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id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 26 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-26" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">26 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%84%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="إمبريالية لغوية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إمبريالية لغوية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%AD-gi%C3%A2n_t%C3%A8-kok_ch%C3%BA-g%C4%AB" title="Gí-giân tè-kok chú-gī – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Gí-giân tè-kok chú-gī" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprachimperialismus" title="Sprachimperialismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Sprachimperialismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperialismo_ling%C3%BC%C3%ADstico" title="Imperialismo lingüístico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Imperialismo lingüístico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingva_imperiismo" title="Lingva imperiismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Lingva imperiismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hizkuntza_inperialismo" title="Hizkuntza inperialismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hizkuntza inperialismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%85_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="امپریالیسم زبانی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="امپریالیسم زبانی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imp%C3%A9rialisme_linguistique" title="Impérialisme linguistique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Impérialisme linguistique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impiri%C3%BAlachas_teanga" title="Impiriúlachas teanga – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Impiriúlachas teanga" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%88_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="भाषाई साम्राज्यवाद – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="भाषाई साम्राज्यवाद" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jezi%C4%8Dni_imperijalizam" title="Jezični imperijalizam – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Jezični imperijalizam" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperialisme_bahasa" title="Imperialisme bahasa – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Imperialisme bahasa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%96%D7%9D_%D7%9C%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99" title="אימפריאליזם לשוני – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אימפריאליזם לשוני" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperialismus_linguisticus" title="Imperialismus linguisticus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Imperialismus linguisticus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperialisme_bahasa" title="Imperialisme bahasa – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Imperialisme bahasa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taalimperialisme" title="Taalimperialisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Taalimperialisme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A8%80%E8%AA%9E%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="言語帝国主義 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="言語帝国主義" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperialismo_lingu%C3%ADstico" title="Imperialismo linguístico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Imperialismo linguístico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperialismul_lingvistic_al_limbii_arabe" title="Imperialismul lingvistic al limbii arabe – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Imperialismul lingvistic al limbii arabe" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Языковой империализм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Языковой империализм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_imperialism" title="Linguistic imperialism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Linguistic imperialism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="ئیمپریالیزمی زمانی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئیمپریالیزمی زمانی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="மொழி மேலாதிக்கம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மொழி மேலாதிக்கம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dil_emperyalizmi" title="Dil emperyalizmi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Dil emperyalizmi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Мовний імперіалізм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Мовний імперіалізм" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="语言帝国主义 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="语言帝国主义" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q634266#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> 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For broader coverage of this topic, see <a href="/wiki/Cultural_imperialism" title="Cultural imperialism">Cultural imperialism</a>.</div> <p><b>Linguistic imperialism</b> or <b>language imperialism</b> is occasionally defined as "the transfer of a dominant <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a> to other people". This language "transfer" (or rather unilateral imposition) comes about because of <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperialism</a>. The transfer is considered to be a sign of <a href="/wiki/Power_in_international_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Power in international relations">power</a>; traditionally <a href="/wiki/Armed_forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Armed forces">military power</a> but also, in the modern world, <a href="/wiki/Economic_power" title="Economic power">economic power</a>. Aspects of the dominant <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a> are usually <a href="/wiki/Cultural_imperialism" title="Cultural imperialism">transferred</a> along with the language. In spatial terms, a few of Europe's hundreds of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_language" title="Indigenous language">indigenous languages</a> are employed in the function of <a href="/wiki/Official_language" title="Official language">official (state) languages</a> in <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a>, while only non-indigenous imperial (European) languages in the "Rest of the World".<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the modern world, linguistic imperialism may also be considered in the context of international development, affecting the standard by which organizations like the <a href="/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">International Monetary Fund</a> and the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> evaluate the trustworthiness and value of structural adjustment loans by virtue of views that are commonly foregrounded in English-language discourse and not neutral (<a href="/wiki/Linguistic_relativity" title="Linguistic relativity">linguistic relativism</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the early 1990s, linguistic imperialism has attracted attention among scholars of <a href="/wiki/Applied_linguistics" title="Applied linguistics">applied linguistics</a>. In particular, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Phillipson" title="Robert Phillipson">Robert Phillipson</a>'s 1992 book, <i><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_Imperialism" title="Linguistic Imperialism">Linguistic Imperialism</a></i>, has led to considerable debate about its merits and shortcomings. Phillipson found denunciations of linguistic imperialism that dated back to <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi</a> critiques of the <a href="/wiki/British_Council" title="British Council">British Council</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (European aristocracy was, at the time, agreeing on the use of English), and to <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> analyses of <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> as the language of world <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">world domination</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this vein, criticism of English as a world language is often rooted in <a href="/wiki/Anti-globalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-globalism">anti-globalism</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_imperialism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Linguistic imperialism is a form of <a href="/wiki/Linguicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguicism">linguicism</a> which benefits and grants power to the dominating/oppressing language and its speakers. As summarized by linguists <a href="/w/index.php?title=Heath_Rose&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Heath Rose (page does not exist)">Heath Rose</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Conama&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Conama (page does not exist)">John Conama</a>, Dr. Phillipson argues that the defining characteristics of linguistic imperialism are:<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>As a form of linguicism, which manifests in favoring the dominant language over another along similar lines as <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">sexism</a>.</li> <li>As a structurally manifested idea, where more resources and infrastructure are given to the dominant language</li> <li>As being ideological, in that it encourages beliefs that the dominant language form is more prestigious than others. These ideas are hegemonic and <a href="/wiki/Internalization_(sociology)" title="Internalization (sociology)">internalized</a> and naturalized as being "normal".</li> <li>As intertwined with the same structure as imperialism in culture, education, media, and politics.</li> <li>As having an exploitative essence, which causes <a href="/wiki/Injustice" title="Injustice">injustice</a> and inequality between those who use the dominant language and those who do not.</li> <li>As having a subtractive influence on other languages, in that learning the dominant language is at the expense of others.</li> <li>As being contested and resisted, because of these factors.</li></ol> <p>Although it is not easy to determine the intentions of specific policies which have led to linguicism, some scholars believe that intent can be proven by observing whether imperialist practices are continued once their <a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">sociolinguistic</a>, sociological, psychological, political, and educational harm of other languages are made aware.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_imperialism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The impacts of colonization on linguistic traditions vary based on the form of colonization experienced: trader, settler or exploitation.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Congolese-American linguist <a href="/wiki/Salikoko_Mufwene" title="Salikoko Mufwene">Salikoko Mufwene</a> describes trader colonization as one of the earliest forms of European colonization. In regions such as the western coast of Africa as well as the Americas, trade relations between European colonizers and indigenous peoples led to the development of <a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">pidgin languages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of these languages, such as Delaware Pidgin and <a href="/wiki/Mobilian_Jargon" title="Mobilian Jargon">Mobilian Jargon</a>, were based on Native American languages, while others, such as <a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Pidgin" title="Nigerian Pidgin">Nigerian Pidgin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cameroonian_Pidgin_English" title="Cameroonian Pidgin English">Cameroonian Pidgin</a>, were based on European ones.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As trader colonization proceeded mainly via these hybrid languages, rather than the languages of the colonizers, scholars like Mufwene contend that it posed little threat to indigenous languages.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carlisle_pupils.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Carlisle_pupils.jpg/220px-Carlisle_pupils.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Carlisle_pupils.jpg/330px-Carlisle_pupils.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Carlisle_pupils.jpg/440px-Carlisle_pupils.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="462" /></a><figcaption>A photo of students at the Carlisle Indian Industrial School</figcaption></figure> <p>Trader colonization was often followed by settler colonization, where European colonizers settled in these colonies to build new homes.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hamel, a Mexican linguist, argues that "segregation" and "integration" were two primary ways through which settler colonists engaged with aboriginal cultures.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In countries such as Uruguay, Brazil, Argentina, and those in the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a>, segregation and genocide decimated indigenous societies.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Widespread death due to war and illness caused many indigenous populations to lose their <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_language" title="Indigenous language">indigenous languages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, in countries that pursued policies of "integration", such as Mexico, <a href="/wiki/Guatemala" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a> and the Andean states, indigenous cultures were lost as aboriginal tribes mixed with colonists.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In these countries, the establishment of new European orders led to the adoption of colonial languages in governance and industry.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, European colonists also viewed the dissolution of indigenous societies and traditions as necessary for the development of a unified <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation state</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This led to efforts to destroy tribal languages and cultures: in Canada and the United States, for example, Native children were sent to boarding schools such as Col. Richard Pratt's <a href="/wiki/Carlisle_Indian_Industrial_School" title="Carlisle Indian Industrial School">Carlisle Indian Industrial School</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_10-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today, in countries such as the United States, Canada and Australia, which were once settler colonies, indigenous languages are spoken by only a small minority of the populace. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thomas_Babington_Macaulay_portret.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Thomas_Babington_Macaulay_portret.jpg/220px-Thomas_Babington_Macaulay_portret.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="314" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Thomas_Babington_Macaulay_portret.jpg/330px-Thomas_Babington_Macaulay_portret.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Thomas_Babington_Macaulay_portret.jpg/440px-Thomas_Babington_Macaulay_portret.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2217" data-file-height="3168" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of Lord Macaulay</figcaption></figure> <p>Mufwene also draws a distinction between settler colonies and exploitation colonies. In the latter, the process of colonization was focused on the extraction of raw materials needed in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_10-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, Europeans were less invested in their exploitation colonies, and few colonists planned to build homes in these colonies. As a result, indigenous languages were able to survive to a greater extent in these colonies compared to settler colonies.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_10-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In exploitation colonies, colonial languages were often only taught to a small local elite. During the period of <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British rule in India</a>, for example, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Babington_Macaulay" title="Thomas Babington Macaulay">Lord Macaulay</a> highlighted the need for "...<span class="nowrap"> </span>a class who may be interpreters between us and the millions who govern... a class of persons, Indian in blood and color, but English in taste, in my opinion, in morals and in intellect" in his now-famous "Macaulay minutes", which were written in support of the <a href="/wiki/English_Education_Act_1835" title="English Education Act 1835">English Education Act of 1835</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Parameswaran_21–41_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parameswaran_21–41-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The linguistic differences between the local elite and other locals exacerbated class stratification, and also increased inequality in access to education, industry and civic society in postcolonial states.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_10-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="English">English</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_imperialism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: English"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-Undue_weight_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span class="skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/45px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/68px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/90px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="354" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section may <b>lend <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view#Due_and_undue_weight" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view">undue weight</a> to certain ideas, incidents, or controversies</b>. Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:STRUCTURE" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:STRUCTURE">create a more balanced presentation</a>. Discuss and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Dispute_resolution" title="Wikipedia:Dispute resolution">resolve</a> this issue before removing this message. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2015</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <i>Linguistic Imperialism</i>, Robert Henry Phillipson defines English linguistic imperialism as "the dominance of English... asserted and maintained by the establishment and continuous reconstitution of structural and cultural inequalities between English and other languages."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> English is often called a worldwide "<a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a>", but Phillipson argues that when its dominance leads to a <a href="/wiki/Linguicide" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguicide">linguicide</a>, it can be more aptly titled a "lingua <a href="/wiki/Frankensteinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankensteinian">frankensteinia</a>"<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness"><span title="This information is too vague. (January 2022)">vague</span></a></i>]</sup> by his view.<sup id="cite_ref-Phillipson_2008_250–267_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Phillipson_2008_250–267-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Phillipson's theory supports the historic spread of English as an international language and that language's continued dominance, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">postcolonial</a> settings such as Wales, Scotland, Ireland, India, Pakistan, Uganda, Zimbabwe, etc., but also increasingly in "<a href="/wiki/Neocolonialism" title="Neocolonialism">neo-colonial</a>" settings such as continental <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>. His theory draws mainly on <a href="/wiki/Johan_Galtung" title="Johan Galtung">Johan Galtung</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperialism</a> theory, <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Antonio Gramsci</a>'s theory, and in particular on his notion of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_hegemony" title="Cultural hegemony">cultural hegemony</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Phillipson_2008_250–267_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Phillipson_2008_250–267-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A central theme of Phillipson's theory is the complex hegemonic processes<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (August 2015)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> which, he asserts, continue to sustain the pre-eminence of English in the world today. His book analyzes the <a href="/wiki/British_Council" title="British Council">British Council</a>'s use of rhetoric to promote English, and discusses key tenets of English <a href="/wiki/Applied_linguistics" title="Applied linguistics">applied linguistics</a> and English-language-teaching methodology. These tenets hold that: </p> <ul><li>English is best taught <a href="/wiki/Monolingual" class="mw-redirect" title="Monolingual">monolingually</a> ("the monolingual fallacy");</li> <li>the ideal teacher is a <a href="/wiki/Native_speaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Native speaker">native speaker</a> ("the native-speaker fallacy");<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (August 2015)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>the earlier English is taught, the better the results ("the early-start fallacy");<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (August 2015)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>the more English is taught, the better the results ("the maximum-exposure fallacy");<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (August 2015)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>if other languages are used much, standards of English will drop ("the subtractive fallacy").<sup id="cite_ref-Phillipson_2008_250–267_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Phillipson_2008_250–267-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>According to Phillipson, those who promote English—organizations such as the British Council, the <a href="/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">IMF</a> and the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a>, and individuals such as operators of English-language schools—use three types of argument: </p> <ul><li><i>Intrinsic</i> arguments describe the English language as "providential", "rich", "noble" and "interesting". Such arguments tend to assert what English <i>is</i> and what other languages <i>are not</i>.</li> <li><i>Extrinsic</i> arguments point out that English is well-established: that it has many speakers, and that there are trained teachers and a wealth of teaching material.</li> <li><i>Functional</i> arguments emphasize the usefulness of English as a gateway to the world.<sup id="cite_ref-Phillipson_2008_250–267_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Phillipson_2008_250–267-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Other arguments for English are: </p> <ul><li>its economic utility: it enables people to get access to some technologies</li> <li>its ideological function: it is said as standing for modernity;</li> <li>its status might be seen as symbol for material advance and efficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-Phillipson_2008_250–267_16-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Phillipson_2008_250–267-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Another theme in Phillipson's work is "linguicism"—the kind of <a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">prejudice</a> which can lead to <a href="/wiki/Endangered_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Endangered languages">endangered languages</a> becoming extinct or losing their local eminence due to the rise and competing prominence of English.<sup id="cite_ref-Phillipson_2008_250–267_16-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Phillipson_2008_250–267-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_languages">Other languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_imperialism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Other languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Linguistic_imperialism" title="Special:EditPage/Linguistic imperialism">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Linguistic+imperialism%22">"Linguistic imperialism"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Linguistic+imperialism%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Linguistic+imperialism%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Linguistic+imperialism%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Linguistic+imperialism%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Linguistic+imperialism%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>At various times, especially in colonial settings or where a dominant culture has sought to unify a region under its control, a similar phenomenon has arisen. In the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>—originally the language of a limited region in central Italy—was imposed first on the rest of Italy and later on parts of Europe, largely displacing local languages, while in <a href="/wiki/Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Roman Africa</a> Latin was dominant only until it and the native languages were displaced by <a href="/wiki/Arabization" title="Arabization">Arabization</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> had similar linguistic diversity when it was ruled by small native states. Under the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Persian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic empires">Hellenistic empires</a>, the tongue of the conqueror served as the <i><a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a></i>. The indigenous <a href="/wiki/Anatolian_languages" title="Anatolian languages">Anatolian languages</a> disappeared. </p><p>In the Far East, Africa and the Americas, regional languages have been or are being coercively replaced or slighted—<a href="/wiki/Tibetic_languages" title="Tibetic languages">Tibetan</a> and regional Chinese varieties by <a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Mandarin Chinese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ainu_language" title="Ainu language">Ainu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ryukyuan_languages" title="Ryukyuan languages">Ryukyuan</a> by Japanese, <a href="/wiki/Quechua_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Quechua language">Quechua</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_languages" title="Mesoamerican languages">Mesoamerican languages</a> by Spanish, <a href="/wiki/Malayo-Polynesian_languages" title="Malayo-Polynesian languages">Malayo-Polynesian languages</a> by <a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_language" title="Indonesian language">Indonesian</a>), <a href="/wiki/Philippine_languages" title="Philippine languages">Philippine languages</a> by <a href="/wiki/Filipino_language" title="Filipino language">Filipino</a> and so on. Arabization has eliminated many indigenous Berber languages in North Africa and restricted <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a> to use as a <a href="/wiki/Liturgical_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Liturgical language">liturgical language</a> by <a href="/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox_Church_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria">Coptic Christian Orthodox</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coptic_Catholic_Church" title="Coptic Catholic Church">Coptic Catholic Churches</a>. </p><p>The English language during the Middle Ages was an object of linguistic imperialism by the French language, particularly following the <a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman conquest">Norman conquest</a>. For hundreds of years, French or <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language" title="Anglo-Norman language">Anglo-Norman</a> was the language of administration (<i>See <a href="/wiki/Law_French" title="Law French">Law French</a></i>) and therefore a language of higher status in England. Latin remained the tongue of church and learning. Although many words introduced by the Normans are today indistinguishable by most English-speakers from native Germanic words, later-learned <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanwords</a>, copied from Latin or French may "sound more cultured" to a native English-speaker. </p><p>Following the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> over much of present-day Germany and Central Europe, the German language and its dialects became the preferred language of many Central-European nobility. With varying success, German spread across much of Central and Eastern Europe as a language of trade and status. This ended with World War II (<i>See also <a href="/wiki/Germanization" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanization">Germanization</a>.</i>). </p><p>French has also expanded. Languages such as <a href="/wiki/Occitan_language" title="Occitan language">Occitan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Breton_language" title="Breton language">Breton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catalan_language" title="Catalan language">Catalan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Corsican_language" title="Corsican language">Corsican</a> have been slighted in France. This process, known as <a href="/wiki/Francization" title="Francization">Francization</a>, often causes resistance amongst minority peoples, leading to demands for independence. Examples of this can still be found in <a href="/wiki/Breton_nationalism" title="Breton nationalism">Breton nationalism</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/Flemish_Movement" title="Flemish Movement">Flanders' Flemish Movement</a> in Belgium). </p><p>In Italy there is a situation similar to the French one, with Italian that has expanded at the expense of languages such as <a href="/wiki/Sardinian_language" title="Sardinian language">Sardinian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_language" title="Sicilian language">Sicilian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ladin_language" title="Ladin language">Ladin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Venetian_language" title="Venetian language">Venetian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Friulian_language" title="Friulian language">Friulan</a>, while languages such as German (in <a href="/wiki/South_Tyrol" title="South Tyrol">South Tyrol</a>) or French (in <a href="/wiki/Aosta_Valley" title="Aosta Valley">Aosta Valley</a>), historically persecuted, are now co-official in those regions (<i>See also <a href="/wiki/Italianization" title="Italianization">Italianization</a></i>). </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Euskara_hilarrietatik_ezabatu_-_1949.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Euskara_hilarrietatik_ezabatu_-_1949.jpg/220px-Euskara_hilarrietatik_ezabatu_-_1949.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Euskara_hilarrietatik_ezabatu_-_1949.jpg/330px-Euskara_hilarrietatik_ezabatu_-_1949.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Euskara_hilarrietatik_ezabatu_-_1949.jpg/440px-Euskara_hilarrietatik_ezabatu_-_1949.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="4608" /></a><figcaption>Warrant for the urgent removal of Basque language inscriptions from tombstones in <a href="/wiki/Gernika" class="mw-redirect" title="Gernika">Gernika</a> and its substitution for Spanish (1949), according to ordinance</figcaption></figure> <p>Portuguese and Spanish colonization made these languages prevalent in South America and in parts of Africa and Asia (the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a>, and for a short time <a href="/wiki/Formosa" class="mw-redirect" title="Formosa">Formosa</a>). In Spain, Spanish spread and was imposed over other languages, becoming the only official language of the state from the 18th to the 20th century. It was labelled "the companion of the Empire" by <a href="/wiki/Antonio_de_Nebrija" title="Antonio de Nebrija">Antonio de Nebrija</a> (1492) in the introduction to his <i><a href="/wiki/Gram%C3%A1tica_de_la_lengua_castellana" title="Gramática de la lengua castellana">Gramática de la lengua castellana</a></i>. </p><p>Russian linguistic imperialism can be seen in <a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a> both in the former dispute over <a href="/wiki/Belarus#Etymology" title="Belarus">the name of the country</a> (Belarus vs Belorussia) and in the common spelling of the name of their president. The English transcription of his name is the Russian form, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Lukashenko" title="Alexander Lukashenko">Alexander Lukashenko</a>, instead of the Belarusian form, Alyaksandr Lukashenka. </p><p>In post-independence <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, there were attempts to make <a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a> as the sole official language which was vehemently opposed by various provinces, particularly by the state of <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a> (see also <a href="/wiki/Hindi_imposition" title="Hindi imposition">Hindi imposition</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Karnataka" title="Karnataka">Karnataka</a>, linguistic imperialism manifests as pushes to impose <a href="/wiki/Kannada" title="Kannada">Kannada</a> almost everywhere.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (September 2023)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_imperialism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many scholars have participated in lively discussions of Phillipson's claims. Alan Davies, for instance, envisions the ghost of Phillipson haunting the Department of Applied Linguistics in Edinburgh: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>'Round up the usual suspects', he cries, outing those who have pretended all these years merely to teach applied linguistics, but who have really been plotting with the British Council to take over the world.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>For Davies, two cultures inhabit linguistic imperialism: one, a culture of <a href="/wiki/Guilt_(emotion)" title="Guilt (emotion)">guilt</a> ("colonies should never have happened"); the other, that of romantic despair ("we shouldn't be doing what we are doing"). Rajagopalan goes a step farther and maintains that Phillipson's book has led to a guilt complex among <a href="/wiki/English_language_learning_and_teaching" class="mw-redirect" title="English language learning and teaching">English language learning and teaching</a> (ELT) professionals.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Davies also argues that Phillipson's claims are not <a href="/wiki/Falsifiable" class="mw-redirect" title="Falsifiable">falsifiable</a>: what "if the dominated... wanted to adopt English and continue to want to keep it? Phillipson's unfalsifiable answer must be that they don't, they can't, they've been persuaded against their better interests."<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has thus been argued that Phillipson's theory is patronizing in its implication that developing countries lack independent decision-making capacity (to adopt or not to adopt ELT). In the context of <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>, Bisong holds that people in the "<a href="/wiki/Periphery_countries" title="Periphery countries">periphery</a>" use English pragmatically—they send their children to English-language schools precisely because they want them to grow up multilingual. Regarding Phillipson, Bisong maintains that "to interpret such actions as emanating from people who are victims of Centre linguistic imperialism is to bend sociolinguistic evidence to suit a preconceived thesis".<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If English should be abolished because it is foreign, Bisong argues, then Nigeria itself would also have to be dissolved, because it was conceived as a colonial structure. </p><p>Furthermore, the assumption that the English language itself is imperialistic has come under attack. <a href="/wiki/Henry_Widdowson" title="Henry Widdowson">Henry Widdowson</a> has argued that "there is a fundamental contradiction in the idea that the language of itself exerts hegemonic control: namely that if this were the case, you would never be able to challenge such control".<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, the idea that the promotion of English necessarily implies a demotion of local languages has been challenged. Holborrow points out that "not all Englishes in the centre dominate, nor are all speakers in the <a href="/wiki/Periphery_countries" title="Periphery countries">periphery</a> equally discriminated against".<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hiberno-English" title="Hiberno-English">Hiberno-English</a> or <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_English" title="New Zealand English">New Zealand English</a> or even <a href="/wiki/English_language_in_England" title="English language in England">England's regional dialects</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Cornish_dialect" title="Cornish dialect">Cornish English</a>, for instance, could be regarded as a non-dominant centre variety of English. </p><p>Some scholars believe that English's dominance is not due to specific language policies, but rather as a side-effect of the spread of English-speaking colonists through colonization and globalization.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thus it could be argued that, while those who follow Phillipson see choices about language as externally imposed, the other camp sees them as personal choices.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Response">Response</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_imperialism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Response"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Those who support the arguments favoring the existence of linguistic imperialism claim that arguments against it are often advanced by <a href="/wiki/Monolingual" class="mw-redirect" title="Monolingual">monolingual</a> native-speakers of English who may see the current status of English as a fact worthy of celebration.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Those who see the increasing spread of English in the world as a worrying development (which lowers the status of local and regional languages as well as potentially undermining or eroding cultural values) are likely to be more receptive to Phillipson's views. <a href="/wiki/Alastair_Pennycook" title="Alastair Pennycook">Alastair Pennycook</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suresh_Canagarajah" title="Suresh Canagarajah">Suresh Canagarajah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adrian_Holliday" title="Adrian Holliday">Adrian Holliday</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Julian_Edge&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Julian Edge (page does not exist)">Julian Edge</a> fall into this group and are described as <a href="/wiki/Critical_applied_linguistics" title="Critical applied linguistics">critical applied linguists</a>. </p><p>However, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Widdowson" title="Henry Widdowson">Henry Widdowson</a>’s remarks on <a href="/wiki/Critical_discourse_analysis" title="Critical discourse analysis">critical discourse analysis</a> may also be applied to the critical applied linguists: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It ought surely to be possible to say that an argument is confused, or an analysis flawed, without denying the justice of the cause they support. My view would be that if a case is just then we should look for ways of supporting it by coherent argument... And I would indeed argue that to do otherwise is to do a disservice to the cause. For the procedures of ideological exposure by expedient analysis... can, of course be taken up to further any cause, right wing as well as left.... If you have the conviction and commitment, you will always find your witch.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a>, the issue of de-anglicising the influence of English has been a topic of debate in the country even before <a href="/wiki/Irish_war_of_Independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Irish war of Independence">independence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ALD_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ALD-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An argument for de-anglicisation was delivered before the Irish National Literary Society in Dublin, 25 November 1892; "When we speak of 'The Necessity for De-Anglicising the Irish Nation', we mean it, not as a protest against imitating what is best in the <a href="/wiki/English_people" title="English people">English people</a>, for that would be absurd, but rather to show the folly of neglecting what is Irish, and hastening to adopt, pell-mell, and indiscriminately, everything that is English, simply because it is English."<sup id="cite_ref-ALD_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ALD-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Ghil%27ad_Zuckermann" title="Ghil'ad Zuckermann">Ghil'ad Zuckermann</a>, "Native tongue title and language rights should be promoted. The government ought to define <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_languages" title="Australian Aboriginal languages">Aboriginal</a> and Torres Strait Islander vernaculars as official languages of Australia. We must change the linguistic landscape of Whyalla and elsewhere. Signs should be in both English and the local indigenous language. We ought to acknowledge intellectual property of indigenous knowledge including language, music and dance."<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Appropriation">Appropriation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_imperialism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Appropriation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some who reject the idea of linguistic imperialism argue that the global spread of English is better understood in the framework of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_appropriation" title="Cultural appropriation">appropriation</a><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—that English is used around the world <i>for local purposes</i>. In addition to the example of Nigeria, other examples have been given: </p> <ul><li>Demonstrators in non-English-speaking countries often use signs in English to convey their demands to TV audiences around the world. In some cases, demonstrators may not understand what their signs say.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Bobda shows how <a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a> has moved away from a mono-cultural, Anglo-centered way of teaching English and has gradually accommodated teaching materials to a Cameroonian context. Non-Western topics are treated, such as rule by <a href="/wiki/Emir" title="Emir">emirs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">traditional medicine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Polygamy" title="Polygamy">polygamy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bobda argues for bi-cultural, Cameroonian and <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Americans" title="Anglo-Americans">Anglo-American</a> education.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Kramsch and Sullivan describe how Western methodology and textbooks have been appropriated to suit local <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Vietnamese culture">Vietnamese culture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistani</a> textbook <i>Primary Stage English</i> includes lessons such as "Pakistan, My Country", "Our Flag," and "Our Great Leader",<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which might sound <a href="/wiki/Jingoistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Jingoistic">jingoistic</a> to western ears. Within the native culture, however, establishing a connection between ELT, patriotism and the <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> faith is seen as an aim of ELT, as the chairman of the Punjab Textbook Board openly states: "The board... takes care, through these books to inoculate in the students a love of the Islamic values and awareness to guard the ideological frontiers of your [the student's] home lands."<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Such an "internationalization" of English may also offer new possibilities to English native-speakers. McCabe elaborates: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>...whereas for two centuries we exported our language and our customs in hot pursuit of... fresh markets, we now find that our language and our customs are returned to us but altered so that they can be used by others... so that our own language and culture discover new possibilities, fresh contradictions.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_imperialism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglicisation" title="Anglicisation">Anglicisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_applied_linguistics" title="Critical applied linguistics">Critical applied linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_hegemony" title="Cultural hegemony">Cultural hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_as_a_second_or_foreign_language" title="English as a second or foreign language">English as a second or foreign language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esperanto" title="Esperanto">Esperanto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glottopolitics" title="Glottopolitics">Glottopolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_auxiliary_language" title="International auxiliary language">International auxiliary language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_English" title="International English">International English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_immersion" title="Language immersion">Language immersion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_policy" title="Language policy">Language policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_planning" title="Language planning">Language planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_revitalization" title="Language revitalization">Language revitalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">Language death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_purism" title="Linguistic purism">Linguistic purism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_secessionism" title="Language secessionism">Language secessionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monolingualism" title="Monolingualism">Monolingualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilingualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilingualism">Bilingualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilingualism" title="Multilingualism">Multilingualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code-switching" title="Code-switching">Code-switching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translanguaging" title="Translanguaging">Translanguaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Official_language" title="Official language">Official language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untranslatability" title="Untranslatability">Untranslatability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_language" title="World language">World language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Father_Tongue_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Father Tongue hypothesis">Father Tongue hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latinx" title="Latinx">Latinx</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_imperialism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKamusella2020" class="citation journal cs1">Kamusella, Tomasz (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://content.sciendo.com/downloadpdf/journals/jnmlp/14/2/article-p117.xml">"Global Language Politics: Eurasia versus the Rest"</a>. <i>Journal of Nationalism, Memory & Language Politics</i>. <b>14</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">118–</span>151. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2478%2Fjnmlp-2020-0008">10.2478/jnmlp-2020-0008</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10023%2F21315">10023/21315</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:230283299">230283299</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Nationalism%2C+Memory+%26+Language+Politics&rft.atitle=Global+Language+Politics%3A+Eurasia+versus+the+Rest&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E118-%3C%2Fspan%3E151&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10023%2F21315&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A230283299%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2478%2Fjnmlp-2020-0008&rft.aulast=Kamusella&rft.aufirst=Tomasz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcontent.sciendo.com%2Fdownloadpdf%2Fjournals%2Fjnmlp%2F14%2F2%2Farticle-p117.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+imperialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMaster1998" class="citation journal cs1">Master, Peter (1998). 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Der British Council als Werkzeug der geistigen Einkreisung Deutschlands</i>. Berlin: Junker und Dünnhaupt.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Phillipson, Robert (1992), p36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFConamaRose2018" class="citation journal cs1">Conama, John Bosco; Rose, Heath (2018-08-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10993-017-9446-2">"Linguistic imperialism: still a valid construct in relation to language policy for Irish Sign Language"</a>. <i>Language Policy</i>. <b>17</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">385–</span>404. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10993-017-9446-2">10.1007/s10993-017-9446-2</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-1863">1573-1863</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language+Policy&rft.atitle=Linguistic+imperialism%3A+still+a+valid+construct+in+relation+to+language+policy+for+Irish+Sign+Language&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E385-%3C%2Fspan%3E404&rft.date=2018-08-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10993-017-9446-2&rft.issn=1573-1863&rft.aulast=Conama&rft.aufirst=John+Bosco&rft.au=Rose%2C+Heath&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs10993-017-9446-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+imperialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPhillipson2012" class="citation book cs1">Phillipson, Robert (2012). "Imperialism and Colonialism". In Spolsky, Bernard (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.forskningsdatabasen.dk/en/catalog/2286726295"><i>www.forskningsdatabasen.dk</i></a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">203–</span>225. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511979026.013">10.1017/CBO9780511979026.013</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780511979026" title="Special:BookSources/9780511979026"><bdi>9780511979026</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Imperialism+and+Colonialism&rft.btitle=www.forskningsdatabasen.dk&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E203-%3C%2Fspan%3E225&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9780511979026.013&rft.isbn=9780511979026&rft.aulast=Phillipson&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.forskningsdatabasen.dk%2Fen%2Fcatalog%2F2286726295&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+imperialism" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSkutnabb-Kangas2016" class="citation web cs1">Skutnabb-Kangas, T. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-01-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=scholar.google.com&rft.atitle=Linguicism&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Skutnabb-Kangas&rft.aufirst=T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholar.google.com%2Fscholar_lookup%3Ftitle%3DLinguicism%26author%3DT.%2520Skutnabb-Kangas%26pages%3D583-586%26publication_year%3D2016&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+imperialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSkutnabb-Kangas2000" class="citation book cs1">Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove (2000-02-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yR5mspS2kpoC&pg=PP1"><i>Linguistic Genocide in Education--or Worldwide Diversity and Human Rights?</i></a>. 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DE GRUYTER MOUTON. pp. <span class="nowrap">271–</span>288. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110866391.271">10.1515/9783110866391.271</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-086639-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-086639-1"><bdi>978-3-11-086639-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Indigenous+education+in+Latin+America%3A+Policies+and+legal+frameworks&rft.btitle=Linguistic+Human+Rights&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E271-%3C%2Fspan%3E288&rft.pub=DE+GRUYTER+MOUTON&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110866391.271&rft.isbn=978-3-11-086639-1&rft.aulast=Hamel&rft.aufirst=Rainer+Enrique&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+imperialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSzasz2009" class="citation journal cs1">Szasz, Margaret Connell (April 2009). "Colin G. Calloway. White People, Indians, and Highlanders: Tribal People and Colonial Encounters in Scotland and America. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. Pp. 368. $35.00 (cloth)". <i>Journal of British Studies</i>. <b>48</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">522–</span>524. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F598899">10.1086/598899</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-9371">0021-9371</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+British+Studies&rft.atitle=Colin+G.+Calloway.+White+People%2C+Indians%2C+and+Highlanders%3A+Tribal+People+and+Colonial+Encounters+in+Scotland+and+America.+Oxford%3A+Oxford+University+Press%2C+2008.+Pp.+368.+%2435.00+%28cloth%29.&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E522-%3C%2Fspan%3E524&rft.date=2009-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F598899&rft.issn=0021-9371&rft.aulast=Szasz&rft.aufirst=Margaret+Connell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+imperialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Parameswaran_21–41-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Parameswaran_21–41_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFParameswaran1997" class="citation journal cs1">Parameswaran, Radhika E. (February 1997). "Colonial Interventions and the Postcolonial Situation in India". <i>Gazette (Leiden, Netherlands)</i>. <b>59</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">21–</span>41. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0016549297059001003">10.1177/0016549297059001003</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0016-5492">0016-5492</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145358972">145358972</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Gazette+%28Leiden%2C+Netherlands%29&rft.atitle=Colonial+Interventions+and+the+Postcolonial+Situation+in+India&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E21-%3C%2Fspan%3E41&rft.date=1997-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145358972%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0016-5492&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0016549297059001003&rft.aulast=Parameswaran&rft.aufirst=Radhika+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+imperialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Phillipson, Robert (1992), p <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4jVeGWtzQ1oC&pg=PA47">47</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Phillipson_2008_250–267-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Phillipson_2008_250–267_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Phillipson_2008_250–267_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Phillipson_2008_250–267_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Phillipson_2008_250–267_16-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Phillipson_2008_250–267_16-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Phillipson_2008_250–267_16-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPhillipson2008" class="citation journal cs1">Phillipson, Robert (2008). "Lingua franca or lingua frankensteinia? English in European integration and globalisation1". <i>World Englishes</i>. <b>27</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">250–</span>267. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-971X.2008.00555.x">10.1111/j.1467-971X.2008.00555.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1467-971X">1467-971X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Englishes&rft.atitle=Lingua+franca+or+lingua+frankensteinia%3F+English+in+European+integration+and+globalisation1&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E250-%3C%2Fspan%3E267&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-971X.2008.00555.x&rft.issn=1467-971X&rft.aulast=Phillipson&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+imperialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEllis-Petersen2022" class="citation news cs1">Ellis-Petersen, Hannah (2022-12-25). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/dec/25/threat-unity-anger-over-push-make-hindi-national-language-of-india">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'A threat to unity': anger over push to make Hindi national language of India"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-05-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=%27A+threat+to+unity%27%3A+anger+over+push+to+make+Hindi+national+language+of+India&rft.date=2022-12-25&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Ellis-Petersen&rft.aufirst=Hannah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2022%2Fdec%2F25%2Fthreat-unity-anger-over-push-make-hindi-national-language-of-india&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+imperialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/history-anti-hindi-imposition-movements-tamil-nadu-102983">"The history of anti-Hindi imposition movements in Tamil Nadu"</a>. 4 June 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+history+of+anti-Hindi+imposition+movements+in+Tamil+Nadu&rft.date=2019-06-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thenewsminute.com%2Farticle%2Fhistory-anti-hindi-imposition-movements-tamil-nadu-102983&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+imperialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alan Davies (1996), p. 485</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rajagopalan (1999), p. 200.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Davies (1996), p. 488</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bisong (1995 [1994]), p. 125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henry Widdowson (1998a), p. 398.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holborrow (1993), p. 359; see also Bisong (1995 [1994]), p. 124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSpolsky2004" class="citation book cs1">Spolsky, Bernard (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RTk7gMprn1MC&pg=PR8"><i>Language Policy</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521011754" title="Special:BookSources/9780521011754"><bdi>9780521011754</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+Policy&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780521011754&rft.aulast=Spolsky&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRTk7gMprn1MC%26pg%3DPR8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+imperialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFerguson2006" class="citation book cs1">Ferguson, Gibson (2006-03-14). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HM6qBgAAQBAJ&pg=PR5"><i>Language Planning and Education</i></a>. Edinburgh University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780748626588" title="Special:BookSources/9780748626588"><bdi>9780748626588</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+Planning+and+Education&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2006-03-14&rft.isbn=9780748626588&rft.aulast=Ferguson&rft.aufirst=Gibson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHM6qBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPR5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+imperialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Davies (1997), p. 248.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henry Widdowson (1998b), p. 150.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ALD-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ALD_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ALD_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHyde1892" class="citation web cs1">Hyde, Douglas (25 November 1892). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gaeilge.org/deanglicising.html">"The Necessity for De-Anglicising Ireland"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-08-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Necessity+for+De-Anglicising+Ireland&rft.date=1892-11-25&rft.aulast=Hyde&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gaeilge.org%2Fdeanglicising.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+imperialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thefreedictionary.com/de-anglicization">"De-Anglicisation - Free Online Dictionary"</a>. <q>the elimination of English influence, language, customs, etc.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=De-Anglicisation+-+Free+Online+Dictionary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thefreedictionary.com%2Fde-anglicization&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+imperialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ghil%27ad_Zuckermann" title="Ghil'ad Zuckermann">Zuckermann, Ghil'ad</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theaustralian.com.au/higher-education/opinion/stop-revive-and-survive/story-e6frgcko-1226385194433">"Stop, revive and survive"</a>, <i>The Australian Higher Education</i>, June 6, 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">E.g. Spichtinger (2000).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKawamuraJung-Whan2022" class="citation web cs1">Kawamura, Yuniya; Jung-Whan, Marc de Jong (July 14, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://public.ebookcentral.proquest.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=6951514&ppg=18">"Cultural Appropriation in Fashion and Entertainment"</a>. <i>ProQuest Ebook Central</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ProQuest+Ebook+Central&rft.atitle=Cultural+Appropriation+in+Fashion+and+Entertainment&rft.date=2022-07-14&rft.aulast=Kawamura&rft.aufirst=Yuniya&rft.au=Jung-Whan%2C+Marc+de+Jong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpublic.ebookcentral.proquest.com%2Fchoice%2Fpublicfullrecord.aspx%3Fp%3D6951514%26ppg%3D18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+imperialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bobda (1997), p. 225.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bobda (1997), p. 234.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kramsch and Sullivan (1996).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Malik (1993), pp. 5, 6, 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Punjab Text Book Board (1997).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McCabe (1985), p. 45.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_imperialism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Acar, A. (2006). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080402091231/http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/Sept_06_aa.php">Models, Norms and Goals for English as an International Language Pedagogy and Task Based Language Teaching and Learning.</a>" The Asian EFL Journal Vol. 8 2006</li> <li>Bisong, Joseph (1995 [1994]) <i>Language Choice and cultural Imperialism: a Nigerian Perspective.</i> ELT Journal 49/2 122–132.</li> <li>Bobda, Augustin Simo (1997) <i>Sociocultural Constraints in EFL Teaching in Cameroon.</i> In: Pütz, Martin (ed.) The cultural Context in Foreign Language Teaching. Frankfurt a.M.: Lang. 221–240.</li> <li>Brutt-Griffler, Janina (2002) <i>World English.</i> Multilingual Matters. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85359-577-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-85359-577-2">1-85359-577-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canagarajah,_A._Suresh" class="mw-redirect" title="Canagarajah, A. Suresh">Canagarajah, A. Suresh</a> (1999), <i>Resisting Linguistic Imperialism in English Teaching</i>, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-442154-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-442154-6">0-19-442154-6</a></li> <li>Canagarajah, A. Suresh, Thomas Ricento & Terrence G. Wiley [eds.] (2002) <i>Journal of Language, Identity, and Education.</i> Special issue. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8058-9629-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8058-9629-5">0-8058-9629-5</a></li> <li>Canagarajah, A. Suresh [ed.] (2004) <i>Reclaiming the Local in Language Policy and Practice.</i> Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8058-4593-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8058-4593-3">0-8058-4593-3</a></li> <li>Crystal, David (2003), <i>English as a Global Language</i>, 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-53032-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-53032-6">0-521-53032-6</a></li> <li>Davies, Alan (1996) <i>Review Article: ironising the Myth of Linguicism.</i> Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. 17/6: 485–596.</li> <li>Davies, Alan (1997) <i>Response to a Reply.</i> Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 18/3 248.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Julian_Edge&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Julian Edge (page does not exist)">Edge, Julian</a> [ed.] (2006) <i>(Re-)Locating <a href="/wiki/English_as_a_foreign_or_second_language" class="mw-redirect" title="English as a foreign or second language">TESOL</a> in an Age of Empire.</i> Palgrave Macmillan. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4039-8530-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-4039-8530-8">1-4039-8530-8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holborow,_Marnie" class="mw-redirect" title="Holborow, Marnie">Holborow, Marnie</a> (1999) <i>Politics of English.</i> Sage Publications. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7619-6018-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7619-6018-X">0-7619-6018-X</a></li> <li>Holborrow, Marnie (1993) <i>Review Article: linguistic Imperialism.</i> ELT Journal 47/4 358–360.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holliday,_Adrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Holliday, Adrian">Holliday, Adrian</a> (2005), <i> Struggle to Teach English as an International Language </i>, Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-442184-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-442184-8">0-19-442184-8</a></li> <li>Kontra, Miklos, Robert Phillipson, <a href="/wiki/Tove_Skutnabb-Kangas" title="Tove Skutnabb-Kangas">Tove Skutnabb-Kangas</a> & Tibor Varady [eds.] (1999), <i>Language: A Right and a Resource</i>, Central European University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/963-9116-64-5" title="Special:BookSources/963-9116-64-5">963-9116-64-5</a></li> <li>Kramsch, Klaire and Patricia Sullivan (1996) <i>Appropriate Pedagogy.</i> ELT Journal 50/3 199–212.</li> <li>Malik, S.A. Primary Stage English (1993). Lahore: Tario Brothers.</li> <li>Master, Peter (1998) Positive and Negative Aspects of the Dominance of English. TESOL Quarterly, 32/4. 716–727. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3588002">10.2307/3588002</a></li> <li>Pennycook, Alastair (1995), <i>The Cultural Politics of English as an International Language</i>, Longman. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-23473-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-23473-5">0-582-23473-5</a></li> <li>Pennycook, Alastair (1998), <i>English and the Discourses of Colonialism</i>, Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-17848-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-17848-7">0-415-17848-7</a></li> <li>Pennycook, Alastair (2001), <i>Critical Applied Linguistics</i>, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8058-3792-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8058-3792-2">0-8058-3792-2</a></li> <li>Pennycook, Alastair (2006) <i>Global Englishes and Transcultural Flows.</i> Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-37497-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-37497-9">0-415-37497-9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Phillipson" title="Robert Phillipson">Phillipson, Robert</a> (1992), <i>Linguistic Imperialism</i>, Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-437146-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-437146-8">0-19-437146-8</a></li> <li>Phillipson, Robert [ed.] (2000), <i>Rights to Language</i>, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8058-3835-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8058-3835-X">0-8058-3835-X</a></li> <li>Phillipson, Robert (2003) <i>English-Only Europe?</i> Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-28807-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-28807-X">0-415-28807-X</a></li> <li>Punjab Text Book Board (1997) My English Book Step IV. Lahore: Metro Printers.</li> <li>Rajagopalan, Kanavilli (1999) <i>Of EFL Teachers, Conscience and Cowardice.</i> ELT Journal 53/3 200–206.</li> <li>Ramanathan, Vaidehi (2005) <i>The English-Vernacular Divide.</i> Multilingual Matters. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85359-769-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-85359-769-4">1-85359-769-4</a></li> <li>Rahman, Tariq (1996) <i>Language and Politics in Pakistan</i> Karachi: Oxford University Press</li> <li>Ricento, Thomas [ed.] (2000) <i>Ideology, Politics, and Language Policies.</i> John Benjamins. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55619-670-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-55619-670-9">1-55619-670-9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tove_Skutnabb-Kangas" title="Tove Skutnabb-Kangas">Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove</a> & Robert Phillipson [eds.]; Mart Rannut (1995), <i>Linguistic Human Rights</i>, Mouton De Gruyter. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-11-014878-1" title="Special:BookSources/3-11-014878-1">3-11-014878-1</a></li> <li>Silva, Diego B. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scielo.br/j/alfa/a/YPntRnVWDW5F8P8PYfJGPKd/?lang=en">Language policy in Oceania</a>. Alfa, Rev. Linguíst. 63 (2).</li> <li>Sonntag, Selma K. (2003) <i>The Local Politics of Global English.</i> Lexington Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7391-0598-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7391-0598-1">0-7391-0598-1</a></li> <li>Spichtinger, Daniel (2000) <i>The Spread of English and its Appropriation.</i> University of Vienna, Vienna.</li> <li>Tsui, Amy B.M. & James W. Tollefson (in press) <i>Language Policy, Culture, and Identity in Asian Contexts.</i> Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8058-5694-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8058-5694-3">0-8058-5694-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Widdowson" title="Henry Widdowson">Widdowson, H.G.</a> (1998a) <i>EIL: squaring the Circles. A Reply.</i> World Englishes 17/3 397–401.</li> <li>Widdowson, H.G. (1998b) <i>The Theory and Practice of Critical Discourse Analysis.</i> Applied Linguistics 19/1 136–151.</li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output 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history">Ancient</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">colonies</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Orontid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Ancient</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a 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title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)#Empire" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Bactrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Huns" title="History of the Huns">Hunnic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a></li> <li>Magadha <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bagratid_Armenia" title="Bagratid Armenia">Bagratid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Vaspurakan" title="Kingdom of Vaspurakan">Vaspurakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Artsakh" title="Kingdom of Artsakh">Artsakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia" title="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakarid_Armenia" title="Zakarid Armenia">Zakarid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Benin" title="Kingdom of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire#Shift_of_the_Sayfuwa_court_from_Kanem_to_Bornu" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Bornu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Sultanate_(1368%E2%80%931888)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)">Bruneian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Bulgarian Empire (disambiguation)">Bulgarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom">First</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calakmul" title="Calakmul">Calakmul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire" title="Western Chalukya Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagwe_dynasty" title="Zagwe dynasty">Zagwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Solomonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garabito_Empire" title="Garabito Empire">Huetar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Struggle" title="Tripartite Struggle">Kannauj</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty">Gurjara-Pratihara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_Empire" title="Rashtrakuta Empire">Rashtrakuta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yamato_period" title="Yamato period">Yamato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamakura_shogunate" title="Kamakura shogunate">Kamakura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate" title="Ashikaga shogunate">Muromachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Edo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Kanem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty" title="Idrisid dynasty">Idrisid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norgesveldet" class="mw-redirect" title="Norgesveldet">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Empire" title="North Sea Empire">North Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyo_Empire" title="Oyo Empire">Oyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">Polish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Morea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singhasari" title="Singhasari">Singhasari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwanaku_Empire" title="Tiwanaku Empire">Tiwanaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toltec_Empire" title="Toltec Empire">Toltec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition" title="Turco-Persian tradition">Turco-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Great Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarezmian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Turkic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCrgesh" title="Türgesh">Türgesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uighur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Khaganate" title="Kyrgyz Khaganate">Kyrgyz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90inh_dynasty" title="Đinh dynasty">Dinh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Early Lê dynasty">Early Le</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BD_dynasty" title="Lý dynasty">Ly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Trần dynasty">Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_dynasty" title="Hồ dynasty">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Later Trần dynasty">Later Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Later Le</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Wagadou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wari_Empire" title="Wari Empire">Wari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti Empire">Ashanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil" title="Empire of Brazil">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Toungoo_Empire" title="First Toungoo Empire">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Empire" title="Central African Empire">Central African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti" title="History of Haiti">Haitian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Empire_of_Haiti" title="First Empire of Haiti">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Empire_of_Haiti" title="Second Empire of Haiti">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">French</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexico" title="History of Mexico">Mexican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mexican_Empire" title="Second Mexican Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oirat_Confederation" title="Oirat Confederation">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoshut_Khanate" title="Khoshut Khanate">Khoshut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmyk_Khanate" title="Kalmyk Khanate">Kalmyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia">Bogd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate" title="Saadi Sultanate">Saadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawi_Sultanate" title="Alawi Sultanate">'Alawi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsarist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism#Contemporary_Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Somalia" title="History of Somalia">Somali</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaaq_Sultanate" title="Isaaq Sultanate">Isaaq</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tu%CA%BBi_Tonga_Empire" title="Tuʻi Tonga Empire">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%E1%BA%A1c_dynasty" title="Mạc dynasty">Mạc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revival_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Revival Lê dynasty">Revival Lê</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_S%C6%A1n_dynasty" title="Tây Sơn dynasty">Tay Sơn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Dainam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Colonial28" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/U.S._imperialism" title="U.S. imperialism">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_overseas_colonies" title="Danish overseas colonies">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_colonial_empire" title="Japanese colonial empire">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Empire" title="Omani Empire">Omani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curonian_colonisation" title="Curonian colonisation">Couronian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonization_attempts_by_Poland" title="Colonization attempts by Poland">attempts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_overseas_colonies" title="Swedish overseas colonies">Swedish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_empires" title="List of empires">Empires</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_great_powers" title="List of ancient great powers">Ancient great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_great_powers" title="List of medieval great powers">Medieval great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_great_powers" title="List of modern great powers">Modern great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">European colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">African empires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_imperialism" title="Academic imperialism">Academic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_imperialism" title="Cultural imperialism">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_imperialism" title="Ecological imperialism">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_imperialism" title="Green imperialism">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_imperialism" title="Media imperialism">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Imperialists" title="Liberal Imperialists">Liberal</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_imperialism" title="Social imperialism">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_empire" title="Soviet empire">Soviet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_imperialism" title="Theories of imperialism">Theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._imperialism" title="U.S. imperialism">U.S.</a></li></ul> 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