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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Prehistory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prehistory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Prehistory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prehistory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Turkic_people_migrated_into_Kazakhstan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Turkic_people_migrated_into_Kazakhstan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Turkic people migrated into Kazakhstan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Turkic_people_migrated_into_Kazakhstan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cuman-Kipchak_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cuman-Kipchak_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Cuman-Kipchak period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cuman-Kipchak_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mongol_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mongol_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Mongol Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mongol_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kazakh_Khanate_(1465–1847)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kazakh_Khanate_(1465–1847)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Kazakh Khanate (1465–1847)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kazakh_Khanate_(1465–1847)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russian_Empire_(1731–1917)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russian_Empire_(1731–1917)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Russian Empire (1731–1917)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russian_Empire_(1731–1917)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alash_and_Turkestan_Autonomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alash_and_Turkestan_Autonomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Alash and Turkestan Autonomy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Alash_and_Turkestan_Autonomy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Alash and Turkestan Autonomy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Alash_and_Turkestan_Autonomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Alash_orda_1917–1920" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alash_orda_1917–1920"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Alash orda 1917–1920</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alash_orda_1917–1920-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Turkestan_orda" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Turkestan_orda"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Turkestan orda</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Turkestan_orda-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soviet_Union_(1920–1991)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soviet_Union_(1920–1991)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Soviet Union (1920–1991)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Soviet_Union_(1920–1991)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Soviet Union (1920–1991) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Soviet_Union_(1920–1991)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Two_famines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Two_famines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Two famines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Two_famines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Repressions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Repressions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Repressions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Repressions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>World War II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internal_Soviet_migration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internal_Soviet_migration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Internal Soviet migration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internal_Soviet_migration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Republic_of_Kazakhstan_(1991–present)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Republic_of_Kazakhstan_(1991–present)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Republic of Kazakhstan (1991–present)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Republic_of_Kazakhstan_(1991–present)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Republic of Kazakhstan (1991–present) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Republic_of_Kazakhstan_(1991–present)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nazarbayev_Era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nazarbayev_Era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Nazarbayev Era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nazarbayev_Era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_Nazarbayev" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_Nazarbayev"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>After Nazarbayev</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-After_Nazarbayev-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relationship_with_Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationship_with_Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Relationship with Russia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relationship_with_Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relationship_with_the_US" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationship_with_the_US"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>Relationship with the US</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relationship_with_the_US-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Kazakhstan</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 42 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-42" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">42 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="تاريخ كازاخستان – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ كازاخستان" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qazax%C4%B1stan_tarixi" title="Qazaxıstan tarixi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qazaxıstan tarixi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%96%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="কাজাখস্তানের ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কাজাখস্তানের ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%A0%D0%B0%D2%99%D0%B0%D2%93%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85%D1%8B" title="Ҡаҙағстан тарихы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ҡаҙағстан тарихы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="История на Казахстан – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="История на Казахстан" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_del_Kazakhstan" title="Història del Kazakhstan – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història del Kazakhstan" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%9Bjiny_Kazachst%C3%A1nu" title="Dějiny Kazachstánu – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dějiny Kazachstánu" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_Kasachstans" title="Geschichte Kasachstans – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte Kasachstans" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%9A%CE%B1%CE%B6%CE%B1%CE%BA%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AC%CE%BD" title="Ιστορία του Καζακστάν – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιστορία του Καζακστάν" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_Kazajist%C3%A1n" title="Historia de Kazajistán – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de Kazajistán" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D9%82%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="تاریخ قزاقستان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ قزاقستان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_du_Kazakhstan" title="Histoire du Kazakhstan – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire du Kazakhstan" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_Casaquist%C3%A1n" title="Historia de Casaquistán – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Historia de Casaquistán" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B9%B4%EC%9E%90%ED%9D%90%EC%8A%A4%ED%83%84%EC%9D%98_%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC" title="카자흐스탄의 역사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="카자흐스탄의 역사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%82%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%A1%D5%AD%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ղազախստանի պատմություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ղազախստանի պատմություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povijest_Kazahstana" title="Povijest Kazahstana – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Povijest Kazahstana" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_di_Kazakstan" title="Historio di Kazakstan – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Historio di Kazakstan" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_del_Kazakistan" title="Storia del Kazakistan – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia del Kazakistan" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A7%E1%83%90%E1%83%96%E1%83%90%E1%83%AE%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ყაზახეთის ისტორია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ყაზახეთის ისტორია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%9A%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D2%9B%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85%D1%8B" title="Қазақстан тарихы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Қазақстан тарихы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_ya_Kazakhstan" title="Historia ya Kazakhstan – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Historia ya Kazakhstan" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazahst%C4%81nas_v%C4%93sture" title="Kazahstānas vēsture – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kazahstānas vēsture" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazachstano_istorija" title="Kazachstano istorija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kazachstano istorija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazahszt%C3%A1n_t%C3%B6rt%C3%A9nelme" title="Kazahsztán történelme – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kazahsztán történelme" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Историја на Казахстан – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Историја на Казахстан" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A7%E1%83%90%E1%83%96%E1%83%90%E1%83%AE%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ყაზახეთიშ ისტორია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ყაზახეთიშ ისტორია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D1%82%D2%AF%D2%AF%D1%85" title="Казахстаны түүх – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Казахстаны түүх" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenis_van_Kazachstan" title="Geschiedenis van Kazachstan – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geschiedenis van Kazachstan" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%82%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="قازقستان دی تریخ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="قازقستان دی تریخ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Kazachstanu" title="Historia Kazachstanu – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Historia Kazachstanu" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cazaquist%C3%A3o#História" title="Cazaquistão – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cazaquistão" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="История Казахстана – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="История Казахстана" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zgodovina_Kazahstana" title="Zgodovina Kazahstana – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Zgodovina Kazahstana" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8E%DA%98%D9%88%D9%88%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="مێژووی کازاخستان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="مێژووی کازاخستان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Историја Казахстана – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Историја Казахстана" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakstanin_historia" title="Kazakstanin historia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kazakstanin historia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakistan_tarihi" title="Kazakistan tarihi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kazakistan tarihi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83" title="Історія Казахстану – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Історія Казахстану" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%82%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86_%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="قازقستان کی تاریخ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="قازقستان کی تاریخ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%E1%BB%8Bch_s%E1%BB%AD_Kazakhstan" title="Lịch sử Kazakhstan – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lịch sử Kazakhstan" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%88%E8%90%A8%E5%85%8B%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2" title="哈萨克斯坦历史 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="哈萨克斯坦历史" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%88%E8%90%A8%E5%85%8B%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2" 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0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_footnotes_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-More_footnotes_needed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article includes a list of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#General_references" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">general references</a>, but <b>it lacks sufficient corresponding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Reliability" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Reliability">improve</a> this article by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2010</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LocationKazakhstan.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="World map, with Kazakhstan in green" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/LocationKazakhstan.png/300px-LocationKazakhstan.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/LocationKazakhstan.png/450px-LocationKazakhstan.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/LocationKazakhstan.png/600px-LocationKazakhstan.png 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="625" /></a><figcaption>Location of Kazakhstan in the world</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Kazakhstan" title="Category:History of Kazakhstan">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of <span class="fn org label">Kazakhstan</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem_of_Kazakhstan_latin.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Emblem of Kazakhstan"><img alt="Emblem of Kazakhstan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Emblem_of_Kazakhstan_latin.svg/50px-Emblem_of_Kazakhstan_latin.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Emblem_of_Kazakhstan_latin.svg/75px-Emblem_of_Kazakhstan_latin.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Emblem_of_Kazakhstan_latin.svg/100px-Emblem_of_Kazakhstan_latin.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Khanate">Ancient</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Scythia" title="Scythia">Scythia</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Saka" title="Saka">Saka</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Wusun" title="Wusun">Wusun</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kangju" title="Kangju">Kangju Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Khanate">Khanates</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 330–555</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">Turkic (Göktürks)</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 552–745</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Karluks" title="Karluks">Karluk</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 665–744</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kimek_Khanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Kimek Khanate">Kimek</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 743–1220</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Oghuz_Yabgu_State" title="Oghuz Yabgu State">Oghuz</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 750–1055</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kara-Khanid_Khanate" title="Kara-Khanid Khanate">Kara-Khanid</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 840–1212</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Qara_Khitai" title="Qara Khitai">Qara Khitai</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1124–1218</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1206–1368</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1240s–1446</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Uzbek_Khanate" title="Uzbek Khanate">Uzbek Khanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1428-1465</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Khanate" title="Kazakh Khanate">Kazakh Khanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1465–1847</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan_in_the_Russian_Empire" title="Kazakhstan in the Russian Empire">Post-nomadic period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Russian_Turkestan" title="Russian Turkestan">Russian Turkestan</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1867–1918</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Governor-Generalship_of_the_Steppes" title="Governor-Generalship of the Steppes">Governor-Generalship of the Steppes</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1882–1918</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Alash_Autonomy" title="Alash Autonomy">Alash Autonomy</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1918–1920</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kirghiz_Autonomous_Socialist_Soviet_Republic_(1920%E2%80%9325)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic (1920–25)">Kirghiz ASSR</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1920–1925</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Autonomous_Socialist_Soviet_Republic" title="Kazakh Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic">Kazakh ASSR</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1925–1936</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic">Kazakh SSR</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1936–1991</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Kazakhstan" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Kazakhstan">Republic of Kazakhstan</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1991–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Kazakhstan" title="Culture of Kazakhstan">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Kazakhstan" title="Geography of Kazakhstan">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_healthcare_in_Kazakhstan" class="mw-redirect" title="History of healthcare in Kazakhstan">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_Kazakhstan" class="mw-redirect" title="History of religion in Kazakhstan">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_Kazakhstan" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Buddhism in Kazakhstan">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Eastern_Orthodoxy_in_Kazakhstan" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Eastern Orthodoxy in Kazakhstan">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_Kazakhstan" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Islam in Kazakhstan">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kazakhstan" title="History of the Jews in Kazakhstan">Judaism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;color: var(--color-base)">Other</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Kazak_military_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Outline of Kazak military history">Outline of Kazak military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_history_of_Central_Asia#Kazakhstan" title="Bibliography of the history of Central Asia">Bibliography of Kazak history</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Kazakhstan" title="Template:History of Kazakhstan"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Kazakhstan" title="Template talk:History of Kazakhstan"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Kazakhstan" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Kazakhstan"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a>, the largest country fully within the <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_Steppe" title="Eurasian Steppe">Eurasian Steppe</a>, has been a historical crossroads and home to numerous different peoples, states and empires throughout history. Throughout history, peoples on the territory of modern Kazakhstan had <a href="/wiki/Nomad" title="Nomad">nomadic lifestyle</a>, which developed and influenced <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Kazakhstan" title="Culture of Kazakhstan">Kazakh culture</a>. </p><p>Human activity in the region began with the extinct <i><a href="/wiki/Pithecanthropus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pithecanthropus">Pithecanthropus</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Sinanthropus" title="Sinanthropus">Sinanthropus</a></i> one million–800,000 years ago in the <a href="/wiki/Karatau_Mountains" title="Karatau Mountains">Karatau Mountains</a> and the Caspian and Balkhash areas. <a href="/wiki/Neanderthals" class="mw-redirect" title="Neanderthals">Neanderthals</a> were present from 140,000 to 40,000 years ago in the Karatau Mountains and central Kazakhstan. Modern <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">Homo sapiens</a></i> appeared from 40,000 to 12,000 years ago in southern, central and eastern Kazakhstan. After the end of the <a href="/wiki/Last_glacial_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Last glacial period">last glacial period</a> (12,500 to 5,000 years ago) human settlement spread across the country and led to the extinction of the <a href="/wiki/Mammoth" title="Mammoth">mammoth</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Woolly_rhinoceros" title="Woolly rhinoceros">woolly rhinoceros</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">Hunter-gatherer</a> communes invented bows and boats and used domesticated wolves and traps for hunting. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a> was marked by the appearance of animal husbandry and agriculture, giving rise to the Atbasar,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Kelteminar_culture" title="Kelteminar culture">Kelteminar</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Botai,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Ust-Narym cultures.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Botai_culture" title="Botai culture">Botai culture</a> (3600–3100 BC) is credited with the first domestication of horses, and ceramics and polished-stone tools also appeared during this period. The fourth and third millennia witnessed the beginning of metal production, the manufacture of copper tools and the use of casting molds. In the second millennium BC ore mining developed in central Kazakhstan. </p><p>The change in climate forced the massive relocation of populations in and out of the <a href="/wiki/Steppe_belt" title="Steppe belt">steppe belt</a>. The dry period that lasted from the end of the second millennium to the beginning of the 1st millennium BC caused the depopulation of the arid belts and river-valley oasis areas, the populations moving north to the <a href="/wiki/Forest_steppe" title="Forest steppe">forest steppe</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Assimilation_of_Baltic_and_Aryan_Peoples_by_Uralic_Speakers_in_the_Middle_and_Upper_Volga_Basin_(Shaded_Relief_BG).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Assimilation_of_Baltic_and_Aryan_Peoples_by_Uralic_Speakers_in_the_Middle_and_Upper_Volga_Basin_%28Shaded_Relief_BG%29.png/220px-Assimilation_of_Baltic_and_Aryan_Peoples_by_Uralic_Speakers_in_the_Middle_and_Upper_Volga_Basin_%28Shaded_Relief_BG%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Assimilation_of_Baltic_and_Aryan_Peoples_by_Uralic_Speakers_in_the_Middle_and_Upper_Volga_Basin_%28Shaded_Relief_BG%29.png/330px-Assimilation_of_Baltic_and_Aryan_Peoples_by_Uralic_Speakers_in_the_Middle_and_Upper_Volga_Basin_%28Shaded_Relief_BG%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Assimilation_of_Baltic_and_Aryan_Peoples_by_Uralic_Speakers_in_the_Middle_and_Upper_Volga_Basin_%28Shaded_Relief_BG%29.png/440px-Assimilation_of_Baltic_and_Aryan_Peoples_by_Uralic_Speakers_in_the_Middle_and_Upper_Volga_Basin_%28Shaded_Relief_BG%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1164" data-file-height="585" /></a><figcaption>Central Asia during the Iron Age when it was populated by Iranic peoples, including modern Kazakhstan</figcaption></figure> <p>After the end of the arid period at the beginning of the first millennium BC nomadic populations migrated into Kazakhstan from the west and the east, repopulating abandoned areas. They included several <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranians" title="Indo-Iranians">Indo-Iranians</a>, often known collectively as the <a href="/wiki/Saka" title="Saka">Saka</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-B_68_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-B_68-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-D_37_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-D_37-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 13th century, Kazakhstan was conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a> and controlled by the Golden Horde. After the Golden Horde declined, the <a href="/wiki/Uzbek_Khanate" title="Uzbek Khanate">Uzbek Khanate</a> broke away from it. In 1465, <a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Khanate" title="Kazakh Khanate">Kazakh Khanate</a> gained its independence from Uzbeks. Portions of the country began to be annexed by the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> in the 18th century, the remainder gradually being absorbed into <a href="/wiki/Russian_Turkestan" title="Russian Turkestan">Russian Turkestan</a> beginning in 1867. The modern Republic of Kazakhstan became a political entity during the 1930s Soviet subdivision of Russian Turkestan. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prehistory">Prehistory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Kazakhstan&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Prehistory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Humans have inhabited Kazakhstan since the <a href="/wiki/Lower_Paleolithic" title="Lower Paleolithic">Lower Paleolithic</a>, generally pursuing the nomadic pastoralism for which the region's climate and terrain are suitable.<sup id="cite_ref-curtistribal_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-curtistribal-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prehistoric <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> cultures that extended into the region include the <a href="/wiki/Srubna_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Srubna culture">Srubna</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Afanasevo_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Afanasevo culture">Afanasevo</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Andronovo_culture" title="Andronovo culture">Andronovo</a>. Between 500 BC and 500 AD Kazakhstan was home to the <a href="/wiki/Saka" title="Saka">Saka</a> and the Huns, early nomadic warrior cultures. </p><p>According to the <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Archaeological_Science" title="Journal of Archaeological Science">Journal of Archaeological Science</a>, in July 2020 scientists from <a href="/wiki/South_Ural_State_University" title="South Ural State University">South Ural State University</a> studied two <a href="/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Bronze Age">Late Bronze Age</a> horses with the aid of radiocarbon dating from Kurgan 5 of the Novoilinovsky 2 cemetery in the <a href="/wiki/Lisakovsk" title="Lisakovsk">Lisakovsk</a> city in the <a href="/wiki/Kostanay_Region" title="Kostanay Region">Kostanay region</a>. Researcher Igor Chechushkov indicated that the Andronovites were riding horses several centuries earlier than many researchers had previously assumed. Among the horses investigated, the <a href="/wiki/Stallion" title="Stallion">stallion</a> was nearly 20 years old and the <a href="/wiki/Mare" title="Mare">mare</a> was 18 years old. According to scientists, animals were buried with the person they accompanied throughout their lives, and they were used not only for food but also for harnessing vehicles and riding.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Turkic_people_migrated_into_Kazakhstan">Turkic people migrated into Kazakhstan<span class="anchor" id="1st_century_to_8th_century"></span></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Kazakhstan&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Turkic people migrated into Kazakhstan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Turkestan" title="Turkestan">Turkestan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkic_migration" title="Turkic migration">Turkic migration</a>, and <a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First Turkic Khaganate</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Issyk_Golden_Cataphract_Warrior.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Issyk_Golden_Cataphract_Warrior.jpg/100px-Issyk_Golden_Cataphract_Warrior.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Issyk_Golden_Cataphract_Warrior.jpg/150px-Issyk_Golden_Cataphract_Warrior.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Issyk_Golden_Cataphract_Warrior.jpg/200px-Issyk_Golden_Cataphract_Warrior.jpg 2x" data-file-width="456" data-file-height="1368" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cataphract" title="Cataphract">Cataphract</a>-style parade armor of a royal <a href="/wiki/Saka" title="Saka">Saka</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Issyk_kurgan" title="Issyk kurgan">Issyk kurgan</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:XiongnuMap.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/XiongnuMap.png/220px-XiongnuMap.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/XiongnuMap.png/330px-XiongnuMap.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/XiongnuMap.png/440px-XiongnuMap.png 2x" data-file-width="1644" data-file-height="959" /></a><figcaption>The largest extent of <a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a>'s influence in the 2nd century BC.</figcaption></figure> <p>At the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/First_millennium" class="mw-redirect" title="First millennium">first millennium</a> the steppes east of the Caspian were inhabited and settled by a variety of peoples, mainly nomads speaking <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic languages</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Alans" title="Alans">Alans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aorsi" title="Aorsi">Aorsi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Budini" title="Budini">Budini</a>, <a href="/wiki/Issedones" title="Issedones">Issedones</a>/<a href="/wiki/Wusun" title="Wusun">Wusun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Madjars" title="Madjars">Madjars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Massagetae" title="Massagetae">Massagetae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sakas" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakas">Sakas</a>. The names, relations between and constituents of these peoples were sometimes fluid and interchangeable. Some of them formed states, including <a href="/wiki/Yancai" title="Yancai">Yancai</a> (northwest of the <a href="/wiki/Aral_Sea" title="Aral Sea">Aral Sea</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Kangju" title="Kangju">Kangju</a> in the east. Over the course of several centuries the area became dominated by <a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a> and other exogenous languages, which arrived with nomad invaders and settlers from the east. </p><p>Following the entry of the <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a> many of the previous inhabitants migrated westward into Europe or were absorbed by the Huns. The focus of the <a href="/wiki/Hun_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hun Empire">Hun Empire</a> gradually moved westward from the steppes into Eastern Europe. </p><p>For a few centuries events in the future Kazakhstan are unclear and frequently the subject of speculation based on mythic or apocryphal folk tales popular among various peoples that migrated westward through the steppes. </p><p>From the middle of the 2nd century the <a href="/wiki/Yueban" title="Yueban">Yueban</a> – an offshoot of the <a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a> and therefore possibly connected to the Huns – established a state in far-eastern Kazakhstan. </p><p>Over the next few centuries peoples such as the <a href="/wiki/Akatziri" title="Akatziri">Akatziri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pannonian_Avars" title="Pannonian Avars">Avars</a> (known later as the Pannonian Avars; not to be confused with the Avars of the Caucasus), <a href="/wiki/Sabir_people" title="Sabir people">Sabirs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bulgars" title="Bulgars">Bulgars</a> migrated through the area and into the Caucasus and Eastern Europe. </p><p>By the beginning of the 6th century the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Mongolian" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Mongolian">proto-Mongolian</a> <a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran Khaganate</a> had annexed areas that were later part of east Kazakhstan. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:First_Turk_Khaganate(600).PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/First_Turk_Khaganate%28600%29.PNG/220px-First_Turk_Khaganate%28600%29.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/First_Turk_Khaganate%28600%29.PNG/330px-First_Turk_Khaganate%28600%29.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/First_Turk_Khaganate%28600%29.PNG/440px-First_Turk_Khaganate%28600%29.PNG 2x" data-file-width="752" data-file-height="590" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First Turkic Khaganate</a> in 570</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Göktürks</a>, a Turkic people formerly subject to the Rouran, migrated westward, pushing the remnants of the Huns west and southward. By the mid-6th Century, the <a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First Turkic Khaganate</a> was established.A few decades later, a civil war resulted in the khaganate being split, and establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern Turkic Khaganate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western Turkic Khaganate</a>. In 630 and 659, the Eastern and Western Turkic Khaganate were invaded and conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Tang_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Tang Empire">Tang China.</a> Towards the end of the 7th century, the two states were reunited in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second Turkic Khaganate</a>. However, the khaganate began to fragment only a few generations later. </p><p>In 766 the <a href="/wiki/Oghuz_Yabgu_State" title="Oghuz Yabgu State">Oghuz Yabgu State</a> (<i>Oguz il</i>) was founded, with its capital in <a href="/wiki/Jankent" title="Jankent">Jankent</a>, and came to occupy most of the later Kazakhstan. It was founded by the <a href="/wiki/Oghuz_Turks" title="Oghuz Turks">Oghuz Turks</a>, refugees from the neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Turgesh_Kaganate" class="mw-redirect" title="Turgesh Kaganate">Turgesh Kaganate</a>. The Oghuz lost a struggle with the <a href="/wiki/Karluks" title="Karluks">Karluks</a> for control of Turgesh, other Oguz clans migrated from the Turgesh-controlled <a href="/wiki/Jetisu" title="Jetisu">Zhetysu</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Karatau_Mountains" title="Karatau Mountains">Karatau Mountains</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Chu_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Chu River">Chu valley</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Issyk_Kul" class="mw-redirect" title="Issyk Kul">Issyk Kul</a> basin. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cuman-Kipchak_period">Cuman-Kipchak period</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Kazakhstan&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Cuman-Kipchak period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cumania_(1200)_eng.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Cumania_%281200%29_eng.png/260px-Cumania_%281200%29_eng.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Cumania_%281200%29_eng.png/390px-Cumania_%281200%29_eng.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Cumania_%281200%29_eng.png/520px-Cumania_%281200%29_eng.png 2x" data-file-width="1141" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cumania" title="Cumania">Cuman–Kipchak confederation</a> in Eurasia circa 1200</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Cuman_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuman people">Cuman people</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dasht-i_Qipchaq" class="mw-redirect" title="Dasht-i Qipchaq">Dasht-i Qipchaq</a></div> <p>In the eighth and ninth centuries, portions of southern Kazakhstan were conquered by <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> who introduced Islam. The Oghuz Turks controlled western Kazakhstan from the ninth through the 11th centuries; and Turkic peoples of <a href="/wiki/Kipchak_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Kipchak people">Kipchaks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kimak" class="mw-redirect" title="Kimak">Kimaks</a>, controlled the east at roughly the same time. In turn the <a href="/wiki/Cuman_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuman people">Cumans</a> controlled western Kazakhstan from around the 12th century until the 1220s. Since then, those vast lands are came to be known as <a href="/wiki/Dasht-i_Qipchaq" class="mw-redirect" title="Dasht-i Qipchaq">Dashti-Kipchak</a>, or the Kipchak Steppe.<sup id="cite_ref-curtistribal_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-curtistribal-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the ninth century the Qarluq confederation formed the <a href="/wiki/Qarakhanid_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Qarakhanid state">Qarakhanid state</a>, which conquered <a href="/wiki/Transoxiana" title="Transoxiana">Transoxiana</a> (the area north and east of the <a href="/wiki/Oxus_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxus River">Oxus River</a>, the present-day Amu Darya). Beginning in the early 11th century, the Qarakhanids fought constantly among themselves and with the <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Turks" class="mw-redirect" title="Seljuk Turks">Seljuk Turks</a> to the south. The Qarakhanids, who had converted to Islam, were conquered in the 1130s by the <a href="/wiki/Kara-Khitan" class="mw-redirect" title="Kara-Khitan">Kara-Khitan</a> (moved west from <a href="/wiki/North_China" title="North China">North China</a>). In the mid-12th century an independent <a href="/wiki/Khwarezmia" class="mw-redirect" title="Khwarezmia">state of Khorazm</a> along the Oxus River broke away from the weakening Karakitai, but the bulk of the Kara-Khitan lasted until the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Central_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol invasion of Central Asia">Mongol invasion</a> of Genghis Khan from 1219 to 1221.<sup id="cite_ref-curtistribal_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-curtistribal-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mongol_Empire">Mongol Empire</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Kazakhstan&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Mongol Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GoldenHorde1300.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/GoldenHorde1300.png/220px-GoldenHorde1300.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/GoldenHorde1300.png/330px-GoldenHorde1300.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/GoldenHorde1300.png/440px-GoldenHorde1300.png 2x" data-file-width="1436" data-file-height="864" /></a><figcaption>Locator map of the Golden Horde, c. 1300</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turco-Mongol_tradition" title="Turco-Mongol tradition">Turco-Mongol tradition</a></div> <p>During Mongol advancement into Desht-i-Kipchak lands, some Cuman-Kipchak leaders fought the advancing Mongols, but most joined them and came to constitute most of the military force of the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a>. </p><p>After the partitioning of the empire in the latter 13th century, the western Mongol state called <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a> broke away from the unified empire. Kazakhstan was controlled by Golden Horde for more than 200 years. </p><p>During <a href="/wiki/Uzbeg_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Uzbeg Khan">Uzbeg Khan</a>'s rule (1312–41), <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> was adopted as a state religion. </p><p>According to the latest research of population genetics, mainly of autosomal markers and Y-chromosome polymorphism, it is believed that during the 13th to 15th centuries that the <a href="/wiki/Kazakhs" title="Kazakhs">Kazakh</a> ethnicity emerged.<sup id="cite_ref-Золотая_Орда_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Золотая_Орда-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Kazakh_Khanate_(1465–1847)"><span id="Kazakh_Khanate_.281465.E2.80.931847.29"></span>Kazakh Khanate (1465–1847)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Kazakhstan&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Kazakh Khanate (1465–1847)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Khanate" title="Kazakh Khanate">Kazakh Khanate</a> and <a href="/wiki/First_Civil_War_(Kazakh_Khanate)" class="mw-redirect" title="First Civil War (Kazakh Khanate)">First Civil War (Kazakh Khanate)</a></div> <p>After the dissolution of Golden Horde, on most of the territory of modern Kazakhstan, the <a href="/wiki/Uzbek_Khanate" title="Uzbek Khanate">Uzbek Khanate</a> was formed. Under <a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Khayr_Khan" title="Abu'l-Khayr Khan">Abu'l-Khayr Khan</a>, the country was weak and the government was corrupt. Two children of <a href="/wiki/Barak_Khan" title="Barak Khan">Barak Khan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Janibek_Khan" title="Janibek Khan">Janibek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kerei_Khan" title="Kerei Khan">Kerei Khan</a> gathered Kazakh people to Jetysu, where they founded Independent <a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Khanate" title="Kazakh Khanate">Kazakh Khanate</a>. </p><p>During the reign of <a href="/wiki/Kasym_Khan" title="Kasym Khan">Kasym Khan</a> (1511–1523), the khanate expanded considerably. Numerous victories in wars against neighbouring countries made the Khanate's reputation and country well known even in Western Europe. The first Kazakh code of laws, <i>Qasym Khannyn Qasqa Zholy</i> (Bright Road of Kasym Khan), was also established in 1520. </p><p>Between 1522 and 1538, the Khanate experienced its <a href="/wiki/First_Civil_War_(Kazakh_Khanate)" class="mw-redirect" title="First Civil War (Kazakh Khanate)">first civil war</a>. </p><p>The khanate is described in historical texts such as the <i>Tarikh-i-Rashidi</i> (1541–1545) by <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Haidar_Dughlat" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad Haidar Dughlat">Muhammad Haidar Dughlat</a><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i>Zhamigi-at-Tavarikh</i> (1598–1599) by Kadyrgali Kosynuli Zhalayir. </p><p>In 1643, the <a href="/wiki/Kazakh%E2%80%93Dzungar_Wars" title="Kazakh–Dzungar Wars">Kazakh-Dzungar wars</a> unfolded and became a disaster for the Kazakhs. The Khanate's population was divided into three tribes, called <a href="/wiki/Kazakh_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Kazakh tribes">juzes</a>: senior, middle and junior. During the reign of <a href="/wiki/Ablai_Khan" title="Ablai Khan">Ablai Khan</a> (1771–1781), he united all Kazakhs to fight the Dzungars. </p><p>In the 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> showed interest in <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Afghanistan" title="Emirate of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> and to reach it, Russia invades Kazakh lands. To confront Russian invasion, the last Khan - Kenesary Khan organized riots, starting from 1837 and ending in 1847 due to the execution of Kenesary. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Russian_Empire_(1731–1917)"><span id="Russian_Empire_.281731.E2.80.931917.29"></span><span class="anchor" id="In_the_Russian_Empire_1822(1847)–1917"></span>Russian Empire (1731–1917)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Kazakhstan&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Russian Empire (1731–1917)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan_in_the_Russian_Empire" title="Kazakhstan in the Russian Empire">Kazakhstan in the Russian Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_Turkestan" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian conquest of Turkestan">Russian conquest of Turkestan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kazakh-Dzungar_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Kazakh-Dzungar Wars">Kazakh-Dzungar Wars</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qianlong_Horse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="See caption" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Qianlong_Horse.jpg/220px-Qianlong_Horse.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Qianlong_Horse.jpg/330px-Qianlong_Horse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Qianlong_Horse.jpg/440px-Qianlong_Horse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="368" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Kazakh people">Kirghiz</a> envoys give a white horse to the <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a> of China (1757), soon after the Qing expelled the Mongols from Xinjiang. Soon trade began in <a href="/wiki/Yining_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Yining City">Yining</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tacheng" title="Tacheng">Tacheng</a> of Kazakh horses, sheep and goats for Chinese silk and cotton fabrics.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Russian traders and soldiers began to appear on the northwestern edge of Kazakh territory in the 17th century, when <a href="/wiki/Cossacks" title="Cossacks">Cossacks</a> established forts which later became the cities of Yaitsk (modern <a href="/wiki/Oral,_Kazakhstan" title="Oral, Kazakhstan">Oral</a>) and Guryev (modern <a href="/wiki/Atyrau" title="Atyrau">Atyrau</a>). The Russians were able to seize Kazakh territory because the khanates were preoccupied by the <a href="/wiki/Zunghar_Khanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Zunghar Khanate">Zunghar Oirats</a>, who began to move into the region from the east in the late 16th century. Forced westward, the Kazakhs were caught between the <a href="/wiki/Kalmyks" title="Kalmyks">Kalmyks</a> and the Russians. </p><p>First half of the 1700s, was marked by the surge of conflicts and wars with <a href="/wiki/Dzungars" class="mw-redirect" title="Dzungars">Dzungars</a>. In 1730 <a href="/wiki/Abul_Khair_Khan" title="Abul Khair Khan">Abul Khayr</a>, a khan of the Lesser Horde, sought Russian assistance. Although Khayr's intent was to form a temporary alliance against the stronger Kalmyks, the Russians gained control of the Lesser Horde. They conquered the Middle Horde by 1798, but the Great Horde remained independent until the 1820s (when the expanding <a href="/wiki/Kokand" title="Kokand">Kokand</a> khanate to the south forced the Great Horde khans to accept Russian protection, which seemed to them the lesser of two evils). </p><p>The Russian Empire started to integrate the Kazakh steppe. Between 1822 and 1848, the three main Kazakh Khans of the Lesser, Middle and Great Horde were suspended. Russians built many forts to control the conquered territories. Moreover, Russian settlers were provided with land, whereas nomadic tribes had less area available to drive their herds and flocks. Many of the nomadic tribes were forced to adopt poor and sedentary lifestyles. Because of the Russian Empire policy, between 5 and 15 per cent of the population of Kazakh Steppe were immigrants.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nineteenth-century colonization of Kazakhstan by Russia was slowed by rebellions and wars, such as uprisings led by <a href="/wiki/Isatay_Taymanuly" title="Isatay Taymanuly">Isatay Taymanuly</a> and <a href="/wiki/Makhambet_Utemisuly" class="mw-redirect" title="Makhambet Utemisuly">Makhambet Utemisuly</a> from 1836 to 1838 and the war led by <a href="/wiki/Eset_Kotibaruli" title="Eset Kotibaruli">Eset Kotibaruli</a> from 1847 to 1858. In 1863, the Russian Empire announced a new policy asserting the right to annex troublesome areas on its borders. This led immediately to the conquest of the remainder of Central Asia and the creation of two administrative districts: the <i>General-Gubernatorstvo</i> (<a href="/wiki/Governor-General" class="mw-redirect" title="Governor-General">Governor-Generalships</a>) of <a href="/wiki/Russian_Turkestan" title="Russian Turkestan">Russian Turkestan</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Governor-Generalship_of_the_Steppes" title="Governor-Generalship of the Steppes">Steppes</a>. Most of present-day Kazakhstan, including <a href="/wiki/Almaty" title="Almaty">Almaty</a> (Verny), was in the latter district.<sup id="cite_ref-curtisrussian_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-curtisrussian-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Asia_Centrala_-_Expansion_russa_de_1725_a_1914.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Asia_Centrala_-_Expansion_russa_de_1725_a_1914.png/220px-Asia_Centrala_-_Expansion_russa_de_1725_a_1914.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Asia_Centrala_-_Expansion_russa_de_1725_a_1914.png/330px-Asia_Centrala_-_Expansion_russa_de_1725_a_1914.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Asia_Centrala_-_Expansion_russa_de_1725_a_1914.png/440px-Asia_Centrala_-_Expansion_russa_de_1725_a_1914.png 2x" data-file-width="2148" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_Central_Asia" title="Russian conquest of Central Asia">Russian conquest of Central Asia</a></figcaption></figure> <p>During the nineteenth century, Kazakhs had remarkable numeracy level, which increased from approximately 72% in 1820 to approximately 88% in 1880. In the first part of the century, Kazakhs were even more numerate than Russians were. However, in that century, Russia conquered many countries and experienced a <a href="/wiki/Human_capital" title="Human capital">human capital</a> revolution, which led to a higher numeracy afterwards. Nevertheless, the numeracy of Kazakhs was still higher than other Central Asian nations, which are nowadays referred to as Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. There could be several reasons for this striking early numeracy level. First and foremost, the settler share could explain part of this, albeit Russians were a minority in the Kazakh steppe. Secondly, the relatively good nutritional situation in Kazakhstan. Protein malnutrition that plagued many other populations of Central Asian nations was absent in Kazakhstan. Moreover, Russian settlers of the 1870s and 1880s might have simulated so-called contact learning. Kazakhs started to invest more in human capital because they observed that Russians were successful in that area.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the early 19th century, the Russian forts began to limit the area over which the nomadic tribes could drive their herds and flocks. The final disruption of <a href="/wiki/Nomadism" class="mw-redirect" title="Nomadism">nomadism</a> began in the 1890s, when many Russian settlers were introduced into the fertile lands of northern and eastern Kazakhstan.<sup id="cite_ref-curtisrussian_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-curtisrussian-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1906 the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Aral_Railway" title="Trans-Aral Railway">Trans-Aral Railway</a> between <a href="/wiki/Orenburg" title="Orenburg">Orenburg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tashkent" title="Tashkent">Tashkent</a> was completed, facilitating Russian colonisation of the fertile lands of Zhetysu. Between 1906 and 1912, more than a half-million Russian farms were established as part of reforms by Russian Minister of the Interior <a href="/wiki/Petr_Stolypin" class="mw-redirect" title="Petr Stolypin">Petr Stolypin</a>; the farms pressured the traditional Kazakh way of life, occupying grazing land and using scarce water resources. The administrator for Turkestan (current Kazakhstan), Vasile Balabanov, was responsible for Russian resettlement at this time. </p><p>Starving and displaced, many Kazakhs joined in the <a href="/wiki/Basmachi_movement" title="Basmachi movement">Basmachi movement</a> against conscription into the <a href="/wiki/Russian_imperial_army" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian imperial army">Russian imperial army</a> ordered by the <a href="/wiki/Tsar" title="Tsar">tsar</a> in July 1916 as part of the war effort against Germany in <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. In late 1916, Russian forces suppressed the widespread armed resistance to the taking of land and conscription of Central Asians. Thousands of Kazakhs were killed, and thousands more fled to China and <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-curtisrussian_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-curtisrussian-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many Kazakhs and Russians fought the Communist takeover, and resisted its control until 1920. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alash_and_Turkestan_Autonomy">Alash and Turkestan Autonomy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Kazakhstan&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Alash and Turkestan Autonomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Alash_Autonomy" title="Alash Autonomy">Alash Autonomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turkestan_Autonomy" title="Turkestan Autonomy">Turkestan Autonomy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Proposed_Flag_of_the_Alash_Autonomy_(horizontal).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Proposed_Flag_of_the_Alash_Autonomy_%28horizontal%29.svg/220px-Proposed_Flag_of_the_Alash_Autonomy_%28horizontal%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Proposed_Flag_of_the_Alash_Autonomy_%28horizontal%29.svg/330px-Proposed_Flag_of_the_Alash_Autonomy_%28horizontal%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Proposed_Flag_of_the_Alash_Autonomy_%28horizontal%29.svg/440px-Proposed_Flag_of_the_Alash_Autonomy_%28horizontal%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="299" /></a><figcaption>Flag of Alash-Orda</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Turkestan_(Kokand)_Autonomy.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Flag_of_the_Turkestan_%28Kokand%29_Autonomy.svg/220px-Flag_of_the_Turkestan_%28Kokand%29_Autonomy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Flag_of_the_Turkestan_%28Kokand%29_Autonomy.svg/330px-Flag_of_the_Turkestan_%28Kokand%29_Autonomy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Flag_of_the_Turkestan_%28Kokand%29_Autonomy.svg/440px-Flag_of_the_Turkestan_%28Kokand%29_Autonomy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>Flag of Turkestan Autonomy</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alash_orda_1917–1920"><span id="Alash_orda_1917.E2.80.931920"></span>Alash orda 1917–1920</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Kazakhstan&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Alash orda 1917–1920"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the second half of the 20th century,<span class="cleanup-needed-content" style="padding-left:0.1em; padding-right:0.1em; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); border:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle, #c8ccd1);">second half of the 20th century</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="time period does not match section text (September 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Russia started building schools in Kazakhstan. It led to the formation of elite in Kazakh society. Most educated Kazakhs were members of <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Democratic_Party" title="Constitutional Democratic Party">Constitutional Democratic Party</a>, but after it fractioned, Kazakh elite formed new party named after a legendary founder of the Kazakh people—<a href="/wiki/Alash_(party)" title="Alash (party)">Alash</a>. The party's goal was to found an independent democratic Kazakh state. The party managed to form same-named <a href="/wiki/Alash_Orda" class="mw-redirect" title="Alash Orda">Orda</a>, which lasted until 1920, when <a href="/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">Bolsheviks</a> banned the party.<sup id="cite_ref-curtissoviet_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-curtissoviet-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The territory of Alash orda covered most of modern territories of Kazakhstan excluding southern regions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Turkestan_orda">Turkestan orda</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Kazakhstan&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Turkestan orda"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Turkestan orda or Kokand Autonomy, was an <a href="/wiki/List_of_historical_unrecognized_states" title="List of historical unrecognized states">unrecognized state</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> in <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> that existed at the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a>. It was formed on 27 November 1917<sup id="cite_ref-date_start_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-date_start-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and existed until 22 February 1918.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> It was a <a href="/wiki/Secular_state" title="Secular state">secular</a> <a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">republic</a>,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> headed by a president.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Soviet_Union_(1920–1991)"><span id="Soviet_Union_.281920.E2.80.931991.29"></span><span class="anchor" id="In_the_Soviet_Union_(1920–1991)"></span>Soviet Union (1920–1991)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Kazakhstan&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Soviet Union (1920–1991)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic">Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Autonomous_Socialist_Soviet_Republic" title="Kazakh Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic">Kazakh Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Kirghiz_Autonomous_Socialist_Soviet_Republic_(1920%E2%80%9325)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic (1920–25)">Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic</a>, established in 1920, was renamed the <a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Autonomous_Socialist_Soviet_Republic" title="Kazakh Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic">Kazakh Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic</a> in 1925 when the <a href="/wiki/Kazakhs" title="Kazakhs">Kazakhs</a> were officially distinguished from the <a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_people" title="Kyrgyz people">Kyrgyz</a> by the Soviet government. Although the Russian Empire recognized the ethnic difference between the groups, it called them both "Kirghiz" to avoid confusion between the terms "Kazakhs" and Cossacks (both names originating from the Turkic "free man").<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1925 the republic's original capital, Orenburg, was reincorporated into Russian territory and <a href="/wiki/Kyzylorda" title="Kyzylorda">Kyzylorda</a> became the capital until 1929. Almaty (known as Alma-Ata during the Soviet period), a provincial city in the far southeast, became the new capital in 1929. In 1936, the territory was officially separated from the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic</a> (RSFSR) and made a Soviet republic: the <a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic">Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic</a>. With an area of 2,717,300 km<sup>2</sup> (1,049,200 sq mi), the Kazakh SSR was the second-largest republic in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Two_famines">Two famines</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Kazakhstan&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Two famines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Kazakh_famine_of_1919%E2%80%931922" title="Kazakh famine of 1919–1922">Kazakh famine of 1919–1922</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kazakh_famine_of_1930%E2%80%931933" title="Kazakh famine of 1930–1933">Kazakh famine of 1930–1933</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_famine_of_1919%E2%80%931922" title="Kazakh famine of 1919–1922">First Kazakh famine</a> started in 1919 during the Russian Civil War. Amount of livestock in Kazakhstan decreased from 30 million to 16 million, which left almost million people starving due to the civil war. Apart from a famine, Kazakhstan suffered from stopping of all factories. </p><p>From 1929 to 1934, when <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> was trying to <a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">collectivize agriculture</a>, Kazakhstan endured repeated famine called <a href="/wiki/Asharshylyk" class="mw-redirect" title="Asharshylyk">Asharshylyk</a> similar to the <a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>; in both republics and the Russian SFSR,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> peasants slaughtered their livestock in protest against Soviet agricultural policy.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During that period, over one million residents<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 80 percent of the republic's livestock died. Thousands more tried to escape to China, although most starved in the attempt. According to <a href="/wiki/Robert_Conquest" title="Robert Conquest">Robert Conquest</a>, "The application of party theory to the Kazakhs, and to a lesser extent to the other nomad peoples, amounted economically to the imposition by force of an untried stereotype on a functioning social order, with disastrous results. And in human terms it meant death and suffering proportionally even greater than in the Ukraine".<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Repressions">Repressions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Kazakhstan&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Repressions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the 1930s, the Soviet government built <a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulags</a> across the Union. There were 11 concentration camps built in Kazakhstan, the most well known being <a href="/wiki/ALZhIR" title="ALZhIR">ALZhIR</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alikhan_Bukeikhanov_in_1937.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Alikhan_Bukeikhanov_in_1937.jpg/220px-Alikhan_Bukeikhanov_in_1937.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Alikhan_Bukeikhanov_in_1937.jpg/330px-Alikhan_Bukeikhanov_in_1937.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Alikhan_Bukeikhanov_in_1937.jpg/440px-Alikhan_Bukeikhanov_in_1937.jpg 2x" data-file-width="971" data-file-height="1299" /></a><figcaption>Photograph of <a href="/wiki/Alikhan_Bukeikhanov" title="Alikhan Bukeikhanov">Alikhan Bukeikhanov</a> taken in 1937</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a> Order 00486 of 15 August 1937 marked the beginning of mass repression against <i><a href="/wiki/Family_members_of_traitors_to_the_Motherland" class="mw-redirect" title="Family members of traitors to the Motherland">ChSIR: members of the families of traitors to the Motherland</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru">ЧСИР: члены семьи изменника Родины</span>). The order gave the right to arrest without evidence of guilt, and sent women political-prisoners to the camps for the first time. In a few months, female "traitors" were arrested and sentenced to from five to eight years in prison.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More than 18,000 women were arrested, and about 8,000 served time in ALZhIR – the <b><a href="/wiki/Akmolinsk_Oblast" class="mw-redirect" title="Akmolinsk Oblast">Akmolinsk</a> Camp of Wives of Traitors to the Motherland</b> (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru">Акмолинский лагерь жён изменников Родины (А. Л. Ж. И. Р.)</span>). They included the wives of statesmen, politicians and public figures in the then Soviet Union, including the wives of the former members of the Alash movement.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the closure of the prisons in 1953, it was reported that 1,507 of the women gave birth as a result of being raped by the guards.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During Soviet rule most of former members of Alash started working on translating textbooks for newly building schools, since most Kazakhs still weren't educated. Some of former members joined <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party</a>, but still elite protested several politics of Soviet government, like <a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">collectivization</a> which led to the artificial famine of 1930–33. The Soviet Government attempted to oppress and imprison many of the Kazakh elites. Due to the harsh treatment and conditions in the Kazakh gulags, imprisoned former Alash members experienced accelerated aging over the span of just a few years. This can be observed via photos taken of them before their imprisonment, and gulag mugshots taken before their executions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_II">World War II</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Kazakhstan&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Through the lens of the front lines and the home front, Roberto Carmack argues that World War II spurred Kazakhstan’s larger integration into the Soviet Union. However the war experience simultaneously worsened and reinforced ethnic tensions and social disparities. Even in the Soviet Union’s darkest hours ethnic chauvinism could overrule matters of national security. The Kremlin's propaganda efforts directed at soldiers and civilians, combined with military service and exposure to other parts of the USSR, Sovietized the Kazakh populace and the Kazakh SSR. The war made Kazakhstan more Soviet, but also strengthened its colonial status as a supplier of raw materials and manpower for the war effort, and solidified the hierarchy led by Russia in the USSR.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internal_Soviet_migration">Internal Soviet migration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Kazakhstan&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Internal Soviet migration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many Soviet citizens from the western regions of the USSR and a great deal of Soviet industry relocated to the Kazakh SSR during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, when <a href="/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis</a> armies captured or threatened to capture western Soviet industrial centres. Groups of Soviet citizens including <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatars" title="Crimean Tatars">Crimean Tatars</a>, German, and Muslims from the <a href="/wiki/North_Caucasus" title="North Caucasus">North Caucasus</a> were deported to the Kazakh SSR during the war. The Kremlin feared that they would collaborate with the Nazi invaders. Many Poles from eastern Poland were also deported to the Kazakh SSR, and local people shared their food with the new arrivals.<sup id="cite_ref-curtissoviet_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-curtissoviet-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many more non-Kazakhs arrived between 1953 and 1965, during the <a href="/wiki/Virgin_Lands_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Virgin Lands Campaign">Virgin Lands Campaign</a> of <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Premier" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Premier">Soviet Premier</a> <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a> (in office 1958–1964). That program saw huge tracts of Kazakh SSR grazing land cultivated for wheat and other cereal grains. More settlement occurred in the late 1960s and 1970s, when the Soviet government paid bonuses to workers participating in a program to relocate Soviet industry closer to Central Asia's coal, gas, and oil deposits. By the 1970s the Kazakh SSR was the only Soviet republic in which those of eponymous nationality was a minority, due to immigration and the decimation of the nomadic Kazakh population.<sup id="cite_ref-curtissoviet_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-curtissoviet-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Kazakh SSR played industrial and agricultural roles in the centrally-controlled Soviet economic system, with coal deposits discovered during the 20th century promising to replace depleted fuel-reserves in the European territories of the USSR. The distance between the European industrial centres and the Kazakh coal-fields posed a formidable problem – only partially solved by Soviet efforts to industrialize Central Asia. This left the Republic of Kazakhstan a mixed legacy after 1991: a population of nearly as many Russians as Kazakhs; a class of <a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Russian technocrats</a> necessary to economic progress but ethnically unassimilated, and a coal- and oil-based energy industry whose efficiency is limited by inadequate infrastructure.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Republic_of_Kazakhstan_(1991–present)"><span id="Republic_of_Kazakhstan_.281991.E2.80.93present.29"></span>Republic of Kazakhstan (1991–present)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Kazakhstan&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Republic of Kazakhstan (1991–present)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stamps_of_Kazakhstan,_2012-01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Stamps_of_Kazakhstan%2C_2012-01.jpg/170px-Stamps_of_Kazakhstan%2C_2012-01.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Stamps_of_Kazakhstan%2C_2012-01.jpg/255px-Stamps_of_Kazakhstan%2C_2012-01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Stamps_of_Kazakhstan%2C_2012-01.jpg/340px-Stamps_of_Kazakhstan%2C_2012-01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="667" data-file-height="959" /></a><figcaption>General Secretary of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan <a href="/wiki/Dinmukhamed_Kunaev" title="Dinmukhamed Kunaev">Dinmukhamed Konayev</a> (1964–1986)</figcaption></figure> <p>On 16 December 1986, the <a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Soviet Politburo</a> dismissed longtime General Secretary of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan <a href="/wiki/Dinmukhamed_Kunaev" title="Dinmukhamed Kunaev">Dinmukhamed Konayev</a>. His successor was the non-Kazakh <a href="/wiki/Gennady_Kolbin" title="Gennady Kolbin">Gennady Kolbin</a> from <a href="/wiki/Ulyanovsk" title="Ulyanovsk">Ulyanovsk</a>, Russia, which triggered <a href="/wiki/Jeltoqsan" title="Jeltoqsan">demonstrations protesting the move</a>. The protests were violently suppressed by the authorities, and "between two and twenty people lost their lives, and between 763 and 1137 received injuries. Between 2,212 and 2,336 demonstrators were arrested".<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Kolbin prepared to <a href="/wiki/Purge" title="Purge">purge</a> the Communist Youth League he was halted by Moscow, and in September 1989 he was replaced with the Kazakh <a href="/wiki/Nursultan_Nazarbayev" title="Nursultan Nazarbayev">Nursultan Nazarbayev</a>. </p><p>In June 1990 Moscow declared the sovereignty of the central government over Kazakhstan, forcing Kazakhstan to make its own statement of sovereignty. The exchange exacerbated tensions between the republic's two largest ethnic groups, who at that point were numerically about equal. In mid-August, Kazakh and Russian nationalists began to demonstrate around Kazakhstan's parliament building in an attempt to influence the final statement of sovereignty being drafted; the statement was adopted in October. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nazarbayev_Era">Nazarbayev Era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Kazakhstan&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Nazarbayev Era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Like other Soviet republics at that time, Parliament named Nazarbayev its chairman and converted his chairmanship to the presidency of the republic. Unlike the leaders of the other Soviet republics (especially the independence-minded Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia), Nazarbayev remained committed to the Soviet Union during the spring and summer of 1991 largely because he considered parts of USSR too interdependent economically to be able to survive independently. However, he also fought to control Kazakhstan's mineral wealth and industrial potential. </p><p>This objective became particularly important after 1990, when it was learned that <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> had negotiated an agreement with the American <a href="/wiki/Chevron_Corporation" title="Chevron Corporation">Chevron Corporation</a> to develop Kazakhstan's <a href="/wiki/Tengiz_Field" title="Tengiz Field">Tengiz</a> <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_reservoir" title="Petroleum reservoir">oil field</a>; Gorbachev did not consult Nazarbayev until the talks were nearly completed. At Nazarbayev's insistence, Moscow surrendered control of the republic's mineral resources in June 1991 and Gorbachev's authority crumbled rapidly throughout the year. Nazarbayev continued to support him, urging other republic leaders to sign a treaty creating the <a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Union of Sovereign States</a> which Gorbachev had drafted in a last attempt to hold the Soviet Union together. </p><p>Because of the August <a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt">1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt</a> against Gorbachev, the union treaty was never implemented. Ambivalent about Gorbachev's removal, Nazarbayev did not condemn the coup attempt until its second day. However, he continued to support Gorbachev and some form of union largely because of his conviction that independence would be economic suicide. </p><p>At the same time, Nazarbayev began preparing Kazakhstan for greater freedom or outright independence. He appointed professional economists and managers to high positions, and sought advice from foreign development and business experts. The outlawing of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Kazakhstan" title="Communist Party of Kazakhstan">Communist Party of Kazakhstan</a> (CPK) which followed the attempted coup permitted Nazarbayev to take nearly complete control of the republic's economy, more than 90 percent of which had been under the partial (or complete) direction of the Soviet government until late 1991. He solidified his position by winning an uncontested election for president in December 1991. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_41059_CIS_heads_of_state.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/RIAN_archive_41059_CIS_heads_of_state.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_41059_CIS_heads_of_state.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/RIAN_archive_41059_CIS_heads_of_state.jpg/330px-RIAN_archive_41059_CIS_heads_of_state.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/RIAN_archive_41059_CIS_heads_of_state.jpg/440px-RIAN_archive_41059_CIS_heads_of_state.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1172" /></a><figcaption>Nazarbayev (second from left) at the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Alma-Ata_Protocol" title="Alma-Ata Protocol">Alma-Ata Protocol</a>, December 1991.</figcaption></figure> <p>A week after the election, Nazarbayev became the president of an independent state when the leaders of Russia, Ukraine and <a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a> signed documents <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">dissolving the Soviet Union</a>. He quickly convened a meeting of the leaders of the five Central Asian states (Kazakhstan, <a href="/wiki/Kyrgyzstan" title="Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a>), raising the possibility of a Turkic confederation of former republics as a counterweight to the Slavic states of <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a> in whatever federation might succeed the Soviet Union. This move persuaded the three Slavic presidents to include Kazakhstan among the signatories of a recast document of dissolution. Kazakhstan's capital lent its name to the <a href="/wiki/Alma-Ata_Protocol" title="Alma-Ata Protocol">Alma-Ata Protocol</a>, the declaration of principles of the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States" title="Commonwealth of Independent States">Commonwealth of Independent States</a>. On 16 December 1991, five days before the declaration, Kazakhstan became the last of the republics to proclaim its independence. </p><p>The republic has followed the same general political pattern as the other four Central Asian states. After declaring its independence from a political structure dominated by Moscow and the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a> (CPSU) until 1991, Kazakhstan retained the governmental structure and most of the leadership which had held power in 1990. Nazarbayev, elected <a href="/wiki/President_of_Kazakhstan" title="President of Kazakhstan">president of the republic</a> in 1991, remained in undisputed power five years later. </p><p>He took several steps to ensure his position. The constitution of 1993 made the prime minister and the Council of Ministers responsible solely to the president, and a new constitution two years later reinforced that relationship. Opposition parties were limited by legal restrictions on their activities. Within that framework, Nazarbayev gained substantial popularity by limiting the economic shock of separation from the Soviet Union and maintaining ethnic harmony in a diverse country with more than 100 different nationalities. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikisource has original works on the topic: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:Memorandum_on_Security_Assurances_in_connection_with_the_Republic_of_Kazakhstan%E2%80%99s_accession_to_the_Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons" class="extiw" title="s:Portal:Memorandum on Security Assurances in connection with the Republic of Kazakhstan’s accession to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons">Memorandum on Security Assurances in connection with the Republic of Kazakhstan’s accession to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <p>In December 1994 Nazarbayev signed the <a href="/wiki/Budapest_Memorandum" title="Budapest Memorandum">Budapest Memorandum</a> along with <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, the United Kingdom and the United States acting as guarantors and thereby denuclearized the nation. The leaders of Ukraine and Belarus also signed similar documents in a joint ceremonial event in Patria Hall at the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Budapest_Convention_Center&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Budapest Convention Center (page does not exist)">Budapest Convention Center</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-potter95_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-potter95-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bubba_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bubba-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-unterm_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-unterm-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1997 Kazakhstan's capital was moved from Almaty to <a href="/wiki/Astana" title="Astana">Astana</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Homosexuality" title="Homosexuality">homosexuality</a> was decriminalized the following year.<sup id="cite_ref-History_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="After_Nazarbayev">After Nazarbayev</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Kazakhstan&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: After Nazarbayev"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In March 2019, President Nursultan Nazarbayev resigned 29 years after taking office. However, he continued to lead the influential security council and held the formal title Leader of the Nation.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Kassym-Jomart_Tokayev" title="Kassym-Jomart Tokayev">Kassym-Jomart Tokayev</a> succeeded Nazarbayev as the <a href="/wiki/President_of_Kazakhstan" title="President of Kazakhstan">President of Kazakhstan</a>. His first official act was to rename the capital from Astana to <a href="/wiki/Nur-Sultan" class="mw-redirect" title="Nur-Sultan">Nur-Sultan</a> after his predecessor.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In June 2019, the new president, Kassym-Jomart Tokayev, won Kazakhstan's presidential <a href="/wiki/2019_Kazakh_presidential_election" title="2019 Kazakh presidential election">election</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In January 2022, President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev took over as head of the powerful Security Council, removing Nazarbayev from the post, after <a href="/wiki/2022_Kazakh_unrest" title="2022 Kazakh unrest">violent protests triggered by fuel price</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev later proposed constitutional amendments aimed at limiting his power and stripping Nazarbayev of his formal title Leader of the Nation.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kazakhs later voted in the <a href="/wiki/2022_Kazakh_constitutional_referendum" title="2022 Kazakh constitutional referendum">2022 Kazakh constitutional referendum</a> approving of the constitutional amendments.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In September 2022, the name of the country's capital was changed back to Astana from Nur-Sultan.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relationship_with_Russia">Relationship with Russia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Kazakhstan&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Relationship with Russia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stamps_of_Kazakhstan,_2013-47.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Stamps_of_Kazakhstan%2C_2013-47.jpg/220px-Stamps_of_Kazakhstan%2C_2013-47.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Stamps_of_Kazakhstan%2C_2013-47.jpg/330px-Stamps_of_Kazakhstan%2C_2013-47.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Stamps_of_Kazakhstan%2C_2013-47.jpg/440px-Stamps_of_Kazakhstan%2C_2013-47.jpg 2x" data-file-width="781" data-file-height="656" /></a><figcaption>Stamp of Kazakhstan, 2013: <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nursultan_Nazarbayev" title="Nursultan Nazarbayev">Nursultan Nazarbayev</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Medvedev" title="Dmitry Medvedev">Dmitry Medvedev</a></figcaption></figure> <p>During the mid-1990s, although Russia remained the most important sponsor of Kazakhstan in economic and <a href="/wiki/National_security" title="National security">national security</a> matters Nazarbayev supported the strengthening of the CIS. As sensitive ethnic, national-security and economic issues cooled <a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Kazakhstan_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Russia–Kazakhstan relations">relations with Russia</a> during the decade, Nazarbayev cultivated <a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93Kazakhstan_relations" title="China–Kazakhstan relations">relations with China</a>, the other Central Asian nations, and the West; however, Kazakhstan remains principally dependent on Russia. The <a href="/wiki/Baikonur_Cosmodrome" title="Baikonur Cosmodrome">Baikonur Cosmodrome</a>, built during the 1950s for the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">Soviet space program</a>, is near <a href="/wiki/Tyuratam" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyuratam">Tyuratam</a> and the city of <a href="/wiki/Baikonur" title="Baikonur">Baikonur</a> was built to accommodate the <a href="/wiki/Spaceport" title="Spaceport">spaceport</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relationship_with_the_US"><span class="anchor" id="Relationship_with_America"></span>Relationship with the US</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Kazakhstan&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Relationship with the US"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Kazakhstan also maintains good <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Kazakhstan–United States relations">relations with the United States</a>. The country is the US's 78th-largest trading partner, incurring $2.5 billion in two-way trade, and it was the first country to recognize Kazakhstan after independence. In 1994 and 1995, the US worked with Kazakhstan to remove all nuclear warheads after the latter renounced its nuclear program and closed the Semipalatinsk Test Sites; the last nuclear sites and tunnels were closed by 1995. In 2010, US President <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> met with Nazarbayev at the <a href="/wiki/2010_Nuclear_Security_Summit" title="2010 Nuclear Security Summit">Nuclear Security Summit</a> in Washington, DC and discussed intensifying their strategic relationship and bilateral cooperation to increase nuclear safety, regional stability, and economic prosperity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Kazakhstan&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_State_Museum_of_Kazakhstan" title="Central State Museum of Kazakhstan">Central State Museum of Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_medieval_states_in_Kazakhstan" title="Early medieval states in Kazakhstan">Early medieval states in Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asia" title="History of Asia">History of Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Central_Asia" title="History of Central Asia">History of Central Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Soviet Union">History of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_migration_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Aryan migration theory">Indo-Aryan migration theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Kazakhs" title="List of Kazakhs">List of Kazakhs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Kazakh_khans" title="List of Kazakh khans">List of Kazakh khans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_leaders_of_Kazakhstan" title="List of leaders of Kazakhstan">List of leaders of Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Kazakhstan" title="Politics of Kazakhstan">Politics of Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_migration" title="Turkic migration">Turkic migration</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Kazakhstan&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-date_start-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-date_start_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">November 28 in Kazakh-language sources.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Was Kazakstan using a different calendar? (April 2019)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Kazakhstan&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>The Cambridge World Prehistory</i>. University of Cambridge. June 2014. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521119931" title="Special:BookSources/9780521119931"><bdi>9780521119931</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+World+Prehistory&rft.pub=University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=2014-06&rft.isbn=9780521119931&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Kazakhstan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-B_68-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-B_68_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeckwith2009" class="citation book cs1">Beckwith, Christopher I. (2009). <i>Empires of the Silk Road : a history of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the present</i>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13589-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13589-2"><bdi>978-0-691-13589-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/229467524">229467524</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empires+of+the+Silk+Road+%3A+a+history+of+Central+Eurasia+from+the+Bronze+Age+to+the+present&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F229467524&rft.isbn=978-0-691-13589-2&rft.aulast=Beckwith&rft.aufirst=Christopher+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Kazakhstan" class="Z3988"></span> "Modern scholars have mostly used the name Saka to refer to Iranians of the Eastern Steppe and Tarim Basin"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-D_37-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-D_37_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDandamayev1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Dandamayev" title="Muhammad Dandamayev">Dandamayev, M. A.</a> (1994). "Media and Achaemenid Iran". In <a href="/wiki/J%C3%A1nos_Harmatta" title="János Harmatta">Harmatta, János</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9U6RlVVjpakC"><i>History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The Development of Sedentary and Nomadic Civilizations, 700 B. C. to A. D. 250</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a>. pp. 35–59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9231028464" title="Special:BookSources/9231028464"><bdi>9231028464</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Media+and+Achaemenid+Iran&rft.btitle=History+of+Civilizations+of+Central+Asia%3A+The+Development+of+Sedentary+and+Nomadic+Civilizations%2C+700+B.+C.+to+A.+D.+250&rft.pages=35-59&rft.pub=UNESCO&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=9231028464&rft.aulast=Dandamayev&rft.aufirst=M.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9U6RlVVjpakC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Kazakhstan" class="Z3988"></span> "In modern scholarship the name 'Sakas' is reserved for the ancient tribes of northern and eastern Central Asia and Eastern Turkestan to distinguish them from the related Massagetae of the Aral region and the Scythians of the Pontic steppes. Those tribes spoke Iranian languages and their chief occupation was nomadic pastoralism."(p. 37)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-curtistribal-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-curtistribal_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-curtistribal_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-curtistribal_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurtis" class="citation web cs1">Curtis, Glenn E. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://countrystudies.us/kazakstan/2.htm">"Early Tribal Movements"</a>. <i>Kazakstan: A Country Study</i>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Government_Publishing_Office" title="United States Government Publishing Office">United States Government Publishing Office</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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K.</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nur.nu.edu.kz/bitstream/handle/123456789/1391/СабитовЖ.%2c%20Жабагин%20М.%20Этногенез.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">Population genetics of Kazakh ethnogenesis</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211223052202/https://nur.nu.edu.kz/bitstream/handle/123456789/1391/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%96.%2C%20%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BD%20%D0%9C.%20%D0%AD%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">Archived</a> 23 December 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://goldhorde.ru/en/stati2017-4-5/">"2017. Vol. 5, no. 4. Nurlan Kenzheakhmet"</a>. <i>Золотоордынское обозрение</i>. 19 December 2017. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.22378%2F2313-6197.2017-5-4.770-785">10.22378/2313-6197.2017-5-4.770-785</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=thediplomat.com&rft.atitle=What%27s+in+Kazakhstan%27s+Constitutional+Referendum%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthediplomat.com%2F2022%2F05%2Fwhats-in-kazakhstans-constitutional-referendum%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Kazakhstan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-nazarbayev-to-lose-his-place-in-constitution">"Kazakhstan: Nazarbayev to lose his place in constitution | Eurasianet"</a>. <i>eurasianet.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=eurasianet.org&rft.atitle=Kazakhstan%3A+Nazarbayev+to+lose+his+place+in+constitution+%7C+Eurasianet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feurasianet.org%2Fkazakhstan-nazarbayev-to-lose-his-place-in-constitution&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Kazakhstan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/6/6/kazakhstan-votes-to-amend-constitution-referendum-results">"Kazakh President Tokayev promises reform after referendum win"</a>. <i>www.aljazeera.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.aljazeera.com&rft.atitle=Kazakh+President+Tokayev+promises+reform+after+referendum+win&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Fnews%2F2022%2F6%2F6%2Fkazakhstan-votes-to-amend-constitution-referendum-results&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Kazakhstan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/6/5/kazakhstan-holds-referendum-marking-end-of-nazarbayev-rule">"Kazakhstan holds referendum to amend constitution"</a>. <i>www.aljazeera.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.aljazeera.com&rft.atitle=Kazakhstan+holds+referendum+to+amend+constitution&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Fnews%2F2022%2F6%2F5%2Fkazakhstan-holds-referendum-marking-end-of-nazarbayev-rule&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Kazakhstan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFagencies2022" class="citation news cs1">agencies, Staff and (14 September 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/sep/14/kazakhstan-to-change-name-of-capital-from-nur-sultan-back-to-astana">"Kazakhstan to change name of capital from Nur-sultan back to Astana"</a>. <i>the Guardian</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=the+Guardian&rft.atitle=Kazakhstan+to+change+name+of+capital+from+Nur-sultan+back+to+Astana&rft.date=2022-09-14&rft.aulast=agencies&rft.aufirst=Staff+and&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2022%2Fsep%2F14%2Fkazakhstan-to-change-name-of-capital-from-nur-sultan-back-to-astana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Kazakhstan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Kazakhstan&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_history_of_Central_Asia" title="Bibliography of the history of Central Asia">Bibliography of the history of Central Asia</a></div> <ul><li>Abylkhozhin, Zhulduzbek, et al. eds. <i>Stalinism in Kazakhstan: History, Memory, and Representation</i> (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Stalinism-Kazakhstan-History-Memory-Representation/dp/1793641625">excerpt</a></li> <li>Adams, Margarethe. <i>Steppe Dreams: Time, Mediation, and Postsocialist Celebrations in Kazakhstan</i> (University of Pittsburgh Press, 2020).</li> <li>Cameron, Sarah. <i>The hungry steppe: Famine, violence, and the making of Soviet Kazakhstan</i> (Cornell University Press, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctt21h4vb">online review</a></li> <li>Carmack, Roberto J. <i>Kazakhstan in World War II: Mobilization and Ethnicity in the Soviet Empire</i> (University Press of Kansas, 2019) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=55099">online review</a></li> <li>Hiro, Dilip. <i>Inside Central Asia : a political and cultural history of Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkey, and Iran</i> (2009) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/insidecentralasi0000hiro">online</a></li> <li>Kaşıkçı, Mekhmet Volkan. "Living under Stalin's Rule in Kazakhstan." <i>Kritika</i> 23.4 (2022): 905-923. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/28/article/869466/summary">excerpt</a></li> <li>Kassenova, Togzhan. <i>Atomic Steppe: How Kazakhstan Gave Up the Bomb</i> (Stanford University Press, 2022).</li> <li>Pianciola, Niccolò. "Nomads and the State in Soviet Kazakhstan." <i>Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History</i> (2019), online.</li> <li>Pianciola, Niccolò. "Sacrificing the Qazaqs: The Stalinist Hierarchy of Consumption and the Great Famine of 1931–33 in Kazakhstan." <i>Journal of Central Asian History</i> 1.2 (2022): 225-272. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/download/94685954/Pianciola_JCAH_2.2022.pdf">online</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged August 2024">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li>Ramsay, Rebekah. "Nomadic Hearths of Soviet Culture: ‘Women’s Red Yurt’ Campaigns in Kazakhstan, 1925–1935." <i>Europe-Asia Studies</i> 73.10 (2021): 1937-1961.</li> <li>Toimbek, Diana. "Problems and perspectives of transition to the knowledge-based economy in Kazakhstan." <i>Journal of the Knowledge Economy</i> 13.2 (2022): 1088-1125.</li> <li>Tredinnick, Jeremy. <i>An illustrated history of Kazakhstan : Asia's heartland in context</i> (2014), popular history. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/illustratedhisto0000tred">online</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Kazakhstan&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070608003315/http://expat.nursat.kz/?3299">History of Kazakhstan</a> at expat.nursat.kz</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.britannica.com/web/https://place/Kazakhstan">[1]</a> at britannica.com</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/paksoy-5/">Origins of Kazakhs and Ozbeks</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201108133412/http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/paksoy-5/">Archived</a> 8 November 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ibrain.kz/ru/istoriya-kazahstana/materialy/">History of Kazakhstan</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Asia" style="padding:3px"><table 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Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cyprus" title="History of Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Timor" title="History of East Timor">East Timor (Timor-Leste)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt" title="History of Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(country)" title="History of Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indonesia" title="History of Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran" title="History of Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraq" title="History of Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Israel" title="History of Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jordan" title="History of Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Korea" title="History of North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Korea" title="History of South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kuwait" title="History of Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kyrgyzstan" title="History of Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Laos" title="History of Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lebanon" title="History of Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Malaysia" title="History of Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Maldives" title="History of the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mongolia" title="History of Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Myanmar" title="History of Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nepal" title="History of Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oman" title="History of Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pakistan" title="History of Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Philippines" title="History of the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Qatar" title="History of Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Saudi_Arabia" title="History of Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Singapore" title="History of Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sri_Lanka" title="History of Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Syria" title="History of Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tajikistan" title="History of Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Thailand" title="History of Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Turkey" title="History of Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Turkmenistan" title="History of Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="History of the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Uzbekistan" title="History of Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnam" title="History of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Yemen" title="History of Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with<br />limited recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Abkhazia" title="History of Abkhazia">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Northern_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_State_of_Palestine" title="History of the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Ossetia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of South Ossetia">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwan" title="History of Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br />other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Indian_Ocean_Territory" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the British Indian Ocean Territory">British Indian Ocean Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christmas_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Christmas Island">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hong_Kong" title="History of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Macau" title="History of Macau">Macau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Asia" title="Category:Asia">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Asia" title="Portal:Asia">Asia portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_by_country_Asia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Asia_topic" title="Template:Asia topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Asia_topic" title="Template talk:Asia topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Asia_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Asia topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_by_country_Asia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History of by country Asia</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Afghanistan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Afghanistan (page does not exist)">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Armenia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Armenia (page does not exist)">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Azerbaijan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Azerbaijan (page does not exist)">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Bahrain&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Bahrain (page does not exist)">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Bangladesh&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Bangladesh (page does not exist)">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Bhutan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Bhutan (page does not exist)">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Brunei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Brunei (page does not exist)">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Cambodia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Cambodia (page does not exist)">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_China&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country China (page does not exist)">China</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Cyprus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Cyprus (page does not exist)">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_East_Timor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country East Timor (page does not exist)">East Timor (Timor-Leste)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Egypt&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Egypt (page does not exist)">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Georgia_(country)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Georgia (country) (page does not exist)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_India&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country India (page does not exist)">India</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Indonesia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Indonesia (page does not exist)">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Iran&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Iran (page does not exist)">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Iraq&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Iraq (page does not exist)">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Israel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Israel (page does not exist)">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Japan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Japan (page does not exist)">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Jordan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Jordan (page does not exist)">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Kazakhstan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Kazakhstan (page does not exist)">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_North_Korea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country North Korea (page does not exist)">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_South_Korea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country South Korea (page does not exist)">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Kuwait&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Kuwait (page does not exist)">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Kyrgyzstan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Kyrgyzstan (page does not exist)">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Laos&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Laos (page does not exist)">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Lebanon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Lebanon (page does not exist)">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Malaysia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Malaysia (page does not exist)">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_the_Maldives&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country the Maldives (page does not exist)">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Mongolia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Mongolia (page does not exist)">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Myanmar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Myanmar (page does not exist)">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Nepal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Nepal (page does not exist)">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Oman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Oman (page does not exist)">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Pakistan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Pakistan (page does not exist)">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_the_Philippines&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country the Philippines (page does not exist)">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Qatar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Qatar (page does not exist)">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Russia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Russia (page does not exist)">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Saudi_Arabia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Saudi Arabia (page does not exist)">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Singapore&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Singapore (page does not exist)">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Sri_Lanka&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Sri Lanka (page does not exist)">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Syria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Syria (page does not exist)">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Tajikistan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Tajikistan (page does not exist)">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Thailand&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Thailand (page does not exist)">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Turkey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Turkey (page does not exist)">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Turkmenistan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Turkmenistan (page does not exist)">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_the_United_Arab_Emirates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country the United Arab Emirates (page does not exist)">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Uzbekistan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Uzbekistan (page does not exist)">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Vietnam&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Vietnam (page does not exist)">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Yemen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Yemen (page does not exist)">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with<br />limited recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Northern_Cyprus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Northern Cyprus (page does not exist)">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_the_State_of_Palestine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country the State of Palestine (page does not exist)">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Taiwan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Taiwan (page does not exist)">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br />other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_the_British_Indian_Ocean_Territory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country the British Indian Ocean Territory (page does not exist)">British Indian Ocean Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Christmas_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Christmas Island (page does not exist)">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (page does not exist)">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Hong_Kong&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Hong Kong (page does not exist)">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_by_country_Macau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of by country Macau (page does not exist)">Macau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Asia" title="Category:Asia">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Asia" title="Portal:Asia">Asia portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Europe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Europe" title="Template talk:History of Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of Europe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Europe" title="Prehistoric Europe">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_Europe" title="Paleolithic Europe">Paleolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze Age Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Christianity in late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li>Bulgarian Empire <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Valencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Majorca</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Christianity in the modern era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Europe">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_European_history" title="Bibliography of European history">Bibliography of European history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">History of the Mediterranean region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">Maritime history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_current_European_countries" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:European_history_by_country" title="Template:European history by country"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:European_history_by_country" title="Template talk:European history by country"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:European_history_by_country" title="Special:EditPage/Template:European history by country"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_current_European_countries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of current European countries</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Albania" title="History of Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Andorra" title="History of Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Armenia" title="History of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Austria" title="History of Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Azerbaijan" title="History of Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Belarus" title="History of Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Belgium" title="History of Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="History of Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bulgaria" title="History of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Croatia" title="History of Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cyprus" title="History of Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Czech_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Denmark" title="History of Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Estonia" title="History of Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Finland" title="History of Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(country)" title="History of Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Greece" title="History of Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hungary" title="History of Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iceland" title="History of Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="History of the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italy" title="History of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latvia" title="History of Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Liechtenstein" title="History of Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Luxembourg" title="History of Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Malta" title="History of Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Moldova" title="History of Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Monaco" title="History of Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Montenegro" title="History of Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Netherlands" title="History of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Macedonia" title="History of North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Norway" title="History of Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Portugal" title="History of Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Romania" title="History of Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_San_Marino" title="History of San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Serbia" title="History of Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Slovakia" title="History of Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Slovenia" title="History of Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain" title="History of Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sweden" title="History of Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Switzerland" title="History of Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Turkey" title="History of Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ukraine" title="History of Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vatican_City" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Vatican City">Vatican City</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States with limited<br />recognition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Abkhazia" title="History of Abkhazia">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kosovo" title="History of Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Northern_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Ossetia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of South Ossetia">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Transnistria" title="History of Transnistria">Transnistria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies and<br />other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_%C3%85land" title="History of Åland">Åland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Faroe_Islands" title="History of the Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Gibraltar" title="History of Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guernsey" title="History of Guernsey">Guernsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Isle_of_Man" title="History of the Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jersey" title="History of Jersey">Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Svalbard" title="History of Svalbard">Svalbard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">European Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Kazakhstan_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Kazakhstan_topics" title="Template:Kazakhstan topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Kazakhstan_topics" title="Template talk:Kazakhstan topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Kazakhstan_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Kazakhstan topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Kazakhstan_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_Kazakhstan-related_articles" title="Index of Kazakhstan-related articles">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Prehistory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saka" title="Saka">Saka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kangju" title="Kangju">Kangju</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wusun" title="Wusun">Wusun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Early history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tiele_people" title="Tiele people">Tele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran Khaganate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Göktürks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kangar_union" title="Kangar union">Kangar union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimek_Khanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Kimek Khanate">Kimek Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karluks" title="Karluks">Karluks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oghuz_Yabgu_State" title="Oghuz Yabgu State">Oghuz Yabgu State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xueyantuo" title="Xueyantuo">Xueyantuo Khaganate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uyghur Khaganate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yenisei_Kirghiz" class="mw-redirect" title="Yenisei Kirghiz">Kyrgyz Khaganate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kara-Khanid_Khanate" title="Kara-Khanid Khanate">Kara-Khanid Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wings_of_the_Golden_Horde" title="Wings of the Golden Horde">White Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_Khanate" title="Uzbek Khanate">Uzbek Khanate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Since 1465</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Khanate" title="Kazakh Khanate">Kazakh Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Kazakh_khans" title="List of Kazakh khans">List of Kazakh khans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCz" title="Jüz">Jüz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Turkestan" title="Russian Turkestan">Russian Turkestan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alash_Autonomy" title="Alash Autonomy">Alash Autonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Autonomous_Socialist_Soviet_Republic" title="Kazakh Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic">Kazakh ASSR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic">Kazakh SSR</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Republic_of_Kazakhstan_(1991–present)">Republic of Kazakhstan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_Kazakhstan" title="Postage stamps and postal history of Kazakhstan">Postal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Kazakhstan" title="Coat of arms of Kazakhstan"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Emblem_of_Kazakhstan_latin.svg/120px-Emblem_of_Kazakhstan_latin.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Emblem_of_Kazakhstan_latin.svg/180px-Emblem_of_Kazakhstan_latin.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Emblem_of_Kazakhstan_latin.svg/240px-Emblem_of_Kazakhstan_latin.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Kazakhstan" title="Geography of Kazakhstan">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aktogay_Canyon" title="Aktogay Canyon">Aktogay Canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altai_Mountains" title="Altai Mountains">Altay (Altai) Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aral_Karakum_Desert" title="Aral Karakum Desert">Aral Karakum Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Kazakhstan" title="Template:Borders of Kazakhstan">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Steppe" title="Kazakh Steppe">Kazakh Steppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khan_Tengri" title="Khan Tengri">Khan Tangiri Shyngy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyzylkum_Desert" title="Kyzylkum Desert">Kyzylkum Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Balkhash" title="Lake Balkhash">Lake Balkhash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharyn_Canyon" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharyn Canyon">Sharyn Canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syr_Darya" title="Syr Darya">Syr Darya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tian_Shan" title="Tian Shan">Tien (Tian) Shan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ural_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Ural River">Ural River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jetisu" title="Jetisu">Zhetysu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Kazakhstan" class="mw-redirect" title="Administrative divisions of Kazakhstan">Subdivisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Kazakhstan" title="List of cities in Kazakhstan">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Districts_of_Kazakhstan" title="Districts of Kazakhstan">Districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_Kazakhstan" title="Regions of Kazakhstan">Regions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Kazakhstan" title="Politics of Kazakhstan">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Kazakhstan" title="Constitution of Kazakhstan">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Kazakhstan" title="Elections in Kazakhstan">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Kazakhstan" title="Foreign relations of Kazakhstan">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Kazakhstan" title="Government of Kazakhstan">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Kazakhstan" title="President of Kazakhstan">President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Kazakhstan" title="Prime Minister of Kazakhstan">Prime Minister</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Kazakhstan" title="Human rights in Kazakhstan">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech_in_Kazakhstan" title="Freedom of speech in Kazakhstan">Freedom of speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Kazakhstan" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Kazakhstan">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Kazakhstan" title="Law enforcement in Kazakhstan">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_the_Republic_of_Kazakhstan" title="Armed Forces of the Republic of Kazakhstan">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Kazakhstan" title="Parliament of Kazakhstan">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Kazakhstan" title="List of political parties in Kazakhstan">Political parties</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Kazakhstan" title="Economy of Kazakhstan">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Kazakhstan" title="Agriculture in Kazakhstan">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_Kazakhstan" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy policy of Kazakhstan">Energy policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Bank_of_Kazakhstan" title="National Bank of Kazakhstan">National Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan_Stock_Exchange" title="Kazakhstan Stock Exchange">Stock Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Kazakhstan" title="Science and technology in Kazakhstan">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kazakhstan" title="Telecommunications in Kazakhstan">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakhstani_tenge" title="Kazakhstani tenge">Tenge <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Kazakhstan" title="Transport in Kazakhstan">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Kazakhstan" title="Waste management in Kazakhstan">Waste management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Kazakhstan" title="Culture of Kazakhstan">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_alphabets" title="Kazakh alphabets">Alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meni%C3%B1_Qazaqstan%C4%B1m" class="mw-redirect" title="Meniñ Qazaqstanım">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Central_Asia" title="Architecture of Central Asia">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_clothing" title="Kazakh clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emblem_of_Kazakhstan" title="Emblem of Kazakhstan">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_cuisine" title="Kazakh cuisine">Cuisine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kazakh_wine" title="Kazakh wine">wine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Kazakhstan" title="Flag of Kazakhstan">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_Kazakhstan" title="Internet in Kazakhstan">Kaznet <span style="font-size:85%;">(Internet)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Kazakhs" title="List of Kazakhs">Kazakhs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Kazakhstan" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Kazakhstan">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Kazakhstan" title="Music of Kazakhstan">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kazakhstan" title="Religion in Kazakhstan">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Kazakhstan" title="Sport in Kazakhstan">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting_in_Kazakhstan" title="Squatting in Kazakhstan">Squatting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Kazakhstan" title="Television in Kazakhstan">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_wedding_ceremony" title="Kazakh wedding ceremony">Wedding ceremony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y-DNA_haplogroups_in_Kazakh_tribes" title="Y-DNA haplogroups in Kazakh tribes">Y-DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Kazakh tribes">Kazakh tribes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Kazakhstan" title="Demographics of Kazakhstan">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Kazakhstan" title="Education in Kazakhstan">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Kazakhstan" class="mw-redirect" title="Health in Kazakhstan">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_language" title="Kazakh language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Kazakhstan" title="Women in Kazakhstan">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Peoples</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenians_in_Kazakhstan" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenians in Kazakhstan">Armenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijanis_in_Kazakhstan" title="Azerbaijanis in Kazakhstan">Azerbaijanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungan_people" title="Dungan people">Dungan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germans_of_Kazakhstan" title="Germans of Kazakhstan">Germans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greeks_in_Kazakhstan" title="Greeks in Kazakhstan">Greeks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Kazakhstan" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Kazakhstan">Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakhs" title="Kazakhs">Kazakhs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koryo-saram" title="Koryo-saram">Koreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poles_in_Kazakhstan" title="Poles in Kazakhstan">Poles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russians_in_Kazakhstan" title="Russians in Kazakhstan">Russians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatars_of_Kazakhstan" title="Tatars of Kazakhstan">Tatars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turks_in_Kazakhstan" title="Turks in Kazakhstan">Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainians_in_Kazakhstan" title="Ukrainians in Kazakhstan">Ukrainians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghurs_in_Kazakhstan" title="Uyghurs in Kazakhstan">Uyghurs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Kazakhstan" title="Outline of Kazakhstan">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Kazakhstan-related_articles" title="Index of Kazakhstan-related articles">Index</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Kazakhstan" title="Category:Kazakhstan">Category</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Revolutions_of_1989" style="wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#CEE0F2;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Fall_of_Communism" title="Template:Fall of Communism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Fall_of_Communism" title="Template talk:Fall of Communism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Fall_of_Communism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Fall of Communism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Revolutions_of_1989" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Internal<br />background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Era of Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">Anti-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_communist_party_rule" title="Criticism of communist party rule">Criticism of communist party rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc_politics" title="Eastern Bloc politics">Eastern Bloc politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc_media_and_propaganda" title="Eastern Bloc media and propaganda">Eastern Bloc media and propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emigration_from_the_Eastern_Bloc" title="Emigration from the Eastern Bloc">Emigration from the Eastern Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomenklatura" title="Nomenklatura">Nomenklatura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shortage_economy" title="Shortage economy">Shortage economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communist_insurgencies_in_Central_and_Eastern_Europe" title="Anti-communist insurgencies in Central and Eastern Europe">Anti-communist insurgencies in Central and Eastern Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">International<br />background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_measures" title="Active measures">Active measures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_socialist_states" title="List of socialist states">List of socialist states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_Power_Revolution" title="People Power Revolution">People Power Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predictions_of_the_collapse_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Predictions of the collapse of the Soviet Union">Predictions of the collapse of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Empire">Soviet Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_and_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrorism and the Soviet Union">Terrorism and the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_See%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations" title="Holy See–Soviet Union relations">Vatican Opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Reforms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uskorenie" title="Uskorenie">Uskorenie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demokratizatsiya_(Soviet_Union)" title="Demokratizatsiya (Soviet Union)">Demokratizatsiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khozraschyot" class="mw-redirect" title="Khozraschyot">Khozraschyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/500_Days_Program" title="500 Days Program">500 Days Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_political_thinking" title="New political thinking">New political thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinatra_Doctrine" title="Sinatra Doctrine">Sinatra Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">Chinese economic reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_with_Chinese_characteristics" title="Socialism with Chinese characteristics">Socialism with Chinese characteristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%95i_M%E1%BB%9Bi" title="Đổi Mới">Đổi Mới</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Government<br />leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ramiz_Alia" title="Ramiz Alia">Ramiz Alia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Ceau%C8%99escu" title="Nicolae Ceaușescu">Nicolae Ceaușescu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C3%A1roly_Gr%C3%B3sz" title="Károly Grósz">Károly Grósz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Honecker" title="Erich Honecker">Erich Honecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milo%C5%A1_Jake%C5%A1" title="Miloš Jakeš">Miloš Jakeš</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egon_Krenz" title="Egon Krenz">Egon Krenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wojciech_Jaruzelski" title="Wojciech Jaruzelski">Wojciech Jaruzelski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slobodan_Milo%C5%A1evi%C4%87" title="Slobodan Milošević">Slobodan Milošević</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathieu_K%C3%A9r%C3%A9kou" title="Mathieu Kérékou">Mathieu Kérékou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mengistu_Haile_Mariam" title="Mengistu Haile Mariam">Mengistu Haile Mariam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ne_Win" title="Ne Win">Ne Win</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Sassou_Nguesso" title="Denis Sassou Nguesso">Denis Sassou Nguesso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heng_Samrin" title="Heng Samrin">Heng Samrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhao_Ziyang" title="Zhao Ziyang">Zhao Ziyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Todor_Zhivkov" title="Todor Zhivkov">Todor Zhivkov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siad_Barre" title="Siad Barre">Siad Barre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Opposition<br />methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_resistance" title="Civil resistance">Civil resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_chain_(politics)" title="Human chain (politics)">Human chains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnitizdat" title="Magnitizdat">Magnitizdat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_underground_press" title="Polish underground press">Polish underground press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_demonstration" title="Political demonstration">Political demonstration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protest" title="Protest">Protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samizdat" title="Samizdat">Samizdat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strike_action" title="Strike action">Strike action</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Opposition<br />leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lech_Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa" title="Lech Wałęsa">Lech Wałęsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%A1clav_Havel" title="Václav Havel">Václav Havel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Dub%C4%8Dek" title="Alexander Dubček">Alexander Dubček</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion_Iliescu" title="Ion Iliescu">Ion Iliescu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Gang" title="Liu Gang">Liu Gang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu%27erkaixi" class="mw-redirect" title="Wu'erkaixi">Wu'erkaixi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chai_Ling" title="Chai Ling">Chai Ling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Dan_(dissident)" title="Wang Dan (dissident)">Wang Dan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feng_Congde" title="Feng Congde">Feng Congde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tank_Man" title="Tank Man">Tank Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Gauck" title="Joachim Gauck">Joachim Gauck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sali_Berisha" title="Sali Berisha">Sali Berisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanjaas%C3%BCrengiin_Zorig" title="Sanjaasürengiin Zorig">Sanjaasürengiin Zorig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Bukovsky" title="Vladimir Bukovsky">Vladimir Bukovsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin" title="Boris Yeltsin">Boris Yeltsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viacheslav_Chornovil" title="Viacheslav Chornovil">Viacheslav Chornovil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vytautas_Landsbergis" title="Vytautas Landsbergis">Vytautas Landsbergis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zianon_Pazniak" title="Zianon Pazniak">Zianon Pazniak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhelyu_Zhelev" title="Zhelyu Zhelev">Zhelyu Zhelev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aung_San_Suu_Kyi" title="Aung San Suu Kyi">Aung San Suu Kyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meles_Zenawi" title="Meles Zenawi">Meles Zenawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaias_Afwerki" title="Isaias Afwerki">Isaias Afwerki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Opposition<br />movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Students%27_Autonomous_Federation" title="Beijing Students' Autonomous Federation">Beijing Students' Autonomous Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charter_77" title="Charter 77">Charter 77</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Forum" title="New Forum">New Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civic_Forum" title="Civic Forum">Civic Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Albania" title="Democratic Party of Albania">Democratic Party of Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Russia" title="Democratic Russia">Democratic Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Initiative_for_Peace_and_Human_Rights" title="Initiative for Peace and Human Rights">Initiative for Peace and Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%85j%C5%ABdis" title="Sąjūdis">Sąjūdis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Movement_of_Ukraine" title="People's Movement of Ukraine">People's Movement of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_Front_of_Latvia" title="Popular Front of Latvia">Popular Front of Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_Front_of_Estonia" title="Popular Front of Estonia">Popular Front of Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Against_Violence" title="Public Against Violence">Public Against Violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_Popular_Front" title="Belarusian Popular Front">Belarusian Popular Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastokhez" title="Rastokhez">Rastokhez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_League_for_Democracy" title="National League for Democracy">National League for Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Salvation_Front_(Romania)" title="National Salvation Front (Romania)">National Salvation Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Democratic_Forces_(Bulgaria)" title="Union of Democratic Forces (Bulgaria)">Union of Democratic Forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-regional_Deputies_Group" title="Inter-regional Deputies Group">Inter-regional Deputies Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_of_Free_Democrats" title="Alliance of Free Democrats">Alliance of Free Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Democratic_Forum" title="Hungarian Democratic Forum">Hungarian Democratic Forum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Events<br />by location</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">Central and<br />Eastern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_communism_in_Albania" title="Fall of communism in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Bulgaria#End_of_the_People's_Republic" title="People's Republic of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaceful_Revolution" title="Peaceful Revolution">East Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_communism_in_Hungary" title="End of communism in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_(1945%E2%80%931989)#Final_decade_of_the_Polish_People's_Republic_(1980–1989)" title="History of Poland (1945–1989)">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_revolution" title="Romanian revolution">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">Soviet Union</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1991_Armenian_independence_referendum" title="1991 Armenian independence referendum">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Azerbaijani_independence_referendum" title="1991 Azerbaijani independence referendum">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Belarusian_strikes" title="1991 Belarusian strikes">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chechen_Revolution" title="Chechen Revolution">Chechnya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Georgian_independence_referendum" title="1991 Georgian independence referendum">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singing_Revolution" title="Singing Revolution">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kyrgyzstan#Towards_independence:_1985-1991" title="History of Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_of_Moldova" title="Independence of Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Russian_Federation" title="History of the Russian Federation">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajikistani_Revolution" title="Tajikistani Revolution">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Turkmen_independence_referendum" title="1991 Turkmen independence referendum">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989%E2%80%931991_Ukrainian_revolution" title="1989–1991 Ukrainian revolution">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Uzbek_independence_election" title="1991 Uzbek independence election">Uzbekistan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">Elsewhere</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Civil_War_(1989%E2%80%931992)" title="Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bicesse_Accords" title="Bicesse Accords">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Benin#Dissolution" title="People's Republic of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8888_Uprising" title="8888 Uprising">Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Paris_Peace_Agreements" title="1991 Paris Peace Agreements">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_the_Congo#Transition" title="People's Republic of the Congo">Congo-Brazzaville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Derg_regime" title="Fall of the Derg regime">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1990" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1990">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambican_Civil_War#Transition_to_peace" title="Mozambican Civil War">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Rebellion" title="Somali Rebellion">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_unification" title="Yemeni unification">South Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Individual<br />events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jeltoqsan" title="Jeltoqsan">Jeltoqsan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987%E2%80%931989_Tibetan_unrest" title="1987–1989 Tibetan unrest">1987–1989 Tibetan unrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Polish_strikes" title="1988 Polish strikes">1988 Polish strikes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Round_Table_Agreement" title="Polish Round Table Agreement">Polish Round Table Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/April_9_tragedy" title="April 9 tragedy">April 9 tragedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Removal_of_Hungary%27s_border_fence_with_Austria" title="Removal of Hungary's border fence with Austria">Removal of Hungary's border fence with Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Round_Table_Talks" title="Hungarian Round Table Talks">Hungarian Round Table Talks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-European_Picnic" title="Pan-European Picnic">Pan-European Picnic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Way" title="Baltic Way">Baltic Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monday_demonstrations_in_East_Germany" title="Monday demonstrations in East Germany">Monday Demonstrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexanderplatz_demonstration" title="Alexanderplatz demonstration">Alexanderplatz demonstration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_inner_German_border" title="Fall of the inner German border">Fall of the inner German border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malta_Summit" title="Malta Summit">Malta Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_January" title="Black January">Black January</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990s_post-Soviet_aliyah" title="1990s post-Soviet aliyah">1990s post-Soviet aliyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helsinki_Summit_(1990)" title="Helsinki Summit (1990)">Helsinki Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution_on_Granite" title="Revolution on Granite">Revolution on Granite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">Reunification of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_Events_(Lithuania)" class="mw-redirect" title="January Events (Lithuania)">January Events in Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Barricades" title="The Barricades">January Events in Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnistria_War" title="Transnistria War">Transnistria War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_protests_in_Belgrade" title="1991 protests in Belgrade">1991 protests in Belgrade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Belarusian_strikes" title="1991 Belarusian strikes">1991 Belarusian strikes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact#End_of_the_Cold_War" title="Warsaw Pact">Dissolution of the Warsaw Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup attempt">August Coup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajikistani_Civil_War" title="Tajikistani Civil War">Tajikistani Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Dissolution of Czechoslovakia">Dissolution of Czechoslovakia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Later events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colour_revolution" title="Colour revolution">Colour revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decommunization" title="Decommunization">Decommunization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lustration" title="Lustration">Lustration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">Democratization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalization" title="Economic liberalization">Economic liberalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_conflicts" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-Soviet conflicts">Post-Soviet conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Sovietism" title="Neo-Sovietism">Neo-Sovietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Stalinism" title="Neo-Stalinism">Neo-Stalinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-communism" title="Post-communism">Post-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Wars" title="Yugoslav Wars">Yugoslav Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pink_tide" title="Pink tide">Pink tide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#eeeeee;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Human rights in the Soviet Union">Human rights in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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