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</a> <ul id="toc-Reproductions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Terminology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terminology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Terminology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terminology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Type of artillery relying on a twisting force to launch projectiles</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Lead_too_short plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-lead_too_short" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/60px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/80px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="44" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section#Length" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section">lead section</a> <b>may be too short to adequately <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Summary_style" title="Wikipedia:Summary style">summarize</a> the key points</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please consider expanding the lead to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section#Provide_an_accessible_overview" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section">provide an accessible overview</a> of all important aspects of the article.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Onager.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Roman_Onager.jpg/220px-Roman_Onager.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Roman_Onager.jpg/330px-Roman_Onager.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Roman_Onager.jpg/440px-Roman_Onager.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="338" /></a><figcaption>Sketch of an <a href="/wiki/Onager_(siege_weapon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Onager (siege weapon)">onager</a>, a type of torsion siege engine</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>torsion siege engine</b> is a type of <a href="/wiki/Siege_engine" title="Siege engine">siege engine</a> that utilizes <a href="/wiki/Torsion_(mechanics)" title="Torsion (mechanics)">torsion</a> to launch projectiles. They were initially developed by the ancient Macedonians, specifically <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, and used through the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> until the development of <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">gunpowder</a> artillery in the 14th century rendered them mostly obsolete. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torsion_siege_engine&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greek">Greek</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torsion_siege_engine&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Greek"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Greek_and_Roman_artillery" title="Greek and Roman artillery">Greek and Roman artillery</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hellenistic_Artillery_Tower._Reconstruction.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Hellenistic_Artillery_Tower._Reconstruction.jpg/220px-Hellenistic_Artillery_Tower._Reconstruction.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Hellenistic_Artillery_Tower._Reconstruction.jpg/330px-Hellenistic_Artillery_Tower._Reconstruction.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Hellenistic_Artillery_Tower._Reconstruction.jpg/440px-Hellenistic_Artillery_Tower._Reconstruction.jpg 2x" data-file-width="798" data-file-height="543" /></a><figcaption>Modern depiction of a <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</a> artillery tower equipped with torsion ballistae</figcaption></figure> <p>Preceding the development of torsion siege engines were tension siege engines that had existed since at least the beginning of the 4th century BC, most notably the <a href="/wiki/Gastraphetes" title="Gastraphetes">gastraphetes</a> in <a href="/wiki/Heron_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Heron of Alexandria">Heron of Alexandria's</a> <i>Belopoeica</i> that was probably invented in <a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_Sicily" title="Syracuse, Sicily">Syracuse</a> by <a href="/wiki/Dionysius_the_Elder" class="mw-redirect" title="Dionysius the Elder">Dionysius the Elder</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though simple torsion devices could have been developed earlier, the first extant evidence of a torsion siege engine comes from the Chalcotheca, the arsenal on the <a href="/wiki/Acropolis" title="Acropolis">Acropolis</a> in <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>, and dates to c. 338 - 326 BC. It lists the building's inventory that included torsion catapults and its components such as hair springs, catapult bases, and bolts.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The transition from tension machines to torsion machines is a mystery,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though E.W. Marsden speculates that a reasonable transition would involve the recognition of the properties of sinew in previously existing tension devices and other bows. Torsion based weaponry offered much greater efficiency over tension based weaponry. Traditional historiography puts the speculative date of the invention of two-armed torsion machines during the reign of Philip II of Macedon circa 340 BC, which is not unreasonable given the earliest surviving evidence of siege engines stated above.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The machines quickly spread throughout the ancient Mediterranean, with schools and contests emerging at the end of the 4th century BC that promoted the refinement of machine design.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were so popular in ancient Greece and Rome that competitions were often held. Students from <a href="/wiki/Samos" title="Samos">Samos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ceos" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceos">Ceos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chania" title="Chania">Cyanae</a>, and especially <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a> were highly sought after by military leaders for their catapult construction.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Torsion machines in particular were used heavily in military campaigns. <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon" title="Philip V of Macedon">Philip V of Macedon</a>, for example, used torsion engines during his campaigns in 219-218 BC, including 150 sharp-throwers and 25 stone-throwers.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Scipio_Africanus" title="Scipio Africanus">Scipio Africanus</a> confiscated 120 large catapults, 281 small catapults, 75 ballistae, and a great number of <a href="/wiki/Scorpio_(weapon)" title="Scorpio (weapon)">scorpions</a> after he captured <a href="/wiki/Cartagena,_Spain" title="Cartagena, Spain">New Carthage</a> in 209 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman">Roman</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torsion_siege_engine&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Roman"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:046_Conrad_Cichorius,_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianss%C3%A4ule,_Tafel_XLVI_(Ausschnitt_01).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/046_Conrad_Cichorius%2C_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianss%C3%A4ule%2C_Tafel_XLVI_%28Ausschnitt_01%29.jpg/220px-046_Conrad_Cichorius%2C_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianss%C3%A4ule%2C_Tafel_XLVI_%28Ausschnitt_01%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/046_Conrad_Cichorius%2C_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianss%C3%A4ule%2C_Tafel_XLVI_%28Ausschnitt_01%29.jpg/330px-046_Conrad_Cichorius%2C_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianss%C3%A4ule%2C_Tafel_XLVI_%28Ausschnitt_01%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/046_Conrad_Cichorius%2C_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianss%C3%A4ule%2C_Tafel_XLVI_%28Ausschnitt_01%29.jpg/440px-046_Conrad_Cichorius%2C_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianss%C3%A4ule%2C_Tafel_XLVI_%28Ausschnitt_01%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1593" data-file-height="1097" /></a><figcaption>Roman <a href="/wiki/Carroballista" title="Carroballista">carroballista</a> on <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Column" title="Trajan's Column">Trajan's Column</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Romans obtained their knowledge of artillery from the Greeks. In ancient Roman tradition, women were supposed to have given up their hair for use in catapults, which has a later example in Carthage in 148-146 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Torsion artillery, especially ballistae came into heavy usage during the <a href="/wiki/First_Punic_War" title="First Punic War">First Punic War</a> and was so common by the <a href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second Punic War</a> that <a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a> remarked in the <i><a href="/wiki/Captivi" title="Captivi">Captivi</a></i> that “Meus est ballista pugnus, cubitus catapulta est mihi” (“The ballista is my fist, the catapult is my elbow").<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 100 AD, the Romans had begun to permanently mount artillery, whereas previously machines had traveled largely disassembled in carts.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Romans made the Greek ballista more portable, calling the hand-held version <a href="/wiki/Manuballista" class="mw-redirect" title="Manuballista">manuballista</a> and the cart-mounted type <a href="/wiki/Carroballista" title="Carroballista">carroballista</a>. They also made use of a one armed torsion stone-projector named the <a href="/wiki/Onager_(siege_weapon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Onager (siege weapon)">onager</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest extant evidence of the carroballista is on <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Column" title="Trajan's Column">Trajan's Column</a>. Between 100 and 300 AD, every Roman legion had a battery of ten onagers and 55 cheiroballistae hauled by teams of mules. After this, there were legionaries called <a href="/wiki/Ballistarii" class="mw-redirect" title="Ballistarii">ballistarii</a> whose exclusive purpose was to produce, move, and maintain catapults.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In later antiquity the <a href="/wiki/Onager_(siege_weapon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Onager (siege weapon)">onager</a> began to replace the more complicated two-armed devices.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Greeks and Romans, with advanced methods of military supply and armament, were able to readily produce the many pieces needed to build a ballista. In the later 4th and 5th centuries as these administrative structures began to change, simpler devices became preferable because the technical skills needed to produce more complex machines were no longer as common. <a href="/wiki/Publius_Flavius_Vegetius_Renatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus">Vegetius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a>, and the anonymous "<a href="/wiki/De_rebus_bellicis" title="De rebus bellicis">De rebus bellicis</a>" are our first and most descriptive sources on torsion machines, all writing in the 4th century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A little later, in the 6th century, <a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a> provides his description of torsion devices. All use the term ballistae and provide descriptions similar to those of their predecessors.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_continuity">Medieval continuity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torsion_siege_engine&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Medieval continuity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Torsion_mangonel_myth" title="Torsion mangonel myth">Torsion mangonel myth</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hecht_090710_Ballista.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Hecht_090710_Ballista.jpg/220px-Hecht_090710_Ballista.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Hecht_090710_Ballista.jpg/330px-Hecht_090710_Ballista.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Hecht_090710_Ballista.jpg/440px-Hecht_090710_Ballista.jpg 2x" data-file-width="754" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">Ballista</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mang2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Mang2.png/220px-Mang2.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Mang2.png/330px-Mang2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Mang2.png/440px-Mang2.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption>Bucket <a href="/wiki/Onager_(weapon)" title="Onager (weapon)">onager</a> (4th-6th century torsion weapon)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Onager_with_sling.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Onager_with_sling.png/220px-Onager_with_sling.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Onager_with_sling.png/330px-Onager_with_sling.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Onager_with_sling.png/440px-Onager_with_sling.png 2x" data-file-width="1368" data-file-height="912" /></a><figcaption>Sling <a href="/wiki/Onager_(weapon)" title="Onager (weapon)">onager</a> - the sling version improved on the bucket by increasing arm length without burdening the arm with extra weight</figcaption></figure> <p>A common misconception about torsion siege engines such as the <a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">ballista</a> or <a href="/wiki/Onager_(weapon)" title="Onager (weapon)">onager</a> is their continued usage after the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a> (late 5th-10th centuries AD). These artillery weapons were only used in the West until the 6-8th centuries, when they were replaced by the traction trebuchet, more commonly known as the <a href="/wiki/Mangonel" title="Mangonel">mangonel</a>. The myth of the torsion mangonel began in the 18th century when <a href="/wiki/Francis_Grose" title="Francis Grose">Francis Grose</a> claimed that the onager was the dominant medieval artillery until the arrival of gunpowder. In the mid-19th century, <a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Henri_Dufour" title="Guillaume Henri Dufour">Guillaume Henri Dufour</a> adjusted this framework by arguing that onagers went out of use in medieval times, but were directly replaced by the counterweight trebuchet. Dufour and <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte</a> argued that torsion machines were abandoned because the requisite supplies needed to build the sinew <a href="/wiki/Hank_(textile)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hank (textile)">skein</a> and metal support pieces were too difficult to obtain in comparison to the materials needed for tension and counterweight machines.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the early 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Payne-Gallwey" title="Ralph Payne-Gallwey">Sir Ralph Payne-Gallwey</a> concurred that torsion catapults were not used in medieval times, but only owing to their greater complexity, and believed that they were superior to "such a clumsy engine as the medieval trebuchet."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFulton201612_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFulton201612-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others such as General Köhler disagreed and argued that torsion machines were used throughout the Middle Ages.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The torsion mangonel myth is particularly appealing for many historians due to its potential as an argument for the continuity of classical technologies and scientific knowledge into the Early Middle Ages, which they use to refute the concept of medieval decline.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFulton201616_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFulton201616-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It was only in 1910 that Rudolph Schneider pointed out that medieval Latin texts are completely devoid of any description of the torsion mechanism. He proposed that all medieval terms for artillery actually referred to the trebuchet, and that the knowledge to build torsion engines had been lost since classical times.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1941, Kalervo Huuri argued that the onager remained in use in the Mediterranean region, but not ballistas, until the 7th century when "its employment became obscured in the terminology as the traction trebuchet came into use."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFulton201614_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFulton201614-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some historians such as Randall Rogers and Bernard Bachrach have argued that the lack of evidence regarding torsion siege engines does not provide enough proof that they were not used, considering that the narrative accounts of these machines almost always do not provide enough information to definitively identify the type of device being described, even with illustrations.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However by the 9th century, when the first Western European reference to a <i>mangana</i> (mangonel) appeared, there is virtually no evidence at all, whether textual or artistic, of torsion engines used in warfare. The last historical texts specifying a torsion engine, aside from bolt throwers such as the springald, date no later than the 6th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurton200680_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurton200680-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Illustrations of an onager do not reappear until the 15th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFulton201611_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFulton201611-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the exception of bolt throwers such as the <a href="/wiki/Springald" title="Springald">springald</a> which saw action from the 13th to 14th centuries or the <i>ziyar</i> in the Muslim world,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> torsion machines had largely disappeared by the 6th century and were replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Traction_trebuchet" class="mw-redirect" title="Traction trebuchet">traction trebuchet</a>. This does not mean torsion machines were completely forgotten since classical texts describing them were circulated in medieval times. For example, <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Plantagenet,_Count_of_Anjou" title="Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou">Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou</a> had a copy of <a href="/wiki/Vegetius" title="Vegetius">Vegetius</a> at the siege of Montreuil-Bellay in 1147, yet judging from the description of the siege, the weapon they used was a traction trebuchet rather than a torsion catapult.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFulton201610-11_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFulton201610-11-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>... anyone consulting Bradbury’s Routledge Companion to Medieval Warfare (2004) will find mangonels described as stone-throwing catapults powered by the torsion effect of twisted ropes... But the truth is that there is no evidence for its medieval existence at all. Of course, it is hard to prove that something was not there (as opposed to proving that something was), but this is not a new finding: a considerable body of learned research dating back to the 19th century had reached that conclusion. But it has not stopped the transmission of the myth to the present day.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurton200680_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurton200680-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><br /> </p><p>In the enormous quantity of surviving illuminated manuscripts, the illustrations have always given us valuable clues about warfare. In all this mass of illustrations, there are numerous depictions of manually operated stone throwers, then of trebuchets and, finally, of bombards and other types of weapon and siege equipment. Taking into consideration the constraints under which the monastic artists were working, and their purpose (which was not, of course, to provide a scientifically precise depiction of a particular siege), such illustrations are often remarkably accurate. Not once, however, is there an illustration of the onager. Unless there was some extraordinary global conspiracy to deny the existence of such weapons, one can only conclude that they were unknown to medieval clerics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurton200685_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurton200685-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><br /> </p><p> There is no evidence whatever for the continuation of the onager in Byzantium beyond the end of the 6th century, while its absence in the ‘barbarian’ successor kingdoms can be shown, negatively, by the absence of any reference and, logically, from the decline in the expertise needed to build, maintain and use the machine. When the mangonel appeared in Europe from the east (initially in the Byzantine world), it was a traction-propelled stone thrower. Torsion power went out of use for some seven centuries before returning in the guise of the bolt-throwing springald, deployed not as an offensive, wallbreaking siege engine, but to defend those walls against human assailants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurton200689_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurton200689-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Peter Purton</cite></div></blockquote> <p>Contributing to the torsion mangonel myth is the muddled usage of the term <i>mangonel</i>. <i>Mangonel</i> was used as a general medieval catch-all for stone throwing artillery, which probably meant a <i>traction trebuchet</i> from the 6th to 12th centuries, between the disappearance of the onager and the arrival of the counterweight trebuchet. However many historians have argued for the continued use of onagers into medieval times by wading into terminological thickets. For example at the end of the 19th century, Gustav Köhler contended that the <a href="/wiki/Petrary" title="Petrary">petrary</a> was a traction trebuchet, invented by <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a>, whereas the mangonel was a torsion catapult.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFulton201613_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFulton201613-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even disregarding definition, sometimes when the original source specifically used the word "mangonel," it was translated as a torsion weapon such as the ballista instead, which was the case with an 1866 Latin translation of a Welsh text.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurton2009172_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurton2009172-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This further adds to the confusion in terminology since "ballista" was used in medieval times as well, but probably only as a general term for stone throwing machines. For example <a href="/wiki/Otto_of_Freising" title="Otto of Freising">Otto of Freising</a> referred to the mangonel as a type of ballista, by which he meant they both threw stones.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle20029-10_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle20029-10-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are also references to Arabs, Saxons, and Franks using ballistae but it is never specified whether or not these were torsion machines.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is stated that during the siege of <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> in 885-886, when <a href="/wiki/Rollo" title="Rollo">Rollo</a> pitted his forces against <a href="/wiki/Charles_the_Fat" title="Charles the Fat">Charles the Fat</a>, seven Danes were impaled at once with a bolt from a <i>funda</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even in this instance it is never stated that the machine was torsion, as was the case with uses of other terminology such as <i>mangana</i> by <a href="/wiki/William_of_Tyre" title="William of Tyre">William of Tyre</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_the_Breton" title="William the Breton">Willam the Breton</a>, used to indicate small stone-throwing engines, or "cum cornu" ("with horns") in 1143 by <a href="/wiki/Jacques_de_Vitry" title="Jacques de Vitry">Jacques de Vitry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The best arguments for the continued use of torsion artillery in Europe after the sixth century are the continued use of classical terms and the lack of conclusive evidence that they were not used; but neither of these arguments is particularly strong. Such engines were less powerful, more complicated, and far more dangerous to operate than swing-beam engines, given the pent-up stresses within the coil and then violent stop of the arm against a component of the framework when fired. Traction trebuchets, by comparison, were capable of a much higher rate of fire and were far simpler to construct, use and maintain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFulton201617_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFulton201617-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Michael S. Fulton</cite></div></blockquote> <p>In modern times the mangonel is often confused with the onager due to the torsion mangonel myth. Modern military historians came up with the term "traction trebuchet" to distinguish it from previous torsion machines such as the onager. However <i>traction trebuchet</i> is a newer modern term that is not found in contemporary sources, which can lead to further confusion. For some, the mangonel is not a specific type of siege weapon but a general term for any pre-cannon stone throwing artillery. Onagers have been called onager mangonels and traction trebuchets called "beam-sling mangonel machines". From a practical perspective, mangonel has been used to describe anything from a torsion engine like the onager, to a traction trebuchet, to a counterweight trebuchet depending on the user's bias.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurton2009365_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurton2009365-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurton2009410_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurton2009410-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Construction">Construction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torsion_siege_engine&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Construction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ancient_Mechanical_Artillery._Pic_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ancient_Mechanical_Artillery._Pic_01.jpg/220px-Ancient_Mechanical_Artillery._Pic_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ancient_Mechanical_Artillery._Pic_01.jpg/330px-Ancient_Mechanical_Artillery._Pic_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ancient_Mechanical_Artillery._Pic_01.jpg/440px-Ancient_Mechanical_Artillery._Pic_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Reproductions of <a href="/wiki/Greek_and_Roman_artillery" title="Greek and Roman artillery">ancient Greek artillery</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">catapults</a> such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Polybolos" title="Polybolos">polybolos</a></i> (to the left in the foreground) and a large, early <a href="/wiki/Crossbow" title="Crossbow">crossbow</a> known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Gastraphetes" title="Gastraphetes">gastraphetes</a></i> (mounted on the wall in the background)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Design">Design</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torsion_siege_engine&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Design"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In early designs, machines were made with square wooden frames with holes drilled in the top and bottom through which a skein was threaded, wrapped around wooden levers that spanned the holes, enabling the adjustment of tension.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The problem with this design is that when increasing the tension of the skein, turning the lever became nigh impossible because of the friction caused by the contact made between the wood of the lever and the wood of the frame.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This problem was solved simply with the addition of metal washers inserted in the holes of the frames and fastened either with <a href="/wiki/Mortise_and_tenon" title="Mortise and tenon">tenons</a> or rims which enabled greater control over the machine's tension and the maximization of its power without sacrificing the integrity of the frame.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further design modifications that became standard include combining the two separate spring frames into a single unit to increase durability and stability, the addition of a padded heel block to stop the recoil of the machine,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the development of formulae to determine the appropriate engine size (see Construction & Measurements below), and a ratcheting trigger mechanism that made it quicker to fire the machine.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marsden suggests that all of these initial developments occurred in fairly rapid succession, potentially over the span of just a few decades, because the deficiencies in design were fairly obvious problems. Thereon, a gradual refinement over the succeeding centuries provided the adjustments given in the chart below. Marsden's description of torsion machine development follows the general course that <a href="/wiki/Heron_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Heron of Alexandria">Heron of Alexandria</a> lays out, but the Greek writer does not give any dates, either. Marsden's chart below gives his best approximations of the dates of machine development. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Machine Type<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th> <th>Main Improvement</th> <th>Authority</th> <th>Date </th></tr> <tr> <td>Mark I, arrow-firer</td> <td>pair of simple spring-frames and wrapped-above-torsion-springs</td> <td>Heron</td> <td>c. 350 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mark II, arrow-firer</td> <td>spring-frames with holes</td> <td>Heron</td> <td>before 340 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mark III, arrow-firer</td> <td>usage of washers</td> <td>Heron</td> <td>after 340 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mark IIIa, arrow-firer</td> <td>increased angle between the extreme positions of the arms</td> <td>Philon</td> <td>before 334 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mark IIIb, stone-projector</td> <td>increased angle between the extreme positions of the arms</td> <td>Philon</td> <td>b/t 334 & 331 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mark IVa, arrow-firer</td> <td>built according to formula for arrow-firers</td> <td>Heron/Philon</td> <td>c. 270 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mark IVb, stone-projector</td> <td>built according to formula for stone-projectors</td> <td>Heron/Philon</td> <td>c. 270 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td>Modified Mark IVa, arrow firer</td> <td>curved arms</td> <td>Vitruvius</td> <td>c. 150 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mark Va, arrow-firer</td> <td>oval washers</td> <td>Vitruvius</td> <td>c. 60 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mark Vb, stone-projector</td> <td>oval washers</td> <td>Vitruvius</td> <td>c. 60 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td>cheiroballista</td> <td>all-metal frames, arch-shaped sighting device, an even larger angle between the extreme positions of the arms</td> <td>Trajan's Column</td> <td>c. 100 AD </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Only a few specific designs of torsion catapults are known from ancient and medieval history.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The materials used are just as vague, other than stating wood or metal were used as building materials. The skein that comprised the spring, on the other hand, has been cited specifically as made of both animal sinew and hair, either women's and horse.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Heron and Vegetius consider sinew to be better, but Vitruvius cites women's hair as preferable.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The preferred type of sinews came from the feet of deer (assumedly achilles tendons because they were longest) and the necks of oxen (strong from constant yoking).<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> How it was made into a rope is not known, though J.G. Landels argues it was likely frayed on the ends, then woven together.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ropes, either hair or sinew were treated with olive oil and animal grease/fat to preserve its elasticity.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Landels additionally argues that the energy-storing capacity of sinew is much greater than a wooden beam or bow, especially considering that wood's performance in tension devices is severely affected by temperatures above 77 °F (25 °C), which was not uncommon in a Mediterranean climate.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Measurements">Measurements</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torsion_siege_engine&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Measurements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Two general formulas were used in determining the size of the machine and the projectile it throws. The first is to determine the length of the bolt for a sharp-thrower, given as <i>d = x / 9</i>, where <i>d</i> is the diameter of the hole in the frame where the skein was threaded and <i>x</i> is the length of the bolt to be thrown. The second formula is for a stone thrower, given as <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle d=(1.1)100m^{1/3}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>d</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>1.1</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mn>100</mn> <msup> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle d=(1.1)100m^{1/3}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/05f7a99d311b1f4a0c771ad9429bfddc36fddad3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:17.321ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle d=(1.1)100m^{1/3}}"></span>, where <i>d</i> is the diameter of the hole in the frame where the skein was threaded and <i>m</i> is the weight of the stone. The reason for the development of these formulas is to maximize the potential energy of the skein. If it was too long, the machine could not be used at its full capacity. Furthermore, if it was too short, the skein produced a high amount of internal friction that would reduce the durability of the machine. Finally, being able to accurately determine the diameter of the frame's holes prevented the sinews and fibers of the skein from being damaged by the wood of the frame.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once these initial measurements were made, corollary formulae could be used to determine the dimensions of the rest of the machines. A couple of examples below serve to illustrate this: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Length/Weight of Missile<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th> <th>Diameter of torsion spring</th> <th>Height of torsion spring</th> <th>Machine length</th> <th>Machine width </th></tr> <tr> <td>31 cm (12 in)</td> <td>3.4 cm (1.3 in)</td> <td>22.1 cm (8.7 in)</td> <td>Hand-held</td> <td>Hand-held </td></tr> <tr> <td>54 cm (21 in)</td> <td>5.6 cm (2.2 in)</td> <td>36.4 cm (14.3 in)</td> <td>1.4 m (4 ft 7 in)</td> <td>0.8 m (2 ft 7 in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>54 cm (21 in)</td> <td>6 cm (2.4 in)</td> <td>39 cm (15 in)</td> <td>1.5 m (4 ft 11 in)</td> <td>0.9 m (2 ft 11 in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>69 cm (27 in)</td> <td>7.5 cm (3.0 in)</td> <td>48.8 cm (19.2 in)</td> <td>1.9 m (6 ft 3 in)</td> <td>1.1 m (3 ft 7 in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>77 cm (30 in)</td> <td>8.3 cm (3.3 in)</td> <td>54 cm (21 in)</td> <td>2.1 m (6 ft 11 in)</td> <td>1.2 m (3 ft 11 in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>77 cm (30 in)</td> <td>8.4 cm (3.3 in)</td> <td>54.6 cm (21.5 in)</td> <td>2.1 m (6 ft 11 in)</td> <td>1.2 m (3 ft 11 in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>123 cm (48 in)</td> <td>13.6 cm (5.4 in)</td> <td>88.4 cm (34.8 in)</td> <td>3.4 m (11 ft)</td> <td>1.9 m (6 ft 3 in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>10 minas</td> <td>21.2 cm (8.3 in)</td> <td>1.91 m (6 ft 3 in)</td> <td>6.4 m (21 ft)</td> <td>3.2 m (10 ft) </td></tr> <tr> <td>15 minas</td> <td>24.3 cm (9.6 in)</td> <td>2.19 m (7 ft 2 in)</td> <td>7.3 m (24 ft)</td> <td>3.6 m (12 ft) </td></tr> <tr> <td>20 minas</td> <td>26.8 cm (10.6 in)</td> <td>2.41 m (7 ft 11 in)</td> <td>8 m (26 ft)</td> <td>4 m (13 ft) </td></tr> <tr> <td>30 minas</td> <td>30.7 cm (12.1 in)</td> <td>2.76 m (9 ft 1 in)</td> <td>9.2 m (30 ft)</td> <td>4.6 m (15 ft) </td></tr> <tr> <td>50 minas</td> <td>36.3 cm (14.3 in)</td> <td>3.27 m (10.7 ft)</td> <td>10.9 m (36 ft)</td> <td>5.4 m (18 ft) </td></tr> <tr> <td>1 talent</td> <td>38.4 cm (15.1 in)</td> <td>3.46 m (11.4 ft)</td> <td>11.5 m (38 ft)</td> <td>5.8 m (19 ft) </td></tr> <tr> <td>2 talents</td> <td>48.6 cm (19.1 in)</td> <td>4.37 m (14.3 ft)</td> <td>14.6 m (48 ft)</td> <td>7.3 m (24 ft) </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><i>d</i> is measured in dactyls <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.wordnik.com/words/dactyl">[4]</a>, and 1 dactyl = 1.93 cm (0.76 in) </p><p><i>m</i> is measured in <a href="/wiki/Mina_(unit)" title="Mina (unit)">minas</a>, and 1 mina = 437 g (15.4 oz) </p><p>1 <a href="/wiki/Talent_(measurement)" title="Talent (measurement)">talent</a> = 60 mina = 26 kg (57 lb) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effective_use">Effective use</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torsion_siege_engine&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Effective use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>No definitive results have been obtained through documentation or experiment that can accurately verify claims made in manuscripts concerning the range and damaging capabilities of torsion machines.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The only way to do so would be to construct a whole range of full-scale devices using period techniques and supplies to test the legitimacy of individual design specifications and their effectiveness of their power. Kelly DeVries and Serafina Cuomo claim torsion engines needed to be about 150 m (490 ft) or closer to their target to be effective, though this is based on literary evidence, too.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Athenaeus Mechanicus cites a three-span catapult that could propel a shot 700 yd (640 m).<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Josephus cites an engine that could hurl a stone ball 400 yd (370 m) or more, and Marsden claims that most engines were probably effective up to the distance cited by Josephus, with more powerful machines capable of going farther.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of the projectiles used, exceptionally large ones have been mentioned in accounts, but "most Hellenistic projectiles found in the Near East weigh less than 15 kg (33 lb) and most dating to the Roman period weigh less than 5 kg (11 lb)."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFulton20185_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFulton20185-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The obvious disadvantage to any device powered primarily by animal tissue is that they had the potential to deteriorate rapidly and be severely affected by changing weather. Another issue was that the rough surface of the wooden frames could easily damage the sinew of the skein, and on the other hand the force of the tension provided by the skein could potentially damage the wooden frame. The solution was to place washers inside the holes of the frame through which the skein was threaded. This prevented damage to the skein, increased the structural integrity of the frame, and allowed engineers to precisely adjust tension levels using evenly spaced holes on the outer rim of the washers.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The skein itself could be made out of human or animal hair, but it was most commonly made out of animal sinew, which Heron cites specifically.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Life of the sinew has been estimated to be about eight to ten years, which made them expensive to maintain.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>What is known is that they were used to provide covering fire while the attacking army was assaulting a fortification, filling in a ditch, and bringing other siege engines up to walls.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jim Bradbury goes so far as to claim torsion engines were only useful against personnel, primarily because medieval torsion devices were not powerful enough to batter down walls.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Archaeological_evidence">Archaeological evidence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torsion_siege_engine&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Archaeological evidence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Archaeological evidence for catapults, especially torsion devices, is rare. It is easy to see how stones from stone-throwers could survive, but organic sinews and wooden frames quickly deteriorate if left unattended. Usual remains include the all-important washers, as well as other metal supporting pieces, such as counterplates and trigger mechanisms. Still, the first major evidence of ancient or medieval catapults was found in 1912 in <a href="/wiki/Emp%C3%BAries" title="Empúries">Ampurias</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was not until 1968-1969 that new catapult finds were discovered at Gornea and Orşova, then again in 1972 in <a href="/wiki/Hatra" title="Hatra">Hatra</a>, with more frequent discoveries thereafter. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stone_projectiles">Stone projectiles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torsion_siege_engine&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Stone projectiles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The sites below contained stone projectiles ranging in size from 10-90 minas (c. 4.5–39 kg (9.9–86.0 lb)).<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>5,600 balls in Carthage (Tunisia)</li> <li>961 balls in Pergamum (Turkey)</li> <li>353 balls in Rhodes (Greece)</li> <li>>200 balls in Tel Dor (Israel)</li> <li>c. 200 balls in Salamis (Cyprus)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Catapult_remains">Catapult remains</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torsion_siege_engine&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Catapult remains"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>NOTE: This list is not meant to be comprehensive. It is meant to show the widespread use of catapults in the Western world.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Location</th> <th>Frame Material</th> <th>Date</th> <th>Washer amt. & avg. diameter: millimeters (inches) </th></tr> <tr> <td>Ampurias (Spain)</td> <td>Wood</td> <td>c. 100 BC</td> <td>4 x 81 mm (3.2 in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Auerberg (Germany)</td> <td>Wood</td> <td>c. 75 AD</td> <td>1 x 88 mm (3.5 in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Azaila #1 (Spain)</td> <td>Wood</td> <td>c. 80 BC</td> <td>1 x 94 mm (3.7 in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Azaila #2</td> <td>Wood</td> <td>c. 80 BC</td> <td>1 x 94 mm (3.7 in) (est. from frame remains) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Azaila #3</td> <td>Wood</td> <td>c. 80 BC</td> <td>1 x 100 mm (3.9 in) (est. from counter-plate) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Bath (United Kingdom)</td> <td>Wood</td> <td>c. 100 AD</td> <td>1 x 38 mm (1.5 in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Caminreal (Spain)</td> <td>Wood</td> <td>c. 75 BC</td> <td>4 x 84 mm (3.3 in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cremona #1 (Italy)</td> <td>Wood</td> <td>c. 69 AD</td> <td>4 x 73 mm (2.9 in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cremona #2</td> <td>Wood</td> <td>c. 69 AD</td> <td>4 x 89 mm (3.5 in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Elginhaugh (United Kingdom)</td> <td>Wood</td> <td>c. 90 AD</td> <td>1 x 35 mm (1.4 in) (ratchet found, too) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ephyra #1 (Greece)</td> <td>Wood</td> <td>c. 169 BC</td> <td>2 x 84 mm (3.3 in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ephyra #2</td> <td>Wood</td> <td>c. 169 BC</td> <td>3 x 83 mm (3.3 in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ephyra #3</td> <td>Wood</td> <td>c. 169 BC</td> <td>4 x 136 mm (5.4 in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ephyra #4</td> <td>Wood</td> <td>c. 169 BC</td> <td>4 x 61 mm (2.4 in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ephyra #5</td> <td>Wood</td> <td>c. 167 BC</td> <td>2 x 75 mm (3.0 in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ephyra #6</td> <td>Wood</td> <td>c. 167 BC</td> <td>1 x 34 mm (1.3 in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ephyra #7</td> <td>Wood</td> <td>c. 167 BC</td> <td>2 x 56 mm (2.2 in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Gornea #1 (Romania)</td> <td>Metal</td> <td>c. 380 AD</td> <td>2 x 54 mm (2.1 in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Gornea #2</td> <td>Metal</td> <td>c. 380 AD</td> <td>2 x 59 mm (2.3 in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Gornea #3</td> <td>Metal</td> <td>c. 380 AD</td> <td>2 x 54 mm (2.1 in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hatra #1 (Iraq)</td> <td>Wood</td> <td>c. 241 AD</td> <td>3 x 160 mm (6.3 in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hatra #2</td> <td>Wood</td> <td>c. 241 AD</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Lyon (France)</td> <td>Metal</td> <td>c. 197 AD</td> <td>2 x 75 mm (3.0 in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mahdia #1 (Tunisia)</td> <td>Wood</td> <td>c. 60 BC</td> <td>2 x 94 mm (3.7 in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mahdia #2</td> <td>Wood</td> <td>c. 60 BC</td> <td>1 x 72 mm (2.8 in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mahdia #3</td> <td>Wood</td> <td>c. 60 BC</td> <td>1 x 45 mm (1.8 in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Orşova (Romania)</td> <td>Metal</td> <td>c. 380 AD</td> <td>2 x 79 mm (3.1 in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Pergamon (Turkey)</td> <td>Wood</td> <td>c. 2nd century BC</td> <td>1 x 60 mm (2.4 in) (mystery bracing also found) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pitsunda" title="Pitsunda">Pityous (Georgia)</a></td> <td>Wood</td> <td>c. 4th century AD</td> <td>1 x 84 mm (3.3 in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sala</td> <td>Metal</td> <td>c. 4th century AD</td> <td>c. 80 mm (3.1 in) (cast in one piece) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sounion (Greece)</td> <td>Wood</td> <td>c. 260 BC</td> <td>130 mm (5.1 in) (lost) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Tanais (Ukraine)</td> <td>Unknown</td> <td>c. 50 BC?</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Volubilis #1 (Morocco)</td> <td>Wood</td> <td>c. 2nd-3rd century AD</td> <td>1 x 41 mm (1.6 in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Volubilis #2</td> <td>Wood</td> <td>c. 2nd-3rd century AD</td> <td>1 x 44 mm (1.7 in) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Xanten (Germany)</td> <td>Wood</td> <td>c. 1st century AD</td> <td>4 x c. 40 mm (1.6 in) (diameter estimated from frame) </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literary_evidence">Literary evidence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torsion_siege_engine&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Literary evidence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The literary examples of torsion machines are too numerous to cite here. Below are a few well-known examples to provide a general perspective held by contemporaries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Examples">Examples</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torsion_siege_engine&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus of Sicily</a>, <i>History</i>, 14.42.1, 43.3., 50.4, c. 30 - 60 BC</dt></dl> <p>"As a matter of fact, the catapult was invented at this time [399 BC] in Syracuse, for the greatest technical minds from all over had been assembled in one place...The Syracusans killed many of their enemies by shooting them from the land with catapults that shot sharp-pointed missiles. In fact this piece of artillery caused great consternation, since it had not been known before this time."<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_War" title="The Jewish War"><i>The Wars of the Jews</i></a>, 67 AD</dt></dl> <p>"The force with which these weapons threw stones and darts was such that a single projectile ran through a row of men, and the momentum of the stone hurled by the engine carried away battlements and knocked off corners of towers. There is in fact no body of men so strong that it cannot be laid low to the last rank by the impact of these huge stones...Getting in the line of fire, one of the men standing near Josephus [the commander of Jotapata, not the historian] on the rampart had his head knocked off by a stone, his skull being flung like a pebble from a sling more than 600 m (2,000 ft); and when a pregnant woman on leaving her house at daybreak was struck in the belly, the unborn child was carried away 100 m (330 ft)."<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Procopius, <i>The Wars of Justinian</i>, 537-538 AD</dt></dl> <p>"...at the Salerian Gate a Goth of goodly statue and a capable warrior, wearing a corselet and having a helmet on his head, a man who was of no mean station in the Gothic nation...was hit by a missile from an engine which was on a tower at this left. And passing through the corselet and the body of the man, the missile sank more than half its length into the tree, and pinning him to the spot where it entered the tree, it suspended him there a corpse."<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Images">Images</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torsion_siege_engine&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Images"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Manuscripts">Manuscripts</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torsion_siege_engine&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Manuscripts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ol><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ic.pics.livejournal.com/lord_ariman/49460019/5426/original.jpg">Espringal</a> from the anonymous Romance of Alexander, c. 14th century, MS Bodleian 264.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thehurl.org/show_image.php?id=1155&scalesize=0&nocount=y">Espringal</a> from <i>De re militari</i> by Roberto Valturio, 1455.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/catalogues/illuminatedmanuscripts/ILLUMINBig.ASP?size=big&IllID=46761">Mangonel</a> from BL Royal 19 D I, f.111.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://xlegio.ru/netcat_files/Image/machines/medieval/18.jpg">Onager</a> from <a href="/wiki/Walter_de_Milemete" title="Walter de Milemete">Walter de Milemete</a>'s <i>De nobilitatibus, sapientiis</i>, et prudentiis regum, 1326.]</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Iconography">Iconography</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torsion_siege_engine&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Iconography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ol><li><a class="external text" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/047_Conrad_Cichorius,_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianssäule,_Tafel_XLVII_(Ausschnitt_02).jpg/943px-047_Conrad_Cichorius,_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianssäule,_Tafel_XLVII_(Ausschnitt_02).jpg">Cheiroballista</a> behind fortifications, Trajan's Column, 1st century AD</li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:047_Conrad_Cichorius,_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianssäule,_Tafel_XLVII_(Ausschnitt_01).jpg">Cheiroballista</a>, mounted on wall, Trajan's Column.</li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/046_Conrad_Cichorius,_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianssäule,_Tafel_XLVI_(Ausschnitt_01).jpg/1280px-046_Conrad_Cichorius,_Die_Reliefs_der_Traianssäule,_Tafel_XLVI_(Ausschnitt_01).jpg">Cheiroballista</a> hauled by horse, Trajan's Column.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://25.media.tumblr.com/tumblr_m8ckp1DY2C1rubozqo1_500.jpg">Bronze Washers</a> from the Amparius catatpult, cited in Schramm.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Diagrams">Diagrams</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torsion_siege_engine&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Diagrams"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>One-Armed Machines</dt></dl> <ol><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crossbowbook.com/freeplans/fig_5_siege_catapult_wo_sling.gif">Catapult</a> with bucket.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crossbowbook.com/freeplans/fig_6_catapult_slinging_stones.gif">Catapult</a> with sling.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://members.multimania.nl/onager/OnagerPic.jpg">Onager</a>.</li></ol> <dl><dt>Two-Armed Machines</dt></dl> <ol><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://riversfromeden.files.wordpress.com/2011/07/ballista_psf-copy.jpg">Ballista</a>.</li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Euthythonon.png">Euthytonon</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/war/CatImages/EuthytononFrame1.jpg">Euthytonon</a> range of movement.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-lxhThTlRDwA/T2zUBcey2PI/AAAAAAAABhs/K36halMjTLk/s1600/oxybeles.jpg">Oxybolos</a>.</li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Winkelgeschütz_(Palintonon).jpg">Palintonon</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mek.oszk.hu/01200/01267/html/img/nagy/02-122-1.jpg">Palintonon</a> side view.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://romanum.historicus.pl/Zdj/RomanCatapulta.jpg">Scorpion</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://riversfromeden.files.wordpress.com/2011/07/ballista_psf-copy.jpg">Stone Thrower</a>.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reproductions">Reproductions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torsion_siege_engine&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Reproductions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>One-Armed Machines</dt></dl> <ol><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://farm9.staticflickr.com/8375/8389744953_d5bb96e78b_b.jpg">Catapult</a> at the Stratford Armouries, Warwickshire, England.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://farm3.staticflickr.com/2555/3799102872_8180ccf470_z.jpg?zz=1">Onager</a> at Felsenburg Neurathen, Saxony.</li></ol> <dl><dt>Two-Armed Machine</dt></dl> <ol><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_WYzdPqqLER8/TSHT8fjog6I/AAAAAAAACBA/kltutz9GO6o/s1600/P1030328.JPG">Ballista</a> at <a href="/wiki/Caerphilly_Castle" title="Caerphilly Castle">Caerphilly Castle</a>, Wales.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://farm6.staticflickr.com/5280/5870614106_c9099726f2_z.jpg">Ballista</a> at <a href="/wiki/Warwick_Castle" title="Warwick Castle">Warwick Castle</a>, England.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arheo-amateri.rs/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/Scorpio.jpg">Cheiroballista</a>.</li> <li>Espringal <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-jtr3K6fphws/ToV-GyOFDdI/AAAAAAAADEk/MmPlUw6X-cQ/s1600/DSC02575.JPG">side view</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.maquinasdeasedio.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/espringal2.jpg">rear view</a>.</li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ancient_Mechanical_Artillery._Pic_01.jpg">Polybolos & cheiroballista</a>. Arsenal of ancient mechanical artillery in the <a href="/wiki/Saalburg" title="Saalburg">Saalburg</a>, Germany. Reconstructions made by the German engineer Erwin Schramm (1856-1935) in 1912.</li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hecht_090710_Ballista.jpg">Roman Ballista</a> in the Hecht Museum, Haifa.</li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:RomanCatapult444.JPG">Roman Ballista</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-PXdNrotsFvc/TVhfpmkgruI/AAAAAAAAH7g/pEFD5FeqdHs/s1600/Qaws-al-ziyar%2B%2528Musulmana%2529.jpg">Zayir</a> at Trebuchet Park, <a href="/wiki/Albarrac%C3%ADn" title="Albarracín">Albarracín</a>, Spain.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Terminology">Terminology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torsion_siege_engine&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is controversy over the terminology used to describe siege engines of every kind, including torsion machines. It is frustrating to scholars because the manuscripts are both vague in their descriptions of the machines and inconsistent in their usage of the terms. Additionally, in those few instances where torsion engines are identifiable, it is never certain which specific type of machine is being cited. Some scholars argue this abundance of terms indicates that torsion devices were in widespread use during the Middle Ages, though others argue that it is this very confusion about machine terminology that proves the few ancient texts that survived in the Latin West did not provide adequate information for the continuation of ancient torsion machines.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The list below provides terms that have been found in reference to torsion engines in the ancient and medieval eras, but their specific definitions are largely inconclusive.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td>algarradas ("bull headed")</td> <td>fonevola ("volatile spring"?)</td> <td>oxybolos ("sharp thrower") </td></tr> <tr> <td>ballista</td> <td>funa (thong of a sling)</td> <td>palestra ("stake caster"?) </td></tr> <tr> <td>ballista fulminalis ("lightning ballista")</td> <td>fundibula (sling)</td> <td>palintonos ("fold back spring") </td></tr> <tr> <td>brigoles</td> <td>lithobolos ("stone thrower")</td> <td>pararia (lit. "the equalizer") </td></tr> <tr> <td>calibres</td> <td>katapeltes</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Patera" title="Patera">patera</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>carroballista (see cheiroballista)</td> <td>machina ("machine")</td> <td>paterells </td></tr> <tr> <td>catapulta ("shield breaker")</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mangonel" title="Mangonel">mangana</a></td> <td>peralia </td></tr> <tr> <td>chaabla</td> <td>mangonellus (see mangana)</td> <td>petraria </td></tr> <tr> <td>chatcotonus ("bronze spring")</td> <td>mangonon (see mangana)</td> <td>petrobolos ("stone thrower") </td></tr> <tr> <td>cheiroballista ("hand ballista")</td> <td>manjanîq</td> <td>polybolos ("multi-thrower") </td></tr> <tr> <td>cum cornu ("with horn")</td> <td>manuballista ("hand ballista")</td> <td>scorpio </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Springald" title="Springald">espringal</a></td> <td>monagkon</td> <td>tormentum </td></tr> <tr> <td>euthytonos ("straight-spring")</td> <td>onager ("wild ass")</td> <td>ziyar, qaws al-ziyar </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torsion_siege_engine&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marsden, <i>Historical Development</i>, 5,16,66; Chevedden, 134.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marsden, <i>Historical Development</i>, 56-57; Rihill, 79; Nossov, 133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marsden, <i>Historical Development</i>, 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">DeVries & Smith, 42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marsden, <i>Historical Development</i>, 73-74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">DeVries, 130.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marsden, <i>Historical Developments</i>, 77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, 26.47.5-6 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/livy/Livy26.html">[1]</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Vergil" class="mw-redirect" title="Vergil">Vergil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a>, XI.1-99,597-647 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Latin/VirgilAeneidXI.htm">[2]</a>; Vegetius, De Re Militari, IV.9; Marsden, <i>Historical Development</i>, 83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/plautus/captivi.shtml">Plautus, <i>Captivi</i>, 796</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marsden, <i>Historical Development</i>, 164.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">DeVries, 130-131</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nossov</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Landels, 132; Chevedden, 137.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chevedden, 138-139, 152-158.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chevedden, 160-162.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dufour, 97,99; Bonaparte, 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFulton201612-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFulton201612_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFulton2016">Fulton 2016</a>, p. 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Köhler, 139-211</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFulton201616-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFulton201616_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFulton2016">Fulton 2016</a>, p. 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schneider, 10-16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFulton201614-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFulton201614_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFulton2016">Fulton 2016</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Huuri, 51-63, 212-214.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rogers, 254-273.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurton200680-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurton200680_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurton200680_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPurton2006">Purton 2006</a>, p. 80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFulton201611-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFulton201611_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFulton2016">Fulton 2016</a>, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bradbury, 256-257; Hacker, 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFulton201610-11-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFulton201610-11_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFulton2016">Fulton 2016</a>, p. 10-11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurton200685-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurton200685_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPurton2006">Purton 2006</a>, p. 85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurton200689-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurton200689_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPurton2006">Purton 2006</a>, p. 89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFulton201613-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFulton201613_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFulton2016">Fulton 2016</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurton2009172-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurton2009172_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPurton2009">Purton 2009</a>, p. 172.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolle20029-10-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolle20029-10_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNicolle2002">Nicolle 2002</a>, p. 9-10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bradbury, 251.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Abbo_Cernuus" title="Abbo Cernuus">Abbo Cernuus</a>, <i>Bella Parisiacae urbis</i><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q8EwH92BEckC">[3]</a>; Bradbury, 252.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bradbury, 254.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFulton201617-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFulton201617_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFulton2016">Fulton 2016</a>, p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurton2009365-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurton2009365_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPurton2009">Purton 2009</a>, p. 365.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPurton2009410-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPurton2009410_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPurton2009">Purton 2009</a>, p. 410.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marsden, <i>Historical Development</i>, 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heron, W96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marsden, <i>Historical Development</i>, 19-20; DeVries, 129.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Landels, 117</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marsden, <i>Historical Development</i>, 24-34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marsden, <i>Historical Development</i>, 43; Marsden, <i>Technical Treatises</i>, 270; Nossov, 148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rihill,21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marsden, <i>Historical Development</i>, 87.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heron, W 110; Vegetius, IV.9; Vitruvius, X.11.2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Landels, 108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Landels, 109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Landels, 111</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Landels, 106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Philon, 53-54; Vitruvius, X.10-11; Marsden, <i>Historical Development</i>, 25-26; Nossov, 136-137; Landels, 120-121; Reinschmidt, 1247.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marsden, <i>Historical Development</i>, 44-47; Marsden, <i>Technical Treatises</i>, 266-269; Nossov, 139-140. Similar tables can also be found in Rihill, 290-292.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marsden, <i>Historical Development</i>, 86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cuomo, 771; DeVries, 131.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marsden, Historical Development, 88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marsden, <i>Historical Development</i>, 91-92; Johnson, 79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFulton20185-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFulton20185_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFulton2018">Fulton 2018</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Landels, 112; Nossov, 142, 147.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heron, W83; Marsden, <i>Technical Treatises</i>, 24-25; Marsden, <i>Historical Development</i>, 17; Rihill, 76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Johnson, 79; DeVries, 132.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nossov, 153; Landels, 123; Hacker, 45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bradbury, 250, 255.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baatz, 1-2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nossov, 137-142; Marsden, <i>Historical Development</i>, 79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rihill, 295-296; Baatz, 1-17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Humphrey, et al., 566</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">DeVries, 131.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">DeVries, 132.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hacker, 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bradbury, 251,254; Hacker, 41; Nossov, 133, 155; Ammianus, 23.4.1-7; Tarver, 143.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torsion_siege_engine&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>Primary Sources</dt></dl> <p>(see also External Links below) </p> <ul><li>Humphrey, J.W., J.P. Olson, and A.N. Sherwood. <i>Greek and Roman Technology: A Sourcebook</i>. London: Routledge, 1998.</li> <li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFulton2016" class="citation cs2">Fulton, Michael S. (2016), <i>Artillery in and around the Latin East</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Artillery+in+and+around+the+Latin+East&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Fulton&rft.aufirst=Michael+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATorsion+siege+engine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Marsden, E.W. <i>Greek and Roman Artillery: Technical Treatises</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedham2004" class="citation book cs1">Needham, Joseph (2004). <i>Science and Civilization in China</i>. 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Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1994" class="citation cs2">Needham, Joseph (1994), <i>Science and Civilization in China 5-6</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Civilization+in+China+5-6&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATorsion+siege+engine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicolle2002" class="citation cs2">Nicolle, David (2002), <i>Medieval Siege Weapons 1</i>, Osprey Publishing</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Siege+Weapons+1&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Nicolle&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATorsion+siege+engine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Philon of Byzantium. <i>Philons Belopoiika (viertes Buch der Mechanik)</i>. Berlin: Verlag der Aakademie der Wissenschaften, 1919.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPurton2006" class="citation cs2">Purton, Peter (2006), <i>The myth of the mangonel: torsion artillery in the Middle Ages</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+myth+of+the+mangonel%3A+torsion+artillery+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Purton&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATorsion+siege+engine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPurton2009" class="citation cs2">Purton, Peter (2009), <i>A History of the Early Medieval Siege c.450-1200</i>, The Boydell Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Early+Medieval+Siege+c.450-1200&rft.pub=The+Boydell+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Purton&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATorsion+siege+engine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Vitruvius. <i>On Architecture</i>. Accessed April 28, 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/10*.html#10">Book X, §10</a>.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Secondary sources</dt></dl> <ul><li>Baatz, Dietwulf. “Recent Finds of Ancient Artillery.” <i>Britannia</i>, 9 (1978): 1-17.</li> <li>Bachrach, Bernard S. “Medieval Siege Warfare: A Reconnaissance.” <i>The Journal of Military History</i>, 58 #1 (January 1994): 119-133.</li> <li>Bradbury, Jim. <i>The Medieval Siege</i>. Woodbridge, Suffolk: The Boydell Press, 1992.</li> <li>Chevedden, Paul E. “Artillery in Late Antiquity: Prelude to the Middle Ages,” in <i>The Medieval City under Siege</i>, edited by Ivy A. Corfis and Michael Wolfe, pp. 131–176. Woodbridge, Suffolk: The Boydell Press, 1995.</li> <li>Cuomo, Serafina. “The Sinews of War: Ancient Catapults.” <i>Science</i>, New Series, 303 #5659 (February 6, 2004): 771-772.</li> <li>DeVries, Kelly. <i>Medieval Military Technology</i>. Ontario: Broadview Press, 1992.</li> <li>DeVries, Kelly & Robert D. Smith. <i>Medieval Weapons: An Illustrated History of their Impact</i>. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, Inc, 2007.</li> <li>Dufour, Guillaume. <i>Mémoire sur l’artillerie des anciens et sur celle de Moyen Âge</i>. Paris: Ab. Cherbuliez et Ce,1840).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFulton2018" class="citation cs2">Fulton, Michael S. (2018), <i>Artillery in the Era of the Crusades</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Artillery+in+the+Era+of+the+Crusades&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Fulton&rft.aufirst=Michael+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATorsion+siege+engine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Gravett, Christophers. <i>Medieval Siege Warfare</i>. 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Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969.</li> <li>Nicholson, Helen. <i>Medieval Warfare: Theory and Practice of War in Europe, 300-1500</i>. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.</li> <li>Nossov, Konstantin. <i>Ancient and Medieval Siege Weapons: A Fully Illustrated Guide to Siege Weapons and Tactics</i>. Guilford, CT: The Lyons Press, 2005.</li> <li>Reinschmidt, Kenneth F. “Catapults of Yore.” <i>Science</i>, New Series, 304 #5675 (May 28, 2004): 1247.</li> <li>Rihill, Tracey. <i>The Catapult: A History</i>. Yardley, PA: Wesholme Publishing, LLC, 2007.</li> <li>Rihill, Tracey. “On Artillery Towers and Catapult Sizes.” <i>The Annual of the British School at Athens</i>, 101 (2006): 379-383.</li> <li>Rogers, Randall. <i>Latin Siege Warfare in the Twelfth Century</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992.</li> <li>Roland, Alex. “Science, Technology, and War.” <i>Technology and Culture</i>, 36 #2, Supplement: Snapshots of a Discipline: Selected Proceedings from the Conference on Critical Problems and Research Frontiers in the History of Technology, Madison, Wisconsin, October 30-November 3, 1991 (April 1995): S83-100.</li> <li>Schneider, Rudolf. <i>Die Artillerie des Mittelalters</i>. Berlin: Weidmannsche Buchhandlung, 1910.</li> <li>Tarver, W.T.S. “The Traction Trebuchet: A Reconstruction of an Early Medieval Siege Engine.” <i>Technology and Culture</i>, 36 #1 (January 1995): 136-167.</li> <li>Thompson, E.A. “Early Germanic Warfare.” Past and Present, 14 (November 1958): 2-29.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Torsion_siege_engine&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>Ammianus Marcellinus</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/ammianus.html">[5]</a> On Military Matters (De Gestae, Latin)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/index.htm#Ammianus_Marcellinus">[6]</a> On Military Matters (De Gestae, English)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Ammian/">[7]</a> On Military Matters (De Gestae, Latin & English)</li></ul> <dl><dt>Athenaeus Mechanicus</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://circle.ubc.ca/bitstream/handle/2429/36144/UBC_1969_A8%20W47.pdf?sequence=1">[8]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140222202741/https://circle.ubc.ca/bitstream/handle/2429/36144/UBC_1969_A8%20W47.pdf?sequence=1">Archived</a> 2014-02-22 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> On Machines (Περὶ μηχανημάτων, Greek & English)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wYjnwRGh_acC">[9]</a> On Machines (Περὶ μηχανημάτων, Greek & Latin, partial text)</li></ul> <dl><dt>De rebus bellicis</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://blasiussecundus.me/latin/de-rebus-bellicis#.UX126-B_1_l">[10]</a> De Rebus Bellicis (Latin)</li></ul> <dl><dt>Heron of Alexandria</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://archimedes.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/toc/toc.cgi?step=textonly&dir=heron_belop_093_el_1918">[11]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120602132238/http://archimedes.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/toc/toc.cgi?step=textonly&dir=heron_belop_093_el_1918">Archived</a> 2012-06-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> On Artillery (Belopoiika/Belopoeica/βελοποιικά, Greek)</li></ul> <dl><dt>Philon of Byzantium</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://archive.org/details/philonsbelopoiik00philuoft">[12]</a> On Artillery (Belopoiika/Belopoeica/βελοποιικά, Greek & German)</li></ul> <dl><dt>Procopius</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a2008.01.0670">[13]</a> The Wars of Justinian (Ὑπέρ τῶν πολέμων λόγοι, Greek)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/30_20_0490-0575-_Procopius_Caesariensis.html">[14]</a> The Wars of Justinian (Ὑπέρ τῶν πολέμων λόγοι, Greek)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/16764">[15]</a><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/16765">[16]</a><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/20298">[17]</a> The Wars of Justinian (De Bellis, English)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://archive.org/details/procopiuswitheng01procuoft">[18]</a> The Wars of Justinian (De Bellis, English)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://archive.org/details/procopiuswithen02proc">[19]</a> The Wars of Justinian (De Bellis, English)</li></ul> <dl><dt>Vegetius</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/vegetius.html">[20]</a> On Military Matters (De Re Militari, Latin)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.digitalattic.org/home/war/vegetius/">[21]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200421095339/http://www.digitalattic.org/home/war/vegetius/">Archived</a> 2020-04-21 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> On Military Matters (De Re Militari, English)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.midrealm.org/kith/kith/De-ReMilitari.pdf">[22]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303235425/http://www.midrealm.org/kith/kith/De-ReMilitari.pdf">Archived</a> 2016-03-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> On Military Matters (De Re Militari, English)</li></ul> <dl><dt>Vitruvius</dt></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/10*.html">[23]</a> On Architecture (De Architectura, Latin & English)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0073&redirect=true">[24]</a> On Architecture (De Architectura, English)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0072&redirect=true">[25]</a> On Architecture (De Architectura, Latin)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/vitruvius.html">[26]</a> On Architecture (De Architectura, Latin)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style 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artillery and hand-held missile weapons"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_mechanical_artillery_and_hand-held_missile_weapons" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Ancient mechanical artillery and hand-held missile weapons</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Generic terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_and_Roman_artillery" title="Greek and Roman artillery">Greek and Roman artillery</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Torsion siege engine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Crew-served arrow-throwers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">Ballista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carroballista" title="Carroballista">Carroballista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catapulta" title="Catapulta">Catapulta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxybeles" title="Oxybeles">Oxybeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyumi" class="mw-redirect" title="Oyumi">Oyumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybolos" title="Polybolos">Polybolos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorpio_(weapon)" title="Scorpio (weapon)">Scorpio</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Crew-served stone-throwers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">Catapult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithobolos" title="Lithobolos">Lithobolos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangonel" title="Mangonel">Mangonel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onager_(weapon)" title="Onager (weapon)">Onager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trebuchet" title="Trebuchet">Trebuchet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Hand-held weapons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bow_and_arrow" title="Bow and arrow">Bow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheiroballistra" title="Cheiroballistra">Cheiroballistra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossbow" title="Crossbow">Crossbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastraphetes" title="Gastraphetes">Gastraphetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Javelin" title="Javelin">Javelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kestros_(weapon)" title="Kestros (weapon)">Kestros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesangylon" title="Mesangylon">Mesangylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repeating_crossbow" title="Repeating crossbow">Repeating crossbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sling_(weapon)" title="Sling (weapon)">Sling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spear-thrower" title="Spear-thrower">Spear-thrower</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a 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