radar_picket" title="Radar picket">radar picket</a> in the defence of its Home islands, and the United States also uses its Aegis-equipped ships as part of its <a href="/wiki/Aegis_Ballistic_Missile_Defense_System" title="Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System">Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System</a> in the defence of the Continental United States. </p><p>Some modern submarines, such as the <a href="/wiki/Type_212_submarine" class="mw-redirect" title="Type 212 submarine">Type 212 submarines</a> of the <a href="/wiki/German_Navy" title="German Navy">German Navy</a>, are equipped with surface-to-air missile systems, since helicopters and <a href="/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare" title="Anti-submarine warfare">anti-submarine warfare</a> aircraft are significant threats. The subsurface launched anti-air missile was first purposed by US Navy Rear Admiral Charles B. Momsen, in a 1953 article.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Layered_air_defence">Layered air defence</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-aircraft_warfare&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Layered air defence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RIM-67_intercepts_Firebee_drone_at_White_Sands_1980.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/RIM-67_intercepts_Firebee_drone_at_White_Sands_1980.jpg/220px-RIM-67_intercepts_Firebee_drone_at_White_Sands_1980.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/RIM-67_intercepts_Firebee_drone_at_White_Sands_1980.jpg/330px-RIM-67_intercepts_Firebee_drone_at_White_Sands_1980.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/RIM-67_intercepts_Firebee_drone_at_White_Sands_1980.jpg/440px-RIM-67_intercepts_Firebee_drone_at_White_Sands_1980.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/RIM-67_Standard" title="RIM-67 Standard">RIM-67</a> surface to air missile intercepts a <a href="/wiki/Firebee" class="mw-redirect" title="Firebee">Firebee</a> drone at <a href="/wiki/White_Sands,_New_Mexico" title="White Sands, New Mexico">White Sands</a>, 1980.</figcaption></figure> <p>Layered air defence in naval tactics, especially within a carrier group, is often built around a system of concentric layers with the aircraft carrier at the centre. The outer layer will usually be provided by the carrier's aircraft, specifically its <a href="/wiki/Airborne_early_warning_and_control" title="Airborne early warning and control">AEW&C</a> aircraft combined with the <a href="/wiki/Combat_air_patrol" title="Combat air patrol">CAP</a>. If an attacker is able to penetrate this layer, then the next layers would come from the <a href="/wiki/Surface-to-air_missile" title="Surface-to-air missile">surface-to-air missiles</a> carried by the carrier's escorts; the area-defence missiles, such as the <a href="/wiki/RIM-67_Standard" title="RIM-67 Standard">RIM-67 Standard</a>, with a range of up to 100 nmi, and the point-defence missiles, like the <a href="/wiki/RIM-162_ESSM" title="RIM-162 ESSM">RIM-162 ESSM</a>, with a range of up to 30 nmi. Finally, virtually every modern warship will be fitted with small-calibre guns, including a <a href="/wiki/Close-in_weapon_system" title="Close-in weapon system">CIWS</a>, which is usually a radar-controlled <a href="/wiki/Gatling_gun" title="Gatling gun">Gatling gun</a> of between 20 mm and 30 mm calibre capable of firing several thousand rounds per minute.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Army">Army</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-aircraft_warfare&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Army"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Anti-aircraft_warfare" title="Special:EditPage/Anti-aircraft warfare">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Armies typically have air defence in depth, from integral <a href="/wiki/Man-portable_air-defense_system" title="Man-portable air-defense system">man-portable air-defense systems</a> (MANPADS) such as the <a href="/wiki/RBS_70" title="RBS 70">RBS 70</a>, <a href="/wiki/FIM-92_Stinger" title="FIM-92 Stinger">Stinger</a> and <a href="/wiki/9K38_Igla" title="9K38 Igla">Igla</a> at smaller force levels up to army-level missile defence systems such as <a href="/wiki/SA-10_Grumble" class="mw-redirect" title="SA-10 Grumble">Angara</a> and <a href="/wiki/MIM-104_Patriot" title="MIM-104 Patriot">Patriot</a>. Often, the high-altitude long-range missile systems force aircraft to fly at low level, where anti-aircraft guns can bring them down. As well as the small and large systems, for effective air defence there must be intermediate systems. These may be deployed at regiment-level and consist of platoons of self-propelled anti-aircraft platforms, whether they are <a href="/wiki/Self-propelled_anti-aircraft_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-propelled anti-aircraft gun">self-propelled anti-aircraft guns</a> (SPAAGs), integrated air-defence systems like <a href="/wiki/2K22_Tunguska" title="2K22 Tunguska">2K22 Tunguska</a> or all-in-one surface-to-air missile platforms like <a href="/wiki/Roland_(missile)" title="Roland (missile)">Roland</a> or <a href="/wiki/9K33_Osa" title="9K33 Osa">SA-8 Gecko</a>. </p><p>On a national level the United States Army was atypical in that it was primarily responsible for the missile air defences of the Continental United States with systems such as <a href="/wiki/Project_Nike" title="Project Nike">Project Nike</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Air_force">Air force</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-aircraft_warfare&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Air force"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aircraft_Combat_Archer_(2565196807).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Aircraft_Combat_Archer_%282565196807%29.jpg/220px-Aircraft_Combat_Archer_%282565196807%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Aircraft_Combat_Archer_%282565196807%29.jpg/330px-Aircraft_Combat_Archer_%282565196807%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Aircraft_Combat_Archer_%282565196807%29.jpg/440px-Aircraft_Combat_Archer_%282565196807%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1663" data-file-height="968" /></a><figcaption>A USAF <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_Martin_F-22_Raptor" title="Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor">F-22A Raptor</a> firing an <a href="/wiki/AIM-120_AMRAAM" title="AIM-120 AMRAAM">AIM-120</a> air to air missile</figcaption></figure> <p>Air defence by air forces is typically provided by <a href="/wiki/Fighter_jet" class="mw-redirect" title="Fighter jet">fighter jets</a> carrying <a href="/wiki/Air-to-air_missile" title="Air-to-air missile">air-to-air missiles</a>. However, most air forces choose to augment airbase defence with surface-to-air missile systems as they are such valuable targets and subject to attack by enemy aircraft. In addition, some countries choose to put all air defence responsibilities under the air force. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Area_air_defence">Area air defence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-aircraft_warfare&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Area air defence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Area air defence, the air defence of a specific area or location, (as opposed to <a href="/wiki/Point-defence" title="Point-defence">point defence</a>), have historically been operated by both armies (<a href="/wiki/Anti-Aircraft_Command" title="Anti-Aircraft Command">Anti-Aircraft Command</a> in the British Army, for instance) and Air Forces (the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">United States Air Force</a>'s <a href="/wiki/CIM-10_Bomarc" title="CIM-10 Bomarc">CIM-10 Bomarc</a>). Area defence systems have medium to long range and can be made up of various other systems and networked into an area defence system (in which case it may be made up of several short range systems combined to effectively cover an area). An example of area defence is the defence of Saudi Arabia and Israel by <a href="/wiki/MIM-104_Patriot" title="MIM-104 Patriot">MIM-104 Patriot</a> missile batteries during the first <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a>, where the objective was to cover populated areas. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tactics">Tactics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-aircraft_warfare&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Tactics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mobility">Mobility</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-aircraft_warfare&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Mobility"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Anti-aircraft_warfare" title="Special:EditPage/Anti-aircraft warfare">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pantsir-S1_SAM_at_Engineering_Technologies_2012.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Pantsir-S1_SAM_at_Engineering_Technologies_2012.jpg/220px-Pantsir-S1_SAM_at_Engineering_Technologies_2012.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Pantsir-S1_SAM_at_Engineering_Technologies_2012.jpg/330px-Pantsir-S1_SAM_at_Engineering_Technologies_2012.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Pantsir-S1_SAM_at_Engineering_Technologies_2012.jpg/440px-Pantsir-S1_SAM_at_Engineering_Technologies_2012.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5616" data-file-height="3744" /></a><figcaption>The Russian <a href="/wiki/Pantsir-S1" class="mw-redirect" title="Pantsir-S1">Pantsir-S1</a> can engage targets while moving, thus achieving high survivability.</figcaption></figure> <p>Most modern air defence systems are fairly mobile. Even the larger systems tend to be mounted on trailers and are designed to be fairly quickly broken down or set up. In the past, this was not always the case. Early missile systems were cumbersome and required much infrastructure; many could not be moved at all. With the diversification of air defence there has been much more emphasis on mobility. Most modern systems are usually either self-propelled (i.e. guns or missiles are mounted on a truck or tracked chassis) or towed. Even systems that consist of many components (<a href="/wiki/Transporter_erector_launcher" title="Transporter erector launcher">transporter/erector/launchers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radars</a>, command posts etc.) benefit from being mounted on a fleet of vehicles. In general, a fixed system can be identified, attacked and destroyed whereas a mobile system can show up in places where it is not expected. Soviet systems especially concentrate on mobility, after the lessons learnt in the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam war</a> between the US and Vietnam with the <a href="/wiki/SA-2_Guideline" class="mw-redirect" title="SA-2 Guideline">SA-2 Guideline</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Air_defence_versus_air_defence_suppression">Air defence versus air defence suppression</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-aircraft_warfare&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Air defence versus air defence suppression"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AGM-88_and_AIM-9_on_Tornado.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/AGM-88_and_AIM-9_on_Tornado.jpg/220px-AGM-88_and_AIM-9_on_Tornado.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/AGM-88_and_AIM-9_on_Tornado.jpg/330px-AGM-88_and_AIM-9_on_Tornado.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/AGM-88_and_AIM-9_on_Tornado.jpg/440px-AGM-88_and_AIM-9_on_Tornado.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2394" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/AGM-88_HARM" title="AGM-88 HARM">AGM-88 HARM</a> under the fuselage ofn a <a href="/wiki/German_Air_Force" title="German Air Force"><i>Luftwaffe</i></a> <a href="/wiki/Panavia_Tornado" title="Panavia Tornado">Panavia Tornado</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Israel and the US Air Force<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, in conjunction with the members of <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a>, have developed significant tactics for <a href="/wiki/Suppression_of_Enemy_Air_Defences" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppression of Enemy Air Defences">air defence suppression</a>. Dedicated weapons such as <a href="/wiki/Anti-radiation_missile" title="Anti-radiation missile">anti-radiation missiles</a> and advanced <a href="/wiki/Electronics_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronics intelligence">electronics intelligence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electronic_countermeasures" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic countermeasures">electronic countermeasures</a> platforms seek to suppress or negate the effectiveness of an opposing air-defence system. It is an arms race; as better jamming, countermeasures and anti-radiation weapons are developed, so are better SAM systems with <a href="/wiki/Electronic_counter-countermeasure" title="Electronic counter-countermeasure">ECCM</a> capabilities and the ability to shoot down anti-radiation missiles and other munitions aimed at them or the targets they are defending. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Insurgent_tactics">Insurgent tactics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-aircraft_warfare&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Insurgent tactics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/FIM-92_Stinger" title="FIM-92 Stinger">Stinger missiles</a> supplied by the United States were used against the aircraft of the Soviet Union by the <a href="/wiki/Afghan_mujahidin" class="mw-redirect" title="Afghan mujahidin">Afghan <i>mujahideen</i></a> during the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan in the Cold War. <a href="/wiki/Rocket-propelled_grenades" class="mw-redirect" title="Rocket-propelled grenades">Rocket-propelled grenades</a> (RPGs) can be—and often are—used against hovering helicopters (e.g., by Somali militiamen during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mogadishu_(1993)" title="Battle of Mogadishu (1993)">1993 Battle of Mogadishu</a>. Firing an RPG at steep angles poses a danger to the user, because the backblast from firing reflects off the ground. In Somalia, militia members sometimes welded a steel plate onto the exhaust end of an RPG's tube to deflect pressure away from the shooter when shooting up at US helicopters.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> RPGs are used in this role only when more effective weapons are not available. </p><p>Another example of using RPGs against helicopters is <a href="/wiki/Operation_Anaconda" title="Operation Anaconda">Operation Anaconda</a> in March 2002 in Afghanistan. Taliban insurgents defending <a href="/wiki/Shah-i-Kot_Valley" title="Shah-i-Kot Valley">Shah-i-Kot Valley</a> used RPGs in a direct fire role against landing helicopters. Four rangers were killed<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> when their helicopter was shot down by an RPG, and SEAL team member Neil C. Roberts fell out of his helicopter when it was hit by two RPGs.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other instances helicopters have been shot down in Afghanistan during a mission<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in Wardak province. One feature that makes RPGs useful in air defence is that they are fused to automatically detonate at 920 m.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If aimed into the air this causes the warhead to airburst which can release a limited but potentially damaging amount of shrapnel hitting a helicopter landing or taking off.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>For insurgents the most effective method of <a href="/wiki/Offensive_counter_air" title="Offensive counter air">countering aircraft</a> is to attempt to destroy them on the ground, either by penetrating an airbase perimeter and destroying aircraft individually, e.g. the <a href="/wiki/September_2012_Camp_Bastion_raid" class="mw-redirect" title="September 2012 Camp Bastion raid">September 2012 Camp Bastion raid</a>, or finding a position where aircraft can be engaged with indirect fire, such as mortars. A recent trend emerging during the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Civil War">Syrian Civil War</a> is the use of <a href="/wiki/ATGM" class="mw-redirect" title="ATGM">ATGM</a> against landing helicopters.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-aircraft_warfare&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Defence_Forces#Air_Defence_Forces" title="Defence Forces">Air defence forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_supremacy" title="Air supremacy">Air supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_laying" title="Gun laying">Gun laying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anti-aircraft_weapons" title="List of anti-aircraft weapons">List of anti-aircraft weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-propelled_anti-aircraft_weapon" title="Self-propelled anti-aircraft weapon">Self-propelled anti-aircraft weapon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_bomber_will_always_get_through" title="The bomber will always get through">The bomber will always get through</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-aircraft_warfare&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-aircraft_warfare&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWragg1973" class="citation book cs1">Wragg, David W. 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Osprey. p. 37.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Aviation&rft.pages=37&rft.pub=Osprey&rft.date=1973&rft.aulast=Wragg&rft.aufirst=David+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-aircraft+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AAP-6-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AAP-6_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AAP-6_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AAP-6_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AAP-6_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AAP-6_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">AAP-6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/1600?redirectedFrom=ack-ack">"ack-ack, adj. and n.".</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924085455/http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/1600?redirectedFrom=ack-ack">Archived</a> 24 September 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> OED Online. September 2013. Oxford University Press. (accessed 14 September 2013).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rafweb.org/Biographies/Borton.htm">"Air Vice-Marshal A E Borton"</a>. <i>Air of Authority – A History of RAF Organisation</i>. Rafweb.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090303222503/http://www.rafweb.org/Biographies/Borton.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 3 March 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Air+of+Authority+%E2%80%93+A+History+of+RAF+Organisation&rft.atitle=Air+Vice-Marshal+A+E+Borton&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rafweb.org%2FBiographies%2FBorton.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-aircraft+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080514025728/http://mw1.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/flak">"flak"</a>. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mw1.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/flak">the original</a> on 14 May 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 June</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=flak&rft.pub=Merriam-Webster+Online+Dictionary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmw1.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fflak&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-aircraft+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBellamy1986219-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellamy1986219_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBellamy1986">Bellamy 1986</a>, p. 219.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">le petit Larousse 2013 p20–p306</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hogg WW2 pg 99–100</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHearst_Magazines1930" class="citation magazine cs1">Hearst Magazines (December 1930). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qOIDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA895">"Huge Ear Locates Planes and Tells Their Speed"</a>. <i>Popular Mechanics</i>. Hearst Magazines. p. 895.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Mechanics&rft.atitle=Huge+Ear+Locates+Planes+and+Tells+Their+Speed&rft.pages=895&rft.date=1930-12&rft.au=Hearst+Magazines&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqOIDAAAAMBAJ%26pg%3DPA895&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-aircraft+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Checkland and Holwell pg. 127</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoutledge1994456-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoutledge1994456_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoutledge1994">Routledge 1994</a>, p. 456.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDahl1999" class="citation book cs1">Dahl, Per F. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/45728821"><i>Heavy water and the wartime race for nuclear energy</i></a>. Bristol [England]: Institute of Physics. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-585-25449-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-585-25449-4"><bdi>0-585-25449-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/45728821">45728821</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heavy+water+and+the+wartime+race+for+nuclear+energy&rft.place=Bristol+%5BEngland%5D&rft.pub=Institute+of+Physics&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F45728821&rft.isbn=0-585-25449-4&rft.aulast=Dahl&rft.aufirst=Per+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F45728821&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-aircraft+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBellamy198682-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellamy198682_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBellamy1986">Bellamy 1986</a>, p. 82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBellamy1986213-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellamy1986213_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBellamy1986">Bellamy 1986</a>, p. 213.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beckett 2008, 178.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoutledge1994396–397-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoutledge1994396–397_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoutledge1994">Routledge 1994</a>, p. 396–397.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Spring 2007 issue of the American Association of Aviation Historians Journal</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.turkeyswar.com/prelude/turcoitalianwar/">"Turco-Italian War"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Turco-Italian+War&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.turkeyswar.com%2Fprelude%2Fturcoitalianwar%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-aircraft+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James D. Crabtree: On air defense, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0275947920" title="Special:BookSources/0275947920">0275947920</a>, Greenwood Publishing Group, page 9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Essential Militaria: Facts, Legends, and Curiosities About Warfare Through the Ages, Nicholas Hobbs, Atlantic Monthly Press 2004, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8021-1772-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8021-1772-4">0-8021-1772-4</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bethel pg 56–80</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoutledge19943-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoutledge19943_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoutledge1994">Routledge 1994</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoutledge19944-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoutledge19944_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoutledge19944_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoutledge1994">Routledge 1994</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHearst_Magazines1911" class="citation magazine cs1">Hearst Magazines (December 1911). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-t0DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA776">"New American Aerial Weapons"</a>. <i>Popular Mechanics</i>. Hearst Magazines. p. 776.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Mechanics&rft.atitle=New+American+Aerial+Weapons&rft.pages=776&rft.date=1911-12&rft.au=Hearst+Magazines&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-t0DAAAAMBAJ%26pg%3DPA776&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-aircraft+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalgeographic.rs/vesti/3842-prvi-ratni-avion-oboren-u-istoriji-pao-na-kragujevac.html">"How was the first military airplane shot down"</a>. <i>National Geographic</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150831011608/http://www.nationalgeographic.rs/vesti/3842-prvi-ratni-avion-oboren-u-istoriji-pao-na-kragujevac.html">Archived</a> from the original on 31 August 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 August</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic&rft.atitle=How+was+the+first+military+airplane+shot+down&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.rs%2Fvesti%2F3842-prvi-ratni-avion-oboren-u-istoriji-pao-na-kragujevac.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-aircraft+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141006071649/http://www.thefirstworldwar.net/licnosti/ucesnici-ratova/ljutovac-radoje/">"Ljutovac, Radoje"</a>. Amanet Society. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thefirstworldwar.net/licnosti/ucesnici-ratova/ljutovac-radoje/">the original</a> on 6 October 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 August</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ljutovac%2C+Radoje&rft.pub=Amanet+Society&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thefirstworldwar.net%2Flicnosti%2Fucesnici-ratova%2Fljutovac-radoje%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-aircraft+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pecat.co.rs/2014/09/radoje-raka-ljutovac-prvi-u-svetu-oborio-avion-topom/">"Radoje Raka Ljutovac – first person in the world to shoot down an airplane with a cannon"</a>. Pečat. 30 September 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150812103535/http://www.pecat.co.rs/2014/09/radoje-raka-ljutovac-prvi-u-svetu-oborio-avion-topom/">Archived</a> from the original on 12 August 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 August</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Radoje+Raka+Ljutovac+%E2%80%93+first+person+in+the+world+to+shoot+down+an+airplane+with+a+cannon&rft.pub=Pe%C4%8Dat&rft.date=2014-09-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pecat.co.rs%2F2014%2F09%2Fradoje-raka-ljutovac-prvi-u-svetu-oborio-avion-topom%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-aircraft+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoutledge19945-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoutledge19945_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoutledge1994">Routledge 1994</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoutledge19946-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoutledge19946_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoutledge1994">Routledge 1994</a>, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Ministry of Munitions pg 40–41</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoutledge19948–17-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoutledge19948–17_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoutledge1994">Routledge 1994</a>, p. 8–17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoutledge199414–15-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoutledge199414–15_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoutledge1994">Routledge 1994</a>, p. 14–15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoutledge199414–20-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoutledge199414–20_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoutledge1994">Routledge 1994</a>, p. 14–20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Ministry of Munitions pg 11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoutledge199448-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoutledge199448_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoutledge1994">Routledge 1994</a>, p. 48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoutledge199449-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoutledge199449_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoutledge199449_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoutledge1994">Routledge 1994</a>, p. 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoutledge199450-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoutledge199450_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoutledge1994">Routledge 1994</a>, p. 50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoutledge199495-97-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoutledge199495-97_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoutledge1994">Routledge 1994</a>, p. 95-97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHogg199714-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHogg199714_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHogg1997">Hogg 1997</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHogg1997162–177-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHogg1997162–177_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHogg1997">Hogg 1997</a>, p. 162–177.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hogg Allied WW2 pg 97–107</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hogg Allied WW2 pg 114–119</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hogg Allied WW2 pg 108–110</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHogg1997144–147-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHogg1997144–147_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHogg1997">Hogg 1997</a>, p. 144–147.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHogg1997150–152-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHogg1997150–152_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHogg1997">Hogg 1997</a>, p. 150–152.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHogg1997155–156-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHogg1997155–156_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHogg1997">Hogg 1997</a>, p. 155–156.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hogg Allied WW2 pg 115–117</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHearst_Magazines1931" class="citation magazine cs1">Hearst Magazines (December 1931). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0-IDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA944">"Uncle Sam's Latest Weapons For War in the Air"</a>. <i>Popular Mechanics</i>. Hearst Magazines. p. 944.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Mechanics&rft.atitle=Uncle+Sam%27s+Latest+Weapons+For+War+in+the+Air&rft.pages=944&rft.date=1931-12&rft.au=Hearst+Magazines&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0-IDAAAAMBAJ%26pg%3DPA944&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-aircraft+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hogg Allied WW2 pg 127–130</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hogg Allied WW2 pg 131</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoutledge199456-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoutledge199456_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoutledge1994">Routledge 1994</a>, p. 56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedman, Norman Naval Anti-Aircraft Guns and Gunnery Location 242</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedman, Norman Naval Anti-Aircraft Guns and Gunnery Location 266</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedman, Norman Naval Anti-Aircraft Guns and Gunnery Location 271</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedman, Norman Naval Anti-Aircraft Guns and Gunnery Location 1617</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedman, Norman Naval Anti-Aircraft Guns and Gunnery Location 1642</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.raf100schools.org.uk/files/download/61/1516097436">"The Battle of Britain"</a>. <i>raf100schools.org.uk</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180917182108/https://www.raf100schools.org.uk/files/download/61/1516097436">Archived</a> from the original on 17 September 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=raf100schools.org.uk&rft.atitle=The+Battle+of+Britain&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.raf100schools.org.uk%2Ffiles%2Fdownload%2F61%2F1516097436&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-aircraft+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedman, 2014 Location 8687</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedman, 2014 Location 8713</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bulletin of Ordnance Information, No.245, pp. 54–60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedman, 2014 Location 8620</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedman, 2014 Location 8956-8620</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.navweaps.com/Weapons/WNUS_1-1-75_mk1.php">"USA 1.1"/75 (28 mm) Mark 1 and Mark 2 - NavWeaps"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180930212147/http://www.navweaps.com/Weapons/WNUS_1-1-75_mk1.php">Archived</a> from the original on 30 September 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 March</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=USA+1.1%22%2F75+%2828+mm%29+Mark+1+and+Mark+2+-+NavWeaps&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.navweaps.com%2FWeapons%2FWNUS_1-1-75_mk1.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-aircraft+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.navweaps.com/Weapons/WNUS_5-38_mk12.php">"USA 5"/38 (12.7 cm) Mark 12 - NavWeaps"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170928150652/http://www.navweaps.com/Weapons/WNUS_5-38_mk12.php">Archived</a> from the original on 28 September 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 March</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=USA+5%22%2F38+%2812.7+cm%29+Mark+12+-+NavWeaps&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.navweaps.com%2FWeapons%2FWNUS_5-38_mk12.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-aircraft+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Silverstone 1968 pp. 112, 212, 215, 276, 303</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DxZdUuUDMcI">"Le Grand Veneur Keerbergen operation Antwerp X"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a></i>. 25 January 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161115093236/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DxZdUuUDMcI">Archived</a> from the original on 15 November 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 March</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YouTube&rft.atitle=Le+Grand+Veneur+Keerbergen+operation+Antwerp+X&rft.date=2014-01-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DDxZdUuUDMcI&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-aircraft+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Cruise Missile Defence: Defending Antwerp against the V-1</i>, Lt. Col. John A. Hamilton</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Defense of Antwerp Against the V-1 Missile</i>, R.J. Backus, LTC, Fort Leavenworth, KS, 1971</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-A2-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-A2_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/02/israel-shot-iranian-drone-syria-180210053946323.html">"Israeli F-16 jet shot down by Syria fire, says military"</a>. aljazeera.com. Aljazeera. 10 February 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190521214239/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/02/israel-shot-iranian-drone-syria-180210053946323.html">Archived</a> from the original on 21 May 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 March</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Israeli+F-16+jet+shot+down+by+Syria+fire%2C+says+military&rft.date=2018-02-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Fnews%2F2018%2F02%2Fisrael-shot-iranian-drone-syria-180210053946323.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-aircraft+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-A6-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-A6_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLubellBarrington2018" class="citation news cs1">Lubell, Maayan; Barrington, Lisa (10 February 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-iran/israeli-jet-shot-down-after-bombing-iranian-site-in-syria-idUSKBN1FU07L">"Israeli jet shot down after bombing Iranian site in Syria"</a>. <i>Reuters</i>. reuters.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190303140719/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-iran/israeli-jet-shot-down-after-bombing-iranian-site-in-syria-idUSKBN1FU07L">Archived</a> from the original on 3 March 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 March</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Israeli+jet+shot+down+after+bombing+Iranian+site+in+Syria&rft.date=2018-02-10&rft.aulast=Lubell&rft.aufirst=Maayan&rft.au=Barrington%2C+Lisa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-israel-iran%2Fisraeli-jet-shot-down-after-bombing-iranian-site-in-syria-idUSKBN1FU07L&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-aircraft+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-A1-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-A1_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.france24.com/en/20180210-israel-syria-iran-air-strike-fighter-jet-f16-drone">"Israeli jet crashes after attacking Iranian targets in Syria"</a>. france24.com. France24. 10 February 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181218183450/https://www.france24.com/en/20180210-israel-syria-iran-air-strike-fighter-jet-f16-drone">Archived</a> from the original on 18 December 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 March</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Israeli+jet+crashes+after+attacking+Iranian+targets+in+Syria&rft.date=2018-02-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.france24.com%2Fen%2F20180210-israel-syria-iran-air-strike-fighter-jet-f16-drone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-aircraft+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-A7-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-A7_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToi_Staff2018" class="citation news cs1">Toi Staff (11 February 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.timesofisrael.com/pilot-of-downed-f-16-jet-regains-consciousness-taken-off-respirator/">"Pilot of downed F-16 jet regains consciousness, taken off respirator"</a>. timesofisrael.com. The times of Israel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180213080808/https://www.timesofisrael.com/pilot-of-downed-f-16-jet-regains-consciousness-taken-off-respirator/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 February 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 March</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Pilot+of+downed+F-16+jet+regains+consciousness%2C+taken+off+respirator&rft.date=2018-02-11&rft.au=Toi+Staff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.timesofisrael.com%2Fpilot-of-downed-f-16-jet-regains-consciousness-taken-off-respirator%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-aircraft+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-A8-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-A8_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-43014081">"Syria shoots down Israeli warplane as conflict escalates"</a>. bbc.com. BBC News. 10 February 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190406010625/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-43014081">Archived</a> from the original on 6 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Air+Force+Magazine&rft.atitle=Investigation+Confirms+RPG+Downed+Chinook&rft.date=2011-10-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.airforcemag.com%2Finvestigationconfirmsrpgdownedchinook%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-aircraft+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://odin.tradoc.army.mil/WEG/Asset/RPG-7_Russia_Rocket-Propelled_Grenade_Launcher">"ODIN - OE Data Integration Network"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ODIN+-+OE+Data+Integration+Network&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fodin.tradoc.army.mil%2FWEG%2FAsset%2FRPG-7_Russia_Rocket-Propelled_Grenade_Launcher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-aircraft+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaaman2018" class="citation web cs1">Kaaman, Hugo [@HKaaman] (18 May 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://x.com/HKaaman/status/997447259150258176">"Anti-Tank Guided Missile (ATGM) strikes on helicopters during the Syrian Civil War - I made a short compilation detailing the 8 recorded ATGM strikes on helicopters in Syria. 3 strikes on parked helis, 2 on landing helis, 2 on helis after emergency landings & 1 on heli in-flight https://t.co/Za6azGABVV"</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tweet_(social_media)" title="Tweet (social media)">Tweet</a>)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 December</span> 2020</span> – via <a href="/wiki/Twitter" title="Twitter">Twitter</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Anti-Tank+Guided+Missile+%28ATGM%29+strikes+on+helicopters+during+the+Syrian+Civil+War+-+I+made+a+short+compilation+detailing+the+8+recorded+ATGM+strikes+on+helicopters+in+Syria.+3+strikes+on+parked+helis%2C+2+on+landing+helis%2C+2+on+helis+after+emergency+landings+%26+1+on+heli+in-flight+https%3A%2F%2Ft.co%2FZa6azGABVV&rft.date=2018-05-18&rft.aulast=Kaaman&rft.aufirst=Hugo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fx.com%2FHKaaman%2Fstatus%2F997447259150258176&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-aircraft+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-aircraft_warfare&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>AAP-6 NATO Glossary of Terms. 2009.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBellamy1986" class="citation book cs1">Bellamy, Chris (1986). <i>The Red God of War – Soviet Artillery and Rocket Forces</i>. London: Brassey's.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Red+God+of+War+%E2%80%93+Soviet+Artillery+and+Rocket+Forces&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Brassey%27s&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Bellamy&rft.aufirst=Chris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-aircraft+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Bethel, Colonel HA. 1911. "Modern Artillery in the Field". London: Macmillan and Co Ltd</li> <li>Checkland, Peter and Holwell, Sue. 1998. "Information, Systems and Information Systems – making sense of the field". Chichester: Wiley</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedman2014" class="citation book cs1">Friedman, Norman (2014). <i>Naval Anti-Aircraft Guns & Gunnery</i>. Seaforth. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781473852846" title="Special:BookSources/9781473852846"><bdi>9781473852846</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Naval+Anti-Aircraft+Guns+%26+Gunnery&rft.pub=Seaforth&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781473852846&rft.aulast=Friedman&rft.aufirst=Norman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-aircraft+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Gander, T 2014. "The Bofors gun", 3rd edn. Barnsley, South Yorkshire: Pen & Sword Military.</li> <li>Hogg, Ian V. 1998. "Allied Artillery of World War Two". Malborough: The Crowood Press <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86126-165-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-86126-165-9">1-86126-165-9</a></li> <li>Hogg, Ian V. 1998. "Allied Artillery of World War One" Malborough: The Crowood Press <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86126-104-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-86126-104-7">1-86126-104-7</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHogg1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ian_V._Hogg" title="Ian V. Hogg">Hogg, Ian V.</a> (1997). <i>German Artillery of World War Two</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Greenhill_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenhill Books">Greenhill Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85367-261-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-85367-261-0"><bdi>1-85367-261-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=German+Artillery+of+World+War+Two&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Greenhill+Books&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=1-85367-261-0&rft.aulast=Hogg&rft.aufirst=Ian+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-aircraft+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoutledge1994" class="citation book cs1">Routledge, Brigadier NW. (1994). <i>History of the Royal regiment of Artillery – Anti-Aircraft Artillery 1914–55</i>. London: Brassey's. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85753-099-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-85753-099-3"><bdi>1-85753-099-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Royal+regiment+of+Artillery+%E2%80%93+Anti-Aircraft+Artillery+1914%E2%80%9355&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Brassey%27s&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=1-85753-099-3&rft.aulast=Routledge&rft.aufirst=Brigadier+NW.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-aircraft+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Handbook for the Ordnance, Q.F. 3.7-inch Mark II on Mounting, 3.7-inch A.A. Mark II – Land Service. 1940. London: War Office 26|Manuals|2494</li> <li>History of the Ministry of Munitions. 1922. Volume X The Supply of Munitions, Part VI Anti-Aircraft Supplies. Reprinted by Naval & Military Press Ltd and Imperial War Museum.</li> <li>Flavia Foradini: <i>I bunker di Vienna", Abitare 2/2006, Milano</i></li> <li>Flavia Foradini, Edoardo Conte: <i>I templi incompiuti di Hitler", catalogo della mostra omonima, Milano, Spazio Guicciardini, 17.2-13.3.2009</i></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-aircraft_warfare&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Air_defense" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Air defense">Air defense</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ywzk73ahf00"><span class="plainlinks">"Flak (1943)"</span></a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alsace1418.fr"><i>1914 1918 war in Alsace – The Battle of Linge 1915 – The 63rd Anti Aircraft Regiment in 14 18 – The 96th poste semi-fixed in the Vosges</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080122025924/http://aupress.au.af.mil/catalog/books/Werrell_B28.htm"><i>Archie to SAM: A Short Operational History of Ground-Based Air Defense</i></a> by Kenneth P. Werrell (book available for download)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.j-aircraft.com/research/david_dickson/aa_doctrine.htm">Japanese Anti-aircraft land/vessel doctrines in 1943–44</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.antiaircraft.org.au/">2nd/3rd Australian Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Weapons" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Weapons" title="Template:Weapons"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Weapons" title="Template talk:Weapons"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Weapons" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Weapons"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Weapons" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Weapon" title="Weapon">Weapons</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_weapons" title="History of weapons">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_premodern_combat_weapons" title="List of premodern combat weapons">Premodern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Africa_Weapons" title="Template:Africa Weapons">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Chinese_weapons" title="Template:Chinese weapons">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_weapons" title="List of medieval weapons">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Japanese_swords" title="Glossary of Japanese swords">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_thermal_weapons" title="Early thermal weapons">Early thermal weapons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Modern_weapons" title="Category:Modern weapons">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_warfare" title="Early modern warfare">Early Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_weaponry_and_warfare" title="Napoleonic weaponry and warfare">Napoleonic Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_American_Indian_Wars_weapons" title="List of American Indian Wars weapons">American Indian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_weapons_of_the_War_of_the_Pacific&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of weapons of the War of the Pacific (page does not exist)">War of the Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_weapons_in_the_Crimean_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of weapons in the Crimean War (page does not exist)">Crimean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_weapons_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="List of weapons in the American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_weapons_of_the_War_of_the_Triple_Alliance&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of weapons of the War of the Triple Alliance (page does not exist)">War of the Triple Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_weapons_of_the_Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="List of weapons of the Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_weapons_of_the_Mexican_Revolution&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of weapons of the Mexican Revolution (page does not exist)">Mexican Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antique_firearms" title="Antique firearms">Antique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_firearms_before_the_20th_century" title="List of firearms before the 20th century">Pre-20th century firearms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Technology_during_World_War_I" title="Technology during World War I">World War I</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapons_in_World_War_I" title="Chemical weapons in World War I">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_weapons_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of World War I weapons of Australia (page does not exist)">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_weapons_of_Austria-Hungary&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of World War I weapons of Austria-Hungary (page does not exist)">Austria-Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_weapons_of_Belgium&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of World War I weapons of Belgium (page does not exist)">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_weapons_of_Bulgaria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of World War I weapons of Bulgaria (page does not exist)">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_weapons_of_Canada&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of World War I weapons of Canada (page does not exist)">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_weapons_of_France&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of World War I weapons of France (page does not exist)">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_German_weapons_of_World_War_I" title="List of German weapons of World War I">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_former_equipment_of_the_Hellenic_Armed_Forces#Interwar_(1923–1939)_and_World_War_II_(1940–1945)" title="List of former equipment of the Hellenic Armed Forces">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_weapons_of_India&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of World War I weapons of India (page does not exist)">India</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_weapons_of_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of World War I weapons of Italy (page does not exist)">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_weapons_of_Japan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of World War I weapons of Japan (page does not exist)">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_weapons_of_Montenegro&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of World War I weapons of Montenegro (page does not exist)">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_weapons_of_New_Zealand&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of World War I weapons of New Zealand (page does not exist)">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_weapons_of_Portugal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of World War I weapons of Portugal (page does not exist)">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_military_equipment_of_World_War_I" title="Romanian military equipment of World War I">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_weapons_of_Russia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of World War I weapons of Russia (page does not exist)">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_weapons_of_Serbia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of World War I weapons of Serbia (page does not exist)">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_weapons_of_Turkey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of World War I weapons of Turkey (page does not exist)">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_weapons_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of World War I weapons of the United Kingdom (page does not exist)">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_weapons_of_the_United_States&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of World War I weapons of the United States (page does not exist)">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_infantry_weapons_of_World_War_I" title="List of infantry weapons of World War I">Infantry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chaco_War_firearms" title="List of Chaco War firearms">Chaco War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_Civil_War_weapons_of_the_Nationalists" title="List of Spanish Civil War weapons of the Nationalists">Nationalist</a>/<a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_Civil_War_weapons_of_the_Republicans" title="List of Spanish Civil War weapons of the Republicans">Republican</a>)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weapons_of_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Weapons of the Second Sino-Japanese War (page does not exist)">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Japanese_infantry_weapons_used_in_the_Second-Sino_Japanese_War" title="List of Japanese infantry weapons used in the Second-Sino Japanese War">Japanese</a>/<a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_National_Revolutionary_Army_infantry_weapons_used_in_the_Second-Sino_Japanese_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of National Revolutionary Army infantry weapons used in the Second-Sino Japanese War (page does not exist)">National Revolutionary Army</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_weapons" title="List of World War II weapons">World War II</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Australian_military_equipment_of_World_War_II" title="List of Australian military equipment of World War II">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Austrian_military_equipment_of_World_War_II&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of Austrian military equipment of World War II (page does not exist)">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Belgian_military_equipment_of_World_War_II" title="List of Belgian military equipment of World War II">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Brazilian_military_equipment_of_World_War_II&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of Brazilian military equipment of World War II (page does not exist)">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Bulgarian_military_equipment_of_World_War_II" title="List of Bulgarian military equipment of World War II">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_equipment_of_the_Canadian_Army_in_World_War_II" title="List of military equipment of the Canadian Army in World War II">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_military_equipment_in_World_War_II" title="List of Chinese military equipment in World War II">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Croatian_military_equipment_of_World_War_II" title="List of Croatian military equipment of World War II">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Czechoslovakian_military_equipment_of_World_War_II&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of Czechoslovakian military equipment of World War II (page does not exist)">Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Danish_military_equipment_of_World_War_II" title="List of Danish military equipment of World War II">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Finnish_military_equipment_of_World_War_II" title="List of Finnish military equipment of World War II">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_weapons_of_France" title="List of World War II weapons of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_German_military_equipment_of_World_War_II" title="List of German military equipment of World War II">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_former_equipment_of_the_Hellenic_Armed_Forces#Interwar_(1923–1939)_and_World_War_II_(1940–1945)" title="List of former equipment of the Hellenic Armed Forces">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hungarian_military_equipment_of_World_War_II" title="List of Hungarian military equipment of World War II">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_Army_equipment_in_World_War_II" title="List of Italian Army equipment in World War II">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Japanese_military_equipment_of_World_War_II" title="List of Japanese military equipment of World War II">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Mexican_military_equipment_of_World_War_II&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of Mexican military equipment of World War II (page does not exist)">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Dutch_military_equipment_of_World_War_II" title="List of Dutch military equipment of World War II">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_New_Zealand_military_equipment_of_World_War_II&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of New Zealand military equipment of World War II (page does not exist)">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Norwegian_military_equipment_of_World_War_II" title="List of Norwegian military equipment of World War II">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_military_equipment_of_Poland" title="List of World War II military equipment of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Romanian_military_equipment_of_World_War_II" title="List of Romanian military equipment of World War II">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Soviet_Union_military_equipment_of_World_War_II" title="List of Soviet Union military equipment of World War II">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Thailand_military_equipment_of_World_War_II" title="List of Thailand military equipment of World War II">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_weapons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of World War II weapons of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_weapons_of_the_United_States" title="List of World War II weapons of the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Yugoslav_military_equipment_of_World_War_II" title="List of Yugoslav military equipment of World War II">Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_infantry_weapons" title="List of World War II infantry weapons">Infantry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>First Indochina War</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Korean_War_weapons" title="List of Korean War weapons">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapons_of_the_Vietnam_War" title="Weapons of the Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weapons_of_the_Six-Day_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Weapons of the Six-Day War (page does not exist)">Six-Day War</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weapons_of_the_Araguaia_Guerrilla_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Weapons of the Araguaia Guerrilla War (page does not exist)">Araguaia Guerilla War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_weapons_of_the_Portuguese_Colonial_War" title="List of weapons of the Portuguese Colonial War">Portuguese Colonial War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_weapons_of_the_Rhodesian_Bush_War" title="List of weapons of the Rhodesian Bush War">Rhodesian Bush War</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weapons_of_the_South_African_Border_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Weapons of the South African Border War (page does not exist)">South African Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapons_of_the_Cambodian_Civil_War" title="Weapons of the Cambodian Civil War">Cambodian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_military_equipment_of_Cambodian%E2%80%93Vietnamese_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List military equipment of Cambodian–Vietnamese War (page does not exist)">Cambodian–Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapons_of_the_Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Weapons of the Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapons_of_the_Laotian_Civil_War" title="Weapons of the Laotian Civil War">Laotian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_weapons_of_the_Lebanese_Civil_War" title="List of weapons of the Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weapons_of_the_Dominican_Civil_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Weapons of the Dominican Civil War (page does not exist)">Dominican Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weapons_of_the_Nicaraguan_Revolution&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Weapons of the Nicaraguan Revolution (page does not exist)">Nicaraguan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapons_of_the_Salvadoran_Civil_War" title="Weapons of the Salvadoran Civil War">Salvadoran Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_equipment_used_by_mujahideen_during_Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" class="mw-redirect" title="List of military equipment used by mujahideen during Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Gulf_War_military_equipment" title="List of Gulf War military equipment">Gulf War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-Cold_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-Cold War">Post-Cold War</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Yugoslav_Wars_military_equipment&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of Yugoslav Wars military equipment (page does not exist)">Yugoslav Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Afghanistan_War_military_equipment&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of Afghanistan War military equipment (page does not exist)">Afghanistan War</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Iraq_War_military_equipment&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of Iraq War military equipment (page does not exist)">Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Russo-Georgian_War_military_equipment&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of Russo-Georgian War military equipment (page does not exist)">Russo-Georgian War</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Syrian_Civil_War_military_equipment&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of Syrian Civil War military equipment (page does not exist)">Syrian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Russo-Ukrainian_War_military_equipment" title="List of Russo-Ukrainian War military equipment">Russo-Ukrainian War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aircraft_weapons" title="List of aircraft weapons">Aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amphibious_warfare" title="Amphibious warfare">Amphibious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancillary_weapon" title="Ancillary weapon">Ancillary</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Anti-aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-ballistic_weapon" title="Anti-ballistic weapon">Anti-ballistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-personnel_weapon" title="Anti-personnel weapon">Anti-personnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-tank_warfare" title="Anti-tank warfare">Anti-tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_denial_weapon" title="Area denial weapon">Area denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">Artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_agent" title="Biological agent">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blunt_instrument" title="Blunt instrument">Blunt instrument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceremonial_weapon" title="Ceremonial weapon">Ceremonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapon" title="Chemical weapon">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_weapon" title="Cold weapon">Cold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventional_weapon" title="Conventional weapon">Conventional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crew-served_weapon" title="Crew-served weapon">Crew-served</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberweapon" title="Cyberweapon">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deadly_weapon" title="Deadly weapon">Deadly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directed-energy_weapon" title="Directed-energy weapon">Directed-energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explosive_weapon" title="Explosive weapon">Explosive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Depth_charge" title="Depth charge">Depth charge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bombs" title="List of bombs">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firearm" title="Firearm">Firearm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_weapon" title="Hunting weapon">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Improvised_weapon" title="Improvised weapon">Improvised</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incendiary_device" title="Incendiary device">Incendiary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurgency_weapons_and_tactics" title="Insurgency weapons and tactics">Insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_martial_arts_weapons" title="List of martial arts weapons">Martial arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapon_of_mass_destruction" title="Weapon of mass destruction">Mass destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-lethal_weapon" title="Non-lethal weapon">Non-lethal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offensive_weapon" title="Offensive weapon">Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_pistol" title="Service pistol">Personal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumatic_weapon" title="Pneumatic weapon">Pneumatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_practice_weapons" title="List of practice weapons">Practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranged_weapon" title="Ranged weapon">Ranged</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_weapon" title="Space weapon">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tectonic_weapon" title="Tectonic weapon">Tectonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torpedo" title="Torpedo">Torpedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toy_gun" title="Toy gun">Toy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_vehicle" title="Military vehicle">Vehicle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Combat_vehicle" title="Combat vehicle">Combat</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arsenal" title="Arsenal">Arsenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arms_industry" title="Arms industry">Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapon_mount" title="Weapon mount">Mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_ownership" title="Gun ownership">Civilian gun ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapons_in_science_fiction" title="Weapons in science fiction">Science fiction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Weapons" title="Category:Weapons">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Military_branches" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Military_branches" title="Template:Military branches"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Military_branches" title="Template talk:Military branches"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Military_branches" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Military branches"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Military_branches" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Military_branches" class="mw-redirect" title="Military branches">Military branches</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_forces" title="Airborne forces">Airborne forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_force" title="Air force">Air force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army" title="Army">Army</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Air defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_guard" title="Border guard">Border guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coast_guard" title="Coast guard">Coast guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendarmerie" title="Gendarmerie">Gendarmerie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marines" title="Marines">Marines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missile_defence" class="mw-redirect" title="Missile defence">Missile defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_police" title="Military police">Military police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Militia" 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