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href="#Other_theoreticians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Other theoreticians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_theoreticians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relation_to_altruism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relation_to_altruism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Relation to altruism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relation_to_altruism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relation_to_nihilism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relation_to_nihilism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Relation to nihilism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relation_to_nihilism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_egoism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_egoism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Political egoism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Political_egoism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Political egoism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Political_egoism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Revolutionary_politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revolutionary_politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Revolutionary politics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revolutionary_politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fascism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fascism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Fascism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fascism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Egoism</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 54 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-54" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">54 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="أنانية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أنانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B5%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Եսամոլութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Եսամոլութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%91%C3%B3ntese" title="Ñóntese – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Ñóntese" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eqoizm" title="Eqoizm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Eqoizm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Эгаізм – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Эгаізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Эгаізм – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Эгаізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Егоизъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Егоизъм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egoisme" title="Egoisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Egoisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egoismus" title="Egoismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Egoismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egoisme" title="Egoisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Egoisme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egoismus" title="Egoismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Egoismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egoism" title="Egoism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Egoism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egoismo" title="Egoismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Egoismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egoismo" title="Egoismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Egoismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="خودپرستی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="خودپرستی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89go%C3%AFsme" title="Égoïsme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Égoïsme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A9insp%C3%A9iseachas" title="Féinspéiseachas – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Féinspéiseachas" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B4%EA%B8%B0%EC%A3%BC%EC%9D%98" title="이기주의 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="이기주의" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B7%D5%A3%D5%B8%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Էգոիզմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Էգոիզմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="अहंवाद – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अहंवाद" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egoisme" title="Egoisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Egoisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egoismo" title="Egoismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Egoismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="אנוכיות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אנוכיות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%92%E1%83%9D%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ეგოიზმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ეგოიზმი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umimi" title="Umimi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Umimi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xweperest" title="Xweperest – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Xweperest" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Эгоизм – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Эгоизм" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egoisms" title="Egoisms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Egoisms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egoizmas" title="Egoizmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Egoizmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%92%E1%83%9D%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ეგოიზმი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ეგოიზმი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egoisme" title="Egoisme – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Egoisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ego%C3%AFsme" title="Egoïsme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Egoïsme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%A9%E5%B7%B1%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="利己主義 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="利己主義" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ego%C3%AFsme" title="Egoïsme – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Egoïsme" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egoizm" title="Egoizm – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Egoizm" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A5" title="ਸੁਆਰਥ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸੁਆਰਥ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egoizm_(psychologia)" title="Egoizm (psychologia) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Egoizm (psychologia)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ego%C3%ADsmo" title="Egoísmo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Egoísmo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egoism" title="Egoism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Egoism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Эгоизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Эгоизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egoizmi" title="Egoizmi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Egoizmi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egoism" title="Egoism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Egoism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egoizmus" title="Egoizmus – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Egoizmus" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egoizam" title="Egoizam – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Egoizam" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebi%C4%8Dnost" title="Sebičnost – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Sebičnost" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagkamakasarili" title="Pagkamakasarili – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pagkamakasarili" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Эгоистлык – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Эгоистлык" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%96%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A1" title="อัตตัตถนิยม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อัตตัตถนิยม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%82" title="Аноният – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Аноният" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egoizm" title="Egoizm – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Egoizm" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%97%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Егоїзм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Егоїзм" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%A9%E5%B7%B1%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="利己主義 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="利己主義" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keguaan" title="Keguaan – Betawi" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Keguaan" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="Betawi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Betawi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dtp mw-list-item"><a href="https://dtp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egoisme" title="Egoisme – Central Dusun" lang="dtp" hreflang="dtp" data-title="Egoisme" data-language-autonym="Kadazandusun" data-language-local-name="Central Dusun" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kadazandusun</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit 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searchaux" style="display:none">Philosophy concerning self-regarding motivations or behaviour</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the philosophy of self-regarding motivations or behaviour. Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Egotism" title="Egotism">Egotism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Egocentrism" title="Egocentrism">Egocentrism</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Egoist" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Egoist_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Egoist (disambiguation)">Egoist (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the Australian band, see <a href="/wiki/Egoism_(band)" title="Egoism (band)">Egoism (band)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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.sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Principles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">Autonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Do_it_yourself" title="Do it yourself">Do it yourself</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eremitism" class="mw-redirect" title="Eremitism">Eremitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_love" title="Free love">Free love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freethought" title="Freethought">Freethought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individual" title="Individual">Individual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individual_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Individual rights">Individual rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individual_reclamation" class="mw-redirect" title="Individual reclamation">Individual reclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individuation" title="Individuation">Individuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">Laissez-faire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertine" title="Libertine">Libertine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodological_individualism" title="Methodological individualism">Methodological individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_liberty" title="Negative liberty">Negative liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_border" title="Open border">Open border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_property" title="Personal property">Personal property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_liberty" title="Positive liberty">Positive liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-actualization" title="Self-actualization">Self-actualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-ownership" title="Self-ownership">Self-ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-sufficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-sufficiency">Self-sufficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjectivity">Subjectivity</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Philosophers</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiphon_(orator)" title="Antiphon (orator)">Antiphon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristippus" title="Aristippus">Aristippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emma_Goldman" title="Emma Goldman">Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Hess" title="Karl Hess">Hess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hipparchia_of_Maroneia" title="Hipparchia of Maroneia">Hipparchia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miguel_Gim%C3%A9nez_Igualada" title="Miguel Giménez Igualada">Igualada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_G._Ingersoll" title="Robert G. Ingersoll">Ingersoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Jung" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl Gustav Jung">Jung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Mandeville" title="Bernard Mandeville">Mandeville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dora_Marsden" title="Dora Marsden">Marsden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._L._Mencken" title="H. L. Mencken">Mencken</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Onfray" title="Michel Onfray">Onfray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horst_Matthai_Quelle" title="Horst Matthai Quelle">Quelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysander_Spooner" title="Lysander Spooner">Spooner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Warren" title="Josiah Warren">Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Wilde" title="Oscar Wilde">Wilde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Zhu" title="Yang Zhu">Yang</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Ideologies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autarchism" title="Autarchism">Autarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_anarchism" title="Individualist anarchism">Individualist anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egoist_anarchism" title="Egoist anarchism">Egoist anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_market_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Left-wing market anarchism">Left-wing market anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anarchism" title="Social anarchism">Social anarchism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-capitalism" title="Anarcho-capitalism">Anarcho-capitalism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Egoism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">Ethical egoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_egoism" title="Rational egoism">Rational egoism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hedonism" title="Hedonism">Hedonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_feminism" title="Individualist feminism">Individualist feminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equity_feminism" title="Equity feminism">Equity feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_feminism" title="Liberal feminism">Liberal feminism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Classical liberalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-libertarianism" title="Left-libertarianism">Left-libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_socialism" title="Libertarian socialism">Libertarian socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-libertarianism" title="Right-libertarianism">Right-libertarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Minarchism">Minarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(economic_theory)" title="Mutualism (economic theory)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntaryism" title="Voluntaryism">Voluntaryism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Principal concerns</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-individualism" title="Anti-individualism">Anti-individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conformity" title="Conformity">Conformity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogmatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogmatism">Dogmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Group rights">Group rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herd_mentality" title="Herd mentality">Herd mentality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoctrination" title="Indoctrination">Indoctrination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_society" title="Mass society">Mass society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobbing" title="Mobbing">Mobbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_engineering_(political_science)" title="Social engineering (political science)">Social engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyranny">Tyranny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Individualism_sidebar" title="Template:Individualism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Individualism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Individualism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Individualism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Individualism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Egoism</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> concerned with the role of the <a href="/wiki/Self" title="Self">self</a>, or <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ego" class="extiw" title="wikt:ego">ego</a>, as the motivation and goal of one's own action. Different theories of egoism encompass a range of disparate ideas and can generally be categorized into <a href="/wiki/Positive_statement" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive statement">descriptive</a> or <a href="/wiki/Normative" class="mw-redirect" title="Normative">normative</a> forms.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That is, they may be interested in either describing that people <i>do</i> act in <a href="/wiki/Self-interest" title="Self-interest">self-interest</a> or prescribing that they <i>should</i>. Other definitions of egoism may instead emphasise action according to one's <a href="/wiki/Will_(philosophy)" title="Will (philosophy)">will</a> rather than one's self-interest, and furthermore posit that this is a truer sense of egoism.<sup id="cite_ref-:16_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i><a href="/wiki/New_Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="New Catholic Encyclopedia">New Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i> states of egoism that it "incorporates in itself certain basic truths: it is natural for man to love himself; he should moreover do so, since each one is ultimately responsible for himself; pleasure, the development of one's potentialities, and the acquisition of power are normally desirable."<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <b>moral censure of self-interest</b> is a common subject of <a href="/wiki/Critique" title="Critique">critique</a> in egoist philosophy, with such judgments being examined as means of control and the result of power relations. Egoism may also reject that insight into one's internal motivation can arrive extrinsically, such as from <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though, for example, this is not present in the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egoism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term egoism is derived from the <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> <i lang="fr"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%C3%A9go%C3%AFsme#French" class="extiw" title="wikt:égoïsme">égoïsme</a></i>, from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ego#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:ego">ego</a></i> (first person singular personal pronoun; "I") with the French <i lang="fr"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-%C3%AFsme#French" class="extiw" title="wikt:-ïsme">-ïsme</a></i> ("<a href="/wiki/-ism" title="-ism">-ism</a>"). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Descriptive_theories">Descriptive theories</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egoism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Descriptive theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The descriptive variants of egoism are concerned with self-regard as a factual description of human motivation and, in its furthest application, that all human motivation stems from the desires and interest of the ego.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In these theories, action which is self-regarding may be simply termed <i>egoistic</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The position that people <i>tend</i> to act in their own self-interest is called default egoism,<sup id="cite_ref-:15_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whereas <a href="/wiki/Psychological_egoism" title="Psychological egoism">psychological egoism</a> is the position that <i>all</i> motivations are rooted in an ultimately self-serving <a href="/wiki/Psyche_(psychology)" title="Psyche (psychology)">psyche</a>. That is, in its strong form, that even seemingly <a href="/wiki/Altruist" class="mw-redirect" title="Altruist">altruistic</a> actions are only disguised as such and are always self-serving. Its weaker form instead holds that, even if altruistic motivation is possible, the willed action necessarily becomes egoistic in serving one's own <a href="/wiki/Will_(philosophy)" title="Will (philosophy)">will</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast to this and philosophical egoism, biological egoism (also called evolutionary egoism) describes motivations rooted solely in reproductive self-interest (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Reproductive_fitness" class="mw-redirect" title="Reproductive fitness">reproductive fitness</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:8_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, <a href="/wiki/Selfish_gene_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Selfish gene theory">selfish gene theory</a> holds that it is the self-interest of <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid_sequence" title="Nucleic acid sequence">genetic information</a> that conditions human behaviour.<sup id="cite_ref-:14_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:14-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Normative_theories">Normative theories</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egoism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Normative theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Theories which hold egoism to be normative stipulate that the ego ought to promote its own interests above other values. Where this ought is held to be a pragmatic judgment it is termed <a href="/wiki/Rational_egoism" title="Rational egoism">rational egoism</a> and where it is held to be a moral judgment it is termed <a href="/wiki/Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">ethical egoism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i> states that "ethical egoism might also apply to things other than acts, such as rules or character traits" but that such variants are uncommon.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, conditional egoism is a <a href="/wiki/Consequentialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Consequentialist">consequentialist</a> form of ethical egoism which holds that egoism is morally right if it leads to morally acceptable ends.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> John F. Welsh, in his work <i>Max Stirner's Dialectical Egoism: A New Interpretation</i>, coins the term <a href="/wiki/Dialectical_egoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialectical egoism">dialectical egoism</a> to describe an interpretation of the egoist <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Max_Stirner" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of Max Stirner">philosophy of Max Stirner</a> as being fundamentally <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectical</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable secondary sources. (August 2020)">non-primary source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Normative egoism, as in the case of Stirner, need not reject that some modes of behavior are to be valued above others—such as Stirner's affirmation that non-restriction and autonomy are to be most highly valued.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contrary theories, however, may just as easily favour egoistic domination of others.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theoreticians">Theoreticians</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egoism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Theoreticians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stirner">Stirner</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egoism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Stirner"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner#Egoism" title="Max Stirner">Max Stirner § Egoism</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Max_Stirner&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <p>Stirner's <a href="/wiki/Egoist_anarchism" title="Egoist anarchism">egoism</a> argues that individuals are impossible to fully comprehend, as no understanding of <a href="/wiki/The_self" class="mw-redirect" title="The self">the self</a> can adequately describe the fullness of experience. Stirner has been broadly understood as containing traits of both <a href="/wiki/Psychological_egoism" title="Psychological egoism">psychological egoism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rational_egoism" title="Rational egoism">rational egoism</a>. Unlike the self-interest described by <a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Ayn Rand</a>, Stirner did not address individual self-interest, selfishness, or prescriptions for how one should act. He urged individuals to decide for themselves and fulfill their own egoism.<sup id="cite_ref-Max_Stirner_McKay_2012_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Max_Stirner_McKay_2012-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> He believed that everyone was propelled by their own egoism and desires and that those who accepted this—as willing egoists—could freely live their individual desires, while those who did not—as unwilling egoists—will falsely believe they are fulfilling another cause while they are secretly fulfilling their own desires for happiness and security. The willing egoist would see that they could act freely, unbound from obedience to sacred but artificial truths like law, rights, morality, and religion. Power is the method of Stirner's egoism and the only justified method of gaining <a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">philosophical property</a>. Stirner did not believe in the one-track pursuit of greed, which as only one aspect of the ego would lead to being possessed by a cause other than the full ego. He did not believe in <a href="/wiki/Natural_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural rights">natural rights</a> to property and encouraged insurrection against all forms of authority, including disrespect for property.<sup id="cite_ref-Max_Stirner_McKay_2012_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Max_Stirner_McKay_2012-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nietzsche">Nietzsche</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egoism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Nietzsche"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <blockquote class="quote-frame pullquote" style="font-size: 95%; padding: 0.5em 2em; background-color: var( --background-color-neutral-subtle, #f8f9fa ); color: var( --color-base, black ); border: 1px solid #aaa; display:table; float:none;"><div style="padding: 0.6em 1em;">I submit that egoism belongs to the essence of a noble soul, I mean the unalterable belief that to a being such as "we," other beings must naturally be in subjection, and have to sacrifice themselves. The noble soul accepts the fact of his egoism without question, and also without consciousness of harshness, constraint, or arbitrariness therein, but rather as something that may have its basis in the primary law of things:—if he sought a designation for it he would say: "It is justice itself."<br /><cite style="display: block; text-align: right;"> — <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Beyond_Good_and_Evil" title="Beyond Good and Evil">Beyond Good and Evil</a></i></cite></div></blockquote> <p>The philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche has been linked to forms of both descriptive and normative egoism.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nietzsche, in attacking the widely held moral abhorrence for egoistic action, seeks to free higher human beings from their belief that this morality is good for them. He rejects <a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian ethics</a> as merely the disguised egoism of <a href="/wiki/Slave_morality" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave morality">slave morality</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote class="quote-frame pullquote" style="font-size: 95%; padding: 0.5em 2em; background-color: var( --background-color-neutral-subtle, #f8f9fa ); color: var( --color-base, black ); border: 1px solid #aaa; display:table; float:none;"><div style="padding: 0.6em 1em;">The word "good" is from the start <i>in no way</i> necessarily tied up with "unegoistic" actions, as it is in the superstition of those genealogists of morality. Rather, that occurs for the first time with the <i>collapse</i> of aristocratic value judgments, when this entire contrast between "egoistic" and "unegoistic" pressed itself ever more strongly into human awareness—it is, to use my own words, the <i>instinct of the herd</i> which, through this contrast, finally gets its word (and its <i>words</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><cite style="display: block; text-align: right;"> — <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Genealogy_of_Morals" class="mw-redirect" title="On the Genealogy of Morals">On the Genealogy of Morals</a></i></cite></div></blockquote> <p>In his <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Genealogy_of_Morals" class="mw-redirect" title="On the Genealogy of Morals">On the Genealogy of Morals</a></i>, Friedrich Nietzsche traces the origins of <a href="/wiki/Master%E2%80%93slave_morality" title="Master–slave morality">master–slave morality</a> to fundamentally egoistic <a href="/wiki/Value_judgment" title="Value judgment">value judgments</a>. In the aristocratic valuation, excellence and virtue come as a form of superiority over the common masses, which the priestly valuation, in <i><a href="/wiki/Ressentiment" title="Ressentiment">ressentiment</a></i> of power, seeks to invert—where the powerless and pitiable become the moral ideal. This upholding of unegoistic actions is therefore seen as stemming from a desire to reject the superiority or excellency of others. He holds that all normative systems which operate in the role often associated with <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morality</a> favor the interests of some people, often, though not necessarily, at the expense of others.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nevertheless, Nietzsche also states <i>in the same book</i> that there is no 'doer' of any acts, be they selfish or not: </p> <blockquote class="quote-frame pullquote" style="font-size: 95%; padding: 0.5em 2em; background-color: var( --background-color-neutral-subtle, #f8f9fa ); color: var( --color-base, black ); border: 1px solid #aaa; display:table; float:none;"><div style="padding: 0.6em 1em;">...there is no "being" behind doing, effecting, becoming; "the doer" is merely a fiction added to the deed—the deed is everything.(§13)<br /><cite style="display: block; text-align: right;"> — <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>, On the Genealogy of Morals<i></i></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Jonas Monte of <a href="/wiki/Brigham_Young_University" title="Brigham Young University">Brigham Young University</a> argues that Nietzsche doubted if any 'I' existed in the first place, which the former defined as "a conscious Ego who commands mental states".<sup id="cite_ref-thinkingisoccurring_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thinkingisoccurring-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cogito,_ergo_sum#Use_of_"I"" title="Cogito, ergo sum">Cogito, ergo sum#Use of "I"</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_theoreticians">Other theoreticians</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egoism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Other theoreticians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Gavrilovich_Chernyshevskii" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikolai Gavrilovich Chernyshevskii">Nikolai Gavrilovich Chernyshevskii</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:12_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a Russian literary critic and philosopher of nihilism and rational egoism</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleister_Crowley" title="Aleister Crowley">Aleister Crowley</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who popularized the expression "<a href="/wiki/Do_what_thou_wilt" class="mw-redirect" title="Do what thou wilt">Do what thou wilt</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Desmond" title="Arthur Desmond">Arthur Desmond</a> as Ragnar Redbeard (possibly, unproved)<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:9_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who is attributed as an early proponent of psychological egoism</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Mackay" title="John Henry Mackay">John Henry Mackay</a>, a British-German egoist anarchist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_de_Mandeville" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernard de Mandeville">Bernard de Mandeville</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whose materialism has been retroactively described as form of egoism</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Hicks_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hicks-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whose concept of <a href="/wiki/Will_to_power" title="Will to power">will to power</a> has both descriptive and prescriptive interpretations<sup id="cite_ref-:3_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Ivanovich_Pisarev" class="mw-redirect" title="Dmitry Ivanovich Pisarev">Dmitry Ivanovich Pisarev</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:11_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a Russian literary critic and philosopher of nihilism and rational egoism</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Ayn Rand</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Hicks_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hicks-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who supported an egoistic model of <a href="/wiki/Capitalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Capitalist">capitalist</a> self-incentive and <a href="/wiki/Selfishness" title="Selfishness">selfishness</a><sup id="cite_ref-:6_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Max Stirner</a>, whose views were described by John F. Welsh as "<a href="/wiki/Dialectical_egoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialectical egoism">dialectical egoism</a>"<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Benjamin Tucker</a>, an American egoist anarchist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_L._Walker" title="James L. Walker">James L. Walker</a>, who independently formulated an egoist philosophy before himself discovering the work of Stirner<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relation_to_altruism">Relation to altruism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egoism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Relation to altruism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1851, French philosopher <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a> coined the term <a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">altruism</a> (<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <i lang="fr"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/altruisme" class="extiw" title="wikt:altruisme">altruisme</a></i>; from <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> <i> altrui</i>, from <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a> <i> alteri</i> 'others') as an <a href="/wiki/Antonym" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonym">antonym</a> for egoism.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this sense, altruism defined Comte's position that all self-regard must be replaced with only the regard for others.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a> does not view altruism as a suitable antonym for egoism,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Comte instead states that only two human motivations exist, egoistic and altruistic, and that the two cannot be mediated; that is, one must always predominate the other. For Comte, the total subordination of the self to altruism is a necessary condition to both social and personal benefit.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nietzsche, rather than rejecting the practice of altruism, warns that despite there being neither much altruism nor equality in the world, there is almost universal endorsement of their value and, notoriously, even by those who are its worst enemies in practice.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Egoist philosophy commonly views the subordination of the self to altruism as either a form of domination that limits freedom, an unethical or irrational principle, or an extension of some egoistic root cause.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In evolutionary theory, <a href="/wiki/Biological_altruism" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological altruism">biological altruism</a> is the observed occurrence of an organism acting to the benefit of others at the cost of its own <a href="/wiki/Reproductive_fitness" class="mw-redirect" title="Reproductive fitness">reproductive fitness</a>. While biological egoism does grant that an organism may act to the benefit of others, it describes only such when in accordance with reproductive self-interest. <a href="/wiki/Kin_altruism" class="mw-redirect" title="Kin altruism">Kin altruism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Selfish_gene_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Selfish gene theory">selfish gene theory</a> are examples of this division.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:14_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:14-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On biological altruism, the <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i> states: "Contrary to what is often thought, an evolutionary approach to human behaviour does not imply that humans are likely to be motivated by self-interest alone. One strategy by which ‘selfish genes’ may increase their future representation is by causing humans to be <i>non</i>-selfish, in the psychological sense."<sup id="cite_ref-:14_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:14-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is a central topic within contemporary discourse of psychological egoism.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Philosophies of <a href="/wiki/Personal_identity" title="Personal identity">personal identity</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Open_individualism" title="Open individualism">open individualism</a> have implications for egoism and altruism. <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Kolak" title="Daniel Kolak">Daniel Kolak</a> argues that closed individualism, the idea that one's identity consists of a line stretching across time and that a <a href="/wiki/Future_self" title="Future self">future self</a> exists, is incoherent.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kolak instead argues that personal identity is an illusion, and the "self" doesn't actually exist, similar to the idea of <a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">anattā</a> in Buddhist philosophy. Thus, it could be argued that egoism is incoherent, since there is no "self" in the first place. Similar arguments have been made by <a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a> in the book <i><a href="/wiki/Reasons_and_Persons" title="Reasons and Persons">Reasons and Persons</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with ideas such as the <a href="/wiki/Teletransportation_paradox" title="Teletransportation paradox">teletransportation paradox</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relation_to_nihilism">Relation to nihilism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egoism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Relation to nihilism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.8em;">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;"><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism"><span style="color:black;">Nihilism</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="padding:0.5em 0.5em 0.5em; display:block; background-color: #efefef;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Nihilism" title="Category:Nihilism">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilist_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Nihilist (disambiguation)">Disambiguation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Schools</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em; font-size: 11px;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absurdism" title="Absurdism">Absurdism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noneism" title="Noneism">Noneism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_pessimism" title="Philosophical pessimism">Pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_presentism" title="Philosophical presentism">Presentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skepticism" title="Skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Concepts</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em; font-size: 11px;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amorality" title="Amorality">Amorality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">Anattā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apr%C3%A8s_moi,_le_d%C3%A9luge" title="Après moi, le déluge">Après moi, le déluge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">Cognitive bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis" title="Continuum hypothesis">Continuum hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_is_dead" title="God is dead">God is dead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illusion" title="Illusion">Illusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompleteness_theorems" class="mw-redirect" title="Incompleteness theorems">Incompleteness theorems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinite_regress" title="Infinite regress">Infinite regress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_man" title="Last man">Last man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical fallacy">Logical fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(existential)" title="Meaning (existential)">Meaninglessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%BCnchhausen_trilemma" title="Münchhausen trilemma">Münchhausen trilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">Nonexistence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nothing" title="Nothing">Nothingness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox" title="Paradox">Paradox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_nihilism" title="Paradox of nihilism">of nihilism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagueness" title="Vagueness">Vagueness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">Valuelessness</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Thinkers</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em; font-size: 11px;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Derrida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Leslie_Mackie" class="mw-redirect" title="John Leslie Mackie">Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoevsky" title="Fyodor Dostoevsky">Dostoevsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Rorty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist" style="text-align:center;font-weight:normal; padding:1em 1em 1em;"> This is a <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_and_thinking_sidebar_templates" title="Category:Philosophy and thinking sidebar templates">subseries</a> on <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>. In order to explore related topics, please visit <a href="/wiki/Template:Nihilism_navbox" title="Template:Nihilism navbox">navigation</a>.</td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nihilism" title="Template:Nihilism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nihilism" title="Template talk:Nihilism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nihilism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nihilism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p>The history of egoist thought has often overlapped with that of <a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">nihilism</a>. For example, Max Stirner's rejection of absolutes and abstract concepts often places him among the first philosophical nihilists.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The popular description of Stirner as a <a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilist" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral nihilist">moral nihilist</a>, however, may fail to encapsulate certain subtleties of his ethical thought. The <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i> states, "Stirner is clearly committed to the non-nihilistic view that certain kinds of character and modes of behaviour (namely autonomous individuals and actions) are to be valued above all others. His conception of morality is, in this respect, a narrow one, and his rejection of the legitimacy of moral claims is not to be confused with a denial of the propriety of all normative or ethical judgement."<sup id="cite_ref-:10_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stirner's nihilism may instead be understood as <a href="/wiki/Nihilism#Cosmic_nihilism" title="Nihilism">cosmic nihilism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Crosby1998_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crosby1998-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise, both normative and descriptive theories of egoism further developed under <a href="/wiki/Russian_nihilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian nihilism">Russian nihilism</a>, shortly giving birth to <a href="/wiki/Rational_egoism" title="Rational egoism">rational egoism</a>. Nihilist philosophers <a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Pisarev" title="Dmitry Pisarev">Dmitry Pisarev</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Chernyshevsky" title="Nikolay Chernyshevsky">Nikolay Chernyshevsky</a> were influential in this regard, compounding such forms of egoism with <a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">hard determinism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:16_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:11_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:12_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Max Stirner's</a> philosophy strongly rejects <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modernity</a> and is highly critical of the increasing dogmatism and oppressive social institutions that embody it. In order that it might be surpassed, egoist principles are upheld as a necessary advancement beyond the modern world.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Stanford Encyclopedia</i> states that Stirner's historical analyses serve to "undermine historical narratives which portray the modern development of humankind as the progressive realisation of freedom, but also to support an account of individuals in the modern world as increasingly oppressed".<sup id="cite_ref-:10_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This critique of humanist discourses especially has linked Stirner to more contemporary <a href="/wiki/Poststructuralist" class="mw-redirect" title="Poststructuralist">poststructuralist</a> thought.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_egoism">Political egoism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egoism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Political egoism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Egoist_anarchism" title="Egoist anarchism">Egoist anarchism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-statism#Egoism" title="Anti-statism">Egoism and anti-statism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Objectivism_and_libertarianism" title="Objectivism and libertarianism">Objectivism and libertarianism</a></div> <p>Since normative egoism rejects the <a href="/wiki/Moral_obligation" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral obligation">moral obligation</a> to subordinate the ego to <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a>-at-large or to a <a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">ruling class</a>, it may be predisposed to certain political implications. The <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i> states: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Egoists ironically can be read as moral and political egalitarians glorifying the dignity of each and every person to pursue life as they see fit. Mistakes in securing the proper means and appropriate ends will be made by individuals, but if they are morally responsible for their actions they not only will bear the consequences but also the opportunity for adapting and learning.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In contrast with this however, such an ethic may not morally obligate against the egoistic exercise of power over others. On these grounds, Friedrich Nietzsche criticizes egalitarian morality and political projects as unconducive to the development of human excellence.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_15-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Max Stirner</a>'s own conception, the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_egoists" title="Union of egoists">union of egoists</a> as detailed in his work <i><a href="/wiki/The_Ego_and_Its_Own" title="The Ego and Its Own">The Ego and Its Own</a></i>, saw a proposed form of societal relations whereby limitations on egoistic action are rejected.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When posthumously adopted by the <a href="/wiki/Anarchist_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarchist movement">anarchist movement</a>, this became the foundation for <a href="/wiki/Egoist_anarchism" title="Egoist anarchism">egoist anarchism</a>. </p><p>Stirner's variant of <a href="/wiki/Property_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Property theory">property theory</a> is similarly dialectical, where the concept of <a href="/wiki/Ownership" title="Ownership">ownership</a> is only that personal distinction made between what is one's property and what is not. Consequentially, it is the exercise of control over property which constitutes the nonabstract possession of it.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast to this, <a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Ayn Rand</a> incorporates capitalist <a href="/wiki/Property_rights_(economics)" title="Property rights (economics)">property rights</a> into her egoist theory.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Revolutionary_politics">Revolutionary politics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egoism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Revolutionary politics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Egoist philosopher <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Gavrilovich_Chernyshevskii" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikolai Gavrilovich Chernyshevskii">Nikolai Gavrilovich Chernyshevskii</a> was the dominant intellectual figure behind the 1860–1917 revolutionary movement in Russia, which resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Alexander_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Assassination of Alexander II">assassination of Tsar Alexander II</a> eight years before his death in 1889.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Pisarev" title="Dmitry Pisarev">Dmitry Pisarev</a> was a similarly radical influence within the movement, though he did not personally advocate political revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Philosophical egoism has also found wide appeal among anarchist revolutionaries and thinkers, such as <a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Mackay" title="John Henry Mackay">John Henry Mackay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Benjamin Tucker</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Armand" title="Émile Armand">Émile Armand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Han_Ryner" title="Han Ryner">Han Ryner</a> <a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_de_Lacaze-Duthiers" title="Gérard de Lacaze-Duthiers">Gérard de Lacaze-Duthiers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Renzo_Novatore" title="Renzo Novatore">Renzo Novatore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Miguel_Gim%C3%A9nez_Igualada" title="Miguel Giménez Igualada">Miguel Giménez Igualada</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lev_Chernyi" title="Lev Chernyi">Lev Chernyi</a>. Though he did not involve in any revolutionary movements himself, the entire school of <a href="/wiki/Individualist_anarchism" title="Individualist anarchism">individualist anarchism</a> owes much of its intellectual heritage to <a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Max Stirner</a>. </p><p>Egoist philosophy may be misrepresented as a principally revolutionary field of thought. However, neither Hobbesian nor Nietzschean theories of egoism approve of political revolution. Anarchism and <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_socialism" title="Revolutionary socialism">revolutionary socialism</a> were also strongly rejected by Ayn Rand and her followers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fascism">Fascism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egoism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Fascism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The philosophies of both Nietzsche and Stirner were heavily appropriated (or possibly expropriated) by <a href="/wiki/Fascist" class="mw-redirect" title="Fascist">fascist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proto-fascist" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-fascist">proto-fascist</a> ideologies. Nietzsche in particular has infamously been represented as a predecessor to <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a> and a substantial academic effort was necessary to disassociate his ideas from their aforementioned appropriation.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>At first sight, Nazi totalitarianism may seem the opposite of Stirner's radical individualism. But fascism was above all an attempt to dissolve the social ties created by history and replace them by artificial bonds among individuals who were expected to render explicit obedience to the state on grounds of absolute egoism. Fascist education combined the tenets of asocial egoism and unquestioning conformism, the latter being the means by which the individual secured his own niche in the system. Stirner's philosophy has nothing to say against conformism, it only objects to the Ego being subordinated to any higher principle: the egoist is free to adjust to the world if it is clear he will better himself by doing so. His 'rebellion' may take the form of utter servility if it will further his interest; what he must not do is to be bound by 'general' values or myths of humanity. The totalitarian ideal of a barrack-like society from which all real, historical ties have been eliminated is perfectly consistent with Stirner's principles: the egoist, by his very nature, must be prepared to fight under any flag that suits his convenience.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Leszek Kołakowski</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Main_Currents_of_Marxism" title="Main Currents of Marxism">Main Currents of Marxism</a></i>, pp.137-138</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egoism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/egoism" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:egoism">egoism</a></b></i>, <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/egoist" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:egoist">egoist</a></b></i>, or <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/egoistic" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:egoistic">egoistic</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">Altruism</a> – Principle or practice of concern for the welfare of others</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightened_self-interest" title="Enlightened self-interest">Enlightened self-interest</a> – Ethical philosophy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homo_economicus" title="Homo economicus">Homo economicus</a> – Model of humans as rational, self-interested agents</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a> – Concept regarding the moral worth of the individual</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_anarchism" title="Individualist anarchism">Individualist anarchism</a> – Branch of anarchism that emphasizes the individual and their will</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(psychology)" title="Machiavellianism (psychology)">Machiavellianism (psychology)</a> – Personality construct</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selfishness" title="Selfishness">Selfishness</a> – Concern for self above that of others</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selfism" class="mw-redirect" title="Selfism">Selfism</a> – Concern for self above that of others<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suitheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Suitheism">Suitheism</a> – Glorification of a subject to divine level<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Egoism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:1-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMoseley" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Moseley, Alexander. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/egoism/">"Egoism"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Egoism&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Moseley&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiep.utm.edu%2Fegoism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgoism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a 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In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Egoism&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Shaver&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fegoism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgoism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:16-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:16_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:16_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScanlan1999" class="citation journal cs1">Scanlan, James P. (1999). "The Case against Rational Egoism in Dostoevsky's <i>Notes from Underground</i>". <i>Journal of the History of Ideas</i>. <b>60</b> (3). University of Pennsylvania Press: <span class="nowrap">549–</span>567. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3654018">10.2307/3654018</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3654018">3654018</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Ideas&rft.atitle=The+Case+against+Rational+Egoism+in+Dostoevsky%27s+Notes+from+Underground&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E549-%3C%2Fspan%3E567&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3654018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3654018%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Scanlan&rft.aufirst=James+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgoism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDalcourt" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Dalcourt, G. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 11,</span> 2020</span> – via <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia.com" title="Encyclopedia.com">Encyclopedia.com</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Egoism&rft.btitle=New+Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.aulast=Dalcourt&rft.aufirst=G.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Freligion%2Fencyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps%2Fegoism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgoism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thefreedictionary.com/egoistic">"egoistic"</a>. <i>American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language</i> (5th ed.). 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Springer Science & Business Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-3014-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-3014-7"><bdi>978-1-4020-3014-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240906163443/https://digitalphysics.ru/pdf/Kaminskii_A_V/Kolak_I_Am_You.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on September 6, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=I+Am+You%3A+The+Metaphysical+Foundations+for+Global+Ethics&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2007-11-03&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-3014-7&rft.aulast=Kolak&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitalphysics.ru%2Fpdf%2FKaminskii_A_V%2FKolak_I_Am_You.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgoism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParfit1984" class="citation book cs1">Parfit, Derek (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/trent_0116300637661/page/n5/mode/2up"><i>Reasons and persons</i></a>. Oxford [Oxfordshire]. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-824615-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-824615-3"><bdi>0-19-824615-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/9827659">9827659</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reasons+and+persons&rft.place=Oxford+%5BOxfordshire%5D&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F9827659&rft.isbn=0-19-824615-3&rft.aulast=Parfit&rft.aufirst=Derek&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftrent_0116300637661%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgoism" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPratt" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pratt, Alan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/nihilism/">"Nihilism"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nihilism&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Pratt&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiep.utm.edu%2Fnihilism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEgoism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Crosby1998-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Crosby1998_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrosby1998" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Crosby, Donald A. 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