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<section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <p>La <b>topographie</b> (du <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Grec?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Grec">grec</a> <i>topos</i>, « lieu », et <i>graphein</i>, « dessiner ») est la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Science?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Science">science</a> qui permet la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mesure_physique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Mesure physique">mesure</a> puis la représentation sur un plan ou une <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Carte_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Carte géographique">carte</a> des formes et détails visibles sur le terrain, qu'ils soient naturels (notamment le <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Relief_(g%C3%A9omorphologie)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Relief (géomorphologie)">relief</a> et l'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hydrographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hydrographie">hydrographie</a>) ou artificiels (comme les bâtiments, les routes, <abbr class="abbr" title="et cetera">etc.</abbr>). Son objectif est de déterminer la position et l'altitude de n'importe quel point situé dans une zone donnée, qu'elle soit de la taille d'un continent, d'un pays, d'un champ ou d'un corps de rue.</p> <div class="infobox_v3 infobox infobox--frwiki noarchive large"> <div class="entete" style="background-color:#2B4B8D;color:#FFF"> <div> Topographie </div> </div> <div> <div class="images" style="padding:2px 0"> <span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:Theodolit-zeiss.JPG?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Theodolit-zeiss.JPG/260px-Theodolit-zeiss.JPG" decoding="async" width="260" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Theodolit-zeiss.JPG/390px-Theodolit-zeiss.JPG 1.5x,https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Theodolit-zeiss.JPG/520px-Theodolit-zeiss.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1384" data-file-height="1103"></a></span> </div> <div class="legend"> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Th%C3%A9odolite?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Théodolite">Théodolite</a> de 1900. </div> </div> <table> <tbody> <tr class=""> <th scope="row">Partie de</th> <td class=""> <div><span class="wd_p279"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/G%C3%A9ographie_physique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Géographie physique">Géographie physique</a><span class="noprint wikidata-linkback skin-invert"><span class="mw-valign-baseline noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134435?uselang%3Dfr%23P279" title="Voir et modifier les données sur Wikidata"><img alt="Voir et modifier les données sur Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/10px-Blue_pencil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/15px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 1.5x,https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/20px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600"></a></span></span></span> </div></td> </tr> <tr class=""> <th scope="row">Pratiqué par</th> <td class=""> <div><span class="wd_p3095"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/G%C3%A9om%C3%A8tre-topographe?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Géomètre-topographe">Topographe</a><span class="noprint wikidata-linkback skin-invert"><span class="mw-valign-baseline noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134435?uselang%3Dfr%23P3095" title="Voir et modifier les données sur Wikidata"><img alt="Voir et modifier les données sur Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/10px-Blue_pencil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/15px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 1.5x,https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/20px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600"></a></span></span></span> </div></td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <p class="navbar noprint bordered navigation-not-searchable" style="border-top:1px solid #2B4B8D"><span class="plainlinks" style="text-align:left"><a class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title%3DTopographie%26veaction%3Dedit%26section%3D0">modifier</a> - <a class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title%3DTopographie%26action%3Dedit%26section%3D0">modifier le code</a> - <a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134435" class="extiw" title="d:Q134435">modifier Wikidata</a></span><span style="text-align:right"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mod%C3%A8le:Infobox_Discipline?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Documentation du modèle"><img alt="Documentation du modèle" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Info_Simple.svg/12px-Info_Simple.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Info_Simple.svg/18px-Info_Simple.svg.png 1.5x,https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Info_Simple.svg/24px-Info_Simple.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512"></a></span></span></p> </div> <p>La topographie s'appuie sur la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/G%C3%A9od%C3%A9sie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Géodésie">géodésie</a>, qui s'occupe de la détermination mathématique de la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Figure_de_la_Terre?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Figure de la Terre">forme de la Terre</a> (forme et dimensions de la Terre, coordonnées géographiques des points, altitudes, déviations de la verticale...). La topographie s'intéresse aux mêmes quantités, mais à une plus grande échelle, et elle rentre dans des détails de plus en plus fins pour établir des plans et cartes à différentes échelles. La <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cartographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cartographie">cartographie</a> proprement dite est l'art d'élaborer, de dessiner les cartes, empreinte souvent d'un souci artistique, et ne doit pas être confondue avec la topographie.</p> <p>Mais la topographie, nom générique, n’est qu’un aspect des <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/G%C3%A9ographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Géographie">sciences dites géographiques</a>, au répertoire desquelles se trouvent la topométrie, la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/G%C3%A9od%C3%A9sie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Géodésie">géodésie</a>, la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Photogramm%C3%A9trie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Photogrammétrie">photogrammétrie</a>, la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/G%C3%A9omatique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Géomatique">géomatique</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="et cetera">etc.</abbr></p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:Anjouan_topographic_map-fr.svg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Anjouan_topographic_map-fr.svg/220px-Anjouan_topographic_map-fr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Anjouan_topographic_map-fr.svg/330px-Anjouan_topographic_map-fr.svg.png 1.5x,https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Anjouan_topographic_map-fr.svg/440px-Anjouan_topographic_map-fr.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="841" data-file-height="687"></a> <figcaption> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Carte_topographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Carte topographique">Carte topographique</a> et <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Bathym%C3%A9trie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Bathymétrie">bathymétrique</a> de l'île d'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Anjouan?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Anjouan">Anjouan</a> (<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Archipel_des_Comores?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Archipel des Comores">Comores</a>). </figcaption> </figure> <p>Par extension, la <i>topographie</i> désigne aussi la disposition ou le relief d'un lieu, voire la description d'une personne dans son aspect physique et moral.</p> <p>La notion de géomètre est souvent utilisée à la place de topographe. La distinction provient de la notion de droit foncier, le topographe peut réaliser des relevés mais sans valeur contradictoire et encore moins légale (aspect du droit foncier).</p> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"> <input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"> <div class="toctitle" lang="fr" dir="ltr"> <h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Sommaire</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span> </div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Histoire"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Histoire</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Les_outils_topographiques"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Les outils topographiques</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Le_but_de_la_topographie"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Le but de la topographie</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Les_disciplines_associ%C3%A9es"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Les disciplines associées</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#La_topom%C3%A9trie"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">La topométrie</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#La_g%C3%A9od%C3%A9sie"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">La géodésie</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#La_photogramm%C3%A9trie"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">La photogrammétrie</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#La_t%C3%A9l%C3%A9d%C3%A9tection_spatiale"><span class="tocnumber">4.4</span> <span class="toctext">La télédétection spatiale</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#La_lasergramm%C3%A9trie"><span class="tocnumber">4.5</span> <span class="toctext">La lasergrammétrie</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#L'hypsom%C3%A9trie"><span class="tocnumber">4.6</span> <span class="toctext">L'hypsométrie</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#La_bathym%C3%A9trie"><span class="tocnumber">4.7</span> <span class="toctext">La bathymétrie</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#L'astronomie"><span class="tocnumber">4.8</span> <span class="toctext">L'astronomie</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#La_cartographie"><span class="tocnumber">4.9</span> <span class="toctext">La cartographie</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Syst%C3%A8me_d'information_g%C3%A9ographique"><span class="tocnumber">4.10</span> <span class="toctext">Système d'information géographique</span></a></li> </ul></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#La_topographie_dans_l'espace"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">La topographie dans l'espace</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#La_topographie_sp%C3%A9l%C3%A9ologique"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">La topographie spéléologique</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Notes_et_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rences"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Notes et références</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Voir_aussi"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Voir aussi</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Les_formations"><span class="tocnumber">8.1</span> <span class="toctext">Les formations</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-20"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#En_France"><span class="tocnumber">8.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">En France</span></a></li> </ul></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Le_mat%C3%A9riel_de_topographie"><span class="tocnumber">8.2</span> <span class="toctext">Le matériel de topographie</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Liens_externes"><span class="tocnumber">8.3</span> <span class="toctext">Liens externes</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Bibliographie"><span class="tocnumber">8.4</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliographie</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Articles_connexes"><span class="tocnumber">8.5</span> <span class="toctext">Articles connexes</span></a></li> </ul></li> </ul> </div> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Histoire">Histoire</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Topographie&action=edit&section=1&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Histoire" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <p>Les premières traces de mesures de la surface de la terre semblent dater des <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/%C3%89gypte?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Égypte">Égyptiens</a>, pour la construction des <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pyramides_d%27%C3%89gypte?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Pyramides d'Égypte">pyramides</a>, pour remettre en place les limites de cultures après les crues du <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Nil?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Nil">Nil</a> mais aussi pour délimiter les terres soumises à l'autorité du pharaon. De nombreuses stèles ont été retrouvées au Proche-Orient. Il semble, comme le précise Hérodote, que le peuple égyptien disposait déjà d'un <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cadastre?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cadastre">cadastre</a>.</p> <p>À partir de l'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Empire_romain?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Empire romain">Empire romain</a>, les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Arpenteur?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Arpenteur">arpenteurs</a> ont été chargés de borner les terres, divisant les champs et mesurant ainsi le territoire en vue de l'application de l'impôt. Ils sont aussi chargés d'implanter les bâtiments et les routes. Les conquêtes des Romains et leurs constructions démontrent une grande pratique basée en partie sur l'angle droit. L'une des fonctions essentielles des arpenteurs romains fut la réalisation d'un cadastre. Une fois la prise de mesures réalisée sur le terrain, l'ensemble du plan était transcrit sur des plaques de marbre en deux exemplaires identiques dont l'une était destinée aux archives de l'État, formant ainsi un cadastre juridique et technique.</p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:Yakuapana.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Yakuapana.jpg/220px-Yakuapana.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="186" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="827" data-file-height="701"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 186px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Yakuapana.jpg/220px-Yakuapana.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="186" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Yakuapana.jpg/330px-Yakuapana.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Yakuapana.jpg/440px-Yakuapana.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a> <figcaption> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Yakuapana?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Yakuapana">Yakuapana</a>, outil topographique inca. </figcaption> </figure> <p>En France pendant le <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Moyen_%C3%82ge?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Moyen Âge">Moyen Âge</a>, les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/M%C3%A9rovingiens?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Mérovingiens">Mérovingiens</a>, se contentent de maintenir l'organisation romaine. Les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Carolingiens?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Carolingiens">Carolingiens</a> instaureront la taille, impôt au profit du roi, qui nécessite la restauration des documents terriers mais sans mesurages. C'est à la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Renaissance?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> que les premiers plans de ville sont réalisés.</p> <p><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Gerardus_Mercator?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Gerardus Mercator">Mercator</a> introduisit les premières projections sur globe et par ainsi les corrections de courbure de la terre sur les plans.</p> <p>On peut citer quelques topographes célèbres, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Claude_Chastillon?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Claude Chastillon">Claude Chastillon</a> (1559-1616) fut le topographe du roi de France <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Henri_IV_de_France?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Henri IV de France">Henri IV</a> pour lequel il réalisa 544 gravures. <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Jean-Dominique_Cassini_(1748-1845)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Jean-Dominique Cassini (1748-1845)">Jean-Dominique Cassini IV</a> (1748-1845) fut chargé de terminer la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Carte_de_Cassini?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Carte de Cassini">carte de France</a> entamée par son père, qui ne fut achevée qu'en 1815.</p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Les_outils_topographiques">Les outils topographiques</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Topographie&action=edit&section=2&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Les outils topographiques" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:Field-MapBirdie2.JPG?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Field-MapBirdie2.JPG/170px-Field-MapBirdie2.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="226" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2128" data-file-height="2832"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 226px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Field-MapBirdie2.JPG/170px-Field-MapBirdie2.JPG" data-width="170" data-height="226" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Field-MapBirdie2.JPG/255px-Field-MapBirdie2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Field-MapBirdie2.JPG/340px-Field-MapBirdie2.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a> <figcaption> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/T%C3%A9l%C3%A9m%C3%A8tre_laser?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Télémètre laser">Télémètre laser</a> et l'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ordinateur_renforc%C3%A9?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ordinateur renforcé">ordinateur de terrain</a> utilisés pour des relevés topographiques, technologie « <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Field-Map?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Field-Map">Field-Map</a> ». </figcaption> </figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:DTM-A20LG-04.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/DTM-A20LG-04.jpg/170px-DTM-A20LG-04.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 227px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/DTM-A20LG-04.jpg/170px-DTM-A20LG-04.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="227" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/DTM-A20LG-04.jpg/255px-DTM-A20LG-04.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/DTM-A20LG-04.jpg/340px-DTM-A20LG-04.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a> <figcaption> Tachéomètre moderne. </figcaption> </figure> <p>La <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Lunette_astronomique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Lunette astronomique">lunette</a> est adaptée à la topographie au <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/XVIIe_si%C3%A8cle?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="XVIIe siècle"><abbr class="abbr" title="17ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">XVII</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> siècle</a>. À cette époque, l'instrument essentiel de l'arpenteur est la planchette (ou <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Goniographe?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Goniographe">goniographe</a>). Cet instrument est uniquement composé d'une lunette et d'une planche en bois. C'est au <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/XXe_si%C3%A8cle?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="XXe siècle"><abbr class="abbr" title="20ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">XX</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> siècle</a> que le <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Th%C3%A9odolite?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Théodolite">théodolite</a> apparaît. Il permet de mesurer des angles horizontaux et verticaux.</p> <p>Depuis les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ann%C3%A9es_1950?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Années 1950">années 1950</a> et <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ann%C3%A9es_1960?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Années 1960">1960</a>, les techniques évoluent. Avec l'invention des distancemètres électroniques, le théodolite électronique ou le <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Tach%C3%A9om%C3%A8tre?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Tachéomètre">tachéomètre</a> permettent à la fois de mesurer les distances et les angles. Jusque-là, la mesure des distances se faisait à l'aide de rubans gradués (dits chaînes d'arpenteurs) : ces inventions constituent donc une évolution très significative dans le travail des topographes de terrain, presque une révolution.</p> <p>Depuis la fin du <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/XXe_si%C3%A8cle?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="XXe siècle"><abbr class="abbr" title="20ᵉ siècle"><span class="romain">XX</span><sup style="font-size:72%">e</sup></abbr> siècle</a>, l'apparition de l'électronique puis de l'informatique ont donné naissance à de nouvelles techniques de levé et de traitement des données : <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Station_totale?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Station totale">stations totales</a> motorisées et télécommandées, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_de_positionnement_par_satellites?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Système de positionnement par satellites">positionnement par satellites</a> (notamment <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/GLONASS?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="GLONASS">GLONASS</a> ou le plus connu : <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Global_Positioning_System?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Global Positioning System">GPS</a>), <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Niveau_optique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Niveau optique">niveaux</a> à <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Code-barres?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Code-barres">code-barres</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/T%C3%A9l%C3%A9m%C3%A8tre_laser?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Télémètre laser">télémètre laser</a>, <abbr class="abbr" title="et cetera">etc.</abbr></p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Le_but_de_la_topographie">Le but de la topographie</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Topographie&action=edit&section=3&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Le but de la topographie" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:Topographie_de_burie.png?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Topographie_de_burie.png/220px-Topographie_de_burie.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1280"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 220px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Topographie_de_burie.png/220px-Topographie_de_burie.png" data-width="220" data-height="220" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Topographie_de_burie.png/330px-Topographie_de_burie.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Topographie_de_burie.png/440px-Topographie_de_burie.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a> <figcaption> Images topographiques. </figcaption> </figure> <p>La topographie permet de mener des travaux à l'échelle d'une ville ou d'un pays en utilisant une représentation planimétrique (<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Planim%C3%A9trie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Planimétrie">planimétrie</a>) et altimétrique (<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Altim%C3%A9trie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Altimétrie">altimétrie</a>) identique sur l'ensemble de son territoire. Ces travaux peuvent être des constructions d'autoroutes, de ponts, de canaux, tunnels, etc.</p> <p>Les travaux de topographie sont menés par des <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/G%C3%A9om%C3%A8tre-topographe?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Géomètre-topographe">topographes</a> ou des <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/G%C3%A9om%C3%A8tre-expert?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Géomètre-expert">géomètres-experts</a>.</p> <p>Dans une perspective linguistique, la topographie sert à décrire l'espace d'un lieu. Elle fait partie de la typologie descriptive qui regroupe plusieurs types de descriptions selon l'objet décrit. Dans le domaine informatique, on parle par exemple de topographies de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Circuit_int%C3%A9gr%C3%A9?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Circuit intégré">circuits intégrés</a>, qui fait l'objet d'une protection intellectuelle via une loi propre<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-1"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>1<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup> au Canada.</p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Les_disciplines_associées"><span id="Les_disciplines_associ.C3.A9es"></span>Les disciplines associées</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Topographie&action=edit&section=4&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Les disciplines associées" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="La_topométrie"><span id="La_topom.C3.A9trie"></span>La topométrie</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Topographie&action=edit&section=5&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : La topométrie" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>La <b>topométrie</b> concourt à la connaissance des lieux sous forme numérique : le topomètre mesure pour établir un modèle numérique du terrain dont le plan n’est qu’une image dressée à une échelle donnée. Selon les textes, <span class="citation">« la topométrie s’appuie sur les points géodésiques et les repères de nivellement pour représenter la planimétrie (projection des détails naturels, artificiels et conventionnels de la surface de la terre sur un plan tangent) et l’altimétrie (représentation du relief) à grandes échelles »</span>.</p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="La_géodésie"><span id="La_g.C3.A9od.C3.A9sie"></span>La géodésie</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Topographie&action=edit&section=6&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : La géodésie" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>La <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/G%C3%A9od%C3%A9sie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Géodésie">géodésie</a> est la science qui étudie les formes et les dimensions de la terre, mais aussi ses propriétés physiques, gravité, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Champ_de_pesanteur?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Champ de pesanteur">champ de pesanteur</a>, et dont les travaux aboutissent à la représentation plane de vastes étendues. Selon les textes, « elle comprend l’établissement des canevas de références horizontaux et verticaux des 3 premiers ordres, l’astronomie de position, les mesures gravimétriques et la détermination du champ de pesanteur en utilisant des instruments conventionnels et électroniques, la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Photogramm%C3%A9trie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Photogrammétrie">photogrammétrie</a>, l’inertiel, les satellites et autres moyens appropriés ».</p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="La_photogrammétrie"><span id="La_photogramm.C3.A9trie"></span>La photogrammétrie</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Topographie&action=edit&section=7&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : La photogrammétrie" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <div class="bandeau-container bandeau-section metadata bandeau-niveau-information"> <div class="bandeau-cell bandeau-icone-css loupe"> Article détaillé : <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Photogramm%C3%A9trie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Photogrammétrie">Photogrammétrie</a>. </div> </div> <p>C'est l'art permettant de déterminer et de représenter des objets à partir d'images numériques ou argentiques. On parle de photogrammétrie aérienne ou terrestre.</p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="La_télédétection_spatiale"><span id="La_t.C3.A9l.C3.A9d.C3.A9tection_spatiale"></span>La télédétection spatiale</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Topographie&action=edit&section=8&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : La télédétection spatiale" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>La télédétection englobe toutes les techniques de mesures sans contact, cependant on distingue habituellement cette discipline de la lasergrammétrie et la photogrammétrie.</p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="La_lasergrammétrie"><span id="La_lasergramm.C3.A9trie"></span>La lasergrammétrie</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Topographie&action=edit&section=9&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : La lasergrammétrie" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:Scan_Laser_3D_P1010288mod.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Scan_Laser_3D_P1010288mod.jpg/220px-Scan_Laser_3D_P1010288mod.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1129" data-file-height="1133"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 221px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Scan_Laser_3D_P1010288mod.jpg/220px-Scan_Laser_3D_P1010288mod.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="221" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Scan_Laser_3D_P1010288mod.jpg/330px-Scan_Laser_3D_P1010288mod.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Scan_Laser_3D_P1010288mod.jpg/440px-Scan_Laser_3D_P1010288mod.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a> <figcaption> Utilisation d'un <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Scanner_tridimensionnel?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Scanner tridimensionnel">scanneur tridimensionnel</a> dans la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Goule_de_Foussoubie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Goule de Foussoubie">goule de Foussoubie</a> (<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Vagnas?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Vagnas">Vagnas</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ard%C3%A8che_(d%C3%A9partement)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ardèche (département)">Ardèche</a>). </figcaption> </figure> <p>Véritable innovation technologique, la lasergrammétrie ou relevé par scanneur laser <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/3D?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="3D">3D</a> permet l’acquisition, sans contact d’objet, de grandes scènes complexes en trois dimensions. Les résultats sont de véritables présentations numériques des objets et scènes scannées par le levé de plusieurs millions de points tridimensionnels par seconde.</p> <p>Son utilisation apporte un gain de précision dans les mesures tout en offrant dans les plus brefs délais de nouvelles perspectives de résultats et de valorisation.</p> <p>Cette technologie est aussi bien connue sous le nom de <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Lidar?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Lidar">Lidar</a> (<i><span class="lang-en" lang="en">Light Detection and Ranging</span></i>).</p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="L'hypsométrie"><span id="L.27hypsom.C3.A9trie"></span>L'hypsométrie</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Topographie&action=edit&section=10&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : L'hypsométrie" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>L'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hypsom%C3%A9trie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hypsométrie">hypsométrie</a> consiste à déterminer en particulier la topographie des terres émergées, au-dessus du niveau marin moyen, et complète de ce fait la bathymétrie qui s'intéresse, elle, à la topographie sous-marine.</p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="La_bathymétrie"><span id="La_bathym.C3.A9trie"></span>La bathymétrie</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Topographie&action=edit&section=11&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : La bathymétrie" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>La <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Bathym%C3%A9trie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Bathymétrie">bathymétrie</a> consiste à déterminer la forme des fonds aquatiques : étude des rivières, des rivages, par exemple pour des projets d’installations portuaires. Le géomètre-topographe est rarement amené à utiliser un <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sondeur_bathym%C3%A9trique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Sondeur bathymétrique">sondeur bathymétrique</a>, mais peut en exploiter les résultats couplés, par exemple, à des coordonnées GPS ou à un nuage (scan) de points 3D. La <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Bathym%C3%A9trie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Bathymétrie">bathymétrie</a> est plutôt du ressort des hydrographes. Le lidar (lidar bathymétrique) peut être utilisé, alors avec un laser bleu vert qui pénètre facilement l'eau si elle n'est pas turbide ni trop riche en plancton<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-2"><span class="cite_crochet">[</span>2<span class="cite_crochet">]</span></a></sup>.</p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="L'astronomie"><span id="L.27astronomie"></span>L'astronomie</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Topographie&action=edit&section=12&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : L'astronomie" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>Il est important de se rappeler le lien entre l'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Astronomie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Astronomie">astronomie</a> de position et la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/G%C3%A9od%C3%A9sie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Géodésie">géodésie</a>, elle-même en lien direct avec la topographie (cf. supra).</p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="La_cartographie">La cartographie</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Topographie&action=edit&section=13&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : La cartographie" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <p>Dans cette rubrique, le terme cartographie s'entend pour la notion de représentation cartographique. La cartographie est la représentation conventionnelle sur support physique ou numérique de tous les détails naturels et artificiels et mouvements du terrain qui caractérisent une portion de la surface du sol.</p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Système_d'information_géographique"><span id="Syst.C3.A8me_d.27information_g.C3.A9ographique"></span>Système d'information géographique</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Topographie&action=edit&section=14&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Système d'information géographique" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <div class="bandeau-container bandeau-section metadata bandeau-niveau-information"> <div class="bandeau-cell bandeau-icone-css loupe"> Article détaillé : <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d%27information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Système d'information géographique">système d'information géographique</a>. </div> </div> <p>Un <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_d%27information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Système d'information géographique">système d'information géographique</a> (SIG) est un système d'information conçu pour recueillir, stocker, traiter, analyser, gérer et présenter tous les types de données spatiales et géographiques. L’acronyme SIG est parfois utilisé pour définir les « sciences de l’information géographiques » ou « études sur l’information géospatiales ». Cela se réfère aux carrières ou aux métiers qui travaillent avec des systèmes d’information géographique et dans une plus large mesure avec les disciplines de la géo-informatique. Ce que l’on peut observer au-delà du simple concept de SIG a trait aux données de l’infrastructure spatiale.</p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="La_topographie_dans_l'espace"><span id="La_topographie_dans_l.27espace"></span>La topographie dans l'espace</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Topographie&action=edit&section=15&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : La topographie dans l'espace" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:Topographic_map_example.png?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Topographic_map_example.png/220px-Topographic_map_example.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 220px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Topographic_map_example.png/220px-Topographic_map_example.png" data-width="220" data-height="220" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Topographic_map_example.png/330px-Topographic_map_example.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Topographic_map_example.png/440px-Topographic_map_example.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a> <figcaption> Exemple de carte topographique. </figcaption> </figure> <p>Les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cartes_topographiques?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartes topographiques">cartes topographiques</a> sont une représentation géométrique, en général plane, d'une partie de la Terre.</p> <p>En France, on utilise la <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Projection_conique_conforme_de_Lambert?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Lambert_93" title="Projection conique conforme de Lambert">projection de Lambert</a>, afin de déterminer avec précision des points, appelés <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Point_g%C3%A9od%C3%A9sique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Point géodésique">points géodésiques</a>, qui seront connus en coordonnées. À l'aide de cette projection, on peut déterminer la position virtuelle de n'importe quel point situé sur le sol français. Celle-ci sera très proche de sa position réelle, de l'ordre de quelques décimètres.</p> <p>Le système altimétrique français est le système <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=IGN_69&action=edit&redlink=1&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="new" title="IGN 69 (page inexistante)">IGN 69</a>. Le niveau zéro du <i>niveau général de la France</i> (NGF) se situe au <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mar%C3%A9graphe?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Marégraphe">marégraphe</a> de Marseille au bord de la mer Méditerranée.</p> <p>Sur chaque carte, l'échelle de représentation est toujours présente. Un quadrillage indiquant les coordonnées peut aussi être représenté, ainsi que des lignes courbes de niveau (<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Isohypse?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Isohypse">isohypse</a>) représentant l'<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Altim%C3%A9trie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Altimétrie">altimétrie</a>.</p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:Curvimetre.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Curvimetre.jpg/150px-Curvimetre.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1024"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 150px;height: 200px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Curvimetre.jpg/150px-Curvimetre.jpg" data-width="150" data-height="200" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Curvimetre.jpg/225px-Curvimetre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Curvimetre.jpg/300px-Curvimetre.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a> <figcaption> Un curvimètre mécanique. </figcaption> </figure> <p>Les cartes peuvent ne faire figurer que certains éléments du territoire à différentes échelles. Il existe ainsi des cartes d'intérêt général pour les particuliers (notamment les cartes <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Institut_national_de_l%27information_g%C3%A9ographique_et_foresti%C3%A8re?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Institut national de l'information géographique et forestière">IGN</a>) et d'autres adaptées aux besoins plus spécifiques des professionnels. Les cartes au 1/25000 présentent les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Courbes_de_niveau?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Courbes de niveau">courbes de niveau</a>, les forêts, les routes, les villes, etc. Elles sont utiles pour les randonnées. Les cartes adaptées aux travaux publics sont à l'échelle du chantier et indiquent l'emplacement des futures constructions et les évolutions en cours.</p> <p>Le service topographique national français s'appelle « <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Institut_national_de_l%27information_g%C3%A9ographique_et_foresti%C3%A8re?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Institut national de l'information géographique et forestière">Institut national de l'information géographique et forestière</a> » (IGN), anciennement « Institut géographique national ».</p> <p>En France, les cartes à plus grande échelle que sont les plans du cadastre sont, topographiquement, de qualités très inégales. Malgré le rattachement de tous au système Lambert, il reste imprudent de tirer des conclusions de discordances entre plan et terrain sans le conseil d'un professionnel.</p> <p>Le <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Curvim%C3%A8tre?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Curvimètre">curvimètre</a> est l'un des instruments utilisés pour la mesure des courbes sur les cartes : il permet - grâce à sa roue ou à sa bille - de calculer des distances en les parcourant sur la carte, le curvimètre étant doté de graduations d'échelle ou d'une conversion électronique entre la distance mesurée sur la carte et la distance réelle sur le terrain.</p> <p>Le <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Planim%C3%A8tre?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Planimètre">planimètre</a> sert à mesurer des surfaces sur des plans et des cartes.</p> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="La_topographie_spéléologique"><span id="La_topographie_sp.C3.A9l.C3.A9ologique"></span>La topographie spéléologique</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Topographie&action=edit&section=16&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : La topographie spéléologique" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:Daluis_Chat.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Daluis_Chat.jpg/170px-Daluis_Chat.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="229" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2220" data-file-height="2991"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 229px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Daluis_Chat.jpg/170px-Daluis_Chat.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="229" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Daluis_Chat.jpg/255px-Daluis_Chat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Daluis_Chat.jpg/340px-Daluis_Chat.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a> <figcaption> Plan de la <i>grotte du Chat</i> à <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Daluis?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Daluis">Daluis</a> (<a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Alpes-Maritimes?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Alpes-Maritimes">Alpes-Maritimes</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/France?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="France">France</a>). </figcaption> </figure> <p>La <b>topographie spéléologique</b> est la description graphique d'une cavité et des éventuels travaux d'aménagement qui y ont été faits par les hommes qui les ont fréquentées, parmi lesquels les <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sp%C3%A9l%C3%A9ologues?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Spéléologues">spéléologues</a> modernes.</p> <p>Elle permet de garder une trace écrite et exploitable de la cavité. Sans cela, une cavité ne serait qu'un point sur une carte ou un récit précaire.</p> <p>Grâce aux mesures faites sous terre, les spéléologues établissent un plan et une coupe qui déterminent les caractéristiques de base de la cavité, en ce qui concerne le développement (longueur) et le dénivelé. Sur ces plans de base peuvent figurer d'autres informations selon la cavité : écoulements d'eau, courants d'air, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sp%C3%A9l%C3%A9oth%C3%A8me?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Spéléothème">concrétions</a>, géologie, aménagements anthropiques, etc.</p> <div class="bandeau-container bandeau-section metadata bandeau-niveau-information"> <div class="bandeau-cell bandeau-icone-css loupe"> Article détaillé : <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie_sp%C3%A9l%C3%A9ologique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Topographie spéléologique">Topographie spéléologique</a>. </div> </div> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Notes_et_références"><span id="Notes_et_r.C3.A9f.C3.A9rences"></span>Notes et références</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Topographie&action=edit&section=17&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Notes et références" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <div class="references-small decimal" style=""> <div class="mw-references-wrap"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-1">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://www.uquebec.ca/reauq-pi/index.php?id%3D12">La propriété intellectuelle et les lois (Canada)</a>, consulté 2011 09 18</span></li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink noprint"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-2">↑</a> </span><span class="reference-text">Pêche et océan Canada, Fiche : <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/science/hydrography-hydrographie/lasers-fra.html">Utilisation des lasers pour la mesure des profondeurs et des hauteurs </a>, consultée 2015-10-07</span></li> </ol> </div> </div> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"> <span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span> <h2 id="Voir_aussi">Voir aussi</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Topographie&action=edit&section=18&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Voir aussi" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r194021218">.mw-parser-output .autres-projets>.titre{text-align:center;margin:0.2em 0}.mw-parser-output .autres-projets>ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .autres-projets>ul>li{list-style:none;margin:0.2em 0;text-indent:0;padding-left:24px;min-height:20px;text-align:left;display:block}.mw-parser-output .autres-projets>ul>li>a{font-style:italic}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .autres-projets{float:none}}</style> <div class="autres-projets boite-grise boite-a-droite noprint js-interprojets"> <p class="titre">Sur les autres projets Wikimedia :</p> <ul class="noarchive plainlinks"> <li class="wiktionary"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://fr.wiktionary.org/wiki/topographie" class="extiw" title="wikt:topographie">topographie</a>, <span class="nowrap">sur le <span class="project">Wiktionnaire</span></span></li> </ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Les_formations">Les formations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Topographie&action=edit&section=19&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Les formations" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"> <h4 id="En_France">En France</h4><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Topographie&action=edit&section=20&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : En France" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <ul> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/%C3%89cole_nationale_des_travaux_publics_de_l%27%C3%89tat?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="École nationale des travaux publics de l'État">École nationale des travaux publics de l'État</a> (ENTPE)</li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/%C3%89cole_nationale_des_sciences_g%C3%A9ographiques?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="École nationale des sciences géographiques">École nationale des sciences géographiques</a> (ENSG)</li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/%C3%89cole_sp%C3%A9ciale_des_travaux_publics,_du_b%C3%A2timent_et_de_l%27industrie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="École spéciale des travaux publics, du bâtiment et de l'industrie">École spéciale des travaux publics, du bâtiment et de l'industrie</a> (ESTP)</li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/%C3%89cole_sup%C3%A9rieure_des_g%C3%A9om%C3%A8tres_et_topographes?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="École supérieure des géomètres et topographes">École supérieure des géomètres et topographes</a> (ESGT)</li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Institut_national_des_sciences_appliqu%C3%A9es_de_Strasbourg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Institut national des sciences appliquées de Strasbourg">Institut national des sciences appliquées de Strasbourg</a> (INSA) (ex ENSAIS)</li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/%C3%89cole_nationale_sup%C3%A9rieure_de_techniques_avanc%C3%A9es_Bretagne?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="École nationale supérieure de techniques avancées Bretagne">École nationale supérieure de techniques avancées Bretagne</a> (ENSTA Bretagne)</li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Le_matériel_de_topographie"><span id="Le_mat.C3.A9riel_de_topographie"></span>Le matériel de topographie</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Topographie&action=edit&section=21&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Le matériel de topographie" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fichier:Lunette_nadirale.JPG?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Lunette_nadirale.JPG/220px-Lunette_nadirale.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1324" data-file-height="882"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 147px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Lunette_nadirale.JPG/220px-Lunette_nadirale.JPG" data-width="220" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Lunette_nadirale.JPG/330px-Lunette_nadirale.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Lunette_nadirale.JPG/440px-Lunette_nadirale.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </span></a> <figcaption> Lunette nadirale en station sur un coffrage. </figcaption> </figure> <ul> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Tach%C3%A9om%C3%A8tre?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Tachéomètre">Tachéomètre ou station totale</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Th%C3%A9odolite?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Théodolite">Théodolite</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Niveau_optique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Niveau optique">Niveau optique</a></li> <li>Lunettes zénithale et nadirale</li> <li>Système GNSS : de type <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Global_Positioning_System?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Global Positioning System">GPS</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Galileo_(syst%C3%A8me_de_positionnement)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Galileo (système de positionnement)">Galileo</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/GLONASS?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="GLONASS">GLONASS</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Beidou?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Beidou">Beidou</a>...</li> <li>Scanner Laser, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Lidar?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Lidar">Lidar</a>, <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Field-Map?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Field-Map">Field-Map</a></li> <li>Crapaud : Petit trépied métallique sur lequel on installe la mire afin d’en assurer la stabilité lors de la réalisation de relevés topographiques sur un terrain inégal</li> </ul> <p>En <a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie_sp%C3%A9l%C3%A9ologique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Topographie spéléologique">spéléologie</a>, les topographes utilisent également les éléments suivants :</p> <ul> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Compas_(navigation)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Compas (navigation)">Compas</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Inclinom%C3%A8tre?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Inclinomètre">Inclinomètre</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/D%C3%A9cam%C3%A8tre?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Décamètre">Décamètre</a></li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Liens_externes">Liens externes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Topographie&action=edit&section=22&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Liens externes" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> 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href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func%3Dfind-b%26local_base%3DNLX10%26find_code%3DUID%26request%3D987007541319105171">Israël</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap uid noarchive"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://aut.nkp.cz/ph126691">Tchéquie</a></span></li> </ul> </div></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://www.aftopo.org/FR/lexique-7.html?PHPSESSID%3D44222bad30a32401c145a675c455583c">Association Française de Topographie</a> : lexique terminologique de la topographie</li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Bibliographie">Bibliographie</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Topographie&action=edit&section=23&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Bibliographie" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <ul> <li>George E. Hilley, Stephen Porder, Felipe Aron, Curtis W. Baden, Samuel A. Johnstone et al. (2019) <i>Earth’s topographic relief potentially limited by an upper bound on channel steepness</i> |Nature Geoscience | pp828 - 832 |doi:10.1038/s41561-019-0442-3</li> <li>D. R. Davies, A. P. Valentine, S. C. Kramer, N. Rawlinson, M. J. Hoggard et al. <i>Earth’s multi-scale topographic response to global mantle flow</i> |Nature Geoscience| pp845 - 850 |doi:10.1038/s41561-019-0441-4</li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Articles_connexes">Articles connexes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Topographie&action=edit&section=24&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modifier la section : Articles connexes" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>modifier</span> </a> </span> </div> <div class="noprint boite-grise boite-a-droite" style="text-align:left;"> <div style="float:left;"> <span typeof="mw:File"><span> <noscript> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Circle-icons-frames.svg/45px-Circle-icons-frames.svg.png" 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href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cat%C3%A9gorie:Topographie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Catégorie:Topographie">Topographie</a></i>. </div> <div style="clear:left;"></div> </div> <div style="column-count:3;column-gap:1em;" class="colonnes"> <ul> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Arpentage?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Arpentage">Arpentage</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/G%C3%A9ographie_math%C3%A9matique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Géographie mathématique">Géographie mathématique</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/G%C3%A9od%C3%A9sie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Géodésie">Géodésie</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/G%C3%A9omorphom%C3%A9trie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Géomorphométrie">Géomorphométrie</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Photogramm%C3%A9trie?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Photogrammétrie">Photogrammétrie</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/T%C3%A9l%C3%A9d%C3%A9tection?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Télédétection">Télédétection</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/G%C3%A9om%C3%A8tre-expert?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Géomètre-expert">Géomètre-expert</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/G%C3%A9om%C3%A8tre-topographe?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Géomètre-topographe">Géomètre-topographe</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/G%C3%A9omatique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Géomatique">Géomatique</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie_sp%C3%A9l%C3%A9ologique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Topographie spéléologique">Topographie spéléologique</a></li> <li><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Topographie_m%C3%A9dicale?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Topographie médicale">Topographie médicale</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="navbox-container" style="clear:both;"> </div> <ul id="bandeau-portail" class="bandeau-portail"> <li><span class="bandeau-portail-element"><span class="bandeau-portail-icone"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://fr-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Portail:Information_g%C3%A9ographique?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Portail de l’information géographique"> <noscript> <img alt="icône décorative" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Map_ballonicon2.svg/24px-Map_ballonicon2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="24" height="24" 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data-user-name="Cbyd" data-user-gender="unknown" data-timestamp="1724871692"> <span>Dernière modification le 28 août 2024, à 20:01</span> </span> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon-size-small minerva-icon--expand"></span> </div></a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id="mw-data-after-content"> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Langues</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografie" title="Topografie – afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Topografie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D8%25B7%25D8%25A8%25D9%2588%25D8%25BA%25D8%25B1%25D8%25A7%25D9%2581%25D9%258A%25D8%25A7" title="طبوغرافيا – arabe" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="طبوغرافيا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="arabe" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topograf%25C3%25ADa" title="Topografía – asturien" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Topografía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="asturien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topoqrafiya" title="Topoqrafiya – azerbaïdjanais" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Topoqrafiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="azerbaïdjanais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D8%25AA%25D9%2588%25D9%25BE%25D9%2588%25D9%2582%25D8%25B1%25D8%25A7%25D9%2581%25DB%258C" title="توپوقرافی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="توپوقرافی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%25A2%25D0%25B0%25D0%25BF%25D0%25B0%25D0%25B3%25D1%2580%25D0%25B0%25D1%2584%25D1%2596%25D1%258F" title="Тапаграфія – biélorusse" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Тапаграфія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="biélorusse" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%25A2%25D0%25BE%25D0%25BF%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B3%25D1%2580%25D0%25B0%25D1%2584%25D0%25B8%25D1%258F" title="Топография – bulgare" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Топография" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="bulgare" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25A6%25AD%25E0%25A7%2582%25E0%25A6%25B8%25E0%25A6%2582%25E0%25A6%25B8%25E0%25A7%258D%25E0%25A6%25A5%25E0%25A6%25BE%25E0%25A6%25A8" title="ভূসংস্থান – bengali" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভূসংস্থান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="bengali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografija" title="Topografija – bosniaque" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Topografija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="bosniaque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografia" title="Topografia – catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Topografia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografie" title="Topografie – tchèque" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Topografie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="tchèque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografi" title="Topografi – danois" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Topografi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="danois" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografie_(Kartografie)" title="Topografie (Kartografie) – allemand" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Topografie (Kartografie)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="allemand" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25CE%25A4%25CE%25BF%25CF%2580%25CE%25BF%25CE%25B3%25CF%2581%25CE%25B1%25CF%2586%25CE%25AF%25CE%25B1" title="Τοπογραφία – grec" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τοπογραφία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="grec" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topography" title="Topography – anglais" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Topography" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="anglais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografio" title="Topografio – espéranto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Topografio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="espéranto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topograf%25C3%25ADa" title="Topografía – espagnol" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Topografía" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="espagnol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topograafia" title="Topograafia – estonien" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Topograafia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="estonien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografia" title="Topografia – basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Topografia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografia" title="Topografia – estrémègne" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Topografia" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="estrémègne" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D8%25AA%25D9%2588%25D9%25BE%25D9%2588%25DA%25AF%25D8%25B1%25D8%25A7%25D9%2581%25DB%258C" title="توپوگرافی – persan" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="توپوگرافی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="persan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografia" title="Topografia – finnois" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Topografia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="finnois" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topagrafa%25C3%25ADocht" title="Topagrafaíocht – irlandais" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Topagrafaíocht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="irlandais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topograf%25C3%25ADa" title="Topografía – galicien" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Topografía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="galicien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D7%2598%25D7%2595%25D7%25A4%25D7%2595%25D7%2592%25D7%25A8%25D7%25A4%25D7%2599%25D7%2594" title="טופוגרפיה – hébreu" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="טופוגרפיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="hébreu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25A4%25B8%25E0%25A5%258D%25E0%25A4%25A5%25E0%25A4%25B2%25E0%25A4%25BE%25E0%25A4%2595%25E0%25A5%2583%25E0%25A4%25A4%25E0%25A4%25BF" title="स्थलाकृति – hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="स्थलाकृति" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografija" title="Topografija – croate" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Topografija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="croate" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topogr%25C3%25A1fia" title="Topográfia – hongrois" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Topográfia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="hongrois" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D5%258F%25D5%25A5%25D5%25B2%25D5%25A1%25D5%25A3%25D6%2580%25D5%25B8%25D6%2582%25D5%25A9%25D5%25B5%25D5%25B8%25D6%2582%25D5%25B6" title="Տեղագրություն – arménien" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Տեղագրություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="arménien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografi" title="Topografi – indonésien" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Topografi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="indonésien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografio" title="Topografio – ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Topografio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sta%25C3%25B0fr%25C3%25A6%25C3%25B0i" title="Staðfræði – islandais" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Staðfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="islandais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografia" title="Topografia – italien" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Topografia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="italien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E3%2583%2588%25E3%2583%259D%25E3%2582%25B0%25E3%2583%25A9%25E3%2583%2595%25E3%2582%25A3%25E3%2583%25BC" title="トポグラフィー – japonais" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="トポグラフィー" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="japonais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E1%2583%25A2%25E1%2583%259D%25E1%2583%259E%25E1%2583%259D%25E1%2583%2592%25E1%2583%25A0%25E1%2583%2590%25E1%2583%25A4%25E1%2583%2598%25E1%2583%2590" title="ტოპოგრაფია – géorgien" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ტოპოგრაფია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="géorgien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%25A2%25D0%25BE%25D0%25BF%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B3%25D1%2580%25D0%25B0%25D1%2584%25D0%25B8%25D1%258F" title="Топография – kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Топография" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25B2%25B8%25E0%25B3%258D%25E0%25B2%25A5%25E0%25B2%25B3_%25E0%25B2%25B5%25E0%25B2%25B0%25E0%25B3%258D%25E0%25B2%25A3%25E0%25B2%25A8%25E0%25B3%2586" title="ಸ್ಥಳ ವರ್ಣನೆ – kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸ್ಥಳ ವರ್ಣನೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25EC%25A7%2580%25EC%25A7%2580%25ED%2595%2599" title="지지학 – coréen" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="지지학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="coréen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%25A2%25D0%25BE%25D0%25BF%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B3%25D1%2580%25D0%25B0%25D1%2584%25D0%25B8%25D1%258F" title="Топография – kirghize" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Топография" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="kirghize" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topographia" title="Topographia – latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Topographia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topographie" title="Topographie – luxembourgeois" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Topographie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="luxembourgeois" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografie" title="Topografie – limbourgeois" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Topografie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="limbourgeois" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografija" title="Topografija – lituanien" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Topografija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="lituanien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topogr%25C4%2581fija" title="Topogrāfija – letton" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Topogrāfija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="letton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%25A2%25D0%25BE%25D0%25BF%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B3%25D1%2580%25D0%25B0%25D1%2584%25D0%25B8%25D1%2598%25D0%25B0" title="Топографија – macédonien" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Топографија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="macédonien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%2591%25D0%25B0%25D0%25B9%25D1%2580_%25D0%25B7%25D2%25AF%25D0%25B9" title="Байр зүй – mongol" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Байр зүй" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="mongol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografi" title="Topografi – malais" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Topografi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="malais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografie" title="Topografie – néerlandais" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Topografie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="néerlandais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografi" title="Topografi – norvégien nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Topografi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="norvégien nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografi" title="Topografi – norvégien bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Topografi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="norvégien bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografia" title="Topografia – occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Topografia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25A8%259F%25E0%25A9%258B%25E0%25A8%25AA%25E0%25A9%258B%25E0%25A8%2597%25E0%25A9%258D%25E0%25A8%25B0%25E0%25A8%25BE%25E0%25A8%25AB%25E0%25A9%2580" title="ਟੋਪੋਗ੍ਰਾਫੀ – pendjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਟੋਪੋਗ੍ਰਾਫੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="pendjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografia_(geografia)" title="Topografia (geografia) – polonais" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Topografia (geografia)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="polonais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D9%25BC%25D9%2588%25D9%25BE%25D9%2588%25DA%25AB%25D8%25B1%25D8%25A7%25D9%2581%25D9%258A" title="ټوپوګرافي – pachto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ټوپوګرافي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="pachto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografia" title="Topografia – portugais" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Topografia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="portugais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografie" title="Topografie – roumain" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Topografie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="roumain" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%25A2%25D0%25BE%25D0%25BF%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B3%25D1%2580%25D0%25B0%25D1%2584%25D0%25B8%25D1%258F" title="Топография – russe" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Топография" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="russe" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografija" title="Topografija – serbo-croate" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Topografija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="serbo-croate" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topography" title="Topography – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Topography" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografia" title="Topografia – slovaque" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Topografia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="slovaque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografija" title="Topografija – slovène" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Topografija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="slovène" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografia" title="Topografia – albanais" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Topografia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="albanais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%25A2%25D0%25BE%25D0%25BF%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B3%25D1%2580%25D0%25B0%25D1%2584%25D0%25B8%25D1%2598%25D0%25B0" title="Топографија – serbe" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Топографија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="serbe" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topografi" title="Topografi – suédois" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Topografi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="suédois" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E0%25AE%2587%25E0%25AE%259F_%25E0%25AE%2585%25E0%25AE%25AE%25E0%25AF%2588%25E0%25AE%25AA%25E0%25AF%258D%25E0%25AE%25AA%25E0%25AE%25BF%25E0%25AE%25AF%25E0%25AE%25B2%25E0%25AF%258D" title="இட அமைப்பியல் – tamoul" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இட அமைப்பியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="tamoul" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topograpiya" title="Topograpiya – tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Topograpiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topo%25C4%259Frafya" title="Topoğrafya – turc" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Topoğrafya" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="turc" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%25A2%25D0%25BE%25D0%25BF%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B3%25D1%2580%25D0%25B0%25D1%2584%25D1%2596%25D1%258F" title="Топографія – ukrainien" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Топографія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="ukrainien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25C4%2590%25E1%25BB%258Ba_h%25C3%25ACnh_h%25E1%25BB%258Dc" title="Địa hình học – vietnamien" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Địa hình học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="vietnamien" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topograpiya" title="Topograpiya – waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Topograpiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E6%25B5%258B%25E7%25BB%2598%25E5%25AD%25A6" title="测绘学 – wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="测绘学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E6%25B5%258B%25E7%25BB%2598%25E5%25AD%25A6" title="测绘学 – chinois" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="测绘学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="chinois" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E6%25B8%25AC%25E7%25B9%25AA%25E5%25AD%25B8" title="測繪學 – cantonais" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="測繪學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="cantonais" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li> </ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"> 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