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vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Phonology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Phonology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Vowels </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Consonants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Typology_and_grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Typology_and_grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Typology and grammar </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Typology_and_grammar-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Typology and grammar subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Typology_and_grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sentence_types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sentence_types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Sentence types </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sentence_types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Intransitive_sentences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intransitive_sentences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 Intransitive sentences </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intransitive_sentences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transitive_and_ditransitive_sentences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transitive_and_ditransitive_sentences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.2 Transitive and ditransitive sentences </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transitive_and_ditransitive_sentences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Writing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Writing </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Writing-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Writing subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Writing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Special_katakana_for_the_Ainu_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Special_katakana_for_the_Ainu_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Special katakana for the Ainu language </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Special_katakana_for_the_Ainu_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Basic_syllables" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Basic_syllables"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Basic syllables </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Basic_syllables-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diphthongs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diphthongs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Diphthongs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diphthongs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oral_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oral_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Oral literature </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Oral_literature-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Oral literature subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Oral_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Research_on_oral_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_on_oral_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Research on oral literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research_on_oral_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recent_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recent_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Recent history </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recent_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Revitalization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revitalization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Revitalization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revitalization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sample_text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sample_text"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Sample text </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sample_text-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Ainu language</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 87 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-87" aria-hidden="true" > 87 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainoe_(taal)" title="Ainoe (taal) – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Ainoe (taal)" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainu_(Sprache)" title="Ainu (Sprache) – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Ainu (Sprache)" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%88" title="لغة الأينو – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لغة الأينو" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llingua_ainu" title="Llingua ainu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Llingua ainu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainu%C3%B1e%E2%80%99%E1%BA%BD" title="Ainuñe’ẽ – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Ainuñe’ẽ" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aynu_dili" title="Aynu dili – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Aynu dili" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C" title="آینو دیلی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="آینو دیلی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%81_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE" title="আইনু ভাষা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আইনু ভাষা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Ainu" title="Basa Ainu – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Basa Ainu" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Banjar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainu-g%C3%BA" title="Ainu-gú – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Ainu-gú" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Айнская мова – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Айнская мова" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Айнская мова – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Айнская мова" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tataramon_na_Ainu" title="Tataramon na Ainu – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Tataramon na Ainu" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Айнски език – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Айнски език" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A8%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%93%E0%BD%B4%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A6%E0%BE%90%E0%BD%91%E0%BC%8D" title="ཨའི་ནུ་སྐད། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ཨའི་ནུ་སྐད།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainoueg" title="Ainoueg – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Ainoueg" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainu" title="Ainu – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ainu" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%87%C4%95%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B8" title="Айн чĕлхи – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Айн чĕлхи" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ain%C5%A1tina" title="Ainština – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ainština" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ain%C5%B5eg" title="Ainŵeg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ainŵeg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainugiella" title="Ainugiella – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Ainugiella" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Davvisámegiella</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainu_(Sprache)" title="Ainu (Sprache) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ainu (Sprache)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainu_keel" title="Ainu keel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ainu keel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1_%CE%91%CF%8A%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%8D" title="Γλώσσα Αϊνού – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γλώσσα Αϊνού" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_ainu" title="Idioma ainu – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Idioma ainu" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajnua_lingvo" title="Ajnua lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ajnua lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainuera" title="Ainuera – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ainuera" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A2%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88_(%DA%98%D8%A7%D9%BE%D9%86)" title="زبان آینو (ژاپن) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان آینو (ژاپن)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C3%AFnou_(langue_du_Japon)" title="Aïnou (langue du Japon) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Aïnou (langue du Japon)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Aidhni%C3%BAis" title="An Aidhniúis – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Aidhniúis" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_ainu" title="Lingua ainu – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lingua ainu" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-got mw-list-item"><a href="https://got.wikipedia.org/wiki/%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%BE%F0%90%8C%BD%F0%90%8C%B0_%F0%90%8D%82%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%B6%F0%90%8C%B3%F0%90%8C%B0" title="𐌰𐌾𐌽𐌰 𐍂𐌰𐌶𐌳𐌰 – Gothic" lang="got" hreflang="got" data-title="𐌰𐌾𐌽𐌰 𐍂𐌰𐌶𐌳𐌰" data-language-autonym="𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺" data-language-local-name="Gothic" class="interlanguage-link-target">𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%84%EC%9D%B4%EB%88%84%EC%96%B4" title="아이누어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="아이누어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%B5%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82_%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%A6%D5%B8%D6%82" title="Այնու լեզու – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Այնու լեզու" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajnu%C5%A1%C4%87ina" title="Ajnušćina – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Ajnušćina" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainuski_jezik_(Japan)" title="Ainuski jezik (Japan) – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Ainuski jezik (Japan)" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Ainu" title="Bahasa Ainu – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Ainu" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B3_%C3%A6%D0%B2%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B3" title="Айнаг æвзаг – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Айнаг æвзаг" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C3%ADn%C3%BAm%C3%A1l" title="Aínúmál – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Aínúmál" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_ainu" title="Lingua ainu – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua ainu" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%95_(%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%94)" title="איינו (שפה) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="איינו (שפה)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="აინუური ენა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="აინუური ენა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%83_%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B2" title="Айну кыв – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Айну кыв" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Ainuana" title="Lingua Ainuana – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua Ainuana" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainu_valoda" title="Ainu valoda – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ainu valoda" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ain%C5%B3_kalba" title="Ainų kalba – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Ainų kalba" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainu_(lingua)" title="Ainu (lingua) – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Ainu (lingua)" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainu_nyelv" title="Ainu nyelv – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ainu nyelv" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%98%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Ајнски јазик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Ајнски јазик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiteny_ain%C3%B4" title="Fiteny ainô – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fiteny ainô" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%90%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%81_%E0%B4%AD%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B7" title="ഐനു ഭാഷ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഐനു ഭാഷ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Ainu" title="Bahasa Ainu – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Ainu" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aino_(taal)" title="Aino (taal) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Aino (taal)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%82%A4%E3%83%8C%E8%AA%9E" title="アイヌ語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アイヌ語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainu" title="Ainu – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Ainu" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aino_(spr%C3%A5k)" title="Aino (språk) – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Aino (språk)" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainospr%C3%A5k" title="Ainospråk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Ainospråk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aino_(lenga)" title="Aino (lenga) – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Aino (lenga)" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenga_ainu" title="Lenga ainu – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lenga ainu" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainu_(Spraak)" title="Ainu (Spraak) – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Ainu (Spraak)" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_ajnuski" title="Język ajnuski – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język ajnuski" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_ainu" title="Língua ainu – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Língua ainu" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_ainu" title="Limba ainu – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limba ainu" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Айнский язык – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Айнский язык" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_ainu" title="Limba ainu – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Limba ainu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainu_leids" title="Ainu leids – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Ainu leids" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjuha_Ainu" title="Gjuha Ainu – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjuha Ainu" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_ainu" title="Lingua ainu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Lingua ainu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainu_language" title="Ainu language – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Ainu language" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Аински језик – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Аински језик" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainu_jezik" title="Ainu jezik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Ainu jezik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainun_kieli" title="Ainun kieli – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ainun kieli" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainu_(spr%C3%A5k)" title="Ainu (språk) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Ainu (språk)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%90%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF" title="ஐனு மொழி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஐனு மொழி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%83_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5" title="Айну теле – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Айну теле" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B8" title="ภาษาไอนุ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาษาไอนุ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aynuca" title="Aynuca – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Aynuca" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Айнська мова – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Айнська мова" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%88_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86" title="آینو زبان – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="آینو زبان" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainan_kel%27" title="Ainan kel' – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Ainan kel'" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng_Ainu" title="Tiếng Ainu – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tiếng Ainu" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E4%BC%8A%E5%8A%AA%E8%AF%AD" title="阿伊努语 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="阿伊努语" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88d%C3%A8_Ainu" title="Èdè Ainu – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Èdè Ainu" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E4%BC%8A%E5%8A%AA%E6%96%87" title="阿伊努文 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="阿伊努文" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E4%BC%8A%E5%8A%AA%E8%AA%9E" title="阿伊努語 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="阿伊努語" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Ainu" title="Basa Ainu – Betawi" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Basa Ainu" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="Betawi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Betawi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kge mw-list-item"><a href="https://kge.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Aynu" title="Basa Aynu – Komering" lang="kge" hreflang="kge" data-title="Basa Aynu" data-language-autonym="Kumoring" data-language-local-name="Komering" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kumoring</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q27969#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet 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div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the language spoken on Hokkaido. For the language family, see <a href="/wiki/Ainu_languages" title="Ainu languages">Ainu languages</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/%C3%84ynu_language" title="Äynu language">Äynu language</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: darkseagreen;">Hokkaido Ainu</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: darkseagreen;">アイヌイタㇰ aynu itak</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Multilingual_sign_at_Ainu_Museum_(Shiraoi).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A multilingual exit sign." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Multilingual_sign_at_Ainu_Museum_%28Shiraoi%29.JPG/200px-Multilingual_sign_at_Ainu_Museum_%28Shiraoi%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Multilingual_sign_at_Ainu_Museum_%28Shiraoi%29.JPG/300px-Multilingual_sign_at_Ainu_Museum_%28Shiraoi%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Multilingual_sign_at_Ainu_Museum_%28Shiraoi%29.JPG/400px-Multilingual_sign_at_Ainu_Museum_%28Shiraoi%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding:0.35em 0.35em 0.25em;line-height:1.25em;">Multilingual sign in <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>, Ainu, <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Written_Chinese" title="Written Chinese">Chinese</a>. The Ainu text, in <a href="/wiki/Katakana" title="Katakana">katakana</a>, is second down from the top on the right side of the sign. It reads イヤイライケㇾ (iyairaiker), meaning "thank you".</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Pronunciation</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[ˈainu iˈtak]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Hokkaido" title="Hokkaido">Hokkaido</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">25,000 (1986) to ca. 200,000 (no date) <a href="/wiki/Ainu_people" title="Ainu people">Ainu people</a><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Native speakers</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">2 (2008)<a href="#cite_note-e25-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Ainu_languages" title="Ainu languages">Ainu</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> Hokkaido Ainu</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Katakana" title="Katakana">Katakana</a> (current)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a> (current)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: darkseagreen;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=10">ain</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/ain" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:ain">ain</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/ainu1240">ainu1240</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Endangered_Languages_Project" title="Endangered Languages Project">ELP</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/1212">Ainu (Japan)</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/1212">Ainu (Japan)</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Lang_Status_20-CR.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Lang_Status_20-CR.svg/320px-Lang_Status_20-CR.svg.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Lang_Status_20-CR.svg/480px-Lang_Status_20-CR.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Lang_Status_20-CR.svg/640px-Lang_Status_20-CR.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="153" /></a><div style="text-align:left;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Ainu is classified as Critically Endangered by the <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> <a href="/wiki/Atlas_of_the_World%27s_Languages_in_Danger" title="Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger">Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger</a></div><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;">This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols. Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/WIKITONGUES-_Teruyo_speaking_Ainu.webm/220px--WIKITONGUES-_Teruyo_speaking_Ainu.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="71" data-mwtitle="WIKITONGUES-_Teruyo_speaking_Ainu.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:WIKITONGUES-_Teruyo_speaking_Ainu.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2e/WIKITONGUES-_Teruyo_speaking_Ainu.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Teruyo_speaking_Ainu.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2e/WIKITONGUES-_Teruyo_speaking_Ainu.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Teruyo_speaking_Ainu.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2e/WIKITONGUES-_Teruyo_speaking_Ainu.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Teruyo_speaking_Ainu.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/WIKITONGUES-_Teruyo_speaking_Ainu.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2e/WIKITONGUES-_Teruyo_speaking_Ainu.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Teruyo_speaking_Ainu.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2e/WIKITONGUES-_Teruyo_speaking_Ainu.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Teruyo_speaking_Ainu.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2e/WIKITONGUES-_Teruyo_speaking_Ainu.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Teruyo_speaking_Ainu.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video><figcaption>An Ainu speaker, recorded in Japan</figcaption></figure> Ainu (アイヌイタㇰ, aynu itak), or more precisely Hokkaido Ainu (<a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>: 北海道アイヌ語), is a language spoken by a few elderly members of the <a href="/wiki/Ainu_people" title="Ainu people">Ainu people</a> on the northern Japanese island of <a href="/wiki/Hokkaido" title="Hokkaido">Hokkaido</a>. It is a member of the <a href="/wiki/Ainu_languages" title="Ainu languages">Ainu language family</a>, itself considered a <a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">language family isolate</a> with no academic consensus of origin. It is classified as Critically Endangered by the <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> <a href="/wiki/Atlas_of_the_World%27s_Languages_in_Danger" title="Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger">Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger</a>. Until the 20th century, the Ainu languages – Hokkaido Ainu and the now-extinct <a href="/wiki/Kuril_Ainu_language" title="Kuril Ainu language">Kuril Ainu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sakhalin_Ainu_language" title="Sakhalin Ainu language">Sakhalin Ainu</a> – were spoken throughout Hokkaido, the southern half of the island of <a href="/wiki/Ainu_in_Russia" title="Ainu in Russia">Sakhalin</a> and by small numbers of people in the <a href="/wiki/Kuril_Islands" title="Kuril Islands">Kuril Islands</a>. Due to the colonization policy employed by the Japanese government, the number of Hokkaido Ainu speakers decreased through the 20th century, and it is now <a href="/wiki/Moribund_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Moribund language">moribund</a>. A very low number of elderly people still speak the language fluently, though attempts are being made to revive it. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Speakers">Speakers</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ainu_language&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Speakers">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pirka_Kotan,_Sapporo.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The entrance to the carpark of the Pirka Kotan Museum." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Pirka_Kotan%2C_Sapporo.JPG/220px-Pirka_Kotan%2C_Sapporo.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Pirka_Kotan%2C_Sapporo.JPG/330px-Pirka_Kotan%2C_Sapporo.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Pirka_Kotan%2C_Sapporo.JPG/440px-Pirka_Kotan%2C_Sapporo.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Pirka Kotan Museum, an Ainu language and cultural center in <a href="/wiki/Sapporo" title="Sapporo">Sapporo</a> (Jozankei area)</figcaption></figure> The term "Ainu" comes from the <a href="/wiki/Endonym" class="mw-redirect" title="Endonym">endonym</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ainu_people" title="Ainu people">Ainu people</a>, aynu (アイヌ), meaning "people" or "human". According to <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a>, Ainu is an <a href="/wiki/Endangered_language" title="Endangered language">endangered language</a> with few native speakers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin2011-4">[4]</a> Although there are estimated to be at least 30,000 Ainu people in Japan,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGayman2011-5">[5]</a> there is a low rate of self-identification as Ainu among people with Ainu ethnic roots.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeeterOkazaki2011-6">[6]</a> Knowledge of the language was already endangered by the 1960s and has continued to decline since. In 2011<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ainu_language&action=edit">[update]</a>, just 304 people within Japan were reported to understand the Ainu language to some extent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeeterOkazaki2011-6">[6]</a> As of 2016<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ainu_language&action=edit">[update]</a>, Ethnologue listed Ainu as "nearly extinct" (class 8b).<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> In 2017, 671 people participated in a Hokkaido government survey on the lives of Ainu people.<a href="#cite_note-Hokkaido1-8">[8]</a> Participants were believed to be descendants of Ainu people or those who joined Ainu families by marriage or adoption.<a href="#cite_note-Hokkaido1-8">[8]</a> In response to survey questions about fluency in the Ainu language, 0.7% of participants answered that they "would be able to have a conversation" in Ainu, 3.4% answered that they "would be able to converse a little", 44.6% answered they "could barely converse at all", and 48.1% answered that they "would not be able to converse at all".<a href="#cite_note-Hokkaido1-8">[8]</a> In a subsequent survey of 472 respondents in 2023, these figures had shifted to 0.8%, 8.9%, 19.3%, and 69.3% respectively.<a href="#cite_note-Hokkaido2-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Official_recognition">Official recognition</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ainu_language&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Official recognition">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Japan" title="Government of Japan">Japanese government</a> made a decision to recognize Ainu as an <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_language" title="Indigenous language">indigenous language</a> in June 2008.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin2011-4">[4]</a> The Japanese government approved and passed a <a href="/wiki/Bill_(law)" title="Bill (law)">bill</a> officially recognising the indigeneity of the <a href="/wiki/Ainu_people" title="Ainu people">Ainu people</a> in 2019.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jozuka-2019-12">[12]</a> On 12 July 2020, the Japanese government opened the <a href="/wiki/National_Ainu_Museum" title="National Ainu Museum">National Ainu Museum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Shiraoi,_Hokkaido" title="Shiraoi, Hokkaido">Shiraoi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hokkaido" title="Hokkaido">Hokkaido</a>.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> It forms one of three institutions named Upopoy (which means 'singing in a large group' in the Ainu language) alongside the National Ainu Park and a memorial site on high ground on the east side of Lake Poroto (ポロト湖) where Ainu services are held. Its director, Masahiro Nomoto, says that "One of our main objectives is to preserve and revive the language, as this is one of the most threatened elements of <a href="/wiki/Ainu_culture" title="Ainu culture">Ainu culture</a>".<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Announcements on some bus routes in Hokkaido can since be heard in Ainu, efforts are being undertaken to archive Ainu speech recordings by the <a href="/wiki/Agency_for_Cultural_Affairs" title="Agency for Cultural Affairs">Agency for Cultural Affairs</a>, and there is a popular educational <a href="/wiki/Youtube_channel" class="mw-redirect" title="Youtube channel">YouTube channel</a> which teaches conversational Ainu.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> While these measures have been praised for taking steps to protect the Ainu language and culture, the museum and related government efforts have been criticised for failing to acknowledge the history of Japanese discrimination against the Ainu people, and for the government's refusal to apologise for past misdeeds against the Ainu.<a href="#cite_note-Jozuka-2019-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ainu_language&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Phonology">edit</a>]</div> Ainu <a href="/wiki/Syllable" title="Syllable">syllables</a> are (C)V(C); they have an obligatory vowel, and an optional <a href="/wiki/Syllable_onset" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable onset">syllable onset</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syllable_coda" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable coda">coda</a> consisting of one consonant. There are few <a href="/wiki/Consonant_cluster" title="Consonant cluster">consonant clusters</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ainu_language&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Vowels">edit</a>]</div> There are five <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowels</a> in Ainu: <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a></td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ainu_language&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Consonants">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Bilabial_consonant" title="Bilabial consonant">Bilabial</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">Plosive</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Affricate" title="Affricate">Affricate</a> </th> <td> </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">t͡s</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">Fricative</a> </th> <td> </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Flap_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Flap consonant">Flap</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">ɾ</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Semivowel" title="Semivowel">Semivowel</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Obstruent" title="Obstruent">Obstruents</a> /p t ts~tʃ k/ may be voiced [b d dz~dʒ ɡ] between vowels and after nasals. /t͡s/ can be heard as [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a>] in free variation among speakers. Both /ti/ and /tsi/ are realized as [t͡ʃi], and /s/ becomes [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>] before /i/ and at the end of syllables. /h/ is heard as [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiceless bilabial fricative">ɸ</a>] when occurring before /u/. /n/ is heard as [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a>] when before /k/, as well as in final position. A glottal stop [<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>] is often inserted at the beginning of words, before an accented vowel, but is non-phonemic. The Ainu language also has a <a href="/wiki/Pitch_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="Pitch accent">pitch accent</a> system. Generally, words containing <a href="/wiki/Affix" title="Affix">affixes</a> have a high pitch on a syllable in the stem. This will typically fall on the first syllable if that is long (has a final consonant or a diphthong), and will otherwise fall on the second syllable, though there are exceptions to this generalization. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Typology_and_grammar">Typology and grammar</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ainu_language&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Typology and grammar">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_typology" title="Linguistic typology">Typologically</a>, Ainu is similar in word order (and some aspects of phonology) to <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>. Ainu has a canonical word order of <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–object–verb">subject, object, verb</a>,<a href="#cite_note-wals.info-17">[17]</a> and uses postpositions rather than <a href="/wiki/Preposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition">prepositions</a>. <a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">Nouns</a> can cluster to modify one another; the head comes at the end. Verbs, which are inherently either <a href="/wiki/Transitivity_(grammatical_category)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transitivity (grammatical category)">transitive</a> or intransitive, accept various <a href="/wiki/Derivation_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Derivation (linguistics)">derivational affixes</a>. Ainu does not have <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">grammatical gender</a>. Plurals are indicated by a suffix.<a href="#cite_note-wals.info-17">[17]</a> Classical Ainu, the language of the <a href="/wiki/Yukar" title="Yukar">yukar</a>, is <a href="/wiki/Polysynthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Polysynthetic">polysynthetic</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Incorporation_(linguistics)" title="Incorporation (linguistics)">incorporation</a> of nouns and adverbs; this is greatly reduced in the modern colloquial language. <a href="/wiki/Applicative_voice" title="Applicative voice">Applicatives</a> may be used in Ainu to place nouns in <a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">dative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">instrumental</a>, <a href="/wiki/Comitative_case" title="Comitative case">comitative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Locative_case" title="Locative case">locative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Allative_case" title="Allative case">allative</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Ablative_case" title="Ablative case">ablative</a> roles. Besides freestanding nouns, these roles may be assigned to incorporated nouns, and such use of applicatives is in fact mandatory for incorporating <a href="/wiki/Oblique_case" title="Oblique case">oblique</a> nouns. Like incorporation, applicatives have grown less common in the modern language. Ainu has a closed class of <a href="/wiki/Plural_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Plural verb">plural verbs</a>, and some of these are <a href="/wiki/Suppletion" title="Suppletion">suppletive</a>. Ainu has a system of verbal affixes (shown below) which mark agreement for person and case. The specific cases that are marked differ by person, with <a href="/wiki/Nominative%E2%80%93accusative_alignment" title="Nominative–accusative alignment">nominative–accusative marking</a> for the first person singular, <a href="/wiki/Tripartite_alignment" title="Tripartite alignment">tripartite marking</a> for the first person plural and <a href="/wiki/Indefinite_pronoun" title="Indefinite pronoun">indefinite (or 'fourth')</a> person, and <a href="/wiki/Direct_alignment" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct alignment">direct or 'neutral' marking</a> for the second singular and plural, and third persons (i.e. the affixes do not differ by case).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDal_Corso2016-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <caption>Saru Ainu agreement affixes<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDal_Corso2016-18">[18]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2" colspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2">Subject </th> <th rowspan="2">Object </th></tr> <tr> <th>Intransitive </th> <th>Transitive (Agent) </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">1st person </th> <th>singular </th> <td colspan="2">ku- ク-</td> <td>en- エン- </td></tr> <tr> <th>plural </th> <td>-as -アㇲ</td> <td>ci- チ-</td> <td>un- ウン- </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">2nd person </th> <th>singular </th> <td colspan="3">e- エ- </td></tr> <tr> <th>plural </th> <td colspan="3">eci- エチ- </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">3rd person </th> <td colspan="3">Ø- </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">4th person </th> <td>-an -アン</td> <td>a- ア-</td> <td>i- イ </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">a.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">クイタㇰ。Ku-itak.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr>-speak</div>クイタㇰ。Ku-itak.1SG-speak'I spoke.'<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShibatani1990-20">[20]</a><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">b.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">エイタㇰ。E-itak.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="second person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">2SG</abbr>-speak</div>エイタㇰ。E-itak.2SG-speakYou (SG) spoke.'<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShibatani1990-20">[20]</a><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">c.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">イタㇰ。Itak.speak</div>イタㇰ。Itak.speak'He spoke.'<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShibatani1990-20">[20]</a><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sentence_types">Sentence types</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ainu_language&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Sentence types">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Intransitive_sentences">Intransitive sentences</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ainu_language&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Intransitive sentences">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">a.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">クアニKuaniI</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">クイタㇰ。ku-itak.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr>-speak</div>クアニクイタㇰ。Kuani ku-itak.I 1SG-speak'I spoke.'<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShibatani1990-20">[20]</a><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">b.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">アィヌAynuperson</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">エㇰ。ek.come</div>アィヌエㇰ。Aynu ek.person come'A person came.'<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShibatani1990-20">[20]</a><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">c.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ポンPonsmall</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ツ゚レシturesisister</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">カkatoo</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">イサㇺ。isam.die</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">（石狩）(Ishikari) </div>ポンツ゚レシカイサㇺ。Pon turesi ka isam.small sister too die'The small sister too died.'<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShibatani1990-20">[20]</a><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Transitive_and_ditransitive_sentences">Transitive and ditransitive sentences</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ainu_language&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Transitive and ditransitive sentences">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">a.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">アエコィキ。A-e-koyki.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="second person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">2SG</abbr>-kill</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">(虎杖)(Itadori) </div>アエコィキ。A-e-koyki.1SG-2SG-kill'I kill you.'<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShibatani1990-20">[20]</a><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">b.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">金田一KindaichiKindaichi</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">殿tonochief</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ニㇱパnispasir</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">クヌカㇻ。ku-nukar.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1SG</abbr>-see</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> (Ishikari) </div>金田一殿ニㇱパクヌカㇻ。Kindaichi tono nispa ku-nukar.Kindaichi chief sir 1SG-see'I met Mr. Kindaichi.'<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShibatani1990-20">[20]</a><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:4em"><div style="position:absolute;left:1em">c.</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">カムィKamuybear</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ウンマummahorse</div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;">ラィケ。rayke.kill</div>カムィウンマラィケ。Kamuy umma rayke.bear horse kill'A bear killed a horse.'<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShibatani1990-20">[20]</a><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Writing">Writing</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ainu_language&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Writing">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yoanne-Batchelor-01.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Yoanne-Batchelor-01.png/220px-Yoanne-Batchelor-01.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="378" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Yoanne-Batchelor-01.png/330px-Yoanne-Batchelor-01.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Yoanne-Batchelor-01.png/440px-Yoanne-Batchelor-01.png 2x" data-file-width="443" data-file-height="761" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_John" title="Gospel of John">Gospel of John</a> in Latin-script Ainu</figcaption></figure> The Ainu language is written in a modified version of the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Katakana" title="Katakana">katakana</a> <a href="/wiki/Syllabary" title="Syllabary">syllabary</a>, although it is possible for Japanese loan words and names to be written in <a href="/wiki/Kanji" title="Kanji">kanji</a> (for example, "mobile phone" can be written ケイタイデンワ or 携帯電話). There is also a <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin-based alphabet</a> in use. The <a href="/wiki/Ainu_Times" title="Ainu Times">Ainu Times</a> publishes in both. In the Latin <a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">orthography</a>, /ts/ is spelled c and /j/ is spelled y; the glottal stop, [ʔ], which only occurs initially before accented vowels, is not written. Other phonemes use the same character as the IPA transcription given above. An equals sign (=) is used to mark <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morpheme</a> boundaries, such as after a prefix. Its pitch accent is denoted by <a href="/wiki/Acute_accent" title="Acute accent">acute accent</a> in Latin script (e.g., á). This is usually not denoted in katakana. The Rev. <a href="/wiki/John_Batchelor_(missionary)" title="John Batchelor (missionary)">John Batchelor</a> was an English missionary who lived among the Ainu, studied them and published many works on the Ainu language.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Batchelor wrote extensively, both works about the Ainu language and works in Ainu itself. He was the first to write in Ainu and use a writing system for it.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bible_translations_into_Ainu" title="Bible translations into Ainu">Batchelor's translations</a> of various books of the Bible were published from 1887, and his <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> translation was published in Yokohama in 1897 by a joint committee of the <a href="/wiki/British_and_Foreign_Bible_Society" title="British and Foreign Bible Society">British and Foreign Bible Society</a>, the <a href="/wiki/American_Bible_Society" title="American Bible Society">American Bible Society</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Bible_Society" title="Scottish Bible Society">National Bible Society of Scotland</a>. Other books written in Ainu include dictionaries, a grammar, and books on Ainu culture and language. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Special_katakana_for_the_Ainu_language">Special katakana for the Ainu language</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ainu_language&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Special katakana for the Ainu language">edit</a>]</div> A <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> standard exists for a set of extended katakana (<a href="/wiki/Katakana_Phonetic_Extensions" title="Katakana Phonetic Extensions">Katakana Phonetic Extensions</a>) for transliterating the Ainu language and other languages written with katakana.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> These characters are used to write final consonants and sounds that cannot be expressed using conventional katakana. The extended katakana are based on regular katakana and either are smaller in size or have a <a href="/wiki/Handakuten" class="mw-redirect" title="Handakuten">handakuten</a>. As few fonts yet support these extensions, workarounds exist for many of the characters, such as using a smaller font with the regular katakana ク ku to produce ク to represent the separate small katakana glyph ㇰ ku used as in アイヌイタㇰ (Ainu itak). This is a list of special katakana used in transcribing the Ainu language. Most of the characters are of the extended set of katakana, though a few have been used historically in Japanese,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] and thus are part of the main set of katakana. A number of previously proposed characters have not been added to Unicode as they can be represented as a sequence of two existing codepoints. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Character </th> <th>Unicode </th> <th>Name </th> <th>Ainu usage </th> <th>Pronunciation </th></tr> <tr> <td>ㇰ </td> <td>31F0 </td> <td>Katakana Letter Small Ku </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Syllable#Coda" title="Syllable">Final</a> k </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ㇱ </td> <td>31F1 </td> <td>Katakana Letter Small Shi </td> <td>Final s [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative">ɕ</a>] </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/ or /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative">ɕ</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ㇲ </td> <td>31F2 </td> <td>Katakana Letter Small Su </td> <td>Final s, used to emphasize its pronunciation as [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>] rather than [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative">ɕ</a>]. [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>] and [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>] are <a href="/wiki/Allophone" title="Allophone">allophones</a> in Ainu. </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ㇳ </td> <td>31F3 </td> <td>Katakana Letter Small To </td> <td>Final t </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ㇴ </td> <td>31F4 </td> <td>Katakana Letter Small Nu </td> <td>Final n </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ㇵ </td> <td>31F5 </td> <td>Katakana Letter Small Ha </td> <td>Final h [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>], succeeding the vowel a. (e.g. アㇵ ah) Sakhalin Ainu only. </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ or /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ㇶ </td> <td>31F6 </td> <td>Katakana Letter Small Hi </td> <td>Final h [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless palatal fricative">ç</a>], succeeding the vowel i. (e.g. イㇶ ih) Sakhalin Ainu only. </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ or /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless palatal fricative">ç</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ㇷ </td> <td>31F7 </td> <td>Katakana Letter Small Fu </td> <td>Final h [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>], succeeding the vowel u. (e.g. ウㇷ uh) Sakhalin Ainu only. </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ or /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ㇸ </td> <td>31F8 </td> <td>Katakana Letter Small He </td> <td>Final h [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>], succeeding the vowel e. (e.g. エㇸ eh) Sakhalin Ainu only. </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ or /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ㇹ </td> <td>31F9 </td> <td>Katakana Letter Small Ho </td> <td>Final h [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>], succeeding the vowel o. (e.g. オㇹ oh) Sakhalin Ainu only. </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ or /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ㇺ </td> <td>31FA </td> <td>Katakana Letter Small Mu </td> <td>Final m </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>/ Voiced bilabial nasal </td></tr> <tr> <td>ㇻ </td> <td>31FB </td> <td>Katakana Letter Small Ra </td> <td>Final r [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">ɾ</a>], succeeding the vowel a. (e.g. アㇻ ar) </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">ɾ</a>/ Voiced alveolar tap </td></tr> <tr> <td>ㇼ </td> <td>31FC </td> <td>Katakana Letter Small Ri </td> <td>Final r [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">ɾ</a>], succeeding the vowel i. (e.g. イㇼ ir) </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">ɾ</a>/ Voiced alveolar tap </td></tr> <tr> <td>ㇽ </td> <td>31FD </td> <td>Katakana Letter Small Ru </td> <td>Final r [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">ɾ</a>], succeeding the vowel u. (e.g. ウㇽ ur) </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">ɾ</a>/ Voiced alveolar tap </td></tr> <tr> <td>ㇾ </td> <td>31FE </td> <td>Katakana Letter Small Re </td> <td>Final r [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">ɾ</a>], succeeding the vowel e. (e.g. エㇾ er) </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">ɾ</a>/ Voiced alveolar tap </td></tr> <tr> <td>ㇿ </td> <td>31FF </td> <td>Katakana Letter Small Ro </td> <td>Final r [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">ɾ</a>], succeeding the vowel o. (e.g. オㇿ or) </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">ɾ</a>/ Voiced alveolar tap </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="5" style="text-align:left;">Characters represented using <a href="/wiki/Combining_character" title="Combining character">combining characters</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>ㇷ゚ </td> <td>31F7 + 309A </td> <td>Katakana Letter Small Pu </td> <td>Final p </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>セ゚ </td> <td>30BB + 309A </td> <td>Katakana Letter Se With Semi-Voiced Sound Mark </td> <td>ce [tse] </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">ts</a>/ + /<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ツ゚ </td> <td>30C4 + 309A </td> <td>Katakana Letter Tu With Semi-Voiced Sound Mark </td> <td rowspan="2">tu. ツ゚ and ト゚ are interchangeable. </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/ + /<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ト゚ </td> <td>30C8 + 309A </td> <td>Katakana Letter To With Semi-Voiced Sound Mark </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/ + /<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a>/ </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Basic_syllables">Basic syllables</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ainu_language&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Basic syllables">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th>a [<a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a>]</th> <th>i [<a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a>]</th> <th>u [<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u̜</a>]</th> <th>e [<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a>]</th> <th>o [<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a>] </th></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>a ア [a]</td> <td>i イ [i]</td> <td>u ウ [u̜]</td> <td>e エ [e]</td> <td>o オ [o] </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">k [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>]<a href="#cite_note-voicing-25">[note 1]</a></td> <td>ka カ [ka]</td> <td>ki キ [ki]</td> <td>ku ク [ku̜]</td> <td>ke ケ [ke]</td> <td>ko コ [ko] </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5">-k ㇰ [-k̚] </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">s [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>] ~ [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>]</td> <td>sa シャ / サ<a href="#cite_note-allograph-26">[note 2]</a> [sa] ~ [ʃa]</td> <td>si シ [ʃi]</td> <td>su シュ / ス<a href="#cite_note-allograph-26">[note 2]</a> [su̜] ~ [ʃu̜]</td> <td>se シェ / セ<a href="#cite_note-allograph-26">[note 2]</a> [se] ~ [ʃe]</td> <td>so ショ / ソ<a href="#cite_note-allograph-26">[note 2]</a> [so] ~ [ʃo] </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5">-s ㇱ / ㇲ<a href="#cite_note-allograph-26">[note 2]</a> [-ɕ] </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">t [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>]<a href="#cite_note-voicing-25">[note 1]</a></td> <td>ta タ [ta]</td> <td>ci チ [tʃi]</td> <td>tu ト゚ / ツ゚<a href="#cite_note-allograph-26">[note 2]</a> [tu̜]</td> <td>te テ [te]</td> <td>to ト [to] </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5">-t ㇳ / ッ<a href="#cite_note-27">[note 3]</a> [-t̚] </td></tr> <tr> <td>c [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">ts</a>] ~ [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">tʃ</a>]<a href="#cite_note-voicing-25">[note 1]</a></td> <td>ca チャ [tsa] ~ [tʃa]</td> <td>ci チ [tʃi]</td> <td>cu ツ / チュ<a href="#cite_note-allograph-26">[note 2]</a> [tsu̜] ~ [tʃu̜]</td> <td>ce セ゚ / チェ<a href="#cite_note-allograph-26">[note 2]</a> [tse] ~ [tʃe]</td> <td>co チョ [tso] ~ [tʃo] </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">n [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a>]</td> <td>na ナ [na]</td> <td>ni ニ [nʲi]</td> <td>nu ヌ [nu̜]</td> <td>ne ネ [ne]</td> <td>no ノ [no] </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5">-n ㇴ / ン<a href="#cite_note-28">[note 4]</a> [-n, -m-, -ŋ-]<a href="#cite_note-29">[note 5]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>h<a href="#cite_note-h-30">[note 6]</a> [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>]</td> <td>ha ハ [ha]</td> <td>hi ヒ [çi]</td> <td>hu フ [ɸu̜]</td> <td>he ヘ [he]</td> <td>ho ホ [ho] </td></tr> <tr> <td>-h<a href="#cite_note-h-30">[note 6]</a> [-<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>]</td> <td>-ah ㇵ [-ax]</td> <td>-ih ㇶ [-iç]</td> <td>-uh ㇷ [-u̜x]</td> <td>-eh ㇸ [-ex]</td> <td>-oh ㇹ [-ox] </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">p [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>]<a href="#cite_note-voicing-25">[note 1]</a></td> <td>pa パ [pa]</td> <td>pi ピ [pi]</td> <td>pu プ [pu̜]</td> <td>pe ペ [pe]</td> <td>po ポ [po] </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5">-p ㇷ゚ [-p̚] </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">m [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>]</td> <td>ma マ [ma]</td> <td>mi ミ [mi]</td> <td>mu ム [mu̜]</td> <td>me メ [me]</td> <td>mo モ [mo] </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5">-m ㇺ [-m] </td></tr> <tr> <td>y [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>]</td> <td>ya ヤ [ja]</td> <td></td> <td>yu ユ [ju̜]</td> <td>ye イェ [je]</td> <td>yo ヨ [jo] </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">r [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">ɾ</a>]</td> <td>ra ラ [ɾa]</td> <td>ri リ [ɾi]</td> <td>ru ル [ɾu̜]</td> <td>re レ [ɾe]</td> <td>ro ロ [ɾo] </td></tr> <tr> <td>-ar ㇻ [-aɾ]</td> <td>-ir ㇼ [-iɾ]</td> <td>-ur ㇽ [-u̜ɾ]</td> <td>-er ㇾ [-eɾ]</td> <td>-or ㇿ [-oɾ] </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5">-r ㇽ [-ɾ] </td></tr> <tr> <td>w [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>]</td> <td>wa ワ [wa]</td> <td>wi ウィ / ヰ<a href="#cite_note-allograph-26">[note 2]</a> [wi]</td> <td></td> <td>we ウェ / ヱ<a href="#cite_note-allograph-26">[note 2]</a> [we]</td> <td>wo ウォ / ヲ<a href="#cite_note-allograph-26">[note 2]</a> [wo] </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="6"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-voicing-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-voicing_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-voicing_25-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-voicing_25-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-voicing_25-3">d</a> k, t, c, p are sometimes voiced [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>], [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>], [dz~dʒ], [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a>], respectively. It does not change the meaning of a word, but it sounds more rough/masculine. When they are voiced, they may be written as g, d, j, dz, b, ガ, ダ, ヂャ, ヅァ, バ, etc. </li> <li id="cite_note-allograph-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-allograph_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-allograph_26-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-allograph_26-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-allograph_26-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-allograph_26-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-allograph_26-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-allograph_26-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-allograph_26-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-allograph_26-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-allograph_26-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-allograph_26-10">k</a> Either may be used according to actual pronunciations, or to writer's preferred styles. </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> ッ is final t at the end of a word (e.g. pet = ペッ = ペㇳ). In the middle of a polysyllabic word, it is a final consonant preceding the initial with a same value (e.g. orta /otta/ = オッタ; オㇿタ is not preferred).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> At the end of a word, n can be written either ㇴ or ン. In the middle of a polysyllabic word, it is ン. (e.g. tan-mosir = タンモシㇼ = タㇴ+モシㇼ, but not タㇴモシㇼ.) </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>] before [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>], [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a>] before [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>], [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a>] elsewhere. Unlike Japanese, it does not become other sounds such as <a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">nasal vowels</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-h-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-h_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-h_30-1">b</a> Initial h [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>] and final h [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>] are different phonemes. Final h exists in Sakhalin Ainu only. </li> </ol></div></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diphthongs">Diphthongs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ainu_language&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Diphthongs">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Syllable_coda" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable coda">Final</a> [<a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-front unrounded vowel">ɪ</a>] is spelled y in Latin, small ィ in katakana. Final [<a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-back rounded vowel">ʊ</a>] is spelled w in Latin, small ゥ in katakana. Large イ and ウ are used if there is a morpheme boundary with イ and ウ at the morpheme head. [ae] is spelled ae, アエ or アェ. <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Example with <a href="/wiki/Syllable_onset" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable onset">initial</a> k: </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>[kaɪ]</th> <th>[ku̜ɪ]</th> <th>[keɪ]</th> <th>[koɪ]</th> <th>[kaʊ]</th> <th>[kiʊ]</th> <th>[keʊ]</th> <th>[koʊ] </th></tr> <tr> <td>kay</td> <td>kuy</td> <td>key</td> <td>koy</td> <td>kaw</td> <td>kiw</td> <td>kew</td> <td>kow </td></tr> <tr> <td>カィ</td> <td>クィ</td> <td>ケィ</td> <td>コィ</td> <td>カゥ</td> <td>キゥ</td> <td>ケゥ</td> <td>コゥ </td></tr> <tr> <th>[ka.ɪ]</th> <th>[ku̜.ɪ]</th> <th>[ke.ɪ]</th> <th>[ko.ɪ]</th> <th>[ka.u̜]</th> <th>[ki.u̜]</th> <th>[ke.u̜]</th> <th>[ko.u̜] </th></tr> <tr> <td>ka=i</td> <td>ku=i</td> <td>ke=i</td> <td>ko=i</td> <td>ka=u</td> <td>ki=u</td> <td>ke=u</td> <td>ko=u </td></tr> <tr> <td>カイ</td> <td>クイ</td> <td>ケイ</td> <td>コイ</td> <td>カウ</td> <td>キウ</td> <td>ケウ</td> <td>コウ </td></tr></tbody></table> Since the above rule is used systematically, some katakana combinations have different sounds from conventional Japanese. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th>ウィ</th> <th>クィ</th> <th>コウ</th> <th>スィ</th> <th>ティ</th> <th>トゥ</th> <th>フィ </th></tr> <tr> <th>Ainu </th> <td>[u̜ɪ]</td> <td>[ku̜ɪ]</td> <td>[ko.u̜]</td> <td>[su̜ɪ]</td> <td>[teɪ]</td> <td>[toʊ]</td> <td>[ɸu̜ɪ] </td></tr> <tr> <th>Japanese </th> <td>[wi]</td> <td>[kwi]</td> <td>[koː]</td> <td>[si]</td> <td>[ti]</td> <td>[tu͍]</td> <td>[ɸi] </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Oral_literature">Oral literature</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ainu_language&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Oral literature">edit</a>]</div> The Ainu have a rich <a href="/wiki/Oral_literature" title="Oral literature">oral tradition</a> of hero-sagas called <a href="/wiki/Yukar" title="Yukar">yukar</a>, which retain a number of grammatical and lexical archaisms. Yukar were memorized and told at get-togethers and ceremonies that often lasted hours or even days. The Ainu also have another form of narrative often used called <a href="/wiki/Uepeker" title="Uepeker">Uepeker</a>, which was used in the same contexts. A native written form of the Ainu language has never existed; therefore, the Ainu people traditionally relied on memorization and oral communication to pass down their literature to the next generation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENowakowskiPtaszynskiMasuiMomouchi20193-31">[25]</a> Ainu literature includes nonfiction, such as their history and "hunting adventures," and fiction such as stories about spiritual avatars, magic,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPiłsudsk191225_(p.xv)-32">[26]</a> myths, and heroes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENowakowskiPtaszynskiMasuiMomouchi20193-31">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Research_on_oral_literature">Research on oral literature</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ainu_language&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Research on oral literature">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096940132">.mw-parser-output .listen .side-box-text{line-height:1.1em}.mw-parser-output .listen-plain{border:none;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded{width:100%;margin:0;border-width:1px 0 0 0;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-header{padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded .listen-header{padding:2px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen-file-header{padding:4px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen .description{padding-top:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen .mw-tmh-player{max-width:100%}@media(max-width:719px){.mw-parser-output .listen{clear:both}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .listen:not(.listen-noimage){width:320px}.mw-parser-output .listen-left{overflow:visible;float:left}.mw-parser-output .listen-center{float:none;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Gnome-mime-audio-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-audio-openclipart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Gnome-mime-audio-openclipart.svg/75px-Gnome-mime-audio-openclipart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Gnome-mime-audio-openclipart.svg/100px-Gnome-mime-audio-openclipart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Audio_recording_of_an_Ainu_song_by_Bronis%C5%82aw_Pi%C5%82sudski.mp3" title="File:Audio recording of an Ainu song by Bronisław Piłsudski.mp3">Audio recording of an Ainu song by Bronisław Piłsudski</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_1" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="21" data-mwtitle="Audio_recording_of_an_Ainu_song_by_Bronisław_Piłsudski.mp3" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/03/Audio_recording_of_an_Ainu_song_by_Bronis%C5%82aw_Pi%C5%82sudski.mp3/Audio_recording_of_an_Ainu_song_by_Bronis%C5%82aw_Pi%C5%82sudski.mp3.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Audio_recording_of_an_Ainu_song_by_Bronis%C5%82aw_Pi%C5%82sudski.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></div> <div class="description">An audio recording of an Ainu song by <a href="/wiki/Bronis%C5%82aw_Pi%C5%82sudski" title="Bronisław Piłsudski">Bronisław Piłsudski</a></div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr />Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</div> </div> The oral literature of the Ainu languages has been studied mainly by Japanese and European researchers;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENowakowskiPtaszynskiMasuiMomouchi20194-33">[27]</a> thus, Ainu literature has been transcribed using writing systems such as Japanese <a href="/wiki/Katakana" title="Katakana">katakana</a> (commonly used for foreign-language text) and the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a>, and documented in the languages of the researchers themselves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENowakowskiPtaszynskiMasuiMomouchi20193–4-34">[28]</a> One prominent researcher of the Ainu languages is <a href="/wiki/Bronis%C5%82aw_Pi%C5%82sudski" title="Bronisław Piłsudski">Bronisław Piłsudski</a>, a Polish anthropologist who lived in Sakhalin from 1886 to 1905,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENowakowskiPtaszynskiMasuiMomouchi20194-33">[27]</a> and who published "Materials for the Study of the Ainu Language and Folklore" in 1912.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPiłsudsk1912-35">[29]</a> In addition, Piłsudski made audio recordings from 1902 to 1903, which is believed to be the first attempt to do so in the history of Ainu oral literature study.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENowakowskiPtaszynskiMasuiMomouchi20194-33">[27]</a> Japanese linguist Kyosuke Kindaichi is also famous for his work on the oral literature of the Ainu languages,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENowakowskiPtaszynskiMasuiMomouchi20194-33">[27]</a> and for his publication Ainu monogatari: tsuketari Ainugo taii oyobi goi (あいぬ物語: 附・あいぬ語大意及語彙) in 1913.<a href="#cite_note-36">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Recent_history">Recent history</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ainu_language&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Recent history">edit</a>]</div> Many of the speakers of Ainu lost the language with the advent of Japanese colonization, which formally began with the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Hokkaid%C5%8D_Development_Commission" title="Hokkaidō Development Commission">Hokkaido Colonization Office</a> in 1869. Japanese officials viewed the assimilation of Ainu a critical component of the Hokkaido colonization project, and developed policies designed to discourage or eliminate the use of the Ainu language, cultural practices, and traditional lifeways.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECheung2003-37">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaruyama2014-38">[32]</a> The assimilation included the exploitation of Ainu land, the commodification of their culture, and the placing of Ainu children in schools where they learned only Japanese.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECheung2003-37">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaruyama2014-38">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[33]</a> More recently, the Japanese government has acknowledged the Ainu people as an indigenous population. As of 1997 they were given indigenous rights under the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) to their culture, heritage, and language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECheung2003-37">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaruyama2014-38">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESavageLongo2013-40">[34]</a> The Ainu Cultural Promotion Act in 1997 appointed the Foundation for Research and Promotion of Ainu Culture (FRPAC). This foundation is tasked with language education, where they promote Ainu language learning through training instructors, advanced language classes and creation and development of language materials.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESavageLongo2013-40">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Revitalization">Revitalization</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ainu_language&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Revitalization">edit</a>]</div> In general, Ainu people are hard to find because they tend to hide their identity as Ainu, especially in the young generation. Two thirds of Ainu youth do not know that they are Ainu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGayman2011-5">[5]</a> In addition, because Ainu students were strongly discouraged from speaking their language at school,<a href="#cite_note-41">[35]</a> it has been challenging for the Ainu language to be revitalized. Despite this, there is an active movement to <a href="/wiki/Language_revitalization" title="Language revitalization">revitalize</a> the language, mainly in Hokkaido but also elsewhere such as <a href="/wiki/Kant%C5%8D_region" title="Kantō region">Kanto</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin2011-4">[4]</a> Ainu oral literature has been documented both in hopes of safeguarding it for future generations, as well as using it as a teaching tool for language learners.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiyaokaSakiyamaKrauss2007-42">[36]</a> Beginning in 1987, the <a href="/wiki/Ainu_Association_of_Hokkaido" title="Ainu Association of Hokkaido">Ainu Association of Hokkaido</a>, with approximately 500 members,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin2011-4">[4]</a> began hosting 14 Ainu language classes, Ainu language instructors training courses and Family Ainu Learning Initiative<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGayman2011-5">[5]</a> and have released instructional materials on the language, including a textbook.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiyaokaSakiyamaKrauss2007-42">[36]</a> Also, <a href="/wiki/Yamato_people" title="Yamato people">Yamato</a> linguists teach Ainu and train students to become Ainu instructors in university.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGayman2011-5">[5]</a> In spite of these efforts, as of 2011<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ainu_language&action=edit">[update]</a> the Ainu language was not yet taught as a subject in any secondary school in Japan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin2011-4">[4]</a> Due to the Ainu Cultural Promotion Act of 1997, Ainu dictionaries transformed and became tools for improving communication and preserving records of the Ainu language in order to revitalize the language and promote the culture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2014-43">[37]</a> This act had aims to promote, disseminate, and advocate on behalf of Ainu cultural traditions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeeterOkazaki2011-6">[6]</a> The main issue with this act however, was that not a single Ainu person was included in the "Expert" meetings prior to the law's passage, and as a result of this there was no mention of language education and how it should be carried out.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeeterOkazaki2011-6">[6]</a> The focus at this point was on Ainu culture revitalization rather than Ainu language revitalization. As of 2011, there has been an increasing number of second-language learners, especially in Hokkaido, in large part due to the pioneering efforts of the late Ainu folklorist, activist and former <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Diet" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese Diet">Diet</a> member <a href="/wiki/Shigeru_Kayano" class="mw-redirect" title="Shigeru Kayano">Shigeru Kayano</a>, himself a native speaker, who first opened an Ainu language school in 1987 funded by <a href="/wiki/Ainu_Kyokai" class="mw-redirect" title="Ainu Kyokai">Ainu Kyokai</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeeterOkazaki2011-6">[6]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ainu_Association_of_Hokkaido" title="Ainu Association of Hokkaido">Ainu Association of Hokkaido</a> is the main supporter of Ainu culture in Hokkaido.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin2011-4">[4]</a> Ainu language classes have been conducted in some areas in Japan and small numbers of young people are learning Ainu. Efforts have also been made to produce web-accessible materials for conversational Ainu because most documentation of the Ainu language focused on the recording of folktales.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBugaeva2010-44">[38]</a> The Ainu language has been in media as well; the first Ainu radio program was called FM Pipaushi,<a href="#cite_note-45">[39]</a> which has run since 2001 along with 15-minute radio Ainu language lessons funded by FRPAC,<a href="#cite_note-46">[40]</a> and newspaper <a href="/wiki/Ainu_Times" title="Ainu Times">The Ainu Times</a> has been established since 1997.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeeterOkazaki2011-6">[6]</a> In 2016, a radio course was broadcast by the STVradio Broadcasting to introduce Ainu language. The course put extensive efforts in promoting the language, creating 4 text books in each season throughout the year.<a href="#cite_note-47">[41]</a> In addition, the Ainu language has been seen in public domains such as the outlet shopping complex's name, Rera, which means 'wind', in the <a href="/wiki/Minami-Chitose_Station" title="Minami-Chitose Station">Minami Chitose</a> area and the name Pewre, meaning 'young', at a shopping centre in the <a href="/wiki/Chitose,_Hokkaido" title="Chitose, Hokkaido">Chitose</a> area. There is also a basketball team in <a href="/wiki/Sapporo" title="Sapporo">Sapporo</a> founded under the name Rera Kamuy Hokkaido, after rera kamuy 'god of the wind' (its current name is <a href="/wiki/Levanga_Hokkaido" title="Levanga Hokkaido">Levanga Hokkaido</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartin2011-4">[4]</a> The well-known Japanese fashion magazine's name <a href="/wiki/Non-no" title="Non-no">Non-no</a> means 'flower' in Ainu. Another Ainu language revitalization program is Urespa, a university program to educate high-level persons on the language of the Ainu. The effort is a collaborative and cooperative program for individuals wishing to learn about Ainu languages. This includes performances which focus on the Ainu and their language, instead of using the dominant Japanese language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUzawa2019-48">[42]</a> Another form of Ainu language revitalization is an annual national competition, which is Ainu language-themed. People of many differing demographics are often encouraged to take part in the contest. Since 2017, the popularity of the contest has increased.<a href="#cite_note-49">[43]</a> On 15 February 2019, Japan approved a bill to recognize the Ainu language for the first time<a href="#cite_note-50">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[45]</a> and enacted the law on April 19, 2019.<a href="#cite_note-52">[46]</a> Outside of Japan, there have also been efforts to revive the Ainu culture and language in other countries, including <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[47]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-54">[48]</a> In 2019, researchers working together from both the Society for Academic Research of Ainu (SARC), representatives from Hokkaido University, and with the assistance of linguists spanning multiple universities and countries assisted in the creation of AI Pirika, an AI created with the goal of assisting with speech recognition and serving as a conversation partner.<a href="#cite_note-55">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sample_text">Sample text</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ainu_language&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Sample text">edit</a>]</div> Below is a sample text from a traditional Ainu folktale, in Ainu, Japanese and English.<a href="#cite_note-56">[50]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Ainu original </th> <th>Latin transliteration </th> <th>Japanese translation </th> <th>English translation </th></tr> <tr> <td>シネアントタベテトㇰウンシノタㇱクスパイェアㇱアワ, ベテトㇰタシネポンルㇷ゚ネクㇿネスコウライカㇿクスウライキㇰネアㇷ゚コサニㇰケウカンプナㇱ・プナㇱ。 </td> <td>Sinean to ta petetok un sinotas kusu payeas awa, petetokta sine ponrupnekur nesko urai kar kusu uraikik neap kosanikkeukan punas-punas. </td> <td>ある日に（川の）水源の方へ（私が）遊ぶに（私が）出かけたら（思いがけなく）（川の）水源に一人の小男が胡桃（くるみ）の木の梁（やな）をたてるため（胡桃の木の）杭を打っていた。（それに下げた）腰を幾度も上げて立っている。(腰を曲げ曲げしている。) </td> <td>One day, as I went out to play at the spring, there was a little man at the spring hitting stakes made of walnut wood, in order to erect (some) wooden beams. His hip bent (and he bent down) and he straightened out (as he worked, going up and down over and over). </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ainu_language&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPoisson2002" class="citation book cs1">Poisson, Barbara Aoki (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ainuofjapan00pois/page/5">The Ainu of Japan</a>. 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World Atlas of Language Structures Online. Retrieved 2012-07-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Atlas+of+Language+Structures+Online&rft.atitle=Ainu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwals.info%2Flanguoid%2Flect%2Fwals_code_ain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAinu+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDal_Corso2016-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDal_Corso2016_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDal_Corso2016_18-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDal_Corso2016">Dal Corso (2016)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalchukovComrie2015" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Malchukov, Andrej; Comrie, Bernard, eds. 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De Gruyter. p. 833. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-039527-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-039527-3"><bdi>978-3-11-039527-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Valency+Classes+in+the+World%27s+Languages&rft.pages=833&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-3-11-039527-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdrVhDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT833&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAinu+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShibatani1990-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShibatani1990_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShibatani1990_20-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShibatani1990_20-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShibatani1990_20-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShibatani1990_20-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShibatani1990_20-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShibatani1990_20-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShibatani1990_20-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShibatani1990_20-8">i</a> <a href="#CITEREFShibatani1990">Shibatani (1990)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrédéric2005" class="citation book cs1">Frédéric, Louis (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=p2QnPijAEmEC&pg=PA13">"Ainu"</a>. Japan Encyclopedia. Translated by Roth, Käthe (illustrated, reprint ed.). 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Putnam's. p. 204. Retrieved 23 April 2012. <q>In 1877 a young and industrious theologian went to visit the Ainu. His name was John Batchelor, and he was a scientist and missionary. He got to know the Ainu well, studied their language and customs, won their affection, and remained their staunch friend until the end of his days. It is to Batchelor that we owe our deepest insight into the</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Living+Past&rft.pages=204&rft.edition=4&rft.pub=Putnam%27s&rft.date=1957&rft.au=Ivar+Lissner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0skIAQAAIAAJ%26q%3D1877%2Btheologian%2Bjohn%2Bbatchelor%2B%2Bmissionary%2Bstudied&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAinu+language" class="Z3988"> [Original from the University of California Digitized Jan 27, 2009 Length 444 pages] </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatric1943" class="citation book cs1">Patric, John (1943). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wbFCAAAAIAAJ&q=batchelor+ainu+hitherto+wrote+books">...Why Japan Was Strong</a> (4 ed.). Doubleday, Doran & Company. p. 72. Retrieved 23 April 2012. <q>John Batchelor set about to learn the Ainu language, which the Japanese had not troubled ever to learn. He laboriously compiled an Ainu dictionary. He singlehandedly turned this hitherto but spoken tongue into a written language, and himself wrote books in it.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=...Why+Japan+Was+Strong&rft.pages=72&rft.edition=4&rft.pub=Doubleday%2C+Doran+%26+Company&rft.date=1943&rft.aulast=Patric&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwbFCAAAAIAAJ%26q%3Dbatchelor%2Bainu%2Bhitherto%2Bwrote%2Bbooks&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAinu+language" class="Z3988"> [Original from the University of California Digitized Oct 16, 2007 Length 313 pages] </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.alanwood.net/unicode/katakana_phonetic_extensions.html">this page</a> at alanwood.net and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U31F0.pdf">this section</a> of the Unicode specification. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENowakowskiPtaszynskiMasuiMomouchi20193-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENowakowskiPtaszynskiMasuiMomouchi20193_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENowakowskiPtaszynskiMasuiMomouchi20193_31-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNowakowskiPtaszynskiMasuiMomouchi2019">Nowakowski et al. 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Lexicographica. 30 (1): 547–578. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Flexi-2014-0017">10.1515/lexi-2014-0017</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:156901164">156901164</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lexicographica&rft.atitle=Re-vitalizing+an+Indigenous+Language%3A+Dictionaries+of+Ainu+Languages+in+Japan%2C+1625%E2%80%932013&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E547-%3C%2Fspan%3E578&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Flexi-2014-0017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A156901164%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Hansen&rft.aufirst=A.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAinu+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaruyama2014" class="citation journal cs1">Maruyama, Hiroshi (2014). "Japan's Policies Towards the Ainu Language and Culture with Special Reference to North Fennoscandian Sami Policies". Acta Borealia. 31 (2): 152–175. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F08003831.2014.967980">10.1080/08003831.2014.967980</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145497777">145497777</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Acta+Borealia&rft.atitle=Japan%27s+Policies+Towards+the+Ainu+Language+and+Culture+with+Special+Reference+to+North+Fennoscandian+Sami+Policies&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E152-%3C%2Fspan%3E175&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F08003831.2014.967980&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145497777%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Maruyama&rft.aufirst=Hiroshi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAinu+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin2011" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script">Martin, Kylie (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eprints.lib.hokudai.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2115/47031/1/MSC60_005.pdf">"Aynu itak: On the Road to Ainu Language Revitalization"</a> (PDF). Media and Communication Studies <bdi lang="ja">メディア·コミュニケーション研究</bdi>. 60: 57–93. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2115%2F47031">2115/47031</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150421225339/https://eprints.lib.hokudai.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2115/47031/1/MSC60_005.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2015-04-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Media+and+Communication+Studies&rft.atitle=Aynu+itak%3A+On+the+Road+to+Ainu+Language+Revitalization&rft.volume=60&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E57-%3C%2Fspan%3E93&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2115%2F47031&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Kylie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feprints.lib.hokudai.ac.jp%2Fdspace%2Fbitstream%2F2115%2F47031%2F1%2FMSC60_005.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAinu+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiyaokaSakiyamaKrauss2007" class="citation book cs1">Miyaoka, Osahito; Sakiyama, Osamu; Krauss, Michael E., eds. (2007). The Vanishing Languages of the Pacific Rim. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 377–382. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780199266623.001.0001">10.1093/oso/9780199266623.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-153289-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-153289-4"><bdi>978-0-19-153289-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Vanishing+Languages+of+the+Pacific+Rim&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E377-%3C%2Fspan%3E382&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780199266623.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-153289-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAinu+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNowakowskiPtaszynskiMasuiMomouchi2019" class="citation journal cs1">Nowakowski, Karol; Ptaszynski, Michal; Masui, Fumito; Momouchi, Yoshio (November 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Finfo10110329">"Improving Basic Natural Language Processing Tools for the Ainu Language"</a>. Information. 10 (11): 329. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Finfo10110329">10.3390/info10110329</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Information&rft.atitle=Improving+Basic+Natural+Language+Processing+Tools+for+the+Ainu+Language&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=329&rft.date=2019-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Finfo10110329&rft.aulast=Nowakowski&rft.aufirst=Karol&rft.au=Ptaszynski%2C+Michal&rft.au=Masui%2C+Fumito&rft.au=Momouchi%2C+Yoshio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Finfo10110329&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAinu+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPiłsudsk1912" class="citation book cs1">Piłsudsk, Bronisław (1912). Materials for the study of the Ainu language and folklore. Poland: Imperial academy of science.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Materials+for+the+study+of+the+Ainu+language+and+folklore&rft.place=Poland&rft.pub=Imperial+academy+of+science&rft.date=1912&rft.aulast=Pi%C5%82sudsk&rft.aufirst=Bronis%C5%82aw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAinu+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSavageLongo2013" class="citation journal cs1">Savage, Theresa; Longo, Michael (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/26219816">"Legal Frameworks for the Protection of Ainu Language and Culture in Japan: International and European Perspectives"</a>. Japanese Studies. 33 (1): 101–120. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10371397.2013.782098">10.1080/10371397.2013.782098</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1959.3%2F313493">1959.3/313493</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145788025">145788025</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Japanese+Studies&rft.atitle=Legal+Frameworks+for+the+Protection+of+Ainu+Language+and+Culture+in+Japan%3A+International+and+European+Perspectives&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E101-%3C%2Fspan%3E120&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1959.3%2F313493&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145788025%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10371397.2013.782098&rft.aulast=Savage&rft.aufirst=Theresa&rft.au=Longo%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffigshare.com%2Farticles%2Fjournal_contribution%2F26219816&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAinu+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShibatani1990" class="citation book cs1">Shibatani, Masayoshi (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theswissbay.ch/pdf/Books/Linguistics/Mega%20linguistics%20pack/Other/Ainu%20language%20%28Shibatani%29.pdf">"Part 1: The Ainu Language"</a> (PDF). The Languages of Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-36918-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-36918-3"><bdi>978-0-521-36918-3</bdi></a> – via theswissbay.ch.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Part+1%3A+The+Ainu+Language&rft.btitle=The+Languages+of+Japan&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-521-36918-3&rft.aulast=Shibatani&rft.aufirst=Masayoshi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheswissbay.ch%2Fpdf%2FBooks%2FLinguistics%2FMega%2520linguistics%2520pack%2FOther%2FAinu%2520language%2520%2528Shibatani%2529.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAinu+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTeeterOkazaki2011" class="citation journal cs1">Teeter, Jennifer; Okazaki, Takayuki (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.46538%2Fhlj.8.2.5">"Ainu as a Heritage Language of Japan: History, Current State and Future of Ainu Language Policy and Education"</a>. Heritage Language Journal. 8 (2): 251–269. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.46538%2Fhlj.8.2.5">10.46538/hlj.8.2.5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Heritage+Language+Journal&rft.atitle=Ainu+as+a+Heritage+Language+of+Japan%3A+History%2C+Current+State+and+Future+of+Ainu+Language+Policy+and+Education&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E251-%3C%2Fspan%3E269&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.46538%2Fhlj.8.2.5&rft.aulast=Teeter&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rft.au=Okazaki%2C+Takayuki&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.46538%252Fhlj.8.2.5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAinu+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUzawa2019" class="citation journal cs1">Uzawa, Kanako (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1177180119846665">"What Does Ainu Cultural Revitalisation Mean to Ainu and Wajin Youth in the 21st century? Case Study of Urespa as a Place to Learn Ainu Culture in the City of Sapporo, Japan"</a>. AlterNative. 15 (2): 168–179. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1177180119846665">10.1177/1177180119846665</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:197693428">197693428</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=AlterNative&rft.atitle=What+Does+Ainu+Cultural+Revitalisation+Mean+to+Ainu+and+Wajin+Youth+in+the+21st+century%3F+Case+Study+of+Urespa+as+a+Place+to+Learn+Ainu+Culture+in+the+City+of+Sapporo%2C+Japan&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E168-%3C%2Fspan%3E179&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1177180119846665&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A197693428%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Uzawa&rft.aufirst=Kanako&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%252F1177180119846665&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAinu+language" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ainu_language&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHattori,_Shirō1964" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Shiro_Hattori" class="mw-redirect" title="Shiro Hattori">Hattori, Shirō</a>, ed. (1964). Bunrui Ainugo hōgen jiten [An Ainu dialect dictionary with Ainu, Japanese, and English indexes]. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bunrui+Ainugo+h%C5%8Dgen+jiten&rft.place=Tokyo&rft.pub=Iwanami+Shoten&rft.date=1964&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAinu+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller,_Roy_Andrew1967" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Roy Andrew (1967). The Japanese Language. Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Japanese+Language&rft.place=Tokyo&rft.pub=Charles+E.+Tuttle&rft.date=1967&rft.au=Miller%2C+Roy+Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAinu+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRefsing,_Kirsten1986" class="citation book cs1">Refsing, Kirsten (1986). The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-87-7288-020-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-87-7288-020-4"><bdi>978-87-7288-020-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ainu+Language%3A+The+Morphology+and+Syntax+of+the+Shizunai+Dialect&rft.place=Aarhus&rft.pub=Aarhus+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-87-7288-020-4&rft.au=Refsing%2C+Kirsten&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAinu+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRefsing1996" class="citation book cs1">Refsing, Kirsten (1996). Early European Writings on the Ainu Language. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-0400-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-0400-2"><bdi>978-0-7007-0400-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+European+Writings+on+the+Ainu+Language&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-7007-0400-2&rft.aulast=Refsing&rft.aufirst=Kirsten&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAinu+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTamura2000" class="citation book cs1">Tamura, Suzuko (2000). The Ainu Language. Tokyo: Sanseido. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-4-385-35976-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-4-385-35976-2"><bdi>978-4-385-35976-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ainu+Language&rft.place=Tokyo&rft.pub=Sanseido&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-4-385-35976-2&rft.aulast=Tamura&rft.aufirst=Suzuko&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAinu+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVovin,_Alexander2008" class="citation web cs1">Vovin, Alexander (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140211234350/http://www.nichibun.ac.jp/graphicversion/dbase/forum/pdf/fn215.pdf">"Man'yōshū to Fudoki ni Mirareru Fushigina Kotoba to Jōdai Nihon Retto ni Okeru Ainugo no Bunpu"</a> [Strange Words in the Man'yoshū and the Fudoki and the Distribution of the Ainu Language in the Japanese Islands in Prehistory] (PDF). Kokusai Nihon Bunka Kenkyū Sentā. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nichibun.ac.jp/graphicversion/dbase/forum/pdf/fn215.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2014-02-11. Retrieved 2011-01-17.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Man%27y%C5%8Dsh%C5%AB+to+Fudoki+ni+Mirareru+Fushigina+Kotoba+to+J%C5%8Ddai+Nihon+Retto+ni+Okeru+Ainugo+no+Bunpu&rft.pub=Kokusai+Nihon+Bunka+Kenky%C5%AB+Sent%C4%81&rft.date=2008&rft.au=Vovin%2C+Alexander&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nichibun.ac.jp%2Fgraphicversion%2Fdbase%2Fforum%2Fpdf%2Ffn215.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAinu+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Miyake" title="Marc Miyake">Miyake, Marc</a>. 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amritas.com/090725.htm#07232359">Is the itak an isolate?</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ainu_language&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Incubator-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/32px-Incubator-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/48px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/64px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="1000" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wp/ain" class="extiw" title="incubator:Wp/ain">Ainu language test</a> of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a> at <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Incubator" class="extiw" title="meta:Wikimedia Incubator">Wikimedia Incubator</a></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/40px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/60px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/80px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikivoyage has a phrasebook for <a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Ainu_phrasebook#Q27969" class="extiw" title="wikivoyage:Ainu phrasebook">Ainu</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jinbunweb.sgu.ac.jp/~ainu/biblio/european.html#AinuLib1">Literature and materials for learning Ainu</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080917151117/http://jinbunweb.sgu.ac.jp/~ainu/biblio/european.html#AinuLib1">Archived</a> 2008-09-17 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bcp/Japan/ainu.htm">The Book of Common Prayer in Ainu</a>, translated by John Batchelor, digitized by Richard Mammana and Charles Wohlers</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://city.hokkai.or.jp/~ayaedu/">Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Ainu</a> in <a href="/wiki/Samani,_Hokkaido" title="Samani, Hokkaido">Samani, Hokkaido</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A17278257">A Grammar of the Ainu Language</a> by <a href="/wiki/John_Batchelor_(missionary)" title="John Batchelor (missionary)">John Batchelor</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ainuenglishjapan00batcuoft">An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary, including A Grammar of the Ainu Language</a> by John Batchelor</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jdbengt.net/articles/Austric.pdf">"The 'Greater Austric' hypothesis"</a> by John Bengtson (undated)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unilang.org/course.php?res=58">Ainu for Beginners</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081209055528/http://www.unilang.org/course.php?res=58">Archived</a> 2008-12-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by Kane Kumagai, translated by Yongdeok Cho</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050105011134/http://www.stv.ne.jp/radio/ainugo/index.html">Radio lessons on Ainu language presented by Sapporo TV</a> (in Japanese)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://elar.soas.ac.uk/Collection/MPI585111">A talking dictionary of Ainu: a new version of Kanazawa's Ainu conversational dictionary</a>, with recordings of Mrs. Setsu Kurokawa</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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id="Languages_of_Japan113" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Japan" title="Languages of Japan">Languages of Japan</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_dialects" title="Japanese dialects">Variants</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indigenous languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hokkaido Ainu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hachij%C5%8D_language" title="Hachijō language">Hachijō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryukyuan_languages" title="Ryukyuan languages">Ryukyuan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amami_%C5%8Cshima_language" title="Amami Ōshima language">Amami Ōshima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kikai_language" title="Kikai language">Kikai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunigami_language" title="Kunigami language">Kunigami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miyako_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Miyako language">Miyako</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okinawan_language" title="Okinawan language">Okinawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okinoerabu_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Okinoerabu language">Okinoerabu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokunoshima_language" title="Tokunoshima language">Tokunoshima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaeyama_language" title="Yaeyama language">Yaeyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yonaguni_language" title="Yonaguni language">Yonaguni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoron_language" title="Yoron language">Yoron</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-Indigenous languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Portuguese" title="Brazilian Portuguese">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoochew_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoochew Chinese">Hoochew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esperanto_in_Japan" title="Esperanto in Japan">Esperanto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_language" title="Indonesian language">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zainichi_Korean_language" title="Zainichi Korean language">Zainichi Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakhalin_Ainu_language" title="Sakhalin Ainu language">Sakhalin Ainu</a> †</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuril_Ainu_language" title="Kuril Ainu language">Kuril Ainu</a> †</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Creole languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bonin_English" title="Bonin English">Bonin English</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sign languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Sign_Language" title="Japanese Sign Language">Nihonshu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amami_Oshima_Sign_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Amami Oshima Sign Language">Amami Oshima Sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miyakubo_Sign_Language" title="Miyakubo Sign Language">Miyakubo Sign</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q27969#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1148" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q27969#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1148" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q27969#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/802049/">FAST</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4134147-8">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85002564">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119812307">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119812307">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00560108">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX541210">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007294772505171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027860957">IdRef</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: 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