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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Environment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Management</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Management-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Management subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>General management</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Specific_host_plant_symptoms_and_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Specific_host_plant_symptoms_and_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Specific host plant symptoms and management</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Specific_host_plant_symptoms_and_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Potato" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Potato"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Potato</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Potato-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tomato" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tomato"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Tomato</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tomato-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Banana" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Banana"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Banana</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Banana-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Importance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Importance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Importance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Importance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralstonia_solanacearum" title="Ralstonia solanacearum – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ralstonia solanacearum" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralstonia_solanacearum" title="Ralstonia solanacearum – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ralstonia solanacearum" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralstonia_solanacearum" title="Ralstonia solanacearum – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ralstonia solanacearum" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralstonia_solanacearum" title="Ralstonia solanacearum – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Ralstonia solanacearum" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%82" title="വാട്ടരോഗം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വാട്ടരോഗം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%87_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B0%D9%86%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%87" title="رالستينيه باذنجانيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="رالستينيه باذنجانيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9D%92%E6%9E%AF%E7%97%85%E8%8F%8C" title="青枯病菌 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="青枯病菌" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralstonia_solanacearum" title="Ralstonia solanacearum – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ralstonia solanacearum" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" 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style="display:none">Disease bacteria of tomato family, others</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <table class="infobox biota" style="text-align: left; width: 200px; font-size: 100%"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(220,235,245)"><i>Ralstonia solanacearum</i> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Ralstonia_solanacearum_symptoms.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Ralstonia_solanacearum_symptoms.jpg/250px-Ralstonia_solanacearum_symptoms.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Ralstonia_solanacearum_symptoms.jpg/330px-Ralstonia_solanacearum_symptoms.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Ralstonia_solanacearum_symptoms.jpg/500px-Ralstonia_solanacearum_symptoms.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2969" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 88%">Damage caused by <i>Ralstonia solanacearum</i> on tomato stem </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(220,235,245)"><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Scientific classification</a> <span class="plainlinks taxobox-edit-taxonomy skin-invert" style="font-size:smaller; float:right; padding-right:0.4em; margin-left:-3em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Template:Taxonomy/Ralstonia" title="Edit this classification"><img alt="Edit this classification" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/23px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/30px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></span> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Domain: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Kingdom: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pseudomonadati" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudomonadati">Pseudomonadati</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Phylum: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pseudomonadota" title="Pseudomonadota">Pseudomonadota</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Class: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Betaproteobacteria" title="Betaproteobacteria">Betaproteobacteria</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Order: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Burkholderiales" title="Burkholderiales">Burkholderiales</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Family: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Burkholderiaceae" title="Burkholderiaceae">Burkholderiaceae</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Genus: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ralstonia" title="Ralstonia"><i>Ralstonia</i></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Species: </td> <td><div style="display:inline" class="species"><i><b>R. solanacearum</b></i></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(220,235,245)"><a href="/wiki/Binomial_nomenclature" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><b><span class="binomial"><span style="font-weight:normal;"></span><i>Ralstonia solanacearum</i></span></b><br /><div style="font-size: 85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Erwin_Frink_Smith" title="Erwin Frink Smith">Smith</a> 1896) <br /> Yabuuchi et al 1995<sup id="cite_ref-Yabuuchi-et-al-1995_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yabuuchi-et-al-1995-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(220,235,245)"><a href="/wiki/Type_strain" class="mw-redirect" title="Type strain">Type strain</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atcc.org/common/catalog/numSearch/numResults.cfm?atccNum=11696">ATCC 11696</a> <br /> <p><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccug.se/default.cfm?page=search_record.cfm&id=2374&db=mc">CCUG 14272</a> <br /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.angers.inra.fr/cfbp/resultsuite.php?r0=2047&r1=Ralstonia%20solanacearum%20biovar%201&r2=Ralstonia&r3=solanacearum&r4=1&r5=&r6=souche%20type&r7=NCPPB%20325,%20ATCC%2011696,%20CIP%20104762,%20DSM%209544,%20ICMP%205712,%20LMG%202299&r8=&r9=Kelman%20A.%2060-1&r10=Lycopersicon%20esculentum&r11=&r12=1953&r13=Etats-Unis&r14=&r15=&r16=&r17=&r18=&r19=Organisme%20de%20quarantaine&r20=&r21=(Smith%201896)%20Yabuuchi%20et%20al.%201996">CFBP 2047</a> <br /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dsmz.de/microorganisms/html/strains/strain.dsm009544.html">DSM 9544</a> <br /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scd.landcareresearch.co.nz/Specimen/ICMP_5712">ICMP 5712</a> <br /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jcm.riken.jp/cgi-bin/jcm/jcm_number?JCM=10489">JCM 10489</a> <br /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bccm.belspo.be/db/lmg_strain_details.php?NUM=2299&COLTYPE=&LIST1=ALL%20FIELDS&TEXT1=&LIST2=ALL%20FIELDS&TEXT2=&LIST3=STRNUM&TEXT3=2299&LIST4=STRNUM&TEXT4=&LIST5=STRNUM&TEXT5=&CONJ=OR&RANGE=20">LMG 2299</a> <br /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.uni-corvinus.hu:8089/NCAIM/frameset.jsp">NCAIM B.01459</a> <br /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncppb.com/furtherinfo.cfm?ncppb_no=325">NCPPB 325</a> <br /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nrrl.ncaur.usda.gov/cgi-bin/usda/process.html">NRRL B-3212</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(220,235,245)"><a href="/wiki/Synonym_(taxonomy)" title="Synonym (taxonomy)">Synonyms</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: left"> <p><i>Burkholderia solanacearum</i> <small>(Smith 1896) Yabuuchi et al. 1993</small> <br /> <i>Bacillus solanacearum</i> <small>Smith 1896</small> <br /> <i>Pseudomonas solanacearum</i> <small>(Smith 1896) Smith 1914</small> <i>Pseudomonas batatae</i> <small>Cheng and Faan 1962</small> <br /> <i> Pseudomonas ricini</i> <small>(Archibald) Robbs 1954</small> </p> </td></tr> </tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238732961">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:transparent}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:white}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.biota .taxobox-edit-taxonomy img{background:transparent!important}body.skin-vector .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox{margin-top:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox tr.taxonrow td{padding:2px 10px}</style> <p><i><b>Ralstonia solanacearum</b></i> is an <a href="/wiki/Aerobic_organism" title="Aerobic organism">aerobic</a> non-spore-forming, <a href="/wiki/Gram-negative" class="mw-redirect" title="Gram-negative">Gram-negative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plant_pathogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant pathogen">plant pathogenic</a> bacterium. <i>R. solanacearum</i> is soil-borne and <a href="/wiki/Motile" class="mw-redirect" title="Motile">motile</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Polar_flagellar_tuft" class="mw-redirect" title="Polar flagellar tuft">polar flagellar tuft</a>. It colonises the <a href="/wiki/Xylem" title="Xylem">xylem</a>, causing bacterial <a href="/wiki/Wilting" title="Wilting">wilt</a> in a very wide range of potential host plants. It is known as <a href="/wiki/List_of_tobacco_diseases" title="List of tobacco diseases">Granville wilt</a> when it occurs in <a href="/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a>. Bacterial wilts of tomato, pepper, eggplant, and Irish potato caused by <i>R. solanacearum</i> were among the first diseases that <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Frink_Smith" title="Erwin Frink Smith">Erwin Frink Smith</a> proved to be caused by a bacterial pathogen. Because of its devastating lethality, <i>R. solanacearum</i> is now one of the more intensively studied phytopathogenic bacteria, and bacterial wilt of tomato is a model system for investigating mechanisms of pathogenesis.<sup id="cite_ref-Denny_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Denny-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Ralstonia</i> was until recently classified as <i><a href="/wiki/Pseudomonas" title="Pseudomonas">Pseudomonas</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Yabuuchi-et-al-1995_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yabuuchi-et-al-1995-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with similarity in most aspects,<sup id="cite_ref-Agrios-2005_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Agrios-2005-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> except that it does not produce fluorescent pigment like <i>Pseudomonas</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The genomes from different strains vary from 5.5 Mb up to 6 Mb, roughly being 3.5 Mb of a chromosome and 2 Mb of a megaplasmid.<sup id="cite_ref-Guarischi-Sousa_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guarischi-Sousa-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the strain GMI1000 was one of the first phytopathogenic bacteria to have its genome completed,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the strain UY031 was the first <i>R. solanacearum</i> to have its <a href="/wiki/DNA_methylation" title="DNA methylation">methylome</a> reported.<sup id="cite_ref-Guarischi-Sousa_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guarischi-Sousa-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within the <i>R. solanacearum</i> species complex, the four major monophyletic clusters of strains are termed <a href="/wiki/Phylotype" title="Phylotype">phylotypes</a>, that are geographically distinct: phylotypes I-IV are found in Asia, the Americas, Africa, and Oceania, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-Denny_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Denny-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Guarischi-Sousa_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guarischi-Sousa-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Ralstonia solanacearum</i> was once considered as a possible biological control agent for Kahili ginger (<i><a href="/wiki/Hedychium_gardnerianum" title="Hedychium gardnerianum">Hedychium gardnerianum</a></i>), a highly invasive species.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <i>R. solanacearum</i> is no longer used as a biological control for Kahili ginger in Hawaiian forests because of its wide host range. The ginger-parasitizing strain will infect numerous ginger species, including edible ginger (<i><a href="/wiki/Zingiber_officinale" class="mw-redirect" title="Zingiber officinale">Zingiber officinale</a></i>), shampoo ginger (<i><a href="/wiki/Zingiber_zerumbet" title="Zingiber zerumbet">Z. zerumbet</a></i>), and pink and red ginger (<i><a href="/wiki/Alpinia_purpurata" title="Alpinia purpurata">Alpinia purpurata</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hosts_and_symptoms">Hosts and symptoms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ralstonia_solanacearum&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Hosts and symptoms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ralstonis_wilt_symptom.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photo of tomato plant with Ralstonia wilt symptoms" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Ralstonis_wilt_symptom.jpg/220px-Ralstonis_wilt_symptom.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="314" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Ralstonis_wilt_symptom.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="269" data-file-height="384" /></a><figcaption> Photograph of tomato plant with <i>Ralstonia</i> wilt symptoms, Clemson University - USDA Cooperative Extension Slide Series</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hosts">Hosts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ralstonia_solanacearum&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Hosts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Plant hosts that <i>R. solanacearum</i> infects include: </p> <dl><dt>Crops</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Potato" title="Potato">Potato</a> (<i>Solanum tuberosum</i>); <a href="/wiki/Tomato" title="Tomato">tomato</a> (<i>Lycopersicum esculentum</i>);<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> soybean (<i><a href="/wiki/Glycine_max" class="mw-redirect" title="Glycine max">Glycine max</a></i>);<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Eggplant" title="Eggplant">eggplant</a>/aubergine (<i>Solanum melongena</i>); banana, (<i><a href="/wiki/Musa_(genus)" title="Musa (genus)">Musa</a></i> spp); geranium (<i><a href="/wiki/Pelargonium" title="Pelargonium">Pelargonium</a></i> spp.); ginger (<i><a href="/wiki/Zingiber_officinale" class="mw-redirect" title="Zingiber officinale">Zingiber officinale</a></i>); tobacco (<i><a href="/wiki/Nicotiana_tabacum" title="Nicotiana tabacum">Nicotiana tabacum</a></i>); <a href="/wiki/Bell_pepper" title="Bell pepper">bell pepper</a>/sweet pepper (<i>Capsicum</i> spp.); <a href="/wiki/Olive" title="Olive">olive</a> (<i>Olea europea</i>); <a href="/wiki/Rose" title="Rose">rose</a> (<i>Rosa</i>).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <dl><dt>Wild hosts</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li>Woody nightshade (<i><a href="/wiki/Solanum_dulcamara" title="Solanum dulcamara">Solanum dulcamara</a></i>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Symptoms">Symptoms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ralstonia_solanacearum&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Symptoms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Geranium</b>:<sup id="cite_ref-massnrc_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-massnrc-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Wilting begins with lower leaves and petioles and works its way up the plant.</li> <li>Wilted leaves have chlorotic, wedge-shaped areas or chlorotic and/or necrotic leaf margins. No leaf spots are evident.</li> <li>Eventually, the entire plant collapses on the medium.</li> <li>White runny material oozes from cut stems.</li></ul> <p><b>Potato</b>:<sup id="cite_ref-massnrc_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-massnrc-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Wilting of the leaves occurs at the end of the day with recovery at night. Plants eventually fail to recover and die.</li> <li>Brown staining of vascular ring happens and pus may exude from the ring when the tuber is squeezed.</li> <li>Pale ooze may exude from eyes and heel end of potato. Soil will adhere to the oozing eyes.</li> <li>Cross-section of a stem placed in water will exude milky white strands.</li> <li>Unlike the fungal wilts, the leaves remains green in bacterial wilt.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Disease_cycle">Disease cycle</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ralstonia_solanacearum&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Disease cycle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Survival">Survival</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ralstonia_solanacearum&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Survival"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Ralstonia solanacearum</i> can <a href="/wiki/Overwinter" class="mw-redirect" title="Overwinter">overwinter</a> in plant debris or diseased plants, wild hosts, seeds, or vegetative propagative organs (other <a href="/wiki/Germplasm" title="Germplasm">germplasm</a>) like tubers. The bacteria can survive for a long time in water (up to 40 years at 20–25 °C (68–77 °F) in pure water), and the bacterial population is reduced in extreme conditions (temperature, pH, salts, e.g.). <a href="/wiki/Soil_borne_pathogen" title="Soil borne pathogen">Infected land</a> sometimes cannot be used again for susceptible crops for several years. <i>R. solanacearum</i> can also survive in cool weather and enter a state of being viable but not culturable. In most cases, this stage is not an agricultural threat because the bacteria usually become avirulent after recovering.<sup id="cite_ref-Denny_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Denny-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dispersal">Dispersal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ralstonia_solanacearum&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Dispersal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Ralstonia solanacearum</i> causes wilting at high populations (10<sup>8</sup> – 10<sup>10</sup> <a href="/wiki/Colony-forming_unit" title="Colony-forming unit">cfu</a>/g tissue) and disperses in several routes. The large number of <i>R. solanacearum</i> can shed from roots of symptomatic and nonsymptomatic plants. Besides that, bacterial ooze (which is usually used as a sign for detection) on plant surfaces) can enter the surrounding soil or water, contaminating farming equipment or may be acquired by insect vectors.<sup id="cite_ref-Denny_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Denny-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, this pathogen can be spread by contaminated flood water, irrigation, contaminated tools, or infected seeds. In northern Europe, the pathogen has become established in solanaceous weeds which grow in slow-moving rivers. When such contaminated water is used to irrigate potatoes, the pathogen enters the potato production system. The race 3 biovar 2 strain can survive in perennial nightshades which act as secondary hosts, and can also cause bacterial wilt of tomato.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some EU states and Middle Eastern countries have not yet been able to eradicate this pathogen.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Infection">Infection</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ralstonia_solanacearum&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Infection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Ralstonia solanacearum</i> usually enters the plant by a wound. Natural wounds (created by <a href="/wiki/Abscission" title="Abscission">abscission</a> of flowers, genesis of lateral roots) and unnatural ones (by agricultural practices or <a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">nematodes</a> and xylem-feeding insects) could become entry sites for <i>R. solanacearum</i>. The bacteria get access to the wounds partially by flagellar-mediated swimming motility and <a href="/wiki/Chemotaxis" title="Chemotaxis">chemotaxic</a> attraction toward root exudates. Unlike many <a href="/wiki/Plant_disease" title="Plant disease">phytopathogenic bacteria</a>, <i>R. solanacearum</i> potentially requires only one entry site to establish a systemic infection that results in bacterial wilt.<sup id="cite_ref-Denny_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Denny-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After invading a susceptible host, <i>R. solanacearum</i> multiplies and moves systemically within the plant before bacterial wilt symptoms occur. Wilting should be considered as the most visible side effect that usually occurs after extensive colonization of the pathogen. When the pathogen gets into the xylem through natural openings or wounds, <a href="/wiki/Tyloses" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyloses">tyloses</a> may form to block the axial migration of bacteria within the plant. In susceptible plants, this sometimes happens slowly and infrequently to prevent pathogen migration, and may instead lead to vascular dysfunction by unspecifically obstructing uncolonized vessels.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (May 2020)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Wilting occurs at high bacterial populations in the xylem and is partially due to vascular dysfunction in which sufficient water cannot reach the leaves. At this time, <a href="/wiki/Extracellular_polymeric_substance" title="Extracellular polymeric substance">extracellular polysaccharide</a> (EPS1) content is about 10 μg/g tissue in the taproot, <a href="/wiki/Hypocotyl" title="Hypocotyl">hypocotyl</a>, and midstem; EPS1 concentration is higher later on at more than 100 μg/g tissue in fully wilted plant. <i>Ralstonia's</i> systemic toxin also causes loss of stomatal control, but no evidence shows excessive transpiration as its consequence. The primary factor contributing to wilting is probably blocking of pit membranes in the petioles and leaves by the high molecular weight EPS1. High bacterial densities are byproducts of plant cell wall degradation; tyloses and gums produced by the plant itself are other contributing factors to wilting.<sup id="cite_ref-Denny_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Denny-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Natural_genetic_transformation">Natural genetic transformation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ralstonia_solanacearum&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Natural genetic transformation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most strains of <i>R. solanacearum</i> are competent for genetic transformation.<sup id="cite_ref-Coupat_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coupat-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Transformation_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformation (genetics)">Natural genetic transformation</a> is a sexual process involving DNA transfer from one bacterial cell to another through the intervening medium, and the integration of the donor sequence into the recipient genome by <a href="/wiki/Homologous_recombination" title="Homologous recombination">homologous recombination</a>. <i>R. solanacearum</i> is able to exchange large DNA fragments ranging from 30 to 90 thousand bases.<sup id="cite_ref-Coupat_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coupat-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Virulence_mechanisms">Virulence mechanisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ralstonia_solanacearum&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Virulence mechanisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Ralstonia solanacearum</i> possesses genes for all six protein secretion pathways that have been characterized in Gram-negative bacteria. Perhaps the best-studied of these is the <a href="/wiki/Type_III_secretion_system" title="Type III secretion system">Type III secretion system</a> (T3SS or TTSS), which secretes infection-promoting effector proteins (T3Es) into host cells. Around 74 suspected or confirmed T3Es have been identified in <i>R. solanacearum</i> to date, although the functions of very few are currently known. Despite being just one of several protein secretion systems, T3SS is necessary for <i>R. solanacearum</i> to cause disease.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No single effector protein has been found to significantly alter pathogenicity of <i>R. solanacearum</i>, but simultaneous disruption of certain subsets of effectors (such as the set of seven GALA effectors in strain GMI1000) strongly affects <a href="/wiki/Virulence" title="Virulence">virulence</a> of the pathogen. For example, GALA 7 is necessary for virulence on <i><a href="/wiki/Medicago_truncatula" title="Medicago truncatula">Medicago truncatula</a></i>, hinting that T3E diversity may play a role in determining the broad host range of the <i>R. solanacearum</i> species complex.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The type III secretion system is not unique to <i>R. solanacearum</i>, and is, in fact, very ancient. The evolutionary history of the T3SS is contested; a high degree of similarity to the <a href="/wiki/Flagellum" title="Flagellum">flagellum</a> has sparked debate over the relationship between these two structures.<sup id="cite_ref-Denny_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Denny-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>About half of T3SS proteins are highly conserved in <i>R. solanacearum</i> and likely constitute a very old and stabilized group of effectors in the core genome of the species complex.<sup id="cite_ref-Remenant-et-al-2010_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Remenant-et-al-2010-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><wbr /><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (February 2021)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><wbr /><sup id="cite_ref-half-ancient_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-half-ancient-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>Pouey. 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the other half showing variation among different strains of <i>R. solanacearum</i>, only a third show evidence of <a href="/wiki/Lateral_gene_transfer" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral gene transfer">lateral gene transfer</a>. The origins of the remaining effectors are unknown, although some researchers hypothesize that <a href="/wiki/Gene-for-gene_relationship" title="Gene-for-gene relationship">gene-for-gene interactions</a> may play a significant role in shaping virulence genes in <i>R. solanacearum</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-T3E-maybe-g4g_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-T3E-maybe-g4g-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>Pouey. 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of these effector proteins are <a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">homologous</a> to Transcription Activator-like effectors (<a href="/wiki/TAL_effector" class="mw-redirect" title="TAL effector">TAL effectors</a>) from <a href="/wiki/Xanthomonas" title="Xanthomonas">Xanthomonas</a><sup id="cite_ref-Heuer2007_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heuer2007-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and could possibly have a similar function of activating specific genes in the host plant cells during <i>R. solanacearum</i> pathogenesis. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Environment">Environment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ralstonia_solanacearum&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Environment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The environment in which <i>R. solanacearum</i> is commonly found is affected by the particular race (a genetically diverse population within a species), and the particular biovar (a strain that differs physiologically or biochemically from other strains.) Race 1, race 2 biovar 1, and race 3, biovar 2 are three of the most common and important strains. Race 1 strains have a broad host range including tobacco and bananas, and are usually found in tropical and subtropical environments, as they have trouble surviving cooler temperatures, and are endemic to the southeastern United States.<sup id="cite_ref-plantpath.ifas.ufl.edu_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plantpath.ifas.ufl.edu-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Race 2 strains have a more limited host range than race 1, and are mostly restricted to tropical environments. Race 3 strains are more cold tolerant than the other two and are found in tropical highlands and temperate areas.<sup id="cite_ref-plantpath.ifas.ufl.edu_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plantpath.ifas.ufl.edu-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The host range for race 3 biovar 2 includes potatoes, tomatoes, and geraniums. Race 3 biovar 2 is very common throughout the world, but is not generally reported in North America,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so is the focus of many sanitation and quarantine management practices to prevent the introduction or spread of the pathogen. </p><p>Although it is not there yet, researchers at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Guam" title="University of Guam">University of Guam</a> are concerned about the possible spread of <i>R. solanacearum</i> to <a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-GuamPDN_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GuamPDN-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Management">Management</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ralstonia_solanacearum&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_management">General management</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ralstonia_solanacearum&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: General management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Commercial chemicals have generally proven to be ineffective in controlling the pathogen and are not recommended as a means of control.<sup id="cite_ref-Denny_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Denny-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In regions where the pathogen is established, a strategy of integrated disease management is the best method to reduce any impact of the pathogen. Using pathogen-free planting materials is a necessity. Planting resistant cultivars minimizes the ill effects of the pathogen, although no completely immune cultivars are now available. Finally, a good rotation system that follows susceptible crops with resistant or nonhost crops can assist in diminishing the pathogen.<sup id="cite_ref-Denny_2-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Denny-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pathogen is listed as a <a href="/wiki/Select_agent" title="Select agent">select agent</a> in the United States; if the pathogen is detected by a proper authority, a number of management protocols may be implemented. These can range from surveys to quarantines of infected and potentially infected plant material, which in turn may lead to larger eradication and sanitation programs.<sup id="cite_ref-plantpath.ifas.ufl.edu_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plantpath.ifas.ufl.edu-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Specific_host_plant_symptoms_and_management">Specific host plant symptoms and management</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ralstonia_solanacearum&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Specific host plant symptoms and management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Potato">Potato</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ralstonia_solanacearum&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Potato"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Wilting and yellowing of the leaves, as well as overall stunting of the plant, are typical symptoms.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The leaves may also take on a bronze cast<sup id="cite_ref-aphis.usda.gov_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aphis.usda.gov-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> along with stems becoming streaked and tuber eyes becoming discolored. Tubers also start to rot if left in the ground. A milky-white sticky exudate or ooze, consisting of bacterial cells and their extracellular polysaccharide, is usually noticeable in freshly cut-sections of infected tubers.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Control of R. solanacearum is difficult because it is a soil borne pathogen, has wide host range, long survival in the soil, and has wide biological variation. No single control method has been found to be 100% effective, although in locations where the pathogen is established, some level of bacterial wilt control has been possible through use of a combination of diverse methods.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These methods include phytosanitation and cultural practices, chemical control, biological control, and host resistance. General sanitation practices are recommended to prevent spread of the disease, as chemical control is ineffective. <a href="/wiki/Crop_rotation" title="Crop rotation">Crop rotation</a> with resistant crops is useful, as is altering the pH of the soil to keep it low in the summer (4-5), and higher in the fall (6.)<sup id="cite_ref-aphis.usda.gov_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aphis.usda.gov-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tomato">Tomato</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ralstonia_solanacearum&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Tomato"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Younger leaves of the plant will become flaccid, and adventitious roots may appear on the stem of the plant. The vascular system exhibits a progressively darker brown color as the disease progresses, in addition to possible lesions on the stem.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Management practices are similar to those of potato.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Banana">Banana</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ralstonia_solanacearum&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Banana"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Overripe_banana_20211221_152406.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Overripe_banana_20211221_152406.jpg/220px-Overripe_banana_20211221_152406.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Overripe_banana_20211221_152406.jpg/330px-Overripe_banana_20211221_152406.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Overripe_banana_20211221_152406.jpg/440px-Overripe_banana_20211221_152406.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5344" data-file-height="2832" /></a><figcaption>Ralstonia solanacearum on an Overripe banana</figcaption></figure> <p>Commonly known as Moko disease, after a banana variety from <a href="/wiki/Trinidad" title="Trinidad">Trinidad</a> that went extinct in the 1890s. Typically, yellowing and wilting of older leaves occurs, as well as reduced fruit size and eventual rotting of the fruit.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, flowers can become blackened and shriveled, and the vascular tissue discolored.<sup id="cite_ref-agric.wa.gov.au_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-agric.wa.gov.au-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Exclusion of the disease where it is not present is the only effective means of control. If an area does become infected, all of the infected plants must be eliminated, which is why strong sanitation practices must be used to reduce the spread of disease.<sup id="cite_ref-agric.wa.gov.au_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-agric.wa.gov.au-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Importance">Importance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ralstonia_solanacearum&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Importance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Ralstonia solanacearum</i> is classified as one of the world's most important phytopathogenic bacteria due to its lethality, persistence, wide host range, and broad geographic distribution. Although the pathogen causes major yield losses in the tropics and subtropics, it is currently a continuing threat in temperate climates.<sup id="cite_ref-Denny_2-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Denny-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Ralstonia solanacearum</i> is a high-profile alien plant pathogen of A2 quarantine status affecting a very wide range of crops. This means that it is present in parts of Europe, but is under statutory control. Worldwide, the most important crops affected are: potato, tomato, tobacco, banana, and geranium. In the UK and the rest of the EU, the most important crops affected are potato and tomato. It would cause serious economic damage were it to become more established than it currently is. Losses are due to actual yield reduction and also due to statutory measures taken to eliminate the disease.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Bacterial wilt caused by <i>R. solanacearum</i> is of economic importance because it infects over 250 plant species in over 50 families. As of 2007, this pathogen has affected over 450 host species representing 54 plant families due to its broad host range around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The disease is known as southern wilt, bacterial wilt, and brown rot of potato. Many more <a href="/wiki/Dicots" class="mw-redirect" title="Dicots">dicots</a> suffer from the disease than do <a href="/wiki/Monocots" class="mw-redirect" title="Monocots">monocots</a>. Among the monocot hosts, the order Zingiberales dominates, with five of nine families being infected by this bacterium.<sup id="cite_ref-Denny_2-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Denny-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reason why some families are more susceptible to bacterial wilt is still unknown. Originally, <i>R. solanacearum</i> is found in tropical, subtropical, and warm, temperate climates, but is not believed to survive cold temperatures. However, this pathogen has recently been detected in geraniums (<i>Pelargonium</i> spp.) in Wisconsin, USA <sup id="cite_ref-Hudelson_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hudelson-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was traced back to the import of geranium cuttings to North America and Europe from the highland tropics where race 3 biovar 2 is endemic <sup id="cite_ref-Annet_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Annet-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Brown rot of potato caused by <i>R. solanacearum</i> race 3 biovar 2 is among the most serious disease of potato worldwide, and is responsible for an estimated $950 million in losses each year.<sup id="cite_ref-Ephinstone_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ephinstone-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Race 3 biovar 2 is cold tolerant and classified as a quarantine pathogen.<sup id="cite_ref-Annet_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Annet-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, this race/biovar has been listed as a select agent in the Agricultural Bioterrorism Act of 2002, and is considered to have potential to be developed as a <a href="/wiki/Bioterror" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioterror">bioterror</a> weapon.<sup id="cite_ref-Hudelson_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hudelson-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ralstonia_solanacearum&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Validamycin" title="Validamycin">Validamycin</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ralstonia_solanacearum&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Yabuuchi-et-al-1995-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Yabuuchi-et-al-1995_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Yabuuchi-et-al-1995_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFYabuuchiKosakoYanoHotta1995" class="citation journal cs1">Yabuuchi, Eiko; Kosako, Yoshimasa; Yano, 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University of Wisconsin Pest Alert - <i>Ralstonia</i> wilt.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Annet-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Annet_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Annet_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Milling A., Meng F., Denny T., Allen C. 2009. Interactions with hosts at cool temperatures, not cold tolerance, explain the unique epidemiology of <i>Ralstonia solanacearum</i> race 3 biovar 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ephinstone-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ephinstone_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ephinstone, J. G. 2005. The current bacterial wilt situation: a global overview. pp 9-28 in: Bacterial Wilt: The Disease and the <i>Ralstonia solanacearum</i> Species Complex. C. Allen, P. Prior, and A. C. Hayward, eds. American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPoueymiroGenin2009" class="citation journal cs1">Poueymiro, M.; Genin, S. (2009). "Secreted proteins from <i>Ralstonia solanacearum</i>: a hundred tricks to kill a plant". <i><a href="/wiki/Current_Opinion_in_Microbiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Current Opinion in Microbiology">Current Opinion in Microbiology</a></i>. <b>12</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">44–</span>52. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.mib.2008.11.008">10.1016/j.mib.2008.11.008</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19144559">19144559</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Secreted+proteins+from+Ralstonia+solanacearum%3A+a+hundred+tricks+to+kill+a+plant&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E44-%3C%2Fspan%3E52&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.mib.2008.11.008&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19144559&rft.aulast=Poueymiro&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Genin%2C+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARalstonia+solanacearum" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-half-ancient-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-half-ancient_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> p.<span class="nowrap"> </span>45, "Nearly half of the GMI1000 effector repertoire (34/74) appears to be conserved within the species, and thus are deemed ancient or stably inherited along with the core genome (see Table 2)."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-T3E-maybe-g4g-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-T3E-maybe-g4g_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> p.<span class="nowrap"> </span>49, "<b>Type III effectors that trigger plant resistance</b><br /> In response to pathogen attack, plants have evolved specific resistance ‘guard’ proteins able to recognize the presence or the action of some T3Es historically called ‘avirulence factors’. This specific recognition leads to the T3E-triggered immunity which mainly results in the HR (reviewed in [40]). To date, three <i>R. solanacearum</i> T3Es recognized as ‘avirulence’ proteins were characterized: the <i>avr</i>A gene product triggers HR elicitation on several tobacco species [41,42], while resistance to GMI1000 in specific Petunia and Arabidopsis ecotypes is due to the recognition of the PopP1 [20] or PopP2 proteins [43], respectively."</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ralstonia_solanacearum&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/profile/southern-bacterial-wilt">Species Profile - Southern Bacterial Wilt (<i>Ralstonia solanacearum</i>)</a>, National Invasive Species Information Center, <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Agricultural_Library" title="United States National Agricultural Library">United States National Agricultural Library</a>. Lists general information and resources for Southern Bacterial Wilt.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.australiagroup.net/en/plants.html">List of Plant Pathogens subject to Export Control</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bacdive.dsmz.de/index.php?search=2083&submit=Search">Type strain of <i>Ralstonia solanacearum</i> at Bac<i>Dive</i> - the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMoorman,_Gary_W.2011" class="citation web cs1">Moorman, Gary W. (April 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://extension.psu.edu/bacterial-wilt-ralstonia-solanacearum">"Bacterial Wilt - <i>Ralston solanacearum</i>"</a>. <i>PennState Extension</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PennState+Extension&rft.atitle=Bacterial+Wilt+-+Ralston+solanacearum&rft.date=2011-04&rft.au=Moorman%2C+Gary+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fextension.psu.edu%2Fbacterial-wilt-ralstonia-solanacearum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARalstonia+solanacearum" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Taxon_identifiers2568" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Taxon_identifiers2568" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Taxon_identifiers" title="Help:Taxon identifiers">Taxon identifiers</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;"><i>Ralstonia solanacearum</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a>: <span class="uid"><span class="external"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2710840" class="extiw" title="wikidata:Q2710840">Q2710840</a></span></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a>: <span class="uid"><span class="external"><a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Ralstonia_solanacearum" class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Ralstonia solanacearum">Ralstonia solanacearum</a></span></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/BacDive" title="BacDive">BacDive</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bacdive.dsmz.de/strain/2083">2083</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Catalogue_of_Life" title="Catalogue of Life">CoL</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/78RBF">78RBF</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life" title="Encyclopedia of Life">EoL</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eol.org/pages/976758">976758</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/EPPO_Code" title="EPPO Code">EPPO</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gd.eppo.int/taxon/RALSSO">RALSSO</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Global_Biodiversity_Information_Facility" title="Global Biodiversity Information Facility">GBIF</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gbif.org/species/3219898">3219898</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/INaturalist" title="INaturalist">iNaturalist</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inaturalist.org/taxa/384042">384042</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Interim_Register_of_Marine_and_Nonmarine_Genera" title="Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera">IRMNG</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irmng.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=11202728">11202728</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Invasive_Species_Compendium" title="Invasive Species Compendium">ISC</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/45009">45009</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Taxonomic_Information_System" title="Integrated Taxonomic Information System">ITIS</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=965446">965446</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Prokaryotic_names_with_Standing_in_Nomenclature" title="List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature">LPSN</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lpsn.dsmz.de/species/ralstonia-solanacearum">ralstonia-solanacearum</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information" title="National Center for Biotechnology Information">NCBI</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=305">305</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;">NZOR: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nzor.org.nz/names/1d8363db-a895-4dd5-bff7-86d176c9cbb3">1d8363db-a895-4dd5-bff7-86d176c9cbb3</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Open_Tree_of_Life" title="Open Tree of Life">Open Tree of Life</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tree.opentreeoflife.org/taxonomy/browse?id=1082366">1082366</a></span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox551" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2710840#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at 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