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EngineerGirl - Historical Engineers
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gICARAQDxYGHwsFA0tleR8MBQVWYWx1ZR8NZ2QQFQIJQWxsIFR5cGVzB1BlcnNvbnMVAgAKQ21zIFBlcnNvbhQrAwJnZxYBZmRkAgMPFgIfAmgWAmYPZBYCAgQQEGRkFgBkZAIHDxYCHwJoFhQCAQ8PFgIfAmhkFgJmEBBkZBYBZmRkAgMPDxYCHwJoZBYCZhAQZGQWAWZkZAIFDw8WAh8CaGQWAmYQEGRkFgFmZGQCBw8PFgIfAmhkFgJmEBBkZBYBZmRkAgkPDxYCHwJoZBYCZhAQZGQWAWZkZAILDw8WAh8CaGQWAmYQEGRkFgFmZGQCDQ8PFgIfAmhkFgJmEBBkZBYBZmRkAg8PDxYCHwJoZBYCZhAQZGQWAWZkZAIRDw8WAh8CaGQWAmYQEGRkFgFmZGQCEw8PFgIfAmhkFgJmEBBkZBYBZmRkAggPFgIfAmgWAmYPZBYEAgEQEGRkFgBkZAIDD2QWAgIBDxYCHwUCDhYcAgEPZBYCAgEPFgIfDgUTbGV0dGVyLWJveC1kaXNhYmxlZGQCAg9kFgICAQ8WAh8OBRNsZXR0ZXItYm94LWRpc2FibGVkZAIDD2QWAgIBDxYCHw4FE2xldHRlci1ib3gtZGlzYWJsZWRkAgQPZBYCAgEPFgIfDgUTbGV0dGVyLWJveC1kaXNhYmxlZGQCBQ9kFgICAQ8WAh8OBRNsZXR0ZXItYm94LWRpc2FibGVkZAIGD2QWAgIBDxYCHw4FE2xldHRlci1ib3gtZGlzYWJsZWRkAgcPZBYCAgEPFgIfDgUTbGV0dGVyLWJveC1kaXNhYmxlZGQCCA9kFgICAQ8WAh8OBRNsZXR0ZXItYm94LWRpc2FibGVkZAIJD2QWAgIBDxYCHw4FE2xldHRlci1ib3gtZGlzYWJsZWRkAgoPZBYCAgEPFgIfDgUTbGV0dGVyLWJveC1kaXNhYmxlZGQCCw9kFgICAQ8WAh8OBRNsZXR0ZXItYm94LWRpc2FibGVkZAIMD2QWAgIBDxYCHw4FE2xldHRlci1ib3gtZGlzYWJsZWRkAg0PZBYCAgEPFgIfDgUTbGV0dGVyLWJveC1zZWxlY3RlZGQCDg9kFgICAQ8WAh8OBRNsZXR0ZXItYm94LWRpc2FibGVkZAIKDxYCHwJoFgJmD2QWAmYPZBYCAgEPFgIfBQIbFjYCAQ9kFgICAQ8WAh8OBQhkaXNhYmxlZGQCAg9kFgICAQ8WAh8OBQhkaXNhYmxlZGQCAw9kFgICAQ8WAh8OBQhkaXNhYmxlZGQCBA9kFgICAQ8WAh8OBQhkaXNhYmxlZGQCBQ9kFgICAQ8WAh8OBQhkaXNhYmxlZGQCBg9kFgICAQ8WAh8OBQhkaXNhYmxlZGQCBw9kFgICAQ8WAh8OBQhkaXNhYmxlZGQCCA9kFgICAQ8WAh8OBQhkaXNhYmxlZGQCCQ9kFgICAQ8WAh8OBQhkaXNhYmxlZGQCCg9kFgICAQ8WAh8OBQhkaXNhYmxlZGQCCw9kFgICAQ8WAh8OBQhkaXNhYmxlZGQCDA9kFgICAQ8WAh8OBQhkaXNhYmxlZGQCDQ9kFgICAQ8WAh8OBQhkaXNhYmxlZGQCDg9kFgICAQ8WAh8OBQhkaXNhYmxlZGQCDw9kFgICAQ8WAh8OBQhkaXNhYmxlZGQCEA9kFgICAQ8WAh8OBQhkaXNhYmxlZGQCEQ9kFgICAQ8WAh8OBQhkaXNhYmxlZGQCEg9kFgICAQ8WAh8OBQhkaXNhYmxlZGQCEw9kFgICAQ8WAh8OBQhkaXNhYmxlZGQCFA9kFgICAQ8WAh8OBQhkaXNhYmxlZGQCFQ9kFgICAQ8WAh8OBQhkaXNhYmxlZGQCFg9kFgICAQ8WAh8OBQhkaXNhYmxlZGQCFw9kFgICAQ8WAh8OBQhkaXNhYmxlZGQCGA9kFgICAQ8WAh8OBQhkaXNhYmxlZGQCGQ9kFgICAQ8WAh8OBQhkaXNhYmxlZGQCGg9kFgICAQ8WAh8OBQhkaXNhYmxlZGQCGw9kFgICAQ8WAh8OBQhzZWxlY3RlZGQCBQ8WAh8CaBYCZg9kFgYCAw9kFgICARAQZGQWAGRkAgcPZBYCAgEQEGRkFgBkZAIID2QWBGYPZBYCAgEQEGRkFgFmZGQCAQ9kFgICARAQZGQWAWZkZAIGDw8WAh8CaGQWBgICD2QWAgIHD2QWAgIBD2QWAgIEEBBkZBYAZGQCBA9kFgJmD2QWBgIDD2QWAgIBEBBkZBYAZGQCBw9kFgICARAQZGQWAGRkAggPZBYEZg9kFgICARAQZGQWAWZkZAIBD2QWAgIBEBBkZBYBZmRkAgoPZBYCZg9kFgYCAw9kFgICARAQZGQWAGRkAgcPZBYCAgEQEGRkFgBkZAIID2QWBGYPZBYCAgEQEGRkFgFmZGQCAQ9kFgICARAQZGQWAWZkZAIIDw8WAh8CaGRkAhQPZBYCAgEPFgIfBWZkAh4PZBYCAhQQEGRkFgBkZAIuD2QWAmYPZBYIZg9kFggCAw9kFgJmD2QWAgIEEBBkZBYAZGQCBA9kFgRmD2QWAgIBEBBkZBYAZGQCAQ9kFgICARAQZGQWAWZkZAIHD2QWFAIBD2QWAmYQEGRkFgFmZGQCAw9kFgJmEBBkZBYBZmRkAgUPZBYCZhAQZGQWAWZkZAIHD2QWAmYQEGRkFgFmZGQCCQ9kFgJmEBBkZBYBZmRkAgsPZBYCZhAQZGQWAWZkZAIND2QWAmYQEGRkFgFmZGQCDw9kFgJmEBBkZBYBZmRkAhEPZBYCZhAQZGQWAWZkZAITD2QWAmYQEGRkFgFmZGQCCA9kFgJmD2QWAgIBEBBkZBYAZGQCAQ9kFgJmD2QWBgIDD2QWAgIBEBBkZBYAZGQCBw9kFgICARAQZGQWAGRkAggPZBYEZg9kFgICARAQZGQWAWZkZAIBD2QWAgIBEBBkZBYBZmRkAgQPZBYGAgYPZBYEAgEPZBYCAgEQEGRkFgBkZAIDD2QWAmYPZBYCAgQQEGRkFgBkZAIHD2QWFAIBD2QWAmYQEGRkFgFmZGQCAw9kFgJmEBBkZBYBZmRkAgUPZBYCZhAQZGQWAWZkZAIHD2QWAmYQEGRkFgFmZGQCCQ9kFgJmEBBkZBYBZmRkAgsPZBYCZhAQZGQWAWZkZAIND2QWAmYQEGRkFgFmZGQCDw9kFgJmEBBkZBYBZmRkAhEPZBYCZhAQZGQWAWZkZAITD2QWAmYQEGRkFgFmZGQCCA9kFgJmD2QWAgIBEBBkZBYAZGQCBQ9kFgJmD2QWBgIDD2QWAgIBEBBkZBYAZGQCBw9kFgICARAQZGQWAGRkAggPZBYEZg9kFgICARAQZGQWAWZkZAIBD2QWAgIBEBBkZBYBZmRkAi8PZBYCZg9kFgJmD2QWAgICD2QWAmYPZBYCZg9kFgICAg9kFgJmD2QWAmYPFgIfBQIDZBgHBRlMb2dpbk1vZGFsQ29udHJvbCRjYXB0Y2hhDwUkYmM2MGMxMDItNWFmYi00YTU3LTlkMmEtNGU3ZjA4NzA1ZTI1ZAUmY3RsMDUkY3RsMjEkcXVlc3Rpb25Gb3JtSW5saW5lJGNhcHRjaGEPBSQ4OWI3NzU2OC00YmI2LTRlMTYtYmFmMC05ZDIwOGQwMThiYmJkBRNjdGwwNSRjdGwyNyRjYXB0Y2hhDwUkNmZjM2RkNWMtOWM5NS00ODVkLWExMjMtN2RmZDQ4OWE0YWNhZAUzY3RsMDUkQ21zQmxvZyR1Y09iamVjdENvbW1lbnRzJE1haW5CbG9nRm9ybSRjYXB0Y2hhDwUkNWVmYzlhOTUtZTQwMC00MmFjLWE4YTYtN2YwMzNiN2E2NWM5ZAUwY3RsMDUkQ21zQmxvZyR1Y09iamVjdENvbW1lbnRzJHJlcGx5Rm9ybSRjYXB0Y2hhDwUkOGYzYmI5NTgtMjYwMS00ODYyLTkxMTQtOWJkYjZjNWNiNjJjZAUaY3RsMDUkbG9naW5Db250ZW50JGNhcHRjaGEPBSRjMjlhZGE1MS0yYTNlLTQ2NjEtODZmZS04MzIyZmI3M2RjMDVkBTVjdGwwNSRjdGwyMSRsc3RSZXNvdXJjZUZBUSRxdWVzdGlvbkZvcm1JbmxpbmUkY2FwdGNoYQ8FJDFjMjA1YjQ5LTE1ZDMtNGYzMS1hOWRmLTk0YmU4MmI3ZDI4ZmSz3l4wRrvrDeknv/bR323uEsV1oH9L2FHWKOdqrMho4Q==" 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modal.on('hidden.bs.modal', function () { _setHiddenFieldValue(false); }); } function closeLoginModal() { modal.modal('hide'); } function shouldRender() { return options.shouldRender; } function getExtOptions() { var value = $('#LoginModalControl_hdnLoginModalOptionsExt').val(); try { if (value) return JSON.parse(value); } catch (ex) { } return {}; } function setExtOptions(__options) { var _options = __options || {}; options.extOptions = __options; $('#LoginModalControl_hdnLoginModalOptionsExt').val(JSON.stringify(__options)); } //#endregion //#region internal methods function _init() { options.extOptions = getExtOptions(); } function _setHiddenFieldValue(value) { options.hdnLoginModalHiddenField.val('' + value); } //#endregion return { init: _init, options: options, show: showLoginModal, close: closeLoginModal, setExtOptions: setExtOptions } } $(document).ready(function () { var modal = loginModal(); modal.init(); if (modal.options.shouldRender) { modal.show(); return; } if (modal.options.isLoggedIn && modal.options.hdnLoginModalHiddenField.val() == "true") { //call the function var _options = modal.options; if (_options.extOptions && _options.extOptions.onclose) { var func = _options.extOptions.onclose; if (func && func.func) { modal.setExtOptions(null); // run the method window[func.func].apply(window, func.params); } } } $('a[data-action="login"]').click(function (evt) { evt.preventDefault(); //get url var url = $(this).attr('href'); var login = loginModal(); if (!login.options.isLoggedIn) { login.setExtOptions({ onclose: { func: 'redirectAction', params: [url] } }); login.show(); } else { redirectAction(url); } }); }); // Disables the HTML5 client validation (which can interfere with the postback event) function DisableFormValidation() { $('form').attr('novalidate', 'novalidate'); } </script> <div id="_modalLogin" class="modal fade" tabindex="-1" role="dialog" aria-labelledby="_modalLoginTitle"> <div class="modal-dialog " role="document"> <div 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href="/126312/stories-and-interviews"><span>Stories & Interviews</span></a> </li> <li class="id4356"> <a href="/4356/Historical-Engineers"><span>Historical Engineers</span></a> </li> <li class="id5503"> <a href="/5503/engineering-news"><span>Engineering News</span></a> </li> </ul> <div class="clearer"></div> </div> </div> </div> </li> <li class="over col-sm-4 col-md-4 dropdown disabled hvr-underline-from-center navigation_submenu_box first dropdown-toggle navItem whatTheyDo" data-toggle='dropdown' role='button' > <a href="/2/What-Engineers-Do" class="dropdown-toggle menuItem">What They Do</a> <div class="dropdown-menu" role="menu"> <div class="dropdown-menu-wrapp"> <div class="dropdown-menu-cols"> <ul class="submenu-items dropdown-menu column1"> <li class="id33"> <a href="/33/Engineering-Careers"><span>Engineering Careers</span></a> </li> <li class="id9311"> <a href="/9311/engineering-ideas-and-solutions"><span>Ideas & Solutions</span></a> </li> <li class="id128119"> <a href="/128119/engineering-design"><span>Engineering Design</span></a> </li> <li class="id9313"> <a href="/9313/engineering-areas-of-impact"><span>Areas of Impact</span></a> </li> </ul> <div class="clearer"></div> </div> </div> </div> </li> <li class="over col-sm-4 col-md-4 dropdown disabled hvr-underline-from-center navigation_submenu_box first dropdown-toggle navItem howToGetThere" data-toggle='dropdown' role='button' > <a href="/5/Get-There" class="dropdown-toggle menuItem">How to Get There</a> <div class="dropdown-menu" role="menu"> <div class="dropdown-menu-wrapp"> <div class="dropdown-menu-cols"> <ul class="submenu-items dropdown-menu column1"> <li class="id139602"> <a href="/139602/Explore-Possibilities"><span>Explore Possibilities</span></a> </li> <li class="id128205"> <a href="/128205/Prepare-for-College"><span>Prepare for College</span></a> </li> <li class="id128249"> <a href="/128249/Try-This"><span>Try This</span></a> </li> <li class="id366"> <a href="/366/Answers"><span>Ask an Engineer</span></a> </li> </ul> <div class="clearer"></div> </div> </div> </div> </li> </ul> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="pageContent layout-boxed"> <div class="breadcrumb"> <ul class="breadcrumb small"> <li class="homeIcon back"><i class="fas fa-chevron-left" aria-hidden="true"></i></li> <li class="sep"></li> <li class="home"> <a title='Home' href='/'>Home</a> </li> <li class="sep"></li> <li > <a title='Engineers' href='/3/Engineers'>Engineers</a> </li> <li class="sep"></li> <li > <span title=' Historical Engineers'>Historical Engineers</span> </li> </ul> <!-- drop-down--> <ul class="breadcrumb-Dd" style="display: none;"> </ul> </div> <div class="leftColLayout generalLayout"> <!-- Fixed Left Width --> <aside class="mainLeftCol"> <div class="visible-xs exploreBtn Section4356 topsection-3 parentSection-3 childsection-4356" data-toggle="collapse" aria-expanded="false" href="#toggleLeftNav">Explore</div> <span id="toggleLeftNav" data-toggle="collapse" aria-expanded="true" class="collapse" onclick="event.stopPropagation();"> <div id="ctl05_Navigator_navigator" class="collapse" style="display: block;"> <div class="sectionnavigation hierarchy-navigator Section4356 topsection-3 parentSection-3 childsection-4356"> <nav> <ul class="menu-level2 nav nav-pills nav-stacked"> <li class="tlName"><a href="/3/Engineers">Engineers</a></li> <li class="hNavItemOff1"> <a href="/4447/Engineers-Directory">I'm an Engineer</a> </li> <li class="hNavItemOff1"> <a href="/126312/stories-and-interviews">Stories & Interviews</a> </li> <li class="active hNavItemOn1"> <a href="/4356/Historical-Engineers">Historical Engineers</a> <ul class="noborder firstlevel nav nav-pills nav-stacked"> <li class="nav-bar-menu-bg hNavItemOff3"> <a class="hNavItemOff3" href="/123633/Trailblazers"><span>Trailblazers</span></a> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="hNavItemOff1"> <a href="/5503/engineering-news">Engineering News</a> </li> </ul> </nav> <div class="sectionnavigationfooter"></div> </div> </div> </span> <hr class="center-80 gold-separator" style="margin-top:-20px;"> <div class="sectionnavigation hierarchy-navigator topsection-3" style="margin-top: 18px;"> <nav> <ul class="menu-level2 nav nav-pills nav-stacked" style="margin-left: 0;"> <li class="hNavItemOff1"><a href="/128750/EngineerGirl-Writing-Contest">Writing Contest</a></li> <li class="hNavItemOff1"><a href="/128602/Ambassadors">Ambassador Program</a></li> </ul> </nav> </div> <!--============ Newsletter ============--> </aside> <!-- Flexible Right Width --> <section class="mainMiddleCol"> <div class="centerTwoColLayout"> <div class="centerRightColumn"> </div> <div class="centerLeftColumn"> <div class="centerLeftColumnWrapp"> <h1 class="pagetitle"> Historical Engineers </h1> <div class="contentCMS"><p class="formatContent_firstParagraph">Long before women engineers were considered something special, some amazing women were doing great things to pave the way. Although their contributions are sometimes unrecognized, women with a little ingenuity have always had the power to do great things.</p> <p>Also learn more in this fun video produced for EngineerGirl by George Retelas with his digital art students at SAE Institute.</p> <div class="video-wrapper"> <div class="embed-responsive embed-responsive-16by9"><iframe class="embed-responsive-item" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/MbUcNll-akA"></iframe></div> </div> <hr class="gold-divider"> <h2 class="distinctive">Featured Historical Engineers</h2> <p>These extraordinary engineers helped to reshape the world. Each one made remarkable achievements during their lifetime that still impact the systems and technology we use today.</p> <div class="row"> <div class="col col-xs-12 col-sm-6 col-md-4 col-lg-4" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> <div class="polaroid-panel"><a data-objectname="Mary Jackson" href="/145989/Mary-Jackson" class="linkTextBlock"><img alt="Mary Jackson Headshot" caption="" src="/File.aspx?id=146027&v=f7345787" style="margin: 0 auto 4px;" class="cmsContentImg"> </a> <h4><a data-objectname="Mary Jackson" href="/145989/Mary-Jackson" class="linkTextBlock">Mary Jackson</a></h4> </div> </div> <div class="col col-xs-12 col-sm-6 col-md-4 col-lg-4" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> <div class="polaroid-panel"><a data-objectname="Mary Golda Ross" href="/146067/Mary-Golda-Ross" class="linkTextBlock"><img alt="MGR Headshot" caption="" src="/File.aspx?id=146076&v=dddca88b" class="cmsContentImg"> </a> <h4><a data-objectname="Mary Golda Ross" href="/146067/Mary-Golda-Ross" class="linkTextBlock">Mary Golda Ross</a></h4> </div> </div> <div class="col col-xs-12 col-sm-6 col-md-4 col-lg-4" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> <div class="polaroid-panel"><a data-objectname="Raye Montague" href="/146096/Raye-Montague" class="linkTextBlock"><img alt="Raye Montague Headshot" caption="" src="/File.aspx?id=146108&v=74ec400b" class="cmsContentImg"> </a> <h4><a data-objectname="Raye Montague" href="/146096/Raye-Montague" class="linkTextBlock">Raye Montague</a></h4> </div> </div> </div> <hr class="gold-divider"> <h3 style="margin: 0 0 6px 0; font-family: 'Amatic SC', cursive; font-size: 28px; font-weight: 400;">Trailblazers</h3> <p>These women have opened the way for others in engineering through their courage, creativity, perseverance, and achievement. This ever-growing list of role models is reservoir of inspiration.</p> <h3><a data-objectname="Trailblazers" href="/123633/Trailblazers" class="linkTextBlock">See the current collection</a></h3> <div class="row no-gutter"> <div class="col col-xs-6 col-sm-4 col-md-3 col-lg-2" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> <div class="polaroid-panel reduced"><a data-objectname="Kate Gleason" href="/125335/Kate-Gleason" class="linkTextBlock"><img alt="Kate Gleason" caption="" src="/File.aspx?id=41718&v=cbe711fc" class="cmsContentImg"> </a> <h4><a data-objectname="Kate Gleason" href="/125335/Kate-Gleason" class="linkTextBlock">Kate Gleason</a></h4> </div> </div> <div class="col col-xs-6 col-sm-4 col-md-3 col-lg-2" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> <div class="polaroid-panel reduced"><a data-objectname="Emily Roebling" href="/125425/Emily-Roebling" class="linkTextBlock"><img alt="Emily Roebling" caption="" src="/File.aspx?id=41705&v=cf7b1f1c" class="cmsContentImg"> </a> <h4><a data-objectname="Emily Roebling" href="/125425/Emily-Roebling" class="linkTextBlock">Emily Roebling</a></h4> </div> </div> <div class="col col-xs-6 col-sm-4 col-md-3 col-lg-2" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> <div class="polaroid-panel reduced"><a data-objectname="Olive Dennis" href="/125278/Olive-Dennis" class="linkTextBlock"><img alt="Olive Dennis" caption="" src="/File.aspx?id=41756&v=7286742a" class="cmsContentImg"> </a> <h4><a data-objectname="Olive Dennis" href="/125278/Olive-Dennis" class="linkTextBlock">Olive Dennis</a></h4> </div> </div> <div class="col col-xs-6 col-sm-4 col-md-3 col-lg-2" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> <div class="polaroid-panel reduced"><a data-objectname="Esther Conwell" href="/125178/Esther-Conwell" class="linkTextBlock"><img alt="Esther Conwell" caption="" src="/File.aspx?id=57594&v=cb6f9b8f" class="cmsContentImg"> </a> <h4><a data-objectname="Esther Conwell" href="/125178/Esther-Conwell" class="linkTextBlock">Esther Conwell</a></h4> </div> </div> <div class="col col-xs-6 col-sm-4 col-md-3 col-lg-2" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> <div class="polaroid-panel reduced"><a data-objectname="Martha Coston" href="/125236/Martha-Coston" class="linkTextBlock"><img alt="Martha Coston" caption="" class="img-responsive cmsContentImg" src="/File.aspx?id=42025&v=6151f946"> </a> <h4><a data-objectname="Martha Coston" href="/125236/Martha-Coston" class="linkTextBlock">Martha Coston</a></h4> </div> </div> <div class="col col-xs-6 col-sm-4 col-md-3 col-lg-2" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> <div class="polaroid-panel reduced"><a data-objectname="Edith Clarke" href="/125222/Edith-Clarke" class="linkTextBlock"><img alt="Edith Clarke" caption="" class="img-responsive cmsContentImg" src="/File.aspx?id=125224&v=c28bf63b"></a> <h4><a data-objectname="Edith Clarke" href="/125222/Edith-Clarke" class="linkTextBlock">Edith Clarke</a></h4> </div> </div> </div> <h3 style="text-align: right;"><a data-objectname="Trailblazers" href="/123633/Trailblazers" class="linkTextBlock">See the current collection</a></h3> <hr class="gold-divider"> <h3 style="margin: 12px 0 6px 0; font-family: 'Amatic SC', cursive; font-size: 28px; font-weight: 400;">HistoryMakers</h3> <p><em>The HistoryMakers</em> is the largest collection of oral history testimonies of African Americans. Explore an <a href="https://www.thehistorymakers.org/category/sciencemakers" class="linkTextBlock">expansive selection of biographies </a>for men and women in science fields.</p> <p>Some of these biographies are also featured in the <a data-objectname="Showcase of Women in Science & Math" href="/131493/Showcase-of-Women-in-Science-Math" class="linkTextBlock">Showcase of Women in Science & Math</a>.</p> <hr class="gold-divider"> <h3 style="margin: 12px 0 6px 0; font-family: 'Amatic SC', cursive; font-size: 28px; font-weight: 400;">Lost Women of Science</h3> <p>"Lost Women of Science tells the remarkable stories of groundbreaking women who never got the full recognition they deserved – until now. The Lost Women of Science Initiative is a 501(c)3 non-profit organization with two related missions: To tell the forgotten stories of female scientists who made groundbreaking achievements in their fields and to inspire girls and young women to embark on careers in STEM. The Initiative’s flagship is the Lost Women of Science podcast, which, through deep reporting and rich storytelling, revisits the historical record one extraordinary scientist at a time." 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