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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Early career</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_career-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Academic_in_exile" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Academic_in_exile"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Academic in exile</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Academic_in_exile-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_World_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_World_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Second World War</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Second_World_War-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Second World War subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Second_World_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Frisch–Peierls_memorandum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Frisch–Peierls_memorandum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Frisch–Peierls memorandum</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Frisch–Peierls_memorandum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manhattan_Project" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manhattan_Project"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Manhattan Project</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Manhattan_Project-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Espionage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Espionage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Espionage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Espionage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Post-war</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Honours" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Honours"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Honours</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Honours-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> 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class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Rudolf Peierls</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 32 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-32" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">32 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D9%81_%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%84%D8%B2" title="رودولف بيرلز – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="رودولف بيرلز" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D9%81_%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%84%D8%B2" title="رودولف پیرلز – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="رودولف پیرلز" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Peierls" title="Rudolf Peierls – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Rudolf Peierls" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Peierls" title="Rudolf Peierls – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Rudolf Peierls" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Peierls" title="Rudolf Peierls – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Rudolf Peierls" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Peierls" title="Rudolf Peierls – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Rudolf Peierls" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Peierls" title="Rudolf Peierls – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Rudolf Peierls" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Peierls" title="Rudolf Peierls – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Rudolf Peierls" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D9%81_%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%84%D8%B2" title="رودولف پیرلز – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رودولف پیرلز" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Peierls" title="Rudolf Peierls – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Rudolf Peierls" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Ernst_Peierls" title="Rudolf Ernst Peierls – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Rudolf Ernst Peierls" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A3%A8%EB%8F%8C%ED%94%84_%ED%8C%8C%EC%9D%B4%EC%96%BC%EC%8A%A4" title="루돌프 파이얼스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="루돌프 파이얼스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Peierls" title="Rudolf Peierls – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Rudolf Peierls" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Peierls" title="Rudolf Peierls – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Rudolf Peierls" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Peierls" title="Rudolf Peierls – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Rudolf Peierls" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudulfus_Ernestus_Peierls" title="Rudulfus Ernestus Peierls – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Rudulfus Ernestus Peierls" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Peierls" title="Rudolf Peierls – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Rudolf Peierls" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Peierls" title="Rudolf Peierls – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="Rudolf Peierls" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A4_%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9A%E1%83%96%E1%83%98" title="რუდოლფ პაიერლზი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="რუდოლფ პაიერლზი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D9%81_%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%84%D8%B2" title="رودولف بيرلز – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="رودولف بيرلز" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Peierls" title="Rudolf Peierls – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Rudolf Peierls" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AB%E3%83%89%E3%83%AB%E3%83%95%E3%83%BB%E3%83%91%E3%82%A4%E3%82%A8%E3%83%AB%E3%82%B9" title="ルドルフ・パイエルス – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ルドルフ・パイエルス" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_E._Peierls" title="Rudolf E. Peierls – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Rudolf E. Peierls" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_E._Peierls" title="Rudolf E. Peierls – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Rudolf E. Peierls" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Peierls" title="Rudolf Peierls – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Rudolf Peierls" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Peierls" title="Rudolf Peierls – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Rudolf Peierls" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D1%81,_%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%84" title="Пайерлс, Рудольф – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Пайерлс, Рудольф" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Ernst_Peierls" title="Rudolf Ernst Peierls – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Rudolf Ernst Peierls" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Peierls" title="Rudolf Peierls – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Rudolf Peierls" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Peierls" title="Rudolf Peierls – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Rudolf Peierls" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%84_%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%94%D1%80%D0%BB%D1%81" title="Рудольф Паєрлс – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Рудольф Паєрлс" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%AD%AF%E9%81%93%E5%A4%AB%C2%B7%E4%BD%A9%E7%88%BE%E6%96%AF" title="魯道夫·佩爾斯 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">German-born British physicist (1907–1995)</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="honorific-prefix" style="font-size: 77%; font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sir" title="Sir">Sir</a></div><div class="fn">Rudolf Peierls</div><div class="honorific-suffix" style="font-size: 77%; font-weight: normal;"><span class="nobold noexcerpt nowraplinks" style="font-size:;"><span style="font-size: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Commander_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Commander of the Order of the British Empire">CBE</a></span> <span style="font-size: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">FRS</a></span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Peierls,Rudolf_1966_G%C3%B6ttingen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Peierls%2CRudolf_1966_G%C3%B6ttingen.jpg/220px-Peierls%2CRudolf_1966_G%C3%B6ttingen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Peierls%2CRudolf_1966_G%C3%B6ttingen.jpg/330px-Peierls%2CRudolf_1966_G%C3%B6ttingen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Peierls%2CRudolf_1966_G%C3%B6ttingen.jpg/440px-Peierls%2CRudolf_1966_G%C3%B6ttingen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="750" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Peierls in 1966</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Rudolf Ernst Peierls</div><br />5 June 1907<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a> in the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">19 September 1995<span style="display:none"> (<span class="dtend dday deathdate">1995-09-20</span>)</span> (aged 88)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxfordshire" title="Oxfordshire">Oxfordshire</a>, England</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Citizenship</th><td class="infobox-data category">German (1907–1940)<br />British (1940–1995)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Berlin" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Berlin">University of Berlin</a><br /><a href="/wiki/University_of_Munich" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Munich">University of Munich</a><br /><a href="/wiki/University_of_Leipzig" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Leipzig">University of Leipzig</a><br /><a href="/wiki/University_of_Manchester" title="University of Manchester">University of Manchester</a><br /><a href="/wiki/St_John%27s_College,_Cambridge" title="St John's College, Cambridge">St John's College, Cambridge</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ising_model#Basic_properties_and_history" title="Ising model">Peierls argument</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Peierls_bracket" title="Peierls bracket">Peierls bracket</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Ising_model#Peierls_droplets" title="Ising model">Peierls droplets</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Peierls_substitution" title="Peierls substitution">Peierls substitution</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Peierls_stress" title="Peierls stress">Peierls stress</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Peierls_transition" title="Peierls transition">Peierls transition</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Landau%E2%80%93Peierls_instability" title="Landau–Peierls instability">Landau–Peierls instability</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Trace_inequality#Peierls–Bogoliubov_inequality" title="Trace inequality">Peierls–Bogoliubov inequality</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Frenkel%E2%80%93Kontorova_model#The_Peierls–Nabarro_potential" title="Frenkel–Kontorova model">Peierls–Nabarro potential</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Bohr%E2%80%93Peierls%E2%80%93Placzek_relation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bohr–Peierls–Placzek relation">Bohr–Peierls–Placzek relation</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Frisch%E2%80%93Peierls_memorandum" title="Frisch–Peierls memorandum">Frisch–Peierls memorandum</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Charge_density_wave" title="Charge density wave">Charge density wave theory</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Umklapp_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Umklapp process">Umklapp process</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Tube_Alloys" title="Tube Alloys">Tube Alloys project</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Commander_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Commander of the Order of the British Empire">Commander of the Order<br /> of the British Empire</a> (1946)<br /><a href="/wiki/Medal_of_Freedom_(1945)" title="Medal of Freedom (1945)">Medal of Freedom</a> (1946)<br /><a href="/wiki/Royal_Medal" title="Royal Medal">Royal Medal</a> (1959)<br /><a href="/wiki/Lorentz_Medal" title="Lorentz Medal">Lorentz Medal</a> (1962)<br /><a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Medal" title="Max Planck Medal">Max Planck Medal</a> (1963)<br /><a href="/wiki/Knight_Bachelor" title="Knight Bachelor">Knight Bachelor</a> (1968)<br /><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi_Award" title="Enrico Fermi Award">Enrico Fermi Award</a> (1980)<br /><a href="/wiki/Matteucci_Medal" title="Matteucci Medal">Matteucci Medal</a> (1982)<br /><a href="/wiki/Copley_Medal" title="Copley Medal">Copley Medal</a> (1986)</span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">Physicist</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Manchester" title="University of Manchester">University of Manchester</a><br /><a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a><br /><a href="/wiki/University_of_Birmingham" title="University of Birmingham">University of Birmingham</a><br /><a href="/wiki/New_College,_Oxford" title="New College, Oxford">New College, Oxford</a><br /><a href="/wiki/University_of_Washington" title="University of Washington">University of Washington</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_project" class="mw-redirect" title="Manhattan project">Manhattan project</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Thesis" title="Thesis">Thesis</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i> Zur kinetischen Theorie der Wärmeleitung in Kristallen </i> <span style="font-size:97%;">(1929)</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Doctoral_advisor" title="Doctoral advisor">Doctoral advisor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other academic advisors</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Wolfgang Pauli</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Doctoral students</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Fred_Hoyle" title="Fred Hoyle">Fred Hoyle</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Ernest_Salpeter" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwin Ernest Salpeter">E. E. Salpeter</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Gerald_E._Brown" title="Gerald E. Brown">Gerald E. Brown</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Thomas_Butler" title="Stuart Thomas Butler">Stuart T. Butler</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Walter_Marshall,_Baron_Marshall_of_Goring" title="Walter Marshall, Baron Marshall of Goring">Walter Marshall</a><br /><a href="/wiki/James_S._Langer" title="James S. Langer">James S. Langer</a><br /><a href="/wiki/John_Stewart_Bell" title="John Stewart Bell">John Stewart Bell</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Mandelstam" title="Stanley Mandelstam">Stanley Mandelstam</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other notable students</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Noor_Muhammad_Butt" title="Noor Muhammad Butt">N. M. Butt</a><br /><a href="/wiki/M._A._B._Beg" title="M. A. B. Beg">M. A. Beg</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Sir Rudolf Ernst Peierls</b>, <span class="nobold noexcerpt nowraplinks" style="font-size:;"><span style="font-size: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Commander_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Commander of the Order of the British Empire">CBE</a></span> <span style="font-size: 100%;"><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">FRS</a></span></span> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="/aɪ/: 'i' in 'tide'">aɪ</span><span title="/./: syllable break">.</span><span title="/ər/: 'er' in 'letter'">ər</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span></span>/</a></span></span>; <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">German:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="de-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">[ˈpaɪɐls]</a></span>; 5 June 1907 – 19 September 1995) was a German-born British <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a> who played a major role in <a href="/wiki/Tube_Alloys" title="Tube Alloys">Tube Alloys</a>, Britain's nuclear weapon programme, as well as the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>, the combined Allied nuclear bomb programme. His 1996 obituary in <i><a href="/wiki/Physics_Today" title="Physics Today">Physics Today</a></i> described him as "a major player in the drama of the eruption of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">nuclear physics</a> into world affairs".<sup id="cite_ref-Edwards_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edwards-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Peierls studied <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin" title="Humboldt University of Berlin">University of Berlin</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Maximilian_University_of_Munich" title="Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich">University of Munich</a> under <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Sommerfeld" title="Arnold Sommerfeld">Arnold Sommerfeld</a>, the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Leipzig" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Leipzig">University of Leipzig</a> under <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a>, and <a href="/wiki/ETH_Zurich" title="ETH Zurich">ETH Zurich</a> under <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Wolfgang Pauli</a>. After receiving his <a href="/wiki/DPhil" class="mw-redirect" title="DPhil">DPhil</a> from Leipzig in 1929, he became an assistant to Pauli in Zurich. In 1932, he was awarded a <a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_Fellowship" class="mw-redirect" title="Rockefeller Fellowship">Rockefeller Fellowship</a>, which he used to study in Rome under <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a>, and then at the <a href="/wiki/Cavendish_Laboratory" title="Cavendish Laboratory">Cavendish Laboratory</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a> under <a href="/wiki/Ralph_H._Fowler" title="Ralph H. Fowler">Ralph H. Fowler</a>. Because of his Jewish background, he elected to not return home after <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler%27s_rise_to_power" title="Adolf Hitler's rise to power">Adolf Hitler's rise to power</a> in 1933, but to remain in Britain, where he worked with <a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Victoria_University_of_Manchester" title="Victoria University of Manchester">Victoria University of Manchester</a>, then at the Mond Laboratory at Cambridge. In 1937, <a href="/wiki/Mark_Oliphant" title="Mark Oliphant">Mark Oliphant</a>, the newly appointed Australian professor of physics at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Birmingham" title="University of Birmingham">University of Birmingham</a> recruited him for a new chair there in applied mathematics. </p><p>In March 1940, Peierls co-authored the <a href="/wiki/Frisch%E2%80%93Peierls_memorandum" title="Frisch–Peierls memorandum">Frisch–Peierls memorandum</a> with <a href="/wiki/Otto_Robert_Frisch" title="Otto Robert Frisch">Otto Robert Frisch</a>. This short paper was the first to set out that one could construct an <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bomb">atomic bomb</a> from a small amount of <a href="/wiki/Fissile" class="mw-redirect" title="Fissile">fissile</a> <a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235">uranium-235</a>. Until then it had been assumed that such a bomb would require many tons of uranium, and consequently was impractical to build and use. The paper was pivotal in igniting the interest of first the British and later the American authorities in nuclear weapons. He was also responsible for the recruitment of his compatriot <a href="/wiki/Klaus_Fuchs" title="Klaus Fuchs">Klaus Fuchs</a> to work on Tube Alloys, as the British nuclear weapons project was called, which resulted in Peierls falling under suspicion when Fuchs was exposed as a spy for the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> in 1950. </p><p>After the war, Peierls returned to the University of Birmingham, where he worked until 1963, and then was the <a href="/wiki/Wykeham_Professor_of_Physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Wykeham Professor of Physics">Wykeham Professor of Physics</a> and a Fellow of <a href="/wiki/New_College,_Oxford" title="New College, Oxford">New College</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a> until he retired in 1974.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At Birmingham he worked on <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_force" title="Nuclear force">nuclear forces</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scattering" title="Scattering">scattering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">quantum field theories</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_structure" title="Nuclear structure">collective motion in nuclei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transport_theory_(statistical_physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transport theory (statistical physics)">transport theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">statistical mechanics</a>, and was a consultant to the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Research_Establishment" title="Atomic Energy Research Establishment">Atomic Energy Research Establishment</a> at Harwell. He received many awards, including a <a href="/wiki/Knight_Bachelor" title="Knight Bachelor">knighthood</a> in 1968, and wrote several books including <i>Quantum Theory of Solids</i>, <i>The Laws of Nature</i> (1955), <i>Surprises in Theoretical Physics</i> (1979), <i>More Surprises in Theoretical Physics</i> (1991) and an autobiography, <i>Bird of Passage</i> (1985). Concerned with the nuclear weapons he had helped to unleash, he worked on the <a href="/wiki/Bulletin_of_the_Atomic_Scientists" title="Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists">Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists</a>, was President of the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_Scientists%27_Association_in_the_UK" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic Scientists' Association in the UK">Atomic Scientists' Association in the UK</a>, and was involved in the <a href="/wiki/Pugwash_Conferences_on_Science_and_World_Affairs" title="Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs">Pugwash movement</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Peierls&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rudolf Ernst Peierls was born in the Berlin suburb of <a href="/wiki/Obersch%C3%B6neweide" title="Oberschöneweide">Oberschöneweide</a>, the youngest of three children of Heinrich Peierls an electrical engineer, from a family of Jewish merchants. His father was the managing director of a cable factory of <a href="/wiki/Allgemeine_Elektricit%C3%A4ts-Gesellschaft" class="mw-redirect" title="Allgemeine Elektricitäts-Gesellschaft">Allgemeine Elektricitäts-Gesellschaft</a> (AEG), and his mother was his father's first wife, Elisabeth (<span title="Name at birth"><a href="/wiki/Birth_name#Maiden_and_married_names" title="Birth name">née</a></span> Weigert). Rudolf had an older brother, Alfred, and an older sister, Annie.<sup id="cite_ref-ODNB_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODNB-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His mother died from <a href="/wiki/Hodgkin%27s_lymphoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Hodgkin's lymphoma">Hodgkin's lymphoma</a> in 1921,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls19855,_11_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls19855,_11-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and his father married Else Hermann, the sister-in-law of the playwright <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Fulda" title="Ludwig Fulda">Ludwig Fulda</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2007268_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2007268-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The family was Jewish, but <a href="/wiki/Jewish_assimilation" title="Jewish assimilation">assimilated</a>, and Peierls and his siblings were baptised as <a href="/wiki/Lutheran" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran">Lutherans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ODNB_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODNB-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When he came of age, Peierls left the church.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls19856_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls19856-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Peierls commenced school a year late because he needed glasses, and his parents did not trust him not to lose them or break them. After two years at the local preparatory school, he entered his local <i><a href="/wiki/Gymnasium_(Germany)" title="Gymnasium (Germany)">gymnasium</a></i>, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Humboldt-Gymnasium_(Berlin-Tegel)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Humboldt-Gymnasium (Berlin-Tegel) (page does not exist)">Humboldt Gymnasium</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humboldt-Gymnasium_(Berlin-Tegel)" class="extiw" title="de:Humboldt-Gymnasium (Berlin-Tegel)">de</a>]</span>, where he spent the next nine years, passing his <i><a href="/wiki/Abitur" title="Abitur">abitur</a></i> examinations in 1925.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls19856–13_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls19856–13-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He wanted to study engineering, but his parents, who doubted his practical abilities, suggested physics instead.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2007268_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2007268-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He entered the <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin" title="Humboldt University of Berlin">University of Berlin</a>, where he listened to lectures by <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Max Planck</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walther_Bothe" title="Walther Bothe">Walther Bothe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walther_Nernst" title="Walther Nernst">Walther Nernst</a>. Fellow students included <a href="/wiki/Kurt_Hirsch" title="Kurt Hirsch">Kurt Hirsch</a> and <a href="/wiki/K%C3%A4te_Sperling" class="mw-redirect" title="Käte Sperling">Käte Sperling</a>. The physics laboratory classes were overcrowded, so the first year students were encouraged to take theoretical physics courses instead. Peierls found that he liked the subject.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls198516–20_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls198516–20-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1926 Peierls decided to transfer to the <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Maximilian_University_of_Munich" title="Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich">University of Munich</a> to study under <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Sommerfeld" title="Arnold Sommerfeld">Arnold Sommerfeld</a>, who was considered to be the greatest teacher of theoretical physics. Fellow students there included <a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Br%C3%BCck" title="Hermann Brück">Hermann Brück</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_V._Houston" title="William V. Houston">William V. Houston</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls198523–24_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls198523–24-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the time, the <a href="/wiki/Bohr-Sommerfeld_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Bohr-Sommerfeld theory">Bohr-Sommerfeld theory</a> was being overturned by the new <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> of <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls198525–27_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls198525–27-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1928, Sommerfeld set off on a world tour. On his advice, Peierls moved to the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Leipzig" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Leipzig">University of Leipzig</a>, where Heisenberg had been appointed to a chair in 1927.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2007268_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2007268-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls198532–33_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls198532–33-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Heisenberg set Peierls a research project on <a href="/wiki/Ferromagnetism" title="Ferromagnetism">ferromagnetism</a>. It was known that this was caused by the <a href="/wiki/Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">spin</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> in the metal aligning; but the reason for this was unknown. Heisenberg suspected that it was caused by a quantum mechanical effect, caused by the <a href="/wiki/Pauli_exclusion_principle" title="Pauli exclusion principle">Pauli exclusion principle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls198533–34_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls198533–34-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Peierls was unable to develop the theory, but work on <a href="/wiki/Hall_effect" title="Hall effect">Hall effect</a> was more productive. The anomalous Hall effect could not be explained with the classical theory of metals, and Heisenberg sensed an opportunity to demonstrate that quantum mechanics could explain it. Peierls was able to do so, resulting in his first published paper.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2007269_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2007269-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Heisenberg left in 1929 to lecture in America, China, Japan and India,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2007269_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2007269-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and on his recommendation Peierls moved on to <a href="/wiki/ETH_Zurich" title="ETH Zurich">ETH Zurich</a>, where he studied under <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Wolfgang Pauli</a>. Pauli set him a problem of investigating the vibration of atoms in a crystal lattice. Peierls explored—and named—the phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Umklapp_scattering" title="Umklapp scattering">umklapp scattering</a>. He submitted this work as his <a href="/wiki/DPhil" class="mw-redirect" title="DPhil">DPhil</a> thesis, <i>Zur kinetischen Theorie der Wärmeleitung in Kristallen</i> (On the Kinetic Theory of Heat Conduction in Crystals),<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was accepted by the University of Leipzig in 1929.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls198540–45_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls198540–45-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His theory made specific predictions of the behaviour of metals at very low temperatures, but another twenty years would pass before the techniques were developed to confirm them experimentally.<sup id="cite_ref-ODNB_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODNB-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_career">Early career</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Peierls&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Peierls accepted an offer from Pauli to become his assistant in place of <a href="/wiki/Felix_Bloch" title="Felix Bloch">Felix Bloch</a>. <a href="/wiki/Lev_Landau" title="Lev Landau">Lev Landau</a> was there at this time on a scholarship from the government of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, and Peierls and Landau became friends. They collaborated on deriving a series of wave equations similar to the <a href="/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation" title="Schrödinger equation">Schrödinger equation</a> for <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a>. Unfortunately, their equations, while complicated, were nonsensical.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2007269–270_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2007269–270-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1930, Peierls travelled to the Netherlands to meet <a href="/wiki/Hans_Kramers" title="Hans Kramers">Hans Kramers</a>, and to <a href="/wiki/Copenhagen" title="Copenhagen">Copenhagen</a> to meet <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls198554–55_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls198554–55-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In August 1930 Pauli and Peierls attended a physics congress in <a href="/wiki/Odessa" class="mw-redirect" title="Odessa">Odessa</a> and met a young physics graduate, Eugenia (Genia) Nikolaievna Kannegiesser, who, like Landau, came from <a href="/wiki/Leningrad" class="mw-redirect" title="Leningrad">Leningrad</a>. Since he did not speak Russian and she did not speak German, they conversed in English.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2007269–270_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2007269–270-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During a subsequent visit by Peierls to lecture in Leningrad they were married on 15 March 1931.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls198568_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls198568-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, she had to wait for a passport and exit visa. They finally left for Zürich that summer. They had four children: Gaby Ellen (b.1933), Ronald Frank (b.1935), Catherine (Kitty; b.1948), and Joanna (b.1949).<sup id="cite_ref-ODNB_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODNB-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Peierls assisted <a href="/wiki/Egon_Orowan" title="Egon Orowan">Egon Orowan</a> in understanding the <a href="/wiki/Force" title="Force">force</a> required to move a <a href="/wiki/Dislocation" title="Dislocation">dislocation</a> which would be expanded on by <a href="/wiki/Frank_Nabarro" title="Frank Nabarro">Frank Nabarro</a> and called the <a href="/wiki/Peierls%E2%80%93Nabarro_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Peierls–Nabarro force">Peierls–Nabarro force</a>. In 1929, he studied <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_physics" title="Solid-state physics">solid-state physics</a> in <a href="/wiki/Zurich,_Switzerland" class="mw-redirect" title="Zurich, Switzerland">Zurich</a> under the tutelage of Heisenberg and Pauli. His early work on <a href="/wiki/Quantum_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum physics">quantum physics</a> led to the theory of <a href="/wiki/Electron_hole" title="Electron hole">positive carriers</a> to explain the thermal and <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical conductivity">electrical conductivity</a> behaviours of <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductors</a>. He was a pioneer of the concept of "holes" in semiconductors.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He established "zones" before <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Brillouin" title="Léon Brillouin">Léon Brillouin</a>, despite Brillouin's name being currently attached to the idea, and applied it to <a href="/wiki/Phonon" title="Phonon">phonons</a>. Doing this, he discovered the <a href="/wiki/Boltzmann_equation" title="Boltzmann equation">Boltzmann equations</a> for phonons and the <a href="/wiki/Umklapp_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Umklapp process">umklapp process</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Edwards_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edwards-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He submitted a paper on the subject for his <i><a href="/wiki/Habilitation" title="Habilitation">habilitation</a></i>, acquiring the right to teach at German universities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls198580_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls198580-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Physics_Today" title="Physics Today">Physics Today</a></i> noted that "His many papers on <a href="/wiki/Electronic_band_structure" title="Electronic band structure">electrons in metals</a> have now passed so deeply into <a href="/wiki/Scientific_literature" title="Scientific literature">the literature</a> that it is hard to identify his contribution to conductivity in <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic fields</a> and to the concept of a hole in the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_electrons_in_solids" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of electrons in solids">theory of electrons in solids</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Edwards_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edwards-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Academic_in_exile">Academic in exile</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Peierls&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Academic in exile"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1932, Peierls was awarded a <a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_Fellowship" class="mw-redirect" title="Rockefeller Fellowship">Rockefeller Fellowship</a> to study abroad, which he used to study in <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> under <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a>, and then at the <a href="/wiki/Cavendish_Laboratory" title="Cavendish Laboratory">Cavendish Laboratory</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a> in England under <a href="/wiki/Ralph_H._Fowler" title="Ralph H. Fowler">Ralph H. Fowler</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls198582–93_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls198582–93-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Rome, Peierls completed two papers on <a href="/wiki/Electronic_band_structure" title="Electronic band structure">electronic band structure</a>, in which he introduced the <a href="/wiki/Peierls_substitution" title="Peierls substitution">Peierls substitution</a>, and derived a general expression for <a href="/wiki/Diamagnetism" title="Diamagnetism">diamagnetism</a> in metals at low temperatures. This provided an explanation of the hitherto mysterious properties of <a href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth">bismuth</a>, in which diamagnetic properties were more pronounced than in other metals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2007271_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2007271-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Poynting_Physics_building_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Poynting_Physics_building_2.jpg/220px-Poynting_Physics_building_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Poynting_Physics_building_2.jpg/330px-Poynting_Physics_building_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Poynting_Physics_building_2.jpg/440px-Poynting_Physics_building_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Poynting" title="John Henry Poynting">Poynting</a> Physics building at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Birmingham" title="University of Birmingham">University of Birmingham</a>. Its mode of construction helped give rise to the phrase "<a href="/wiki/Redbrick_university" class="mw-redirect" title="Redbrick university">redbrick university</a>".</figcaption></figure> <p>Due to <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler%27s_rise_to_power" title="Adolf Hitler's rise to power">Adolf Hitler's rise to power</a> in Germany, he elected to not return home in 1933, but to remain in Britain. He declined an offer from <a href="/wiki/Otto_Stern" title="Otto Stern">Otto Stern</a> of a position at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Hamburg" title="University of Hamburg">University of Hamburg</a>. Granted leave to remain in Britain, he worked at the <a href="/wiki/Victoria_University_of_Manchester" title="Victoria University of Manchester">Victoria University of Manchester</a> with funding from the <a href="/wiki/Academic_Assistance_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Assistance Council">Academic Assistance Council</a>, which had been set up to help academic refugees from Germany and other <a href="/wiki/Fascist" class="mw-redirect" title="Fascist">fascist</a> countries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls198589–96_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls198589–96-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of his immediate family also left Germany; his brother and his family settling in Britain, and his sister and her family, along with his father and stepmother, moved to the United States, where his uncle Siegfried lived.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985141_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985141-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Peierls collaborated with Bethe on <a href="/wiki/Photodisintegration" title="Photodisintegration">photodisintegration</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">statistical mechanics</a> of <a href="/wiki/Alloys" class="mw-redirect" title="Alloys">alloys</a> when challenged by <a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a>. Their results still serve as the basis for <a href="/wiki/Mean-field_theory" title="Mean-field theory">mean-field theories</a> of <a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)">structural phase changes</a> in <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">complete alloys</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2007271_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2007271-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although most of his work continued to be about the electron theory of metals, he also looked at Dirac's <a href="/wiki/Hole_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Hole theory">hole theory</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2007271–272_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2007271–272-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and co-wrote a paper with Bethe on the <a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">neutrino</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The University of Manchester awarded him a <a href="/wiki/D.Sc." class="mw-redirect" title="D.Sc.">D.Sc.</a> degree.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985235_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985235-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moving back to Cambridge, he worked with <a href="/wiki/David_Shoenberg" title="David Shoenberg">David Shoenberg</a> at the Mond Laboratory on <a href="/wiki/Superconductivity" title="Superconductivity">superconductivity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liquid_helium" title="Liquid helium">liquid helium</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2007271–272_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2007271–272-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To allow him to lecture, in accordance with its rules, <a href="/wiki/St_John%27s_College,_Cambridge" title="St John's College, Cambridge">St John's College, Cambridge</a>, awarded him an <i><a href="/wiki/Ex_officio" class="mw-redirect" title="Ex officio">ex officio</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts_(Oxford,_Cambridge,_and_Dublin)" title="Master of Arts (Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin)">M.A.</a> degree.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985120–121_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985120–121-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Peierls,Rudolf_1937.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Peierls%2CRudolf_1937.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="250" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="250" /></a><figcaption>Peierls in 1937</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1936, <a href="/wiki/Mark_Oliphant" title="Mark Oliphant">Mark Oliphant</a> was appointed the professor of physics at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Birmingham" title="University of Birmingham">University of Birmingham</a>, and he approached Peierls about a new chair in applied mathematics that he was creating there. (Applied mathematics being what would today be called theoretical physics.) Peierls got the job despite competition from <a href="/wiki/Harrie_Massey" title="Harrie Massey">Harrie Massey</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Harry_Jones_(physicist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Harry Jones (physicist) (page does not exist)">Harry Jones</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Jones_(Physiker,_1905)" class="extiw" title="de:Harry Jones (Physiker, 1905)">de</a>]</span>. The appointment at last gave Peierls a secure, permanent position.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985127–128_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985127–128-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His students included <a href="/wiki/Fred_Hoyle" title="Fred Hoyle">Fred Hoyle</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=P._L._Kapur&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="P. L. Kapur (page does not exist)">P. L. Kapur</a>, a student from India.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985134–135_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985134–135-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With Kapur he derived the dispersion formula for <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reaction" title="Nuclear reaction">nuclear reactions</a> originally given in <a href="/wiki/Perturbation_theory_(quantum_mechanics)" title="Perturbation theory (quantum mechanics)">perturbation theory</a> by <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Breit" title="Gregory Breit">Gregory Breit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a>, but now included generalising conditions. This is now known as the Kapur–Peierls derivation. It is still used, but in 1947 Wigner and <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Eisenbud" title="Leonard Eisenbud">Leonard Eisenbud</a> developed a more widely used alternative method.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985134–135_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985134–135-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1938, Peierls paid visits to Copenhagen, where he collaborated with Bohr and <a href="/wiki/George_Placzek" title="George Placzek">George Placzek</a> on a paper on what is now known as the <a href="/wiki/Bohr%E2%80%93Peierls%E2%80%93Placzek_relation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bohr–Peierls–Placzek relation">Bohr–Peierls–Placzek relation</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a> broke out before it could be published; but drafts were circulated for comment, and it became one of the most cited unpublished papers of all time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2007273_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2007273-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Second_World_War">Second World War</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Peierls&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Second World War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Frisch–Peierls_memorandum"><span id="Frisch.E2.80.93Peierls_memorandum"></span>Frisch–Peierls memorandum</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Peierls&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Frisch–Peierls memorandum"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Frisch%E2%80%93Peierls_memorandum" title="Frisch–Peierls memorandum">Frisch–Peierls memorandum</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:University_of_Birmingham_-_Poynting_Physics_Building_-_blue_plaques_group_-_Frisch_Peierls.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/University_of_Birmingham_-_Poynting_Physics_Building_-_blue_plaques_group_-_Frisch_Peierls.jpg/220px-University_of_Birmingham_-_Poynting_Physics_Building_-_blue_plaques_group_-_Frisch_Peierls.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/University_of_Birmingham_-_Poynting_Physics_Building_-_blue_plaques_group_-_Frisch_Peierls.jpg/330px-University_of_Birmingham_-_Poynting_Physics_Building_-_blue_plaques_group_-_Frisch_Peierls.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/University_of_Birmingham_-_Poynting_Physics_Building_-_blue_plaques_group_-_Frisch_Peierls.jpg 2x" data-file-width="336" data-file-height="286" /></a><figcaption>Plaque commemorating the Frisch-Peierls memorandum at the University of Birmingham's Poynting Physics Building</figcaption></figure> <p>After the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939, Peierls started working on <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear weapons">nuclear weapons</a> research with <a href="/wiki/Otto_Robert_Frisch" title="Otto Robert Frisch">Otto Robert Frisch</a>, a fellow refugee from Germany. Ironically, they were excluded from the work on <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> at the University of Birmingham because it was considered too secret for scientists who were <a href="/wiki/Enemy_alien" title="Enemy alien">enemy aliens</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2007273–274_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2007273–274-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Peierls was <a href="/wiki/Naturalised" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalised">naturalised</a> as a <a href="/wiki/British_subject" title="British subject">British subject</a> on 27 March 1940.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was eager to participate in the fight against fascism and militarism, but the only organisation that would accept him was the <a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_Fire_Service" title="Auxiliary Fire Service">Auxiliary Fire Service</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985147–148_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985147–148-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He accepted an offer from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Toronto" title="University of Toronto">University of Toronto</a> to send his two children to live with a family in Canada.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985151,_173_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985151,_173-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In February and March 1940, Peierls and Frisch co-authored the <a href="/wiki/Frisch%E2%80%93Peierls_memorandum" title="Frisch–Peierls memorandum">Frisch–Peierls memorandum</a>, which Peierls typed. This short paper was the first to establish that an <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bomb">atomic bomb</a> could be created from a small amount of <a href="/wiki/Fissile" class="mw-redirect" title="Fissile">fissile</a> <a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235">uranium-235</a>. Based on the information at hand, they calculated that less than 1 kg would be required. The true figure for the <a href="/wiki/Critical_mass" title="Critical mass">critical mass</a> is about four times as large; but until then it had been assumed that such a bomb would require many tons of uranium, and consequently was impractical to build and use. They went on to estimate the size of the explosion, and its physical, military and political effects.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGowing196440–45_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGowing196440–45-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Frisch–Peierls memorandum was pivotal in igniting the interest of first the British and later the American authorities in atomic weapons. In 1941 its findings made their way to the United States through the report of the <a href="/wiki/MAUD_Committee" title="MAUD Committee">MAUD Committee</a>, an important trigger in the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> and the subsequent development of the atomic bomb. With the Frisch-Peierls memorandum and the MAUD Committee report, the British and American scientists were able to begin thinking about how to create a bomb, not whether it was possible.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGowing196477–80_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGowing196477–80-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As enemy aliens, Frisch and Peierls were initially excluded from the MAUD Committee, but the absurdity of this was soon recognised, and they were made members of its Technical Subcommittee.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985155–156_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985155–156-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This did not mean that they were cleared for radar work. When Oliphant made the services of his secretary available for typing up the Peierl's and Frisch's papers for the MAUD Committee in September 1940, they were not allowed to enter the Nuffield Building where she worked, so Peierls submitted them for typing by <a href="/wiki/Dictaphone" title="Dictaphone">dictaphone</a> on wax cylinders. Frisch and Peierls thought at first that <a href="/wiki/Uranium_enrichment" class="mw-redirect" title="Uranium enrichment">uranium enrichment</a> was best achieved through <a href="/wiki/Thermophoresis" title="Thermophoresis">thermal diffusion</a>, but as the difficulties with this approach became more apparent they switched to <a href="/wiki/Gaseous_diffusion" title="Gaseous diffusion">gaseous diffusion</a>, bringing in a fellow refugee from Germany, <a href="/wiki/Franz_Simon" class="mw-redirect" title="Franz Simon">Franz Simon</a>, as an expert on the subject.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985158–159_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985158–159-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Peierls also recruited yet another refugee from Germany, <a href="/wiki/Klaus_Fuchs" title="Klaus Fuchs">Klaus Fuchs</a>, as his assistant in May 1941.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985163_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985163-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Manhattan_Project">Manhattan Project</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Peierls&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Manhattan Project"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/British_contribution_to_the_Manhattan_Project" title="British contribution to the Manhattan Project">British contribution to the Manhattan Project</a></div> <p>As a result of the MAUD Committee's findings, a new directorate known as <a href="/wiki/Tube_Alloys" title="Tube Alloys">Tube Alloys</a> was created to coordinate the nuclear weapons development effort. Sir <a href="/wiki/John_Anderson,_1st_Viscount_Waverley" title="John Anderson, 1st Viscount Waverley">John Anderson</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Lord_President_of_the_Council" title="Lord President of the Council">Lord President of the Council</a>, became the minister responsible, and <a href="/wiki/Wallace_Akers" title="Wallace Akers">Wallace Akers</a> from <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Chemical_Industries" title="Imperial Chemical Industries">Imperial Chemical Industries</a> (ICI) was appointed the director of Tube Alloys. Peierls, Chadwick and Simon were appointed to its Technical Committee, which was chaired by Akers. Its first meeting, in November 1941,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGowing1964108–111_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGowing1964108–111-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was attended by two American visitors, <a href="/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey">Harold Urey</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_B._Pegram" title="George B. Pegram">George B. Pegram</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985166_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985166-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later that year, Peierls flew to the United States, where he visited Urey and Fermi in New York, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_H._Compton" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur H. Compton">Arthur H. Compton</a> in Chicago, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Oppenheimer" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a> in <a href="/wiki/Berkeley,_California" title="Berkeley, California">Berkeley</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jesse_Beams" title="Jesse Beams">Jesse Beams</a> in <a href="/wiki/Charlottesville,_Virginia" title="Charlottesville, Virginia">Charlottesville, Virginia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985170–174_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985170–174-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When <a href="/wiki/George_Kistiakowsky" title="George Kistiakowsky">George Kistiakowsky</a> argued that a nuclear weapon would do little damage as most of the energy would be expended heating the air, Peierls, Fuchs, <a href="/wiki/G._I._Taylor" title="G. I. Taylor">Geoffrey Taylor</a> and J. G. Kynch worked out the <a href="/wiki/Hydrodynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrodynamics">hydrodynamics</a> to refute this.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985176–177_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985176–177-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The signing of the <a href="/wiki/Quebec_Agreement" title="Quebec Agreement">Quebec Agreement</a> on 19 August 1943 merged Tube Alloys with the Manhattan Project.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGowing1964164–174_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGowing1964164–174-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Akers had already cabled London with instructions that Chadwick, Peierls, Oliphant and Simon should leave immediately for North America to join the <a href="/wiki/British_contribution_to_the_Manhattan_Project" title="British contribution to the Manhattan Project">British Mission to the Manhattan Project</a>, and they arrived the day the agreement was signed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1985242–243_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1985242–243-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Simon and Peierls were attached to the <a href="/wiki/Kellex_Corporation" title="Kellex Corporation">Kellex Corporation</a>, which was engaged in the <a href="/wiki/K-25_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="K-25 Project">K-25 Project</a>, designing and building the American gaseous diffusion plant.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGowing1964250–256_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGowing1964250–256-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While Kellex was located in the <a href="/wiki/Woolworth_Building" title="Woolworth Building">Woolworth Building</a>, Peierls, Simon and <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Kurti" title="Nicholas Kurti">Nicholas Kurti</a> had their offices in the British supply mission on <a href="/wiki/Wall_Street" title="Wall Street">Wall Street</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985184–185_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985184–185-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were joined there by <a href="/wiki/Tony_Skyrme" title="Tony Skyrme">Tony Skyrme</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frank_Kearton" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank Kearton">Frank Kearton</a>, who arrived in March 1944. Kurti returned to England in April 1944 and Kearton in September.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGowing1964250–256_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGowing1964250–256-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Peierls moved on to the <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Los Alamos Laboratory">Los Alamos Laboratory</a> in February 1944; Skyrme followed in July, and Fuchs in August.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESzasz1992148–151_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESzasz1992148–151-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At Los Alamos, the British Mission was fully integrated into the laboratory, and British scientists worked in most of its divisions, being excluded only from <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a> chemistry and metallurgy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESzasz199218–19_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESzasz199218–19-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Oppenheimer appointed Bethe as the head of the laboratory's prestigious Theoretical (T) Division, he offended <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a>, who was given his own group, tasked with investigating <a href="/wiki/Teller%27s_%22Super%22_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Teller's "Super" bomb">Teller's "Super" bomb</a>. Oppenheimer then wrote to the director of the Manhattan Project, <a href="/wiki/Brigadier_General_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Brigadier General (United States)">Brigadier General</a> <a href="/wiki/Leslie_R._Groves,_Jr" class="mw-redirect" title="Leslie R. Groves, Jr">Leslie R. Groves, Jr</a>, requesting that Peierls be sent to take Teller's place in T Division.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESzasz199220_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESzasz199220-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Peierls arrived from New York on 8 February 1944,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESzasz1992148–151_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESzasz1992148–151-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and subsequently succeeded Chadwick as head of the British Mission at Los Alamos.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHawkinsTruslowSmith196129_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawkinsTruslowSmith196129-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Peierls also became leader of T-1 (Implosion) Group,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHawkinsTruslowSmith196184_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHawkinsTruslowSmith196184-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993162_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993162-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and so was responsible for the design of the <a href="/wiki/Explosive_lens" title="Explosive lens">explosive lenses</a> used in the <a href="/wiki/Implosion-type_nuclear_weapon" class="mw-redirect" title="Implosion-type nuclear weapon">implosion-type nuclear weapon</a> to focus an explosion onto a spherical shape.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993294–296_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993294–296-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He sent regular reports to Chadwick, the head of the British Mission to the Manhattan Project, in Washington, DC. When Groves found out, he asked Peierls to send him reports too.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985201_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985201-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Peierls was one of those present at the <a href="/wiki/Trinity_nuclear_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinity nuclear test">Trinity nuclear test</a> on 16 July 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985200–202_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985200–202-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He returned to England in January 1946.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESzasz199246–49_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESzasz199246–49-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For his services to the nuclear weapons project, he was appointed a <a href="/wiki/Commander_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Commander of the Order of the British Empire">Commander of the Order of the British Empire</a> in the <a href="/wiki/1946_New_Year_Honours" title="1946 New Year Honours">1946 New Year Honours</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was awarded the US <a href="/wiki/Medal_of_Freedom_(1945)" title="Medal of Freedom (1945)">Medal of Freedom</a> with Silver Palm in 1946.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Espionage">Espionage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Peierls&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Espionage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Atomic_spies" title="Atomic spies">Atomic spies</a></div> <p>Peierls was responsible for the recruitment of Fuchs to the British project, an action which was to result in Peierls falling under suspicion when Fuchs was exposed as a Soviet spy in 1950. In 1999, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Spectator" title="The Spectator">The Spectator</a></i> garnered outrage from Peierls's family when it published an article by journalist Nicholas Farrell that alleged that Peierls was a spy for the Soviet Union.<sup id="cite_ref-spies_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spies-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The article was based on information supplied by intelligence historian <a href="/wiki/Nigel_West" class="mw-redirect" title="Nigel West">Nigel West</a>, who identified Peierls as the spy codenamed "Fogel" and later "Pers" in the <a href="/wiki/Venona" class="mw-redirect" title="Venona">Venona</a> intercepts, and his wife Genia as the spy codenamed "Tina".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee200277_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee200277-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the association of Tina with Genia did not fit with what was known about Tina, and she was conclusively revealed to be <a href="/wiki/Melita_Norwood" title="Melita Norwood">Melita Norwood</a> in 1999. Nor did Peierls fit Pers, as the latter worked at the <a href="/wiki/Clinton_Engineer_Works" title="Clinton Engineer Works">Clinton Engineer Works</a>, whereas Peierls did not.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee200287–88_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee200287–88-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There were good reasons for the postwar intelligence agencies to suspect Peierls. He not only had recruited Fuchs, and served as his "sponsor" on recruitment and security matters,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee200277_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee200277-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but had pressed the authorities for Fuchs to be given a full security clearance without which he could not have assisted Peierls in his work. Fuchs lived with the Peierls family for a time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985163–164_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985163–164-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Peierls had a Russian wife, as did his brother, and he maintained close contact with colleagues in the Soviet Union before and after the Second World War.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee200278_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee200278-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While not a <a href="/wiki/Communist" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist">communist</a> like Fuchs, Peierls was known to have left-wing political views,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee200288_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee200288-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and had colleagues with similar views.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee200293_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee200293-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was denied a visa to visit the United States to attend a Nuclear Physics Conference in <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a> in 1951. A similar request the following year was granted,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee200294–95_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee200294–95-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but in 1957 the Americans expressed concerns about him, indicating that they were unwilling to share information with the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Research_Establishment" title="Atomic Energy Research Establishment">Atomic Energy Research Establishment</a> at Harwell while he remained as a consultant.<sup id="cite_ref-ODNB_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODNB-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post-war">Post-war</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Peierls&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Post-war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_physicists_Paul_Dirac,_Wolfgang_Pauli_and_Rudolf_Peierls,_c_1953._(9660575591).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/The_physicists_Paul_Dirac%2C_Wolfgang_Pauli_and_Rudolf_Peierls%2C_c_1953._%289660575591%29.jpg/220px-The_physicists_Paul_Dirac%2C_Wolfgang_Pauli_and_Rudolf_Peierls%2C_c_1953._%289660575591%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/The_physicists_Paul_Dirac%2C_Wolfgang_Pauli_and_Rudolf_Peierls%2C_c_1953._%289660575591%29.jpg/330px-The_physicists_Paul_Dirac%2C_Wolfgang_Pauli_and_Rudolf_Peierls%2C_c_1953._%289660575591%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/The_physicists_Paul_Dirac%2C_Wolfgang_Pauli_and_Rudolf_Peierls%2C_c_1953._%289660575591%29.jpg/440px-The_physicists_Paul_Dirac%2C_Wolfgang_Pauli_and_Rudolf_Peierls%2C_c_1953._%289660575591%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1250" data-file-height="1035" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Wolfgang Pauli</a> and Rudolf Peierls, c 1953.</figcaption></figure> <p>Physicists were in demand after the war, and Peierls received offers from several universities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2007275_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2007275-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He seriously considered an offer of a position at Cambridge from <a href="/wiki/William_Lawrence_Bragg" class="mw-redirect" title="William Lawrence Bragg">William Lawrence Bragg</a>, but decided to return to Birmingham.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985208–209_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985208–209-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He worked on <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_force" title="Nuclear force">nuclear forces</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scattering" title="Scattering">scattering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">quantum field theories</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_structure" title="Nuclear structure">collective motion in nuclei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transport_theory_(statistical_physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transport theory (statistical physics)">transport theory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">statistical mechanics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Edwards_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edwards-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Peierls had largely left solid state physics behind when, in 1953, he began collecting his lecture notes on the subject into a book. Reconsidering the way that the atoms in metal crystals are arranged, he noted an instability. This became known as the <a href="/wiki/Peierls_transition" title="Peierls transition">Peierls transition</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985229_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985229-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Peierls built up the physics department at Birmingham by attracting high quality researchers. These included <a href="/wiki/Gerald_E._Brown" title="Gerald E. Brown">Gerald E. Brown</a>, <a href="/wiki/Max_Krook" title="Max Krook">Max Krook</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tony_Skyrme" title="Tony Skyrme">Tony Skyrme</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dick_Dalitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Dick Dalitz">Dick Dalitz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freeman_Dyson" title="Freeman Dyson">Freeman Dyson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Arialdo_Radicati_di_Brozolo" title="Luigi Arialdo Radicati di Brozolo">Luigi Arialdo Radicati di Brozolo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Thomas_Butler" title="Stuart Thomas Butler">Stuart Butler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Marshall,_Baron_Marshall_of_Goring" title="Walter Marshall, Baron Marshall of Goring">Walter Marshal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Mandelstam" title="Stanley Mandelstam">Stanley Mandelstam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elliott_H._Lieb" title="Elliott H. Lieb">Elliott H. Lieb</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985230–246_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985230–246-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An undergraduate school of mathematical physics was created. Peierls delivered the lectures on quantum mechanics, a subject that had not been taught at Birmingham before the war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985257–258_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985257–258-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1946 Peierls became a consultant to the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Research_Establishment" title="Atomic Energy Research Establishment">Atomic Energy Research Establishment</a> at <a href="/wiki/Harwell,_Oxfordshire" title="Harwell, Oxfordshire">Harwell</a>. After Fuchs was dismissed from his position there as head of the Theoretical Physics Division in 1950, <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Pryce" title="Maurice Pryce">Maurice Pryce</a> acted in the position in a part-time capacity, but when he went to America for a year on sabbatical, Peierls took his place. The position was finally filled permanently by <a href="/wiki/Brian_Flowers" class="mw-redirect" title="Brian Flowers">Brian Flowers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985277–279_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985277–279-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Peierls resigned from Harwell in 1957 due to what he saw as a lack of openness in security vetting at the request of the Americans, which he felt indicated a lack of trust in him on the part of senior staff; but he was invited to rejoin in 1960, and did so in 1963, remaining as a consultant for another 30 years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee200290_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee200290-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Peierls became the <a href="/wiki/Wykeham_Professor_of_Physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Wykeham Professor of Physics">Wykeham Professor of Physics</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a> in 1963. He remained there until he retired in 1974.<sup id="cite_ref-ODNB_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODNB-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He wrote several books including <i>Quantum Theory of Solids</i> (1955), <i>The Laws of Nature</i> (1955), <i>Surprises in Theoretical Physics</i> (1979), <i>More Surprises in Theoretical Physics</i> (1991) and an autobiography, <i>Bird of Passage</i> (1985). Concerned with the nuclear weapons he had helped to unleash, he worked on the <a href="/wiki/Bulletin_of_the_Atomic_Scientists" title="Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists">Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists</a>, was President of the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_Scientists%27_Association_in_the_UK" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic Scientists' Association in the UK">Atomic Scientists' Association in the UK</a>, and was involved in the <a href="/wiki/Pugwash_Conferences_on_Science_and_World_Affairs" title="Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs">Pugwash movement</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Edwards_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edwards-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and FREEZE, now known as <a href="/wiki/Saferworld" title="Saferworld">Saferworld</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2007281–282_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2007281–282-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Genia died on 26 October 1986. Peierls remained active, although his eyesight deteriorated. In 1994, he suffered a combination of health problems, including heart, kidney and lung problems, and relocated himself to Oakenholt, a nursing home near <a href="/wiki/Farmoor" title="Farmoor">Farmoor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxfordshire" title="Oxfordshire">Oxfordshire</a>. He liked to read scientific papers in enlarged script on a computer screen. During 1995, his health continued to decline,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2007280–282_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2007280–282-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and he required regular <a href="/wiki/Kidney_dialysis" title="Kidney dialysis">kidney dialysis</a> sessions at <a href="/wiki/Churchill_Hospital" title="Churchill Hospital">Churchill Hospital</a>, where he died on 19 September 1995.<sup id="cite_ref-ODNB_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODNB-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Honours">Honours</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Peierls&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Honours"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Peierls was <a href="/wiki/Knight_Bachelor" title="Knight Bachelor">knighted</a> in the <a href="/wiki/1968_Birthday_Honours" title="1968 Birthday Honours">1968 Birthday Honours</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Rutherford_Memorial_Medal" title="Rutherford Memorial Medal">Rutherford Memorial Medal</a> in 1952,<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Medal" title="Royal Medal">Royal Medal</a> in 1959,<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Lorentz_Medal" title="Lorentz Medal">Lorentz Medal</a> in 1962,<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Medal" title="Max Planck Medal">Max Planck Medal</a> in 1963,<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Guthrie_Medal_and_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Guthrie Medal and Prize">Guthrie Medal and Prize</a> in 1968,<sup id="cite_ref-ODNB_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODNB-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Matteucci_Medal" title="Matteucci Medal">Matteucci Medal</a> in 1982,<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi_Award" title="Enrico Fermi Award">Enrico Fermi Award</a> from the United States Government for exceptional contribution to the science of atomic energy in 1980.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1986, he was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Copley_Medal" title="Copley Medal">Copley Medal</a>, and delivered the <a href="/wiki/Rutherford_Memorial_Lecture_(Royal_Society)" title="Rutherford Memorial Lecture (Royal Society)">Rutherford Memorial Lecture</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2009924_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2009924-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in 1991 he was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Dirac_Medal_(IOP)" title="Dirac Medal (IOP)">Dirac Medal and Prize</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ODNB_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODNB-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 2 October 2004, the building housing the sub-department of <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_Physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Theoretical Physics">Theoretical Physics</a> at the University of Oxford was formally named the <i>Sir Rudolf Peierls Centre for Theoretical Physics</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2009vii_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2009vii-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Peierls&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Edwards-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Edwards_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Edwards_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Edwards_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Edwards_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Edwards_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFEdwards1996" class="citation journal cs1">Edwards, S. (1996). "Rudolph E. Peierls". <i>Physics Today</i>. <b>49</b> (2): 74–75. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996PhT....49b..74E">1996PhT....49b..74E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.2807521">10.1063/1.2807521</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Today&rft.atitle=Rudolph+E.+Peierls&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=74-75&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.2807521&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1996PhT....49b..74E&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Peierls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCathcart1995" class="citation news cs1">Cathcart, Brian (21 September 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-sir-rudolf-peierls-1602308.html">"Obituary: Sir Rudolf Peierls"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Independent" title="The Independent">The Independent</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=Obituary%3A+Sir+Rudolf+Peierls&rft.date=1995-09-21&rft.aulast=Cathcart&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fpeople%2Fobituary-sir-rudolf-peierls-1602308.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Peierls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ODNB-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ODNB_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ODNB_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ODNB_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ODNB_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ODNB_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ODNB_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ODNB_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ODNB_3-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ODNB_3-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDalitz2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Dalitz, Richard (2008) [2004]. "Peierls, Rudolf Ernst (1907–1995)". <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</a></i> (online ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F60076">10.1093/ref:odnb/60076</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Peierls%2C+Rudolf+Ernst+%281907%E2%80%931995%29&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F60076&rft.aulast=Dalitz&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Peierls" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required.)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls19855,_11-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls19855,_11_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeierls1985">Peierls 1985</a>, pp. 5, 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2007268-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2007268_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2007268_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2007268_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLee2007">Lee 2007</a>, p. 268.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls19856-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls19856_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeierls1985">Peierls 1985</a>, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls19856–13-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls19856–13_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeierls1985">Peierls 1985</a>, pp. 6–13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls198516–20-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls198516–20_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeierls1985">Peierls 1985</a>, pp. 16–20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls198523–24-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls198523–24_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeierls1985">Peierls 1985</a>, pp. 23–24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls198525–27-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls198525–27_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeierls1985">Peierls 1985</a>, pp. 25–27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls198532–33-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls198532–33_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeierls1985">Peierls 1985</a>, pp. 32–33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls198533–34-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls198533–34_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeierls1985">Peierls 1985</a>, pp. 33–34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2007269-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2007269_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2007269_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLee2007">Lee 2007</a>, p. 269.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeierls1929" class="citation journal cs1">Peierls, R. (1929). "Zur kinetischen Theorie der Wärmeleitung in Kristallen". <i>Annalen der Physik</i>. <b>395</b> (8): 1055–1101. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1929AnP...395.1055P">1929AnP...395.1055P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.19293950803">10.1002/andp.19293950803</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1521-3889">1521-3889</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annalen+der+Physik&rft.atitle=Zur+kinetischen+Theorie+der+W%C3%A4rmeleitung+in+Kristallen&rft.volume=395&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1055-1101&rft.date=1929&rft.issn=1521-3889&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fandp.19293950803&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1929AnP...395.1055P&rft.aulast=Peierls&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Peierls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls198540–45-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls198540–45_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeierls1985">Peierls 1985</a>, pp. 40–45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2007269–270-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2007269–270_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2007269–270_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLee2007">Lee 2007</a>, pp. 269–270.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls198554–55-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls198554–55_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeierls1985">Peierls 1985</a>, pp. 54–55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls198568-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls198568_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeierls1985">Peierls 1985</a>, p. 68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">1. R.E. Peierls, "Zur Theorie der galvanomagnetischen Effekte", 1929. 2. R.E. Peierls, "Zur Theorie des Hall Effekts", 1929. The English translation of these 2 papers can be found in "Selected Scientific Papers of Sir Rudolf Peierls", edited by R H Dalitz & Sir Rudolf Peierls, World Scientific, 1997.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls198580-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls198580_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeierls1985">Peierls 1985</a>, p. 80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls198582–93-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls198582–93_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeierls1985">Peierls 1985</a>, pp. 82–93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2007271-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2007271_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2007271_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLee2007">Lee 2007</a>, p. 271.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeierls1933" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Peierls, R. (November 1933). "Zur Theorie des Diamagnetismus von Leitungselektronen" [On the theory of diamagnetism of conduction electrons]. <i>Zeitschrift für Physik</i> (in German). <b>80</b> (11–12): 763–791. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1933ZPhy...80..763P">1933ZPhy...80..763P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01342591">10.1007/BF01342591</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0044-3328">0044-3328</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119930820">119930820</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Physik&rft.atitle=Zur+Theorie+des+Diamagnetismus+von+Leitungselektronen&rft.volume=80&rft.issue=11%E2%80%9312&rft.pages=763-791&rft.date=1933-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01342591&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119930820%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0044-3328&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1933ZPhy...80..763P&rft.aulast=Peierls&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Peierls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeierls1933" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Peierls, R. (March 1933). "Zur Theorie des Diamagnetismus von Leitungselektronen. II Starke Magnetfelder" [On the theory of diamagnetism of conduction electrons. II. Strong magnetic fields]. <i>Zeitschrift für Physik</i> (in German). <b>81</b> (3–4): 186–194. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1933ZPhy...81..186P">1933ZPhy...81..186P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01338364">10.1007/BF01338364</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0044-3328">0044-3328</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:122881533">122881533</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Physik&rft.atitle=Zur+Theorie+des+Diamagnetismus+von+Leitungselektronen.+II+Starke+Magnetfelder&rft.volume=81&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=186-194&rft.date=1933-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01338364&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A122881533%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0044-3328&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1933ZPhy...81..186P&rft.aulast=Peierls&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Peierls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls198589–96-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls198589–96_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeierls1985">Peierls 1985</a>, pp. 89–96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985141-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985141_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeierls1985">Peierls 1985</a>, p. 141.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2007271–272-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2007271–272_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2007271–272_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLee2007">Lee 2007</a>, pp. 271–272.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBethePeierls1934" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Bethe, H.</a>; Peierls, R. 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</li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985163–164-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985163–164_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeierls1985">Peierls 1985</a>, pp. 163–164.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELee200278-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee200278_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLee2002">Lee 2002</a>, p. 78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELee200288-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee200288_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLee2002">Lee 2002</a>, p. 88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELee200293-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee200293_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLee2002">Lee 2002</a>, p. 93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELee200294–95-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee200294–95_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLee2002">Lee 2002</a>, pp. 94–95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2007275-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2007275_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLee2007">Lee 2007</a>, p. 275.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985208–209-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985208–209_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeierls1985">Peierls 1985</a>, pp. 208–209.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985229-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985229_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeierls1985">Peierls 1985</a>, p. 229.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985230–246-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985230–246_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeierls1985">Peierls 1985</a>, pp. 230–246.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985257–258-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985257–258_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeierls1985">Peierls 1985</a>, pp. 257–258.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985277–279-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPeierls1985277–279_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPeierls1985">Peierls 1985</a>, pp. 277–279.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELee200290-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee200290_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLee2002">Lee 2002</a>, p. 90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2007281–282-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2007281–282_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLee2007">Lee 2007</a>, pp. 281–282.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2007280–282-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2007280–282_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLee2007">Lee 2007</a>, pp. 280–282.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGazette44600" class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/44600/supplement/6300">"No. 44600"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_London_Gazette" title="The London Gazette">The London Gazette</a></i> (Supplement). 8 June 1968. p. 6300.</cite><span 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lorentz+Medal&rft.pub=Koninklijke+Nederlandse+Akademie+van+Wetenschappen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.knaw.nl%2Fen%2Fawards%2Flaureates%2Florentzmedaille%2Foverzicht&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Peierls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181225064448/http://www.dpg-physik.de/preise/preistraeger_mp.html">"Preisträger Max Planck nach Jahren"</a> (in German). <a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Physikalische_Gesellschaft" class="mw-redirect" title="Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft">Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dpg-physik.de/preise/preistraeger_mp.html">the original</a> on 25 December 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Preistr%C3%A4ger+Max+Planck+nach+Jahren&rft.pub=Deutsche+Physikalische+Gesellschaft&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dpg-physik.de%2Fpreise%2Fpreistraeger_mp.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Peierls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.accademiaxl.it/en/medaglia-matteucci/">"Matteucci Medal"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Enrico+Fermi+Award+%E2%80%93+Award+Laureates&rft.pub=United+States+Department+of+Energy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscience.energy.gov%2Ffermi%2Faward-laureates%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Peierls" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2009924-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2009924_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLee2009">Lee 2009</a>, p. 924.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2009vii-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee2009vii_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLee2009">Lee 2009</a>, p. vii.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Peierls&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cavity_method" title="Cavity method">Cavity method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trace_inequality#Peierls–Bogoliubov_inequality" title="Trace inequality">Peierls–Bogoliubov inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frenkel%E2%80%93Kontorova_model#The_Peierls–Nabarro_potential" title="Frenkel–Kontorova model">Peierls–Nabarro potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hofstadter%27s_butterfly" title="Hofstadter's butterfly">Hofstadter's butterfly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mermin%E2%80%93Wagner_theorem" title="Mermin–Wagner theorem">Mermin–Wagner theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mott_insulator" title="Mott insulator">Mott insulator</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Peierls&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGowing1964" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Gowing" title="Margaret Gowing">Gowing, Margaret</a> (1964). <i>Britain and Atomic Energy, 1935–1945</i>. London: Macmillan Publishing. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/3195209">3195209</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britain+and+Atomic+Energy%2C+1935%E2%80%931945&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Macmillan+Publishing&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F3195209&rft.aulast=Gowing&rft.aufirst=Margaret&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Peierls" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHawkinsTruslowSmith1961" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Hawkins_(philosopher)" title="David Hawkins (philosopher)">Hawkins, David</a>; Truslow, Edith C.; Smith, Ralph Carlisle (1961). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/projectylosalamo0002unse"><i>Manhattan District history, Project Y, the Los Alamos story</i></a></span>. Los Angeles: Tomash Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-938228-08-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-938228-08-0"><bdi>978-0-938228-08-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 February</span> 2014</span>. <q>Originally published as Los Alamos Report LAMS-2532</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manhattan+District+history%2C+Project+Y%2C+the+Los+Alamos+story&rft.place=Los+Angeles&rft.pub=Tomash+Publishers&rft.date=1961&rft.isbn=978-0-938228-08-0&rft.aulast=Hawkins&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Truslow%2C+Edith+C.&rft.au=Smith%2C+Ralph+Carlisle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprojectylosalamo0002unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Peierls" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lillian_Hoddeson" title="Lillian Hoddeson">Hoddeson, Lillian</a>; Henriksen, Paul W.; Meade, Roger A.; <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Westfall" title="Catherine Westfall">Westfall, Catherine L.</a> (1993). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/criticalassembly0000unse"><i>Critical Assembly: A Technical History of Los Alamos During the Oppenheimer Years, 1943–1945</i></a></span>. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-44132-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-44132-3"><bdi>0-521-44132-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/26764320">26764320</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critical+Assembly%3A+A+Technical+History+of+Los+Alamos+During+the+Oppenheimer+Years%2C+1943%E2%80%931945&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F26764320&rft.isbn=0-521-44132-3&rft.aulast=Hoddeson&rft.aufirst=Lillian&rft.au=Henriksen%2C+Paul+W.&rft.au=Meade%2C+Roger+A.&rft.au=Westfall%2C+Catherine+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcriticalassembly0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Peierls" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1985" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Vincent (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141007074359/http://www.history.army.mil/html/books/011/11-10/CMH_Pub_11-10.pdf"><i>Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/10913875">10913875</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.army.mil/html/books/011/11-10/CMH_Pub_11-10.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 7 October 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 August</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manhattan%3A+The+Army+and+the+Atomic+Bomb&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=United+States+Army+Center+of+Military+History&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F10913875&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Vincent&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.army.mil%2Fhtml%2Fbooks%2F011%2F11-10%2FCMH_Pub_11-10.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Peierls" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2007" class="citation journal cs1">Lee, Sabine (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbm.2007.0003">"Rudolf Ernst Peierls. 5 June 1907–19 September 1995: Elected FRS 1945"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Biographical_Memoirs_of_Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society">Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society</a></i>. <b>53</b>: 266–284. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbm.2007.0003">10.1098/rsbm.2007.0003</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20461379">20461379</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biographical+Memoirs+of+Fellows+of+the+Royal+Society&rft.atitle=Rudolf+Ernst+Peierls.+5+June+1907%E2%80%9319+September+1995%3A+Elected+FRS+1945&rft.volume=53&rft.pages=266-284&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsbm.2007.0003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20461379%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Sabine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1098%252Frsbm.2007.0003&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Peierls" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2002" class="citation journal cs1">Lee, Sabine (Winter 2002). "The Spy that Never Was". <i>Intelligence and National Security</i>. <b>17</b> (4): 77–99. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02684520412331306650">10.1080/02684520412331306650</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0268-4527">0268-4527</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154260723">154260723</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Intelligence+and+National+Security&rft.atitle=The+Spy+that+Never+Was&rft.ssn=winter&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=77-99&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154260723%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0268-4527&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F02684520412331306650&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Sabine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Peierls" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2009" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Lee, Sabine, ed. (2009). <i>Sir Rudolf Peierls: selected private and scientific correspondence. Volume 2</i> (in English and German). Singapore: World Scientific. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789812797063" title="Special:BookSources/9789812797063"><bdi>9789812797063</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/938841452">938841452</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sir+Rudolf+Peierls%3A+selected+private+and+scientific+correspondence.+Volume+2&rft.place=Singapore&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F938841452&rft.isbn=9789812797063&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Peierls" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeierls1985" class="citation book cs1">Peierls, Rudolf (1985). <i>Bird of Passage: Recollections of a Physicist</i>. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-08390-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-08390-8"><bdi>0-691-08390-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/925040112">925040112</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bird+of+Passage%3A+Recollections+of+a+Physicist&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F925040112&rft.isbn=0-691-08390-8&rft.aulast=Peierls&rft.aufirst=Rudolf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Peierls" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzasz1992" class="citation book cs1">Szasz, Ferenc Morton (1992). <i>British Scientists and the Manhattan Project: the Los Alamos Years</i>. New York: St. Martin's Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-06167-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-06167-8"><bdi>978-0-312-06167-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/23901666">23901666</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=British+Scientists+and+the+Manhattan+Project%3A+the+Los+Alamos+Years&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F23901666&rft.isbn=978-0-312-06167-8&rft.aulast=Szasz&rft.aufirst=Ferenc+Morton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Peierls" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Peierls&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Rudolf_Peierls" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Rudolf Peierls">Rudolf Peierls</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ahf.nuclearmuseum.org/voices/oral-histories/sir-rudolf-peierlss-interview/">1979 Audio Interview with Sir Rudolf Peierls by Martin Sherwin</a> Voices of the Manhattan Project</li></ul> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/person.php?LinkID=mp06523">Portraits of Rudolf Peierls</a> at the <a href="/wiki/National_Portrait_Gallery,_London" title="National Portrait Gallery, London">National Portrait Gallery, London</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q61735#P1816" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120926125713/http://lanl.gov/history/wartime/pdf/Rudolf%20Peierls%20questionnaire%20form,%20June%2012,%201945.pdf">Rudolf Peierls own biographical notes from Los Alamos National Laboratory as a pdf</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived 26 September 2012)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://openvault.wgbh.org/catalog/V_28F1C920696B486F8796D1E449FF8391">War and Peace in the Nuclear Age; Dawn; Interview with Rudolf Peierls, 1986</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vault.fbi.gov/Rudolph%20and%20Eugenia%20Peierls">FBI file on Rudolf and Eugenia Peierls</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">O'Connor, John J.; <a href="/wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson" title="Edmund F. Robertson">Robertson, Edmund F.</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Peierls.html">"Rudolf Peierls"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/MacTutor_History_of_Mathematics_Archive" title="MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive">MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews" title="University of St Andrews">University of St Andrews</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rudolf+Peierls&rft.btitle=MacTutor+History+of+Mathematics+Archive&rft.pub=University+of+St+Andrews&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rft.au=Robertson%2C+Edmund+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk%2FBiographies%2FPeierls.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARudolf+Peierls" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=44061">Rudolf Peierls</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Mathematics_Genealogy_Project" title="Mathematics Genealogy Project">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Copley_Medallists_(1951–2000)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Copley_Medallists_1951%E2%80%932000" title="Template:Copley Medallists 1951–2000"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Copley_Medallists_1951%E2%80%932000" title="Template talk:Copley Medallists 1951–2000"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Copley_Medallists_1951%E2%80%932000" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Copley Medallists 1951–2000"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Copley_Medallists_(1951–2000)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Copley_Medal" title="Copley Medal">Copley Medallists</a> (1951–2000)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/David_Keilin" title="David Keilin">David Keilin</a> (1951)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a> (1952)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Kluyver" title="Albert Kluyver">Albert Kluyver</a> (1953)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/E._T._Whittaker" title="E. T. Whittaker">E. T. Whittaker</a> (1954)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Fisher" title="Ronald Fisher">Ronald Fisher</a> (1955)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Blackett" title="Patrick Blackett">Patrick Blackett</a> (1956)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey">Howard Florey</a> (1957)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Edensor_Littlewood" title="John Edensor Littlewood">John Edensor Littlewood</a> (1958)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Macfarlane_Burnet" title="Macfarlane Burnet">Macfarlane Burnet</a> (1959)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Harold_Jeffreys" title="Harold Jeffreys">Harold Jeffreys</a> (1960)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hans_Krebs_(biochemist)" title="Hans Krebs (biochemist)">Hans Krebs</a> (1961)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cyril_Norman_Hinshelwood" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyril Norman Hinshelwood">Cyril Norman Hinshelwood</a> (1962)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Fildes" title="Paul Fildes">Paul Fildes</a> (1963)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sydney_Chapman_(mathematician)" title="Sydney Chapman (mathematician)">Sydney Chapman</a> (1964)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Hodgkin" title="Alan Hodgkin">Alan Hodgkin</a> (1965)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Bragg" title="Lawrence Bragg">Lawrence Bragg</a> (1966)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Katz" title="Bernard Katz">Bernard Katz</a> (1967)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_Reichstein" title="Tadeusz Reichstein">Tadeusz Reichstein</a> (1968)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Medawar" title="Peter Medawar">Peter Medawar</a> (1969)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_R._Todd" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander R. Todd">Alexander R. Todd</a> (1970)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Pirie" title="Norman Pirie">Norman Pirie</a> (1971)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nevill_Francis_Mott" title="Nevill Francis Mott">Nevill Francis Mott</a> (1972)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Huxley" title="Andrew Huxley">Andrew Huxley</a> (1973)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/W._V._D._Hodge" title="W. V. D. Hodge">W. V. D. Hodge</a> (1974)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> (1975)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Hodgkin" title="Dorothy Hodgkin">Dorothy Hodgkin</a> (1976)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Sanger" title="Frederick Sanger">Frederick Sanger</a> (1977)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns_Woodward" title="Robert Burns Woodward">Robert Burns Woodward</a> (1978)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Max_Perutz" title="Max Perutz">Max Perutz</a> (1979)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Derek_Barton" title="Derek Barton">Derek Barton</a> (1980)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Peter_D._Mitchell" title="Peter D. Mitchell">Peter D. Mitchell</a> (1981)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Cornforth" title="John Cornforth">John Cornforth</a> (1982)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Rodney_Robert_Porter" class="mw-redirect" title="Rodney Robert Porter">Rodney Robert Porter</a> (1983)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar" title="Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar">Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar</a> (1984)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Klug" title="Aaron Klug">Aaron Klug</a> (1985)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rudolf Peierls</a> (1986)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Robin_Hill_(biochemist)" title="Robin Hill (biochemist)">Robin Hill</a> (1987)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Atiyah" title="Michael Atiyah">Michael Atiyah</a> (1988)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Milstein" title="César Milstein">César Milstein</a> (1989)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Abdus_Salam" title="Abdus Salam">Abdus Salam</a> (1990)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sydney_Brenner" title="Sydney Brenner">Sydney Brenner</a> (1991)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/George_Porter" title="George Porter">George Porter</a> (1992)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">James D. Watson</a> (1993)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Charles_Frank" title="Frederick Charles Frank">Frederick Charles Frank</a> (1994)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Frank_Fenner" title="Frank Fenner">Frank Fenner</a> (1995)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Cottrell" title="Alan Cottrell">Alan Cottrell</a> (1996)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Huxley" title="Hugh Huxley">Hugh Huxley</a> (1997)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_Lighthill" title="James Lighthill">James Lighthill</a> (1998)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Smith" title="John Maynard Smith">John Maynard Smith</a> (1999)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alan_R._Battersby" title="Alan R. Battersby">Alan Battersby</a> (2000)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q61735#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q61735#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q61735#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/000000011062224X">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/51718146">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1734798/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJqK9QVGh8kryGkkrXd4v3">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118592408">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79059891">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb120965066">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb120965066">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00452424">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35415113">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn19981001963&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p070911398">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90203699">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000183219&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000045478&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/wt796hpf4wrp5fs">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810700690005606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007279713905171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA00393628?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=44061">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:peierls.rudolf-e">zbMATH</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet/MRAuthorID/253752">MathSciNet</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.leopoldina.org/mitgliederverzeichnis/mitglieder/member/Member/show/sir-rudolf-peierls/">Leopoldina</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/944566">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118592408.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118592408">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/029312299">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6v12b35">SNAC</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Peierls&oldid=1258128439">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rudolf_Peierls&oldid=1258128439</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1907_births" title="Category:1907 births">1907 births</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1995_deaths" title="Category:1995 deaths">1995 deaths</a></li><li><a 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