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class="vector-toc-link" href="#High_Middle_Ages_(1000–1300)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>High Middle Ages (1000–1300)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-High_Middle_Ages_(1000–1300)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_Middle_Ages_(1300–1500)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_Middle_Ages_(1300–1500)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Late Middle Ages (1300–1500)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_Middle_Ages_(1300–1500)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marriage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marriage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Marriage</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Marriage-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Marriage subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Marriage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Widowhood_and_remarriage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Widowhood_and_remarriage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Widowhood and remarriage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Widowhood_and_remarriage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_elite_women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_elite_women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Medieval elite women</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_elite_women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women_practicing_medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women_practicing_medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Women practicing medicine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women_practicing_medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_peasant_women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_peasant_women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Medieval peasant women</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Medieval_peasant_women-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Medieval peasant women subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Medieval_peasant_women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Overview_of_the_medieval_European_economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overview_of_the_medieval_European_economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Overview of the medieval European economy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overview_of_the_medieval_European_economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Labour" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Labour"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Labour</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Labour-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peasant_women_by_status" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peasant_women_by_status"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Peasant women by status</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peasant_women_by_status-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Health</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Health-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Health subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Diet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Diet</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Landownership" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Landownership"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Landownership</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Landownership-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Law</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Law-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Law subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Crimes_concerning_abduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crimes_concerning_abduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Crimes concerning abduction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crimes_concerning_abduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crimes_concerning_free-born_persons_marrying_slaves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crimes_concerning_free-born_persons_marrying_slaves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Crimes concerning free-born persons marrying slaves</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crimes_concerning_free-born_persons_marrying_slaves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crimes_concerning_fornication_with_slaves_or_maidservants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crimes_concerning_fornication_with_slaves_or_maidservants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>Crimes concerning fornication with slaves or maidservants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crimes_concerning_fornication_with_slaves_or_maidservants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crimes_concerning_labor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crimes_concerning_labor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.4</span> <span>Crimes concerning labor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crimes_concerning_labor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civil_discourse_of_women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_discourse_of_women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Civil discourse of women</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_discourse_of_women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Involvement_in_the_Church" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Involvement_in_the_Church"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Involvement in the Church</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Involvement_in_the_Church-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Difference_between_Western_and_Eastern_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Difference_between_Western_and_Eastern_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Difference between Western and Eastern Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Difference_between_Western_and_Eastern_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.1</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" 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type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 16 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-16" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">16 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%89_%D8%A8%D8%A3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%A7" title="دور النساء في العصور الوسطى بأوروبا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="دور النساء في العصور الوسطى بأوروبا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dones_a_l%27edat_mitjana" title="Dones a l'edat mitjana – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Dones a l'edat mitjana" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emakumea_Erdi_Aroan" title="Emakumea Erdi Aroan – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Emakumea Erdi Aroan" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D9%82%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%DB%8C" title="زنان در قرون وسطی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زنان در قرون وسطی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femmes_au_Moyen_%C3%82ge" title="Femmes au Moyen Âge – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Femmes au Moyen Âge" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/As_mulleres_na_Idade_Media" title="As mulleres na Idade Media – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="As mulleres na Idade Media" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wanita_pada_Abad_Pertengahan" title="Wanita pada Abad Pertengahan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Wanita pada Abad Pertengahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donne_nel_Medioevo" title="Donne nel Medioevo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Donne nel Medioevo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%91%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%94_%D7%91%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%99_%D7%94%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D" title="נשים באירופה בימי הביניים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="נשים באירופה בימי הביניים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%82_%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Жените во средниот век – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Жените во средниот век" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%9A%DA%81%DB%90_%D9%BE%D9%87_%D9%85%D9%86%DA%81%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%88_%D9%BE%DB%90%DA%93%D9%8A%D9%88_%DA%A9%DB%90" title="ښځې په منځنيو پېړيو کې – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ښځې په منځنيو پېړيو کې" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kobiety_w_%C5%9Bredniowieczu" title="Kobiety w średniowieczu – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kobiety w średniowieczu" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mulheres_na_Idade_M%C3%A9dia" title="Mulheres na Idade Média – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Mulheres na Idade Média" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femeile_%C3%AEn_Evul_Mediu" title="Femeile în Evul Mediu – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Femeile în Evul Mediu" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDene_u_srednjem_vijeku" title="Žene u srednjem vijeku – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Žene u srednjem vijeku" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A4nsi-Euroopan_nainen_keskiajalla" title="Länsi-Euroopan nainen keskiajalla – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Länsi-Euroopan nainen keskiajalla" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q3028597#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Sheep_pen_%28Luttrell_Psalter%29.png/220px-Sheep_pen_%28Luttrell_Psalter%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Sheep_pen_%28Luttrell_Psalter%29.png/330px-Sheep_pen_%28Luttrell_Psalter%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Sheep_pen_%28Luttrell_Psalter%29.png/440px-Sheep_pen_%28Luttrell_Psalter%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1239" data-file-height="664" /></a><figcaption>An agricultural scene from the 14th-century English <a href="/wiki/Luttrell_Psalter" title="Luttrell Psalter">Luttrell Psalter</a>, with a woman milking sheep and two women carrying vessels on their heads<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Women in the Middle Ages</b> in Europe occupied a number of different social roles. Women held the positions of wife, mother, <a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">peasant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Warrior" title="Warrior">warrior</a>, <a href="/wiki/Artisan" title="Artisan">artisan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nun" title="Nun">nun</a>, as well as some important leadership roles, such as <a href="/wiki/Abbess" title="Abbess">abbess</a> or <a href="/wiki/Queen_regnant" title="Queen regnant">queen regnant</a>. The very concept of women changed in a number of ways during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen2006a6_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen2006a6-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and several forces influenced women's roles during this period, while also expanding upon their traditional roles in society and the economy. Whether or not they were powerful or stayed back to take care of their homes, they still played an important role in society whether they were <a href="/wiki/Saint" title="Saint">saints</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medieval_nobility" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval nobility">nobles</a>, peasants, or <a href="/wiki/Nun" title="Nun">nuns</a>. Due to context from recent years leading to the reconceptualization of women during this time period, many of their roles were overshadowed by the work of men. Although it is prevalent that women participated in church and helping at home, they did much more to influence the Middle Ages. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_Middle_Ages_(476–1000)"><span id="Early_Middle_Ages_.28476.E2.80.931000.29"></span>Early Middle Ages (476–1000)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early Middle Ages (476–1000)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hunterian_Psalter_c._1170_Eve_spinning.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Hunterian_Psalter_c._1170_Eve_spinning.jpg/170px-Hunterian_Psalter_c._1170_Eve_spinning.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Hunterian_Psalter_c._1170_Eve_spinning.jpg/255px-Hunterian_Psalter_c._1170_Eve_spinning.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Hunterian_Psalter_c._1170_Eve_spinning.jpg 2x" data-file-width="325" data-file-height="506" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Spinning_(textiles)" title="Spinning (textiles)">Spinning</a> by hand was a traditional form of women's work (illustration c. 1170).</figcaption></figure> <p>In the early Middle Ages, women's lives varied greatly dependent upon their location and status. Ecclesiastical sources offer particularly rich information about women living <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">under Christian rule</a>; some leftovers from the Roman era that offer clues about women elsewhere. For example, following Roman and German Law, women had some limited control over her own marriage, <a href="/wiki/Dowry" title="Dowry">dowry</a>, and property.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As Christianity began to spread, women's roles were largely defined in relation to the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christian Church</a>. For some women, Christianity was attractive due to the independence and autonomy the religion could offer. <a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Christian monasticism</a> allowed women to reject the identity of wife and mother, as well as childbirth, which could be life-threatening. Christian women could have active religious roles. For example, <a href="/wiki/Abbess" title="Abbess">abbesses</a> could become important figures, occasionally ruling over <a href="/wiki/Monastery" title="Monastery">monasteries</a> of both men and women,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and holding significant lands and power. Figures such as <a href="/wiki/Hilda_of_Whitby" title="Hilda of Whitby">Hilda of Whitby</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 614</span>–680) became influential on a national and even international scale. </p><p>For secular Christian women, authority was largely attached to class status. Women such as <a href="/wiki/Radegund" title="Radegund">Radegund</a> were able to contribute to the spread of Christianity through her role as wife and Queen. Wealthy women such as <a href="/wiki/Dhuoda" title="Dhuoda">Dhuoda</a> illustrate that female autonomy in the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Carolingian era">Carolingian era</a> was possible, but women's relationships were largely still shaped around familial and communal connections. In fact, evidence of <a href="/wiki/Matronymic" title="Matronymic">matronymic</a> names indicate that a matriarchal lineage could be useful when distinguishing a lineage, or when relying on a woman's prominent position within society.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Non-elite women shared labour with their male counterparts, but this work was still largely divided by gender. Women oversaw household activities such as <a href="/wiki/Medieval_cuisine" title="Medieval cuisine">cooking</a>, brewing, <a href="/wiki/Hand_spinning" title="Hand spinning">spinning</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Weaving#Medieval_Europe" title="Weaving">weaving</a>, as well as care of livestock. Following <a href="/wiki/Lex_Burgundionum" title="Lex Burgundionum">Burgundian law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Visigothic_Code" title="Visigothic Code">Visigothic law</a>, women might also act as land owners and managers, particularly when they were unmarried, widowed, or when their husbands were away from home.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="High_Middle_Ages_(1000–1300)"><span id="High_Middle_Ages_.281000.E2.80.931300.29"></span>High Middle Ages (1000–1300)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: High Middle Ages (1000–1300)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hildegard_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Hildegard_map.jpg/170px-Hildegard_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Hildegard_map.jpg/255px-Hildegard_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Hildegard_map.jpg/340px-Hildegard_map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="495" data-file-height="619" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hildegard_of_Bingen" title="Hildegard of Bingen">Hildegard of Bingen</a> conducted a number of preaching tours throughout Germany.</figcaption></figure> <p>By the end of the tenth century, Christianity had reached most corners of the European world. <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a>, the region which became modern-day Spain and Portugal, was still largely <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islamic</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Nordic_countries" title="Nordic countries">Norse</a> countries, while in contact with Christianity, were still undergoing conversion. There is more evidence of <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jewish</a> communities being established in towns and cities throughout central Europe. Historians also have more evidence of women (and in general) and how they interacted with the world around them beginning in the <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a>. </p><p>Developments within the Christian Church during the eleventh and twelfth centuries impacted women in Western Europe, both religious and secular. The <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_Reform" title="Gregorian Reform">Gregorian Reforms</a> heavily restricted <a href="/wiki/Clerical_marriage" title="Clerical marriage">clerical marriage</a>, which in turn affected a number of women who had previously held positions as priest's wives.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Reforms entailed a restructuring of the monastic system which largely excluded women, creating zones that were male only.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, the Reforms triggered a type of repression in which <a href="/wiki/Celibacy" title="Celibacy">celibacy</a> was a marker of ritual purity distinguishing clerics from laypeople. Women's bodies in turn were viewed as inherently polluting.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the same time, however, there were aspects of Christianity that enabled female spiritual growth. For a brief time, double monasteries again became popular, through which abbesses held spiritual and political power (for ex: <a href="/wiki/Fontevraud_Abbey" title="Fontevraud Abbey">Fontevraud Abbey</a>). <a href="/wiki/Herrad_of_Landsberg" title="Herrad of Landsberg">Herrad of Landsberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hildegard_of_Bingen" title="Hildegard of Bingen">Hildegard of Bingen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/H%C3%A9lo%C3%AFse_(abbess)" class="mw-redirect" title="Héloïse (abbess)">Héloïse d'Argenteuil</a> were influential abbesses and authors during this period. <a href="/wiki/Hadewijch" title="Hadewijch">Hadewijch of Antwerp</a> was a poet and <a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">mystic</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SaintRadegondeMural.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/SaintRadegondeMural.jpg/170px-SaintRadegondeMural.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/SaintRadegondeMural.jpg/255px-SaintRadegondeMural.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/SaintRadegondeMural.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="380" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_of_Aquitaine" title="Eleanor of Aquitaine">Eleanor of Aquitaine</a> was a wealthy and powerful woman.</figcaption></figure> <p>Moreover, the growing cult of <a href="/wiki/Mary_Magdalene" title="Mary Magdalene">Mary Magdalene</a> allowed destitute women, such as the poor, widowed, prostitutes, and former priest's wives to seek refuge at Magdalene houses.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The parallel <a href="/wiki/Cult_of_Mary" class="mw-redirect" title="Cult of Mary">cult of the Virgin Mary</a> reframed contemplation of Christ through Mary's suffering.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Regarding the role of <a href="/wiki/Women_in_Christianity" title="Women in Christianity">women in the Church</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_III" title="Pope Innocent III">Pope Innocent III</a> wrote in 1210: "No matter whether the most blessed Virgin Mary stands higher, and is also more illustrious, than all the <a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">apostles</a> together, it was still not to her, but to them, that the Lord entrusted the keys to the Kingdom of Heaven".<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both cults allowed secular women to engage with female sanctity where they had been previously excluded due to their non-celibate status. </p><p>Secularly, female rulers became prominent in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The <a href="/wiki/Empress_Matilda" title="Empress Matilda">Empress Matilda</a> fought for the right to rule her father's kingdom, successfully guaranteeing an extension of her lineage and the rule of the <a href="/wiki/Plantagenets" class="mw-redirect" title="Plantagenets">Plantagenets</a>. Her son married <a href="/wiki/Eleanor_of_Aquitaine" title="Eleanor of Aquitaine">Eleanor of Aquitaine</a> (1122–1204), who was one of the wealthiest and most powerful women in Western Europe during the High Middle Ages. She was the <a href="/wiki/Patroness" class="mw-redirect" title="Patroness">patroness</a> of such literary figures as <a href="/wiki/Wace" title="Wace">Wace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beno%C3%AEt_de_Sainte-Maure" title="Benoît de Sainte-Maure">Benoît de Sainte-Maure</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chr%C3%A9tien_de_Troyes" title="Chrétien de Troyes">Chrétien de Troyes</a>. Eleanor succeeded her father as <i><a href="/wiki/Suo_jure" title="Suo jure">suo jure</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Aquitaine" title="Duke of Aquitaine">Duchess of Aquitaine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Count_of_Poitiers" title="Count of Poitiers">Countess of Poitiers</a> at the age of 15. <a href="/wiki/Constance_I_of_Sicily" title="Constance I of Sicily">Constance, Queen of Sicily</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urraca_of_Le%C3%B3n_and_Castile" title="Urraca of León and Castile">Urraca of León and Castile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joan_I_of_Navarre" title="Joan I of Navarre">Joan I of Navarre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Melisende,_Queen_of_Jerusalem" title="Melisende, Queen of Jerusalem">Melisende, Queen of Jerusalem</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Queen_regnant" title="Queen regnant">queens regnant</a> exercised political power. </p><p>The development of <a href="/wiki/Canon_law_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Canon law of the Catholic Church">canon law</a> also impacted Christian women's status. The <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Fourth Council of the Lateran">Fourth Lateran Council</a> solidified the need for consent within marriage, assuring women of some autonomy. However, men such as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> dictated that women owed their husbands a conjugal debt. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Late_Middle_Ages_(1300–1500)"><span id="Late_Middle_Ages_.281300.E2.80.931500.29"></span>Late Middle Ages (1300–1500)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Late Middle Ages (1300–1500)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Christine_de_Pisan_and_her_son.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Christine_de_Pisan_and_her_son.jpg/220px-Christine_de_Pisan_and_her_son.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Christine_de_Pisan_and_her_son.jpg/330px-Christine_de_Pisan_and_her_son.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Christine_de_Pisan_and_her_son.jpg/440px-Christine_de_Pisan_and_her_son.jpg 2x" data-file-width="472" data-file-height="504" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Christine_de_Pizan" title="Christine de Pizan">Christine de Pizan</a> became a professional writer after the death of her husband in 1390.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a>, women such as Saint <a href="/wiki/Catherine_of_Siena" title="Catherine of Siena">Catherine of Siena</a>, who helped stimulate interest in a crusade with Pope Gregory XI to reform Catholic Church, <sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Saint <a href="/wiki/Teresa_of_%C3%81vila" title="Teresa of Ávila">Teresa of Ávila</a>, who emphasized impact of the love of God on the heart,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> played significant roles in the development of theological ideas and discussion within the church, and were later declared <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_the_Church" title="Doctor of the Church">Doctors of the Roman Catholic Church</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mystic <a href="/wiki/Julian_of_Norwich" title="Julian of Norwich">Julian of Norwich</a> was also significant in England for being considered the first woman to write a book that survived and was also written in English.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Isabella_I_of_Castile" title="Isabella I of Castile">Isabella I of Castile</a> ruled a combined kingdom with her husband <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_Aragon" title="Ferdinand II of Aragon">Ferdinand II of Aragon</a>. <a href="/wiki/Joan_of_Arc" title="Joan of Arc">Joan of Arc</a> successfully led the French army on several occasions during the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Christine_de_Pizan" title="Christine de Pizan">Christine de Pizan</a> was a noted late medieval writer on women's issues. Her <i><a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_the_City_of_Ladies" title="The Book of the City of Ladies">Book of the City of Ladies</a></i> criticized <a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">misogyny</a>, while her <i><a href="/wiki/The_Treasure_of_the_City_of_Ladies" title="The Treasure of the City of Ladies">The Treasure of the City of Ladies</a></i> articulated an ideal of feminine virtue for women from walks of life ranging from princess to peasant's wife.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen2006b646_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen2006b646-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Her advice to the princess includes a recommendation to use diplomatic skills to prevent war: </p> <blockquote><p>If any neighbouring or foreign prince wishes for any reason to make war against her husband, or if her husband wishes to make war on someone else, the good lady will consider this thing carefully, bearing in mind the great evils and infinite cruelties, destruction, massacres and detriment to the country that result from war; the outcome is often terrible. She will ponder long and hard whether she can do something (always preserving the honour of her husband) to prevent this war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Pizan2003_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Pizan2003-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (December 2022)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p></blockquote> <p>From the last century of the Middle Ages onwards, restrictions began to be placed on women's work, and <a href="/wiki/Guild" title="Guild">guilds</a> became increasingly male-only; some of the reasons may have been the rising status and political role of guilds and the increasing competition from cottage industries, which prompted the guilds to tighten their entrance requirements.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchaus2006337_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaus2006337-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_property_rights" title="Women's property rights">Women's property rights</a> also began to be curtailed during this period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEErlerKowaleski2003198_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErlerKowaleski2003198-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The reason for this is unclear. (July 2016)">why?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Marriage">Marriage</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Marriage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marriage_of_Bohemond_I_and_Constance_-_Chronique_d%27Ernoul_et_de_Bernard_le_Tr%C3%A9sorier_(late_15th_C),_f.170_-_BL_Royal_MS_15_E_I.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Marriage_of_Bohemond_I_and_Constance_-_Chronique_d%27Ernoul_et_de_Bernard_le_Tr%C3%A9sorier_%28late_15th_C%29%2C_f.170_-_BL_Royal_MS_15_E_I.jpg/220px-Marriage_of_Bohemond_I_and_Constance_-_Chronique_d%27Ernoul_et_de_Bernard_le_Tr%C3%A9sorier_%28late_15th_C%29%2C_f.170_-_BL_Royal_MS_15_E_I.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Marriage_of_Bohemond_I_and_Constance_-_Chronique_d%27Ernoul_et_de_Bernard_le_Tr%C3%A9sorier_%28late_15th_C%29%2C_f.170_-_BL_Royal_MS_15_E_I.jpg/330px-Marriage_of_Bohemond_I_and_Constance_-_Chronique_d%27Ernoul_et_de_Bernard_le_Tr%C3%A9sorier_%28late_15th_C%29%2C_f.170_-_BL_Royal_MS_15_E_I.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Marriage_of_Bohemond_I_and_Constance_-_Chronique_d%27Ernoul_et_de_Bernard_le_Tr%C3%A9sorier_%28late_15th_C%29%2C_f.170_-_BL_Royal_MS_15_E_I.jpg/440px-Marriage_of_Bohemond_I_and_Constance_-_Chronique_d%27Ernoul_et_de_Bernard_le_Tr%C3%A9sorier_%28late_15th_C%29%2C_f.170_-_BL_Royal_MS_15_E_I.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1644" data-file-height="1175" /></a><figcaption>A royal marriage, painted c. 1475</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maitre_Birth_of_Esau_and_Jacob.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Maitre_Birth_of_Esau_and_Jacob.jpg/220px-Maitre_Birth_of_Esau_and_Jacob.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Maitre_Birth_of_Esau_and_Jacob.jpg/330px-Maitre_Birth_of_Esau_and_Jacob.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Maitre_Birth_of_Esau_and_Jacob.jpg/440px-Maitre_Birth_of_Esau_and_Jacob.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="958" /></a><figcaption>Biblical scene of <a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">childbirth</a> of twins</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dialogue_%C3%A0_la_louange_du_sexe_f%C3%A9minin_-_BNF_Fr2242_f5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Dialogue_%C3%A0_la_louange_du_sexe_f%C3%A9minin_-_BNF_Fr2242_f5.jpg/220px-Dialogue_%C3%A0_la_louange_du_sexe_f%C3%A9minin_-_BNF_Fr2242_f5.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Dialogue_%C3%A0_la_louange_du_sexe_f%C3%A9minin_-_BNF_Fr2242_f5.jpg/330px-Dialogue_%C3%A0_la_louange_du_sexe_f%C3%A9minin_-_BNF_Fr2242_f5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Dialogue_%C3%A0_la_louange_du_sexe_f%C3%A9minin_-_BNF_Fr2242_f5.jpg/440px-Dialogue_%C3%A0_la_louange_du_sexe_f%C3%A9minin_-_BNF_Fr2242_f5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="444" data-file-height="635" /></a><figcaption>Scenes of female piety, France, c. 1500</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Single_women_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Single women in the Middle Ages">Single women in the Middle Ages</a></div> <p>Medieval marriage was both a private and social matter. According to <a href="/wiki/Canon_law_(Catholic_Church)" class="mw-redirect" title="Canon law (Catholic Church)">canon law</a>, the law of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>, marriage was a concrete exclusive bond between husband and wife; giving the husband all power and control in the relationship.<sup id="cite_ref-McDougall_164_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McDougall_164-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Husband and wife were partners and were supposed to reflect <a href="/wiki/Adam_and_Eve" title="Adam and Eve">Adam and Eve</a>. Even though wives had to submit to their husbands' authority, wives still had rights in their marriages. Historian <a href="/wiki/Sara_McDougall" title="Sara McDougall">Sara McDougall</a> concurs with Charles Reid's argument that both men and women shared rights in regards to sex and marriage; which includes: "the right to consent to marriage, the right to ask for <a href="/wiki/Marital_debt" title="Marital debt">marital debt</a> or conjugal (sexual) duty, the right to leave a marriage when they either suspected it was invalid or had grounds to sue for <a href="/wiki/Legal_separation" title="Legal separation">separation</a>, and finally the right to choose one's own place of burial, death being the point at which a spouse's ownership of the other spouse's body ceased".<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Regionally and across the time span of the Middle Ages, marriage could be formed differently. Marriage could be proclaimed in secret by the mutually consenting couple, or arranged between families as long as the man and woman were not forced and consented freely; but by the 12th century in western canon law, <a href="/wiki/Consent" title="Consent">consent</a> (whether in mutual secrecy or in a public sphere) between the couple was imperative.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marriages confirmed in secrecy were seen as problematic in the legal sphere due to spouses redacting and denying that the marriage was solidified and consummated.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Peasants, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">slaves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Handmaiden" title="Handmaiden">maidservants</a>, and generally lower-class women required the permission and consent of their master in order to marry, and if they did not have it, they were punished (see below in Law). </p><p>Marriage also allowed for the couples' social networks to expand. This was according to <a href="#CITEREFBennett1984">Bennett (1984)</a> who investigated the marriage of Henry Kroyl Jr. and Agnes Penifader, and how their social spheres changed after their marriage. Due to the couples' fathers, Henry Kroyl Sr. and Robert Penifader being prominent villagers in <a href="/wiki/Brigstock" title="Brigstock">Brigstock</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northamptonshire" title="Northamptonshire">Northamptonshire</a>, approximately 2,000 references to the activities of the couple and their immediate families were being recorded. Bennett details how Kroyl Jr.'s social network expanded greatly as he gained connections through his occupational endeavors. </p><p>Agnes' connections expanded also based on Kroyl Jr.'s new connections. However, Bennett also signifies that a familial alliance between the couples' families of origin did not form. Kroyl Jr. had limited contact with his father after his marriage, and his social network expanded from the business he conducted with his brothers and other villagers. Agnes, who still maintained some contact with her family, also expanded her social network to include her husband's family of origin and his new connections. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Widowhood_and_remarriage">Widowhood and remarriage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Widowhood and remarriage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Upon the death of a spouse, widows could gain power in inheriting their husbands' property as opposed to adult sons. Male-preference <a href="/wiki/Primogeniture" title="Primogeniture">primogeniture</a> stipulated that the male heir was to inherit their deceased father's land; and in cases of no sons, the eldest daughter would inherit property. However, widows could inherit property when they had minor sons, or if provisions were made for them to inherit.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Peter Franklin (1986) investigated the women tenants of <a href="/wiki/Thornbury,_Gloucestershire" title="Thornbury, Gloucestershire">Thornbury</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> due to the higher than average proportion of women tenants. Through court rolls, he found that many widows in this area independently held land successfully. He argued that some widows may have remarried due to keeping up with their tenure and financial difficulties of holding their inherited land, or community pressures for the said widow to remarry if she had a male servant living in her home. Remarriage would put the widow under the control of her new husband.<sup id="cite_ref-Franklin_196_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Franklin_196-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, some widows never remarried and held the land until their deaths, thereby ensuring their independence. Even young widows, who would have had an easier time remarrying, remained independent and unmarried. Franklin considers the lives of widows to have been "liberating" because women had more autonomous control over their lives and property; they were able to "argue their own cases in court, hire labour, and cultivate and manage holdings successfully".<sup id="cite_ref-Franklin_196_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Franklin_196-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Franklin also discusses that some Thornbury widows had second and even third marriages. Remarriage would have affected inheritance of property, especially if the widow had children with her second husband; however there are several cases where sons from the widow's first marriage were able to inherit before the second husband.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>McDougall also notes that, like the varying forms of marriage, the canon law regarding remarriage varied across regions. Both men and women could have been permitted to freely remarry or may have been restricted and/or deemed to serve penance before remarrying.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medieval_elite_women">Medieval elite women</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Medieval elite women"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sir_Geoffrey_Luttrell_at_table_-_Luttrell_Psalter_(c.1325-1335),_f.208_-_BL_Add_MS_42130.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Sir_Geoffrey_Luttrell_at_table_-_Luttrell_Psalter_%28c.1325-1335%29%2C_f.208_-_BL_Add_MS_42130.jpg/220px-Sir_Geoffrey_Luttrell_at_table_-_Luttrell_Psalter_%28c.1325-1335%29%2C_f.208_-_BL_Add_MS_42130.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Sir_Geoffrey_Luttrell_at_table_-_Luttrell_Psalter_%28c.1325-1335%29%2C_f.208_-_BL_Add_MS_42130.jpg/330px-Sir_Geoffrey_Luttrell_at_table_-_Luttrell_Psalter_%28c.1325-1335%29%2C_f.208_-_BL_Add_MS_42130.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Sir_Geoffrey_Luttrell_at_table_-_Luttrell_Psalter_%28c.1325-1335%29%2C_f.208_-_BL_Add_MS_42130.jpg/440px-Sir_Geoffrey_Luttrell_at_table_-_Luttrell_Psalter_%28c.1325-1335%29%2C_f.208_-_BL_Add_MS_42130.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1853" data-file-height="1094" /></a><figcaption>Sir <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Luttrell" title="Geoffrey Luttrell">Geoffrey Luttrell</a> at table - <a href="/wiki/Luttrell_Psalter" title="Luttrell Psalter">Luttrell Psalter</a> (c.1325–1335)</figcaption></figure> <p>In the Middle Ages the upper socioeconomic groups generally included <a href="/wiki/Royal_family" title="Royal family">royalty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">nobility</a>. <a href="/wiki/Conduct_book" title="Conduct book">Conduct books</a> from the period present an image of the role of elite women being to obey their spouse, guard their virtue, produce offspring, and to oversee the operation of the household. For those women who did adhere to these traditional roles, the responsibilities could be considerable, with households sometimes including dozens of people. Further, when their husbands were away the role of women could increase substantially. By the High and Late Middle Ages there were numerous royal and noble women who assumed control of their husbands' domains in their absence, including defense and even bearing arms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchaus2006767_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaus2006767-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Noble women were natural parts of the cultural and political environments of their time due to their positions and kinship. Particularly when acting as regents, elite women would assume the full <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudal</a>, economic, political and judicial powers of their husbands or young heirs. These women were not prohibited from receiving <a href="/wiki/Fief" title="Fief">fiefdoms</a> or owning <a href="/wiki/Real_property" title="Real property">real property</a> during their husbands' lives. Noble women were often patrons of literature, art, monasteries and convents, and religious men. It was not uncommon for them to be knowledgeable in <a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin literature</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchaus2006609,_610_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaus2006609,_610-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Women_practicing_medicine">Women practicing medicine</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Women practicing medicine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Medieval_female_physician.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Medieval_female_physician.jpg/220px-Medieval_female_physician.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="306" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Medieval_female_physician.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="270" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption>A woman who is a physician caring for a patient is dressed in the height of contemporary fashion</figcaption></figure> <p>Women were healers and engaged in medical practices. In 12th-century <a href="/wiki/Salerno" title="Salerno">Salerno</a>, Italy, <a href="/wiki/Trota_of_Salerno" title="Trota of Salerno">Trota</a> wrote one of the <i><a href="/wiki/Trotula" title="Trotula">Trotula</a></i> texts on diseases of women.<sup id="cite_ref-Garay_&_Jeay_2007_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garay_&_Jeay_2007-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Her text, <i>Treatments for Women</i>, addressed events in childbirth that called for medical attention. The book was a compilation of three original texts and quickly became the basis for the medical treatment of women. Based on medical information developed in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_medicine" title="Ancient Greek medicine">Ancient Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_ancient_Rome" title="Medicine in ancient Rome">Roman eras</a>, these texts discussed ailments, disease, and possible treatments for women's health issues. </p><p>The Abbess <a href="/wiki/Hildegard_of_Bingen" title="Hildegard of Bingen">Hildegard of Bingen</a>, classed among <a href="/wiki/Medieval_single_women" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval single women">medieval single women</a>, wrote, in her 12th-century treatise <i>Physica and Causae et Curae</i>, about many issues concerning health. Hildegard was one of the most well known of medieval medical authors. In particular, Hildegard contributed much valuable knowledge in the use of herbs as well as observations regarding women's <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a> and spirituality. In nine sections, Hildegard's volume reviews the medical uses for plants, the earth's elements (earth, water, and air), and animals. Also included are investigations of metals and jewels. Hildegard also explored such issues as laughter, tears, and sneezing, on the one hand, and poisons and <a href="/wiki/Aphrodisiac" title="Aphrodisiac">aphrodisiacs</a>, on the other. Her work was compiled in a religious environment but also relied on past wisdom and new findings about women's health and the nature of women's bodies. Hildegard's work not only addresses illness and cures but also explores the theory of medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-Garay_&_Jeay_2007_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garay_&_Jeay_2007-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medieval_peasant_women">Medieval peasant women</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Medieval peasant women"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In terms of labour, women of the peasantry had more gender equality than in the nobility. However, most scholars agree that impoverished women had fundamentally the same subordinate status as women elsewhere in medieval society.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women were generally prohibited from acting as elected town officials, and likely only attended village meetings if they were unmarried or widowed.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to poor nutrition and the dangers of childbirth, women's life expectancy at birth was less than that of male peasants: perhaps 25 years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliamsEchols1994241_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliamsEchols1994241-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, in some places, there were four men for every three women.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliamsEchols1994241_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliamsEchols1994241-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chris Middleton made these general observations about English peasant women: "A peasant woman's life was, in fact, hemmed in by prohibition and restraint."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiddleton1981107_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiddleton1981107-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If single, women had to submit to the male head of her household; if married, to her husband, under whose identity she was subsumed. English peasant women generally could not hold lands for long, rarely learned any craft occupation and rarely advanced past the position of assistants, and could not become officials. </p><p>Peasant women had numerous restrictions placed on their behaviour by their lords. If a woman was pregnant, and not married, or had sex outside of marriage, the lord was entitled to compensation. The control of peasant women was a function of financial benefits to the lords. They were not motivated by women's moral state. Also during this period, sexual activity was not regulated, with couples simply living together outside a formal ceremony, provided they had permission by their lord. Even without a <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudal lord</a> involved with her life, a woman still had supervision by their father, brothers or other male members of the family. Women had little control over their own lives.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Middleton provided some exceptions: English peasant women, on their own behalf, could plead in <a href="/wiki/Manorial_court" title="Manorial court">manorial courts</a>; some female <a href="/wiki/Freehold_(law)" title="Freehold (law)">freeholders</a> enjoyed immunities from male peers and landlords; and some trades (such as ale-brewing), provided female workers with independence. Still, Middleton viewed these as exceptions which required historians only to modify, rather than revise, "the essential model of female subservience."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiddleton1981107_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiddleton1981107-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Overview_of_the_medieval_European_economy">Overview of the medieval European economy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Overview of the medieval European economy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In medieval Western Europe, society and economy were largely rural and agricultural.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010313_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010313-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ninety percent of the European population lived in the countryside or in small towns.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010312_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010312-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the lack of mechanical devices, activities were performed mostly by human labour.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010312_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010312-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both men and women participated in the medieval workforce and most workers were not paid by wages for their labour, but instead independently worked on their land and produced their own goods for consumption.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010313_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010313-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whittle cautioned against the "modern assumption that active economic involvement and hard work translate into status and wealth" because during Middle Ages, hard work only ensured survival against starvation. Peasant women suffered many disadvantages such as fewer landholdings, occupational exclusions, and lower wages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010311_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010311-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Labour">Labour</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Labour"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maastricht_Book_of_Hours,_BL_Stowe_MS17_f032r_(detail).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Maastricht_Book_of_Hours%2C_BL_Stowe_MS17_f032r_%28detail%29.png/220px-Maastricht_Book_of_Hours%2C_BL_Stowe_MS17_f032r_%28detail%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Maastricht_Book_of_Hours%2C_BL_Stowe_MS17_f032r_%28detail%29.png/330px-Maastricht_Book_of_Hours%2C_BL_Stowe_MS17_f032r_%28detail%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Maastricht_Book_of_Hours%2C_BL_Stowe_MS17_f032r_%28detail%29.png/440px-Maastricht_Book_of_Hours%2C_BL_Stowe_MS17_f032r_%28detail%29.png 2x" data-file-width="441" data-file-height="452" /></a><figcaption>Spinning, with two children</figcaption></figure> <p>Generally, research has determined that there was limited <a href="/wiki/Sexual_division_of_labour" title="Sexual division of labour">gender division of labour</a> among peasant men and women. Agricultural historian <a href="/wiki/Jane_Whittle" title="Jane Whittle">Jane Whittle</a> wrote: "Labour was divided according to the workers' gender. Some activities were restricted to either men or women; other activities were preferred to be performed by one gender over the other:" For example. men <a href="/wiki/Plough" title="Plough">ploughed</a>, mowed, and <a href="/wiki/Threshing" title="Threshing">threshed</a>, and women <a href="/wiki/Gleaning" title="Gleaning">gleaned</a>, cleared weeds, bound sheaves, made hay, and collected wood. Other tasks such as harvesting, were performed by both men and women.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010312_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010312-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A woman's standing as a worker varied depending on circumstances. Generally, women were required to have male guardians who would assume legal liability for them in legal and economic matters. For the wives of elite merchants in Northern Europe<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness"><span title="This information is too vague. (August 2020)">vague</span></a></i>]</sup>, their roles extended to commercial undertakings both with their husbands and on their own, however in <a href="/wiki/Italy_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Italy in the Middle Ages">Italy</a>, tradition and law excluded them from commerce;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchaus2006767_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaus2006767-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in <a href="/wiki/Ghent" title="Ghent">Ghent</a>, women were required to have guardians unless these women had been emancipated or were prestigious merchants; <a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Norman</a> women were forbidden to contract business ventures; <a href="/wiki/France_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="France in the Middle Ages">French</a> women could litigate business matters, but could not plead in courts without their husbands, unless they had suffered from their husbands' abuses;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReyerson2010299_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReyerson2010299-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Castilians" title="Castilians">Castilian</a> wives, during the <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a>, enjoyed favourable legal treatments, worked in family-oriented trades and crafts, sold goods, kept inns and shops, became domestic servants for wealthier households; Christian Castilian wives laboured along with Jewish and Muslim free-born women and slaves. Yet over time Castilian wives' work became associated with or even subordinated to that of their husbands, and when the Castilian frontier region had been stabilized, Castilian wives' legal standing deteriorated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReyerson2010297_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReyerson2010297-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Both peasant men and women worked in the home and out in the fields. In looking at coroner records for 14th-century rural England detailing the accidental deaths of 1,000 people, which represent the lives of peasants more clearly, <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Hanawalt" title="Barbara Hanawalt">Barbara Hanawalt</a> found that 30% of women died in their homes compared to 12% of men; 9% of women died on a private property (i.e. a neighbour's house, a garden area, <a href="/wiki/Manor_house" title="Manor house">manor house</a>, etc.) compared to 6% of men; 22% of women died in public areas within their village (i.e. greens, streets, churches, markets, highways, etc.) compared to 18% of men.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanawalt_20_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanawalt_20-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Men dominated accidental deaths within fields at 38% compared to 18% of women, and men had 4% more accidental deaths in water than women did. Accidental deaths of women (61%) occurred within their homes and villages; while men had only 36%.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanawalt_20_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanawalt_20-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This information correlated with the activities and labours regarding the maintenance and responsibilities of working in a household. These include: food preparation, laundry, sewing, brewing, getting water, starting fires, tending to children, collecting produce, and working with domestic animals. Outside of the household and village, 4% of women died in agricultural accidents compared to 19% of men, and no women died from labours of construction or carpentry.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanawalt_20_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanawalt_20-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The division of gendered labour may be due to women's being at risk of danger, like being attacked, raped and losing their virginity, in doing work in the fields or outside of the home and village.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanawalt_20_41-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanawalt_20-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Medieval-farming.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Medieval-farming.jpg/220px-Medieval-farming.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Medieval-farming.jpg/330px-Medieval-farming.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Medieval-farming.jpg/440px-Medieval-farming.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="576" /></a><figcaption>Farming</figcaption></figure> <p>Three main activities performed by peasant men and women were planting foods, keeping livestock, and making textiles, as depicted in <a href="/wiki/Psalter" title="Psalter">Psalters</a> from southern Germany and England. Women of different classes performed different activities: rich urban women could be merchants like their husbands or even became money lenders; middle-class women worked in the textile, inn-keeping, shop-keeping, and brewing industries; while poorer women often peddled and <a href="/wiki/Huckster" title="Huckster">huckstered</a> foods and other merchandise in the market places, or worked in richer households as <a href="/wiki/Domestic_worker" title="Domestic worker">domestic servants</a>, day labourers, or laundresses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReyerson2010295-296_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReyerson2010295-296-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern historians assumed that only women were assigned childcare and thus had to work near their home, yet childcare responsibilities could be fulfilled far from the home and—except breastfeeding—were not exclusive to women.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010316_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010316-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In spite of the <a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">patriarchal</a> medieval European culture,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010315–316_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010315–316-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which posited female inferiority, opposed female independence,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010313_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010313-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so that female workers could not contract out their labour services without their husband's' approval,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010315_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010315-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> widows have been recorded to act as independent economic agents; meanwhile, a married woman—mostly from among the female artisans—could, under some limited circumstances, exercise some agency as a <i>femme sole,</i> identified legally and economically as separate from her husband: she could learn artisan skills from her parents as their apprentice, she could work alone, conduct business, contract her labours, or even plead in law-courts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReyerson2010295-296,_298,_300_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReyerson2010295-296,_298,_300-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:9-alimenti,_formaggi,Taccuino_Sanitatis,_Casanatense_4182..jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/9-alimenti%2C_formaggi%2CTaccuino_Sanitatis%2C_Casanatense_4182..jpg/220px-9-alimenti%2C_formaggi%2CTaccuino_Sanitatis%2C_Casanatense_4182..jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/9-alimenti%2C_formaggi%2CTaccuino_Sanitatis%2C_Casanatense_4182..jpg/330px-9-alimenti%2C_formaggi%2CTaccuino_Sanitatis%2C_Casanatense_4182..jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/9-alimenti%2C_formaggi%2CTaccuino_Sanitatis%2C_Casanatense_4182..jpg/440px-9-alimenti%2C_formaggi%2CTaccuino_Sanitatis%2C_Casanatense_4182..jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1075" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cheesemaking" title="Cheesemaking">Cheesemaking</a></figcaption></figure> <p>There is evidence that women performed not only housekeeping responsibilities like cooking and cleaning, but even other household activities like grinding, brewing, butchering, and spinning; and produced items like flour, ale, meat, cheese, and textile for direct consumption and for sale.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010311_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010311-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An anonymous 15th-century English <a href="/wiki/Ballad" title="Ballad">ballad</a> appreciated activities performed by English peasant women such as housekeeping, making foodstuffs and textiles, and childcare.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010311_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010311-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even though cloth-making, brewing, and dairy production were trades associated with female workers, male cloth-makers and brewers increasingly displaced female workers, especially after <a href="/wiki/Watermill" title="Watermill">water-mills</a>, horizontal <a href="/wiki/Loom" title="Loom">looms</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hops" title="Hops">hop-flavoured beers</a> were invented. These inventions favoured commercial cloth-making and brewing dominated by male workers who had more time, wealth, and access to credit and political influence and who produced goods for sale instead of for direct consumption. Meanwhile, women were increasingly relegated to low-paying tasks like spinning.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010317–320_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010317–320-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Besides working independently on their own lands, women could hire themselves out as servants or wage-workers. Medieval servants performed works as required by the employer's household: men cooked and cleaned while women did the laundry. Like their independent rural workers, rural wage-labourers performed complementary tasks based on a gendered division of labour. Women were paid only half as much as men even though both sexes performed similar tasks.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010320,_322_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010320,_322-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the Black Death killed a large part of the European population and led to severe labour shortages, women filled out the occupational gaps in the cloth-making and agricultural sectors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010313,_320_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010313,_320-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Simon Penn argued that the labour shortages after the Black Death furnished economic opportunities for women, but Sarah Bardsley and <a href="/wiki/Judith_Bennett" class="mw-redirect" title="Judith Bennett">Judith Bennett</a> countered that women were paid about 50–75% of men's wages. Bennett attributed this <a href="/wiki/Gender_wage_gap" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender wage gap">gender wage gap</a> to patriarchal prejudices which devalued women's work, yet John Hatcher disputed Bennet's claim: he pointed out that men and women received the same wages for the same piece-work, but women received lower day-wages because they were might have had to sacrifice working hours for other domestic duties. Whittle stated that the debate has not yet been settled.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010322_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010322-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To illustrate, the late medieval poem <i><a href="/wiki/Piers_Plowman" title="Piers Plowman">Piers Plowman</a></i> paints a pitiful picture of the life of the medieval peasant woman: </p> <blockquote><div class="poem"> <p>Burdened with children and landlords' rent;<br /> What they can put aside from what they make spinning they spend on housing,<br /> Also on milk and meal to make porridge with<br /> To sate their children who cry out for food<br /> And they themselves also suffer much hunger,<br /> And woe in wintertime, and waking up nights<br /> To rise on the bedside to rock the cradle,<br /> Also to card and comb wool, to patch and to wash,<br /> To rub flax and reel yarn and to peel rushes<br /> That it is pity to describe or show in rhyme<br /> The woe of these women who live in huts;<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Peasant_women_by_status">Peasant women by status</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Peasant women by status"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:10-alimenti,uova,Taccuino_Sanitatis,_Casanatense_4182..jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/10-alimenti%2Cuova%2CTaccuino_Sanitatis%2C_Casanatense_4182..jpg/220px-10-alimenti%2Cuova%2CTaccuino_Sanitatis%2C_Casanatense_4182..jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/10-alimenti%2Cuova%2CTaccuino_Sanitatis%2C_Casanatense_4182..jpg/330px-10-alimenti%2Cuova%2CTaccuino_Sanitatis%2C_Casanatense_4182..jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/10-alimenti%2Cuova%2CTaccuino_Sanitatis%2C_Casanatense_4182..jpg/440px-10-alimenti%2Cuova%2CTaccuino_Sanitatis%2C_Casanatense_4182..jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1076" /></a><figcaption>Collecting eggs</figcaption></figure> <p>The first group of peasant women consisted of free landholders. Early records such as the <a href="/wiki/Liber_Exoniensis" title="Liber Exoniensis">Exon Domesday</a> and <a href="/wiki/Domesday_Book" title="Domesday Book">Little Domesday</a> attested that, among English land-owners, 10–14% noble <a href="/wiki/Thegn" title="Thegn">thegns</a> and non-noble free-tenants were women; and <a href="/wiki/Wendy_Davies" title="Wendy Davies">Wendy Davies</a> found records which showed that in 54% of property transactions, women could act independently or jointly with their husbands and sons.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010314_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010314-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Still, only after the 13th century are there records which better showed free female peasants' rights to land.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010314_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010314-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, English <a href="/wiki/Manorial_roll" title="Manorial roll">manorial court-rolls</a> recorded many activities carried out by free peasants such as selling and inheriting lands, paying rents, settling upon debts and credits, brewing and selling ale, and—if unfree—rendering labour services to lords. Free peasant women, unlike their male counterparts, could not become officers such as manorial jurors, constables, and <a href="/wiki/Reeve_(England)" title="Reeve (England)">reeves</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010315_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010315-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The second category of medieval European workers were serfs. Conditions of <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfdom</a> applied to both genders.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010315_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010315-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">Serfs</a> did not enjoy property rights as did free tenants: serfs were restricted from leaving their lords' lands at will and were forbidden to dispose of their assigned holdings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiddleton1981139_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiddleton1981139-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both male and female serfs had to labour as part of their services to their lords and their required activities might be even specifically gendered by the lords. Many serfs also had no choice but to be controlled by their Lords, as in turn from protection from tax collectors and other protections, they were bound to them.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A serf woman would pass her serfdom status to her children; in contrast, children would inherit <a href="/wiki/Gentry" title="Gentry">gentry</a> status from their father.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarding1980423_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarding1980423-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A serf could gain freedom when released by the lord, or after having escaped from the lord's control for one year plus one day, often into towns; escaping serfs were rarely arrested.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDowty198925_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowty198925-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When female serfs got married, they had to pay fines to their lords. The first fine upon a female serf getting married was known as <a href="/wiki/Merchet" title="Merchet">merchet</a>, to be paid by her father to their lord; the rationale was that the lord had lost a worker and her children.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVinogradoff1892_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVinogradoff1892-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiddleton1981138,_143_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiddleton1981138,_143-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second fine is the leyrwite, to be paid by a male or female serf who had committed sexual acts forbidden by the Church, for fear that the fornicating serf might have her marriage value lessened and thus the lord might not get the merchet.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiddleton1981144_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiddleton1981144-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chris Middleton cited other historians who demonstrated that lords often regulated their serfs' marriages to make sure that the serfs' landholdings would not be taken out of their jurisdiction. Lords could even force female serfs into involuntary marriages to ensure that the female serfs would be able to pro-create a new generation of workers. Over time, English lords increasingly favoured primogeniture inheritance patterns to prevent their serfs' landholdings from being broken up.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiddleton1981137_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiddleton1981137-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Health">Health</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Health"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Peasant women during the time period were subjected to a number of superstitious practices when it came to their health. In <i><a href="/wiki/The_Distaff_Gospels" title="The Distaff Gospels">The Distaff Gospels</a></i>, a collection of 15th-century French women's lore, advice for women's health was plentiful. "For a fever, write the first 3 words of the Our Father on a sage leaf, eat it in the morning for 3 days and you will be cured."<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Male involvement with women's healthcare was widespread. However, there were limits to male participation because of the resistance to males' viewing women's genitalia.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During most encounters with male medical practitioners, women remained clothed because viewing a women's body was considered shameful. </p><p>Childbirth was treated as the most important aspect of women's health during the period; however, few historical texts document the experience. Women attendants assisted in childbirth and passed their experiences to one another. In addition to serving as midwives or nuns, women also served in other scattered capacities ranging from physicians to empirical healers, even when they unequaled compared to roles men held, they still found a way to serve in important capacities.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Midwife" title="Midwife">Midwives</a>, women who attended childbirth, were acknowledged as legitimate medical specialists and were granted a special role in women's health care.<sup id="cite_ref-Green_347_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Green_347-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is Roman documentation in Latin works evidencing the professional role of midwives and their involvement with gynaecological care.<sup id="cite_ref-Green_347_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Green_347-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diet">Diet</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Diet"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tacuin_Courge11.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Tacuin_Courge11.jpg/220px-Tacuin_Courge11.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Tacuin_Courge11.jpg/330px-Tacuin_Courge11.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Tacuin_Courge11.jpg/440px-Tacuin_Courge11.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1438" data-file-height="1779" /></a><figcaption>Harvesting <a href="/wiki/Cucurbita" title="Cucurbita">squash</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Just as <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical Greco-Roman</a> writers, including <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a>, assumed that men lived longer than women,<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> medieval Catholic bishop <a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albertus Magnus</a> agreed that in general men lived longer, but he observed that some women live longer and posited that it was <i>per accidens</i>, thanks to the purification resulting from <a href="/wiki/Menstruation" title="Menstruation">menstruation</a> and that women worked less but also consumed less than men.<sup id="cite_ref-Bullough_&_Campbell_1980,_pg._318_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bullough_&_Campbell_1980,_pg._318-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern historians Bullough and Campbell instead attribute high female mortality during the Middle Ages to <a href="/wiki/Iron_deficiency" title="Iron deficiency">deficiency in iron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protein-deficiency_anaemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Protein-deficiency anaemia">protein</a> as a result of the diet during the Roman period and the early Middle Ages. Medieval peasants subsisted upon grain-heavy, <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a>-poor and <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>-poor diets, eating breads of <a href="/wiki/Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barley" title="Barley">barley</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rye" title="Rye">rye</a> dipped in broth, and rarely enjoying nutritious supplements like <a href="/wiki/Cheese" title="Cheese">cheese</a>, eggs, and wine.<sup id="cite_ref-Bullough_&_Campbell_1980,_pg._319_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bullough_&_Campbell_1980,_pg._319-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Physiologically speaking, women require at least twice as much iron as men because women inevitably lose iron through menstrual discharge as well as to events related to child bearing, including fetal needs; <a href="/wiki/Postpartum_bleeding" title="Postpartum bleeding">bleeding during childbirth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Miscarriage" title="Miscarriage">miscarriage</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">abortion</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Lactation" title="Lactation">lactation</a>. As the human body better absorbs iron from <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a>, iron salts, and meat than from grains and vegetables, the grain-heavy medieval diet commonly resulted in iron deficiency and, by extension, general <a href="/wiki/Anemia" title="Anemia">anemia</a> for medieval women. However, anemia was not the leading cause of death for women; rather anemia, which lessens the amount of <a href="/wiki/Hemoglobin" title="Hemoglobin">hemoglobin</a> in blood, would further aggravate such other diseases as <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bronchitis" title="Bronchitis">bronchitis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease" title="Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease">emphysema</a>, and heart diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the 800s, the invention of a more efficient type of plough—along with three-field replacing two-field <a href="/wiki/Crop_rotation" title="Crop rotation">crop rotation</a>—allowed medieval peasants to improve their diets through planting, alongside wheat and rye in the fall, <a href="/wiki/Oat" title="Oat">oats</a>, barley, and legumes in the spring, including various protein-rich peas.<sup id="cite_ref-Bullough_&_Campbell_1980,_pg._319_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bullough_&_Campbell_1980,_pg._319-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the same period, <a href="/wiki/Rabbit" title="Rabbit">rabbits</a> were introduced from the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a> across the <a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a>, reaching England in the 12th century. <a href="/wiki/Herring" title="Herring">Herring</a> could be more effectively salted, and pork, cheese, and eggs were increasingly consumed throughout Europe, even by the lower classes.<sup id="cite_ref-Bullough_&_Campbell_1980,_pg._319_67-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bullough_&_Campbell_1980,_pg._319-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, Europeans of all classes consumed more proteins from meats than did people in any other part of the world during the same period—leading to population growth that almost outstripped resources at the onset of the devastating <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bullough and Campbell further cite David Herlihy, who observes, based on available data, that in European cities in the 15th century, women outnumbered men, and although they did not have the "absolute numerical advantage over men," women were more numerous among the elderly.<sup id="cite_ref-Bullough_&_Campbell_1980,_pg._318_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bullough_&_Campbell_1980,_pg._318-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A noteworthy difference with in the population of men and women is that women under the age of fifteen outnumbered men 105 to 99. However, over the age of fifteen and still unmarried men outnumbered women. Many women were married at a younger age, which contributed to those numbers. This is important while considering medical treatment of the time which often proved to be <a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">misogynistic</a> in nature.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBulloughCampbell1980_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBulloughCampbell1980-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Landownership">Landownership</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Landownership"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To prosper, medieval Europeans needed rights to own land, dwellings, and goods.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010313_36-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010313-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Land-ownership involved various inheritance patterns, according to the potential heir's gender across the landscape of medieval Western Europe. Primogeniture prevailed in England, <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Normandy" title="Duchy of Normandy">Normandy</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Basque_Country_(greater_region)" title="Basque Country (greater region)">Basque region</a>: In the Basque region, the eldest child—regardless of sex—inherited all lands<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. In Normandy, only sons could inherit lands. In England, the eldest son usually inherited all properties, but sometimes sons inherited jointly, daughters would inherit only if there were no sons. In <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a>, sons received twice as much as daughters' inheritance, yet siblings of the same sex received equal shares. In northern France, <a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>, sons and daughters enjoyed <a href="/wiki/Partible_inheritance" title="Partible inheritance">partible inheritance</a>: each child would receive an equal share regardless of sex (but Parisian parents could favour some children over others).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010314-315_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010314-315-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Female land-owners, single or married, could grant or sell land as they deemed fit.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010314_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010314-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women managed the estates when their husbands left for war, political affairs, and pilgrimages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010314_52-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010314-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, as time passed, women were increasingly given, as <a href="/wiki/Dowry" title="Dowry">dowries</a>, movable properties such as good and cash instead of land. Even though up the year 1000 female landownership had been increasing, afterwards female landownership began to decline.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010316_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010316-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Commercialization also contributed to the decline in female landownership as more women left the countryside to work for wages as servants or day labourers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010312_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010312-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Medieval widows independently managed and cultivated their deceased husbands' lands.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010316_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010316-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overall, widows were preferred over children to inherit lands: indeed, English widows would receive one third of the couples' shared properties, but in Normandy widows could not inherit.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010314-5_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010314-5-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Notable examples of women landowners in England in the Middle Ages include: countess <a href="/wiki/Gytha_of_Wessex" title="Gytha of Wessex">Gytha</a>, mother of <a href="/wiki/Harold_Godwinson" title="Harold Godwinson">Harold Godwinson</a>, who held lands across the south west of England; Asa, who held land in Yorkshire; and Judith, who owned large amounts of land in the East Midlands (all three women and their claims are recorded in the <a href="/wiki/Domesday_Book" title="Domesday Book">Domesday Book</a>);<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Margaret_de_Neville" title="Margaret de Neville">Margaret de Neville</a>, who owned extensive lands in 13th-14th century Yorkshire.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Law">Law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cultural differences across Western and Eastern Europe meant that laws were neither universal nor universally practised. The <i><a href="/wiki/Salic_law" title="Salic law">Laws of the Salian Franks</a></i>, a <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic tribe</a> that migrated into <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a> and converted to Christianity between the 6th and 7th centuries, provide a well-known example of a particular tribe's law codes. According to Salic Law, crimes and determined punishments were usually orated; however as their contact with literate Romans increased, their laws became codified and developed into written language and text. Other examples of women appearing in legal records come from <a href="/wiki/Court_leet" title="Court leet">court leet</a> jurisdiction and borough ordinances in England where they are frequently cited for crimes involving labor, theft, and even occasionally for murder. </p><p>Peasants, slaves, and maidservants were considered as property of their free-born master(s). In some or perhaps most cases, the unfree person might be regarded as of the same value as their master's animals. However, peasants, slaves, and maidservants of the king were regarded as more valuable and even considered to be of the same value as free persons because they were members of the king's court. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crimes_concerning_abduction">Crimes concerning abduction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Crimes concerning abduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>If someone were to abduct another person's slave or maidservant and were proven to have committed the crime, that individual would be responsible to pay 35 <a href="/wiki/Solidus_(coin)" title="Solidus (coin)">solidi</a>, the value of the slave, and in addition a fine for lost time of use. If someone abducted another person's maidservant, the abductor would be fined 30 solidi. A proven seducer of a maidservant worth 15 or 25 solidi, and who is himself worth 25 solidi, would be fined 72 solidi plus the value of the maidservant. The proven abductor of a boy or girl domestic servant will be fined the value of the servant (25 or 35 solidi) plus an additional amount for lost time of use.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERivers1986_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERivers1986-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crimes_concerning_free-born_persons_marrying_slaves">Crimes concerning free-born persons marrying slaves</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Crimes concerning free-born persons marrying slaves"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A free-born woman who marries a slave will lose her freedom and privileges as a free-born woman. She will also have her property taken away from her and will be proclaimed an outlaw. A free-born man who marries a slave or maidservant shall also lose his freedom and privilege as a free-born man.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchaus200644_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaus200644-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crimes_concerning_fornication_with_slaves_or_maidservants">Crimes concerning fornication with slaves or maidservants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Crimes concerning fornication with slaves or maidservants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>If a freeman fornicates with another person's maidservant and is proven to have done so, he will be required to pay the maidservant's master 15 solidi. If anyone fornicates with a maidservant of the king and proven to do so, the fine would be 30 solidi. If a slave fornicates with another person's maidservant and that maidservant dies, the slave will be fined and also be required to pay the maidservant's master 6 solidi and may be castrated; or that slave's master will be required to pay the maidservant's master the value of the deceased maidservant. If a slave fornicates with a maidservant who does not die, the slave will either receive three hundred lashes or be required to pay the maidservant's master 3 solidi. If a slave marries another person's maidservant without her master's consent, the slave will either be whipped or required to pay the maidservant's master 3 solidi.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchaus200644_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaus200644-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crimes_concerning_labor">Crimes concerning labor</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Crimes concerning labor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is evidence in the Leet Jurisdiction in the City of Norwich from the 13th and 14th centuries that women were charged with breaking the <a href="/wiki/Assize_of_Bread_and_Ale" title="Assize of Bread and Ale">assize</a> of ale as well as keeping back money from the sale of corn.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women were also cited with buying corn outside of the city walls where taxes were not collected and either keeping it for their families or re-selling it and making an illegal profit.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women listed as bakers, poulterers, brewers, and books were also cited as transgressors of borough ordinances in York in 1301.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One study found that women were more involved in crimes against the market in one particular town in England after the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Plague</a> than they were before.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Civil_discourse_of_women">Civil discourse of women</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Civil discourse of women"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although many women served in more traditional roles, and it was mainly men who had a more influential hold over society, that does not mean women did not participate in civil discourse. Even though the voices of women were heavily suppressed due to society's undemocratic nature, they still had a voice through writing, or in courts or synod. Although there are not many interpretations available on women's civic practices, it is believed that they participated heavily through writings and letters, a quieter way of participation.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Involvement_in_the_Church">Involvement in the Church</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Involvement in the Church"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Women had much involvement in the church as religion is very important to the Middle Ages. However, one of the most prominent roles a woman could be in the church was serving as a nun or working in a hospital (mostly nuns as well). Women generally participated in the church in a different way than men would, as well as having different beliefs, such as purifying women after birth, or denying communion to menstruating women. Many ideas were conceptualized by men about women in the church which led to such treatment because of gender roles.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Difference_between_Western_and_Eastern_Europe">Difference between Western and Eastern Europe</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Difference between Western and Eastern Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The status of women differed immensely by region. In most of Western Europe, later marriage and higher rates of definitive <a href="/wiki/Celibacy" title="Celibacy">celibacy</a> (the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Western_European_marriage_pattern" title="Western European marriage pattern">European marriage pattern</a>") helped to constrain patriarchy at its most extreme level. The rise of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">manorialism</a> had both created incentives to keep families nuclear and thus the age of marriage increased; the <a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Church</a> instituted marriage laws and practices that undermined large kinship groups. From as early as the 4th century, the Church discouraged any practice that enlarged the family, like <a href="/wiki/Adoption" title="Adoption">adoption</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polygamy" title="Polygamy">polygamy</a>, taking <a href="/wiki/Concubinage" title="Concubinage">concubines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Divorce" title="Divorce">divorce</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Remarriage" title="Remarriage">remarriage</a>. The Church severely discouraged and prohibited <a href="/wiki/Consanguinity" title="Consanguinity">consanguineous</a> marriages, a marriage pattern that has constituted a means to maintain <a href="/wiki/Clan" title="Clan">clans</a> (and thus their power) throughout history.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBouchard1981269–270_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBouchard1981269–270-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The church also forbade marriages in which the bride did not clearly agree to the union.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreif2006309_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreif2006309-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of Rome</a>, manorialism also helped to weaken the ties of <a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">kinship</a> and thus the power of clans; as early as the 9th century in <a href="/wiki/Austrasia" title="Austrasia">Austrasia</a>, families that worked on <a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">manors</a> were small, consisting of parents and children and occasionally a grandparent. The <a href="/wiki/Church_and_state_in_medieval_Europe" title="Church and state in medieval Europe">Church and state</a> had become allies in erasing the solidarity and thus the political power of the clans; the Church sought to replace <a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">traditional religion</a>, whose vehicle was the kin group, and substituting the authority of the <a href="/wiki/Elder_(administrative_title)" title="Elder (administrative title)">elders</a> of the kin group with that of a religious elder; at the same time, the king's rule was undermined by revolts on the part of the most powerful kin groups, clans or sections, whose conspiracies and murders threatened the power of the state and also the demand of manorial lords for obedient, compliant workers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeather1999142–148_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather1999142–148-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the <a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">peasants</a> and serfs lived and worked on farms that they rented from the <a href="/wiki/Lord_of_the_manor" title="Lord of the manor">lord of the manor</a>, they also needed the permission of the lord to marry; couples therefore had to comply with the lord and wait until a small farm became available before they could marry and thus produce children. Those who could and did delay marriage presumably were rewarded by the landlord and those who did not were presumably denied said reward.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <a href="/wiki/England_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="England in the Middle Ages">Medieval England</a> saw the marriage age as variable depending on economic circumstances, with couples delaying marriage until the early twenties when times were bad and frequently marrying in the late teens after the Black Death, when there were labour shortages and it was economically lucrative to workers;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanawalt198696_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanawalt198696-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by appearances, marriage of adolescents was not the norm in England.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHanawalt198698–100_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanawalt198698–100-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Eastern Europe however, there were many differences with specific regional characteristics. In the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">Bulgarian Empire</a>, the majority of women were well educated and had a higher social status than in Western Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeorgieva2003_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeorgieva2003-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Equality in family relations and the right to common property after marriage were recognized by law with the Ekloga, issued in <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> in 726 and Slavonic Ekloga in Bulgaria in the 9th century.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some parts of Russia the tradition of early and universal marriage (usually of a bride age 12–15, with <a href="/wiki/Menarche" title="Menarche">menarche</a> occurring on average at 14)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevin199596–98_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevin199596–98-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as traditional <a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavic</a> <a href="/wiki/Patrilocal_residence" title="Patrilocal residence">patrilocal</a> customs<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevin1995137,_142_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevin1995137,_142-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> led to a greatly inferior status for women at all levels of society.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevin1995225–227_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevin1995225–227-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In rural South Slavic areas, a custom of women marrying men younger than themselves, in some cases only after the age of thirty, remained until the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The manorial system had yet to penetrate into Eastern Europe where there was a lesser effect on clan systems and no firm enforcement of bans on <a href="/wiki/Parallel_and_cross_cousins" title="Parallel and cross cousins">cross-cousin</a> marriages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMitterauer201045–48,_77_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitterauer201045–48,_77-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Orthodox laws banned marriages between relatives closer than third and fourth cousins. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevin1995137–139_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevin1995137–139-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancillae" title="Ancillae">Ancillae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_education#Medieval_period" title="Female education">Female education (Medieval)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_literature#Women's_literature" title="Medieval literature">Medieval literature (Women's)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_female_sexuality" title="Medieval female sexuality">Medieval female sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution#Middle_Ages" title="Prostitution">Prostitution (Middle Ages)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_artists#Medieval_period" title="Women artists">Women artists (Medieval)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Judaism#Middle_Ages" title="Women in Judaism">Women in Judaism (Middle Ages)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_science#Medieval_Europe" title="Women in science">Women in science (Medieval)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_medieval_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of women in medieval warfare">Timeline of women in medieval warfare</a></li> <li>Clothing: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_medieval_European_dress" title="Early medieval European dress">Early medieval European dress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1100%E2%80%931200_in_European_fashion" title="1100–1200 in European fashion">1100–1200 in European fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1200%E2%80%931300_in_European_fashion" title="1200–1300 in European fashion">1200–1300 in European fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1300%E2%80%931400_in_European_fashion" title="1300–1400 in European fashion">1300–1400 in European fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1400%E2%80%931500_in_European_fashion" title="1400–1500 in European fashion">1400–1500 in European fashion</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBackhouse2000" class="citation book cs1">Backhouse, Janet (2000). <i>Medieval Rural Life in the Luttrell Psalter</i>. British Library. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">30–</span>31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8020-8399-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8020-8399-4"><bdi>0-8020-8399-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/44069050">44069050</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Rural+Life+in+the+Luttrell+Psalter&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E30-%3C%2Fspan%3E31&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F44069050&rft.isbn=0-8020-8399-4&rft.aulast=Backhouse&rft.aufirst=Janet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen2006a6-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllen2006a6_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAllen2006a">Allen 2006a</a>, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStuard1976" class="citation book cs1">Stuard, Susan (1976). <i>Women in Medieval Society</i>. 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href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiddleton1981107_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiddleton1981">Middleton 1981</a>, p. 107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiddleton1981">Middleton 1981</a>, p. 144</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010313-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010313_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010313_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010313_36-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010313_36-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhittle2010">Whittle 2010</a>, p. 313.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010312-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010312_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010312_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010312_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010312_37-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhittle2010">Whittle 2010</a>, p. 312.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010311-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010311_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010311_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010311_38-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhittle2010">Whittle 2010</a>, p. 311.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReyerson2010299-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReyerson2010299_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReyerson2010">Reyerson 2010</a>, p. 299.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReyerson2010297-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReyerson2010297_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReyerson2010">Reyerson 2010</a>, p. 297.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hanawalt_20-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hanawalt_20_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hanawalt_20_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hanawalt_20_41-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hanawalt_20_41-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHanawalt1998">Hanawalt 1998</a>, p. 20</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReyerson2010295-296-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReyerson2010295-296_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReyerson2010">Reyerson 2010</a>, p. 295-296.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010316-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010316_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010316_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010316_43-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhittle2010">Whittle 2010</a>, p. 316.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010315–316-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010315–316_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhittle2010">Whittle 2010</a>, pp. 315–316.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010315-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010315_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010315_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010315_45-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhittle2010">Whittle 2010</a>, p. 315.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReyerson2010295-296,_298,_300-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReyerson2010295-296,_298,_300_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReyerson2010">Reyerson 2010</a>, p. 295-296, 298, 300.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010317–320-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010317–320_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhittle2010">Whittle 2010</a>, pp. 317–320.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010320,_322-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010320,_322_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhittle2010">Whittle 2010</a>, pp. 320, 322.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010313,_320-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010313,_320_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhittle2010">Whittle 2010</a>, pp. 313, 320.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010322-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010322_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhittle2010">Whittle 2010</a>, p. 322.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/William_Langland" title="William Langland">William Langland</a>, tr. George Economou, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BRH8_qpVFP8C">William Langland's Piers Plowman: the C version : a verse translation</a></i>, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8122-1561-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8122-1561-3">0-8122-1561-3</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BRH8_qpVFP8C&pg=PA82">p. 82</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010314-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010314_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010314_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010314_52-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010314_52-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhittle2010">Whittle 2010</a>, p. 314.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiddleton1981139-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiddleton1981139_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiddleton1981">Middleton 1981</a>, p. 139.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/serfdom">"Serfdom | History & Examples | Britannica"</a>. <i>www.britannica.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVinogradoff1892_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVinogradoff1892">Vinogradoff 1892</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiddleton1981138,_143-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiddleton1981138,_143_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiddleton1981">Middleton 1981</a>, pp. 138, 143.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiddleton1981144-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiddleton1981144_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiddleton1981">Middleton 1981</a>, p. 144.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiddleton1981137-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiddleton1981137_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMiddleton1981">Middleton 1981</a>, p. 137.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGarayJeay2007">Garay & Jeay 2007</a>, p. 424</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreen2013">Green 2013</a>, p. 346</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen1989" class="citation journal cs1">Green, Monica (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3174557">"Women's Medical Practice and Health Care in Medieval Europe"</a>. <i>Signs</i>. <b>14</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">434–</span>473. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F494516">10.1086/494516</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0097-9740">0097-9740</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3174557">3174557</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11618104">11618104</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Signs&rft.atitle=Women%27s+Medical+Practice+and+Health+Care+in+Medieval+Europe&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E434-%3C%2Fspan%3E473&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11618104&rft.issn=0097-9740&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3174557%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F494516&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Monica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3174557&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Green_347-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Green_347_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Green_347_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreen2013">Green 2013</a>, p. 347</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBulloughCampbell1980">Bullough & Campbell 1980</a>, p. 317</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bullough_&_Campbell_1980,_pg._318-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bullough_&_Campbell_1980,_pg._318_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bullough_&_Campbell_1980,_pg._318_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBulloughCampbell1980">Bullough & Campbell 1980</a>, p. 318</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bullough_&_Campbell_1980,_pg._319-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bullough_&_Campbell_1980,_pg._319_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bullough_&_Campbell_1980,_pg._319_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bullough_&_Campbell_1980,_pg._319_67-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBulloughCampbell1980">Bullough & Campbell 1980</a>, p. 319</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBulloughCampbell1980">Bullough & Campbell 1980</a>, p. 322</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBulloughCampbell1980">Bullough & Campbell 1980</a>, p. 320</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBulloughCampbell1980-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBulloughCampbell1980_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBulloughCampbell1980">Bullough & Campbell 1980</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010314-315-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010314-315_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhittle2010">Whittle 2010</a>, p. 314-315.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010314-5-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle2010314-5_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhittle2010">Whittle 2010</a>, p. 314-5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStafford" class="citation book cs1">Stafford, Pauline. "Women in Domesday". In Bates, K (ed.). <i>Medieval Women in Southern England</i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">75–</span>77.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Women+in+Domesday&rft.btitle=Medieval+Women+in+Southern+England&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E75-%3C%2Fspan%3E77&rft.aulast=Stafford&rft.aufirst=Pauline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcNiven2004" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">McNiven, Peter (2004). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-54532">"Neville [de Neville] family (per. c. 1267–1426), gentry"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</a></i> (online ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F54532">10.1093/ref:odnb/54532</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-861412-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-861412-8"><bdi>978-0-19-861412-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Neville+%5Bde+Neville%5D+family+%28per.+c.+1267%E2%80%931426%29%2C+gentry&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F54532&rft.isbn=978-0-19-861412-8&rft.aulast=McNiven&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxforddnb.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F9780198614128.001.0001%2Fodnb-9780198614128-e-54532&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required.)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERivers1986-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERivers1986_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRivers1986">Rivers 1986</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaus200644-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchaus200644_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchaus200644_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchaus2006">Schaus 2006</a>, p. 44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_77-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorwich_(England)Hudson1892" class="citation book cs1">Norwich (England); Hudson, William (1892). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/100326225"><i>Leet jurisdiction in the city of Norwich during the XIIIth and XIVth centuries: with a short notice of its later history and decline, from rolls in the possession of the Corporation</i></a>. The Publications of the Selden Society ;v. 5. London: B. Quaritch. p. 12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leet+jurisdiction+in+the+city+of+Norwich+during+the+XIIIth+and+XIVth+centuries%3A+with+a+short+notice+of+its+later+history+and+decline%2C+from+rolls+in+the+possession+of+the+Corporation&rft.place=London&rft.series=The+Publications+of+the+Selden+Society+%3Bv.+5&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=B.+Quaritch&rft.date=1892&rft.au=Norwich+%28England%29&rft.au=Hudson%2C+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcatalog.hathitrust.org%2FRecord%2F100326225&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldberg2013" class="citation book cs1">Goldberg, P. J. P. 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London : Daldy, Isbister and Co. p. 128.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Travels+in+The+Slavonic+Provinces+of+Turkey-in-Europe&rft.pages=128&rft.pub=London+%3A+Daldy%2C+Isbister+and+Co.&rft.date=1877&rft.aulast=Mackenzie&rft.aufirst=G.+Muir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftravelsinslavoni01mack%2Fpage%2F128&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitterauer201045–48,_77-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMitterauer201045–48,_77_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMitterauer2010">Mitterauer 2010</a>, pp. 45–48, 77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELevin1995137–139-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELevin1995137–139_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLevin1995">Levin 1995</a>, pp. 137–139.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 32em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen2006a" class="citation book cs1">Allen, Prudence (2006a). <i>The Early Humanist Reformation, 1250-1500, Part 1</i>. 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"Political Liberty in the Middle Ages". <i>Speculum</i>. <b>55</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">423–</span>443. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2847234">10.2307/2847234</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2847234">2847234</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153735882">153735882</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Speculum&rft.atitle=Political+Liberty+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E423-%3C%2Fspan%3E443&rft.date=1980&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153735882%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2847234%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2847234&rft.aulast=Harding&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeather1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Heather" title="Peter Heather">Heather, Peter J.</a> (1999). <i>The Visigoths from the Migration Period to the Seventh Century: An Ethnographic Perspective</i>. Boydell & Brewer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0851157627" title="Special:BookSources/978-0851157627"><bdi>978-0851157627</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185477995">185477995</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Visigoths+from+the+Migration+Period+to+the+Seventh+Century%3A+An+Ethnographic+Perspective&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F185477995&rft.isbn=978-0851157627&rft.aulast=Heather&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevin1995" class="citation book cs1">Levin, Eve (1995). <i>Sex and Society in the World of the Orthodox Slavs, 900-1700</i>. Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0801483042" title="Special:BookSources/978-0801483042"><bdi>978-0801483042</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sex+and+Society+in+the+World+of+the+Orthodox+Slavs%2C+900-1700&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0801483042&rft.aulast=Levin&rft.aufirst=Eve&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDougall2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sara_McDougall" title="Sara McDougall">McDougall, Sara</a> (2013). "Women and Gender in Canon Law". In Judith Bennett; Ruth Mazo Karras (eds.). <i>Oxford Handbook of Women and Gender in Medieval Europe</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">163–</span>178. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-958217-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-958217-4"><bdi>978-0-19-958217-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Women+and+Gender+in+Canon+Law&rft.btitle=Oxford+Handbook+of+Women+and+Gender+in+Medieval+Europe&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E163-%3C%2Fspan%3E178&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-958217-4&rft.aulast=McDougall&rft.aufirst=Sara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiddleton1981" class="citation journal cs1">Middleton, Chris (1981). "Peasants, patriarchy and the feudal mode of production in England: 2 Feudal lords and the subordination of peasant women". <i>Sociological Review</i>. <b>29</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">137–</span>154. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-954x.1981.tb03026.x">10.1111/j.1467-954x.1981.tb03026.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144572779">144572779</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sociological+Review&rft.atitle=Peasants%2C+patriarchy+and+the+feudal+mode+of+production+in+England%3A+2+Feudal+lords+and+the+subordination+of+peasant+women&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E137-%3C%2Fspan%3E154&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-954x.1981.tb03026.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144572779%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Middleton&rft.aufirst=Chris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitterauer2010" class="citation book cs1">Mitterauer, Michael (2010). <i>Why Europe?: The Medieval Origins of Its Special Path</i>. Translated by Gerald Chapple. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226532530" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226532530"><bdi>978-0226532530</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+Europe%3F%3A+The+Medieval+Origins+of+Its+Special+Path&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0226532530&rft.aulast=Mitterauer&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Pizan2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christine_de_Pizan" title="Christine de Pizan">de Pizan, Christine</a> (2003) [1405]. <i>The Treasure of the City of Ladies, or The Book of the Three Virtues</i>. Translated by Sarah Lawson. Penguin Classics. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0140449501" title="Special:BookSources/978-0140449501"><bdi>978-0140449501</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Treasure+of+the+City+of+Ladies%2C+or+The+Book+of+the+Three+Virtues&rft.pub=Penguin+Classics&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0140449501&rft.aulast=de+Pizan&rft.aufirst=Christine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReyerson2010" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Reyerson, Kathryn (2010). "Urban Economy". In Bennett, Judith M.; Mazo Karras, Ruth (eds.). <i>Oxford Handbook of Women and Gender in Medieval Europe</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199582174" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199582174"><bdi>978-0199582174</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Urban+Economy&rft.btitle=Oxford+Handbook+of+Women+and+Gender+in+Medieval+Europe&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0199582174&rft.aulast=Reyerson&rft.aufirst=Kathryn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRivers1986" class="citation book cs1">Rivers, Theodore John (1986). <i>The Laws of Salian and Ripuarian Franks</i>. Vol. 8. New York: AMS Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0404614386" title="Special:BookSources/978-0404614386"><bdi>978-0404614386</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Laws+of+Salian+and+Ripuarian+Franks&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=AMS+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0404614386&rft.aulast=Rivers&rft.aufirst=Theodore+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchaus2006" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Schaus, Margaret C., ed. (2006). <i>Women and gender in medieval Europe: an encyclopedia</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415969444" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415969444"><bdi>978-0415969444</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+and+gender+in+medieval+Europe%3A+an+encyclopedia&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0415969444&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShahar2004" class="citation book cs1">Shahar, Shulamith (2004). <i>Growing Old in the Middle Ages: 'winter clothes us in shadow and pain'<span></span></i>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Yael_Lotan_(writer)" title="Yael Lotan (writer)">Yael Lotan</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415333603" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415333603"><bdi>978-0415333603</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Growing+Old+in+the+Middle+Ages%3A+%27winter+clothes+us+in+shadow+and+pain%27&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0415333603&rft.aulast=Shahar&rft.aufirst=Shulamith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThurston1908" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Thurston, Herbert (1908). "Deaconesses". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Deaconesses&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1908&rft.aulast=Thurston&rft.aufirst=Herbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVinogradoff1892" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Vinogradoff" title="Paul Vinogradoff">Vinogradoff, Paul</a> (1892). <i>Villainage in England: Essays in English Medieval History</i> (Reissued 2010 ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1108019637" title="Special:BookSources/978-1108019637"><bdi>978-1108019637</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Villainage+in+England%3A+Essays+in+English+Medieval+History&rft.edition=Reissued+2010&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1892&rft.isbn=978-1108019637&rft.aulast=Vinogradoff&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhittle2010" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Whittle, Jane (2010). "Rural Economy". In Bennett, Judith M.; Mazo Karras, Ruth (eds.). <i>Oxford Handbook of Women and Gender in Medieval Europe</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199582174" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199582174"><bdi>978-0199582174</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rural+Economy&rft.btitle=Oxford+Handbook+of+Women+and+Gender+in+Medieval+Europe&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0199582174&rft.aulast=Whittle&rft.aufirst=Jane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliamsEchols1994" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Marty Newman; Echols, Anne (1994). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/betweenpitpedest0000will"><i>Between Pit and Pedestal: Women in the Middle Ages</i></a></span>. Markus Wiener. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0910129343" title="Special:BookSources/978-0910129343"><bdi>978-0910129343</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Pit+and+Pedestal%3A+Women+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.pub=Markus+Wiener&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0910129343&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Marty+Newman&rft.au=Echols%2C+Anne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbetweenpitpedest0000will&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/collection/179/a-gallery-of-30-influential-women-from-the-middle/2/">Gallery of portraits of influential women of the Middle Ages</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Women_in_the_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen1997" class="citation book cs1">Allen, Prudence (1997). <i>The Aristotelian Revolution, 750BC - AD1250</i>. The Concept of Woman. Vol. 1. Eerdmans. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0802842701" title="Special:BookSources/978-0802842701"><bdi>978-0802842701</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Aristotelian+Revolution%2C+750BC+-+AD1250&rft.series=The+Concept+of+Woman&rft.pub=Eerdmans&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0802842701&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Prudence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen1989" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Monica_Green_(historian)" title="Monica Green (historian)">Green, Monica</a> (1989). "Women's Medical Practice and Health Care in Medieval Europe". <i>Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society</i>. <b>14</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">434–</span>474. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F494516">10.1086/494516</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11618104">11618104</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:38651601">38651601</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Signs%3A+Journal+of+Women+in+Culture+and+Society&rft.atitle=Women%27s+Medical+Practice+and+Health+Care+in+Medieval+Europe&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E434-%3C%2Fspan%3E474&rft.date=1989&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A38651601%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11618104&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F494516&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Monica&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilchrist1996" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roberta_Gilchrist" title="Roberta Gilchrist">Gilchrist, Roberta</a> (1996). "Gender and Material Culture: The Archaeology of Religious Women". <i>Cambridge Archaeological Journal</i>. <b>6</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">119–</span>136. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0959774300001621">10.1017/S0959774300001621</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:160573407">160573407</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cambridge+Archaeological+Journal&rft.atitle=Gender+and+Material+Culture%3A+The+Archaeology+of+Religious+Women&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E119-%3C%2Fspan%3E136&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0959774300001621&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A160573407%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Gilchrist&rft.aufirst=Roberta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHicks2007" class="citation book cs1">Hicks, Leonie V. (2007). <i>Religious life in Normandy: space, gender and social pressure, c.1050–1300</i>. Boydell & Brewer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781843833291" title="Special:BookSources/9781843833291"><bdi>9781843833291</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religious+life+in+Normandy%3A+space%2C+gender+and+social+pressure%2C+c.1050%E2%80%931300&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9781843833291&rft.aulast=Hicks&rft.aufirst=Leonie+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWomen+in+the+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <ul><li>Wright, Sharon Hubbs. "Medieval European peasant women: A fragmented historiography." <i>History Compass</i> (June 2020), 18#6 pp 1–12.</li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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commune">Communalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">Manorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Warm_Period" title="Medieval Warm Period">Medieval Warm Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Kingdom of Portugal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussite_Wars" title="Hussite Wars">Hussite Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Burgundy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of the Ottoman Empire">Rise of the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_mercenaries" title="Swiss mercenaries">Swiss mercenaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">Chivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">Universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_late_Middle_Ages" title="Crisis of the late Middle Ages">Crisis of the late Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%931317" title="Great Famine of 1315–1317">Great Famine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Agriculture in the Middle Ages">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_architecture" title="Medieval architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_and_state_in_medieval_Europe" title="Church and state in medieval Europe">Church and State</a></li> <li><a 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style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Disability in the Middle Ages">Disability in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Middle_Ages" title="Outline of the Middle Ages">Basic topics list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_land_terms" title="List of medieval land terms">Land terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medievalism" title="Medievalism">Medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_reenactment" title="Medieval reenactment">Medieval reenactment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_studies" title="Medieval studies">Medieval studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_the_Middle_Ages" title="List of common misconceptions about the Middle 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<span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>16 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-99f4m","wgBackendResponseTime":118,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.926","walltime":"1.147","ppvisitednodes":{"value":9115,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":172509,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":9543,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":8,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":226357,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 965.484 1 -total"," 26.25% 253.425 1 Template:Reflist"," 19.61% 189.336 29 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