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<ul id="toc-Archeological_discovery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-City-states_in_Mesopotamia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#City-states_in_Mesopotamia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 City-states in Mesopotamia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-City-states_in_Mesopotamia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ubaid_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ubaid_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Ubaid period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ubaid_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uruk_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uruk_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Uruk period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Uruk_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Dynastic_Period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Dynastic_Period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Early Dynastic Period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Dynastic_Period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1st_Dynasty_of_Lagash" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1st_Dynasty_of_Lagash"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.1 1st Dynasty of Lagash </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1st_Dynasty_of_Lagash-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Akkadian_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Akkadian_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Akkadian Empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Akkadian_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gutian_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gutian_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Gutian period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gutian_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-2nd_Dynasty_of_Lagash" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2nd_Dynasty_of_Lagash"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5.1 2nd Dynasty of Lagash </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2nd_Dynasty_of_Lagash-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ur_III_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ur_III_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Ur III period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ur_III_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fall_and_transmission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fall_and_transmission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.7 Fall and transmission </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fall_and_transmission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Population" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Population"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Population </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Population-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Social_and_family_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_and_family_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Social and family life </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_and_family_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language_and_writing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_and_writing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Language and writing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language_and_writing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Deities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.1 Deities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cosmology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cosmology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.2 Cosmology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cosmology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Temple_and_temple_organisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Temple_and_temple_organisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.3 Temple and temple organisation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Temple_and_temple_organisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Funerary_practices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Funerary_practices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.4 Funerary practices </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Funerary_practices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Agriculture_and_hunting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agriculture_and_hunting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Agriculture and hunting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agriculture_and_hunting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Art </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6 Architecture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mathematics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mathematics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.7 Mathematics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mathematics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy_and_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy_and_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.8 Economy and trade </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economy_and_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Trade_with_the_Indus_valley" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade_with_the_Indus_valley"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.8.1 Trade with the Indus valley </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade_with_the_Indus_valley-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Money_and_credit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Money_and_credit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.8.2 Money and credit </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Money_and_credit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.9 Military </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.10 Technology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Geography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2.1 Geography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2.2 Language </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Sumer</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 123 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-123" aria-hidden="true" > 123 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%B1%E1%88%98%E1%88%AD" title="ሱመር – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሱመር" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%85%D8%B1" title="سومر – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سومر" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumeria" title="Sumeria – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Sumeria" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%AB%DC%98%DC%A1%DC%AA" title="ܫܘܡܪ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܫܘܡܪ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A7%B0" title="সুমেৰ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="সুমেৰ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumeria" title="Sumeria – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Sumeria" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sum%C3%A9ria" title="Suméria – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Suméria" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Шумер – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Шумер" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Eumer" title="Şumer – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Şumer" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%85%D8%B1" title="سومر – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="سومر" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE" title="সুমেরীয় সভ্যতা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সুমেরীয় সভ্যতা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Шумер – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Шумер" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Шумер – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Шумер" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%83%D0%BC%D1%8D%D1%80" title="Шумэр – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Шумэр" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Шумер – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Шумер" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Шумер – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Шумер" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swmer" title="Swmer – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Swmer" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%BC%CE%AD%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%B9" title="Σουμέριοι – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Σουμέριοι" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sum%C3%A9r" title="Sumér – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Sumér" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumeria" title="Sumeria – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sumeria" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumero" title="Sumero – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Sumero" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%85%D8%B1" title="سومر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سومر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BBmearje" title="Sûmearje – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Sûmearje" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_tSuim%C3%A9ir" title="An tSuiméir – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An tSuiméir" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumeria" title="Sumeria – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Sumeria" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%98%87%E7%BE%8E%E7%88%BE" title="蘇美爾 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="蘇美爾" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%88%98%EB%A9%94%EB%A5%B4" title="수메르 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="수메르" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%87%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Շումեր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Շումեր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0" title="सुमेर – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सुमेर" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumeria" title="Sumeria – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sumeria" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BAmer" title="Súmer – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Súmer" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%A8" title="שומר – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שומר" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A8%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="შუმერი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="შუმერი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Шумер – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Шумер" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumeri" title="Sumeri – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Sumeri" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Шумер – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Шумер" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0umera" title="Šumera – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Šumera" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0umeras" title="Šumeras – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Šumeras" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soemer" title="Soemer – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Soemer" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Сумер – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Сумер" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somera" title="Somera – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Somera" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="സുമേറിയൻ സംസ്കാരം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സുമേറിയൻ സംസ്കാരം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A8%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="შუმერი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="შუმერი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%8A%D9%86" title="سومريين – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="سومريين" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumeria" title="Sumeria – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sumeria" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sum%C3%A9ria" title="Suméria – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Suméria" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Шумер – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Шумер" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%86%E1%80%B0%E1%80%99%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AE%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9A%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%81%E1%80%B1%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA" title="ဆူမားရီးယန်းခေတ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဆူမားရီးယန်းခေတ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0" title="सुमेर – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="सुमेर" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0" title="सुमेर – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="सुमेर" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B7%E3%83%A5%E3%83%A1%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AB" title="シュメール – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="シュメール" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sum%C3%A8r" title="Sumèr – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Sumèr" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shumer" title="Shumer – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Shumer" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%B0" title="ਸੂਮਰ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸੂਮਰ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="سمیری – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="سمیری" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86" title="سومریان – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="سومریان" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sum%C3%A9ria" title="Suméria – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Suméria" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Шумер – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Шумер" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumeri" title="Sumeri – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Sumeri" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumeri" title="Sumeri – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Sumeri" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B1" title="سمير – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="سمير" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumeri" title="Sumeri – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Sumeri" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumerija" title="Sumerija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Sumerija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C5%8Dmer" title="Sōmer – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Sōmer" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumeer" title="Sumeer – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Sumeer" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%86%D9%85%DB%95%D8%B1" title="سۆمەر – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="سۆمەر" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Сумер – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Сумер" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumerya" title="Sumerya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Sumerya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE" title="சுமேரியா – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சுமேரியா" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%81_%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%97%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%A4" title="సుమేరు నాగరికత – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="సుమేరు నాగరికత" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B9%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="ซูเมอร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ซูเมอร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BCmerler" title="Sümerler – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Sümerler" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumerliler" title="Sumerliler – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Sumerliler" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Шумер – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Шумер" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="سمیری – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="سمیری" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%87%D9%85%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="سۇمېرلار – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="سۇمېرلار" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer%C3%A4n" title="Sumerän – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Sumerän" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sum%C3%B5r" title="Sumõr – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Sumõr" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%98%87%E7%BE%8E" title="蘇美 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="蘇美" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumerya" title="Sumerya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Sumerya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8B%8F%E7%BE%8E%E5%B0%94" title="苏美尔 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="苏美尔" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%A8" title="שומער – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="שומער" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%98%87%E7%BE%8E%E7%88%BE" title="蘇美爾 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="蘇美爾" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Sumer" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0omers" title="Šomers – Samogitian" 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-coordinates" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">Coordinates</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Sumer&params=32_N_46_E_dim:250km">32°N 46°E / 32°N 46°E / 32; 46</a></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sumerian_people&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Sumerian people">Sumerian people</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ancient Mesopotamian civilization from 5500 to 1800 BC</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Sumeria" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Sumer_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Sumer (disambiguation)">Sumer (disambiguation)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sumeria_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Sumeria (disambiguation)">Sumeria (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Summer" title="Summer">Summer</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Sumer (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 5500 – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1800 BC)</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238443738">.mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#fff!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:white!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}</style><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:300px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:300px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:300px"><a href="/wiki/File:Near_East_non_political.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Sumer is located in Near East"><img alt="Sumer is located in Near East" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Near_East_non_political.png/300px-Near_East_non_political.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Near_East_non_political.png/450px-Near_East_non_political.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Near_East_non_political.png/600px-Near_East_non_political.png 2x" data-file-width="1490" data-file-height="842" /></a><div style="position:absolute;top:0;left:0"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Sumer.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Map_of_Sumer.png/300px-Map_of_Sumer.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Map_of_Sumer.png/450px-Map_of_Sumer.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Map_of_Sumer.png/600px-Map_of_Sumer.png 2x" data-file-width="5960" data-file-height="3368" /></a></div></div></div></div></div> <a href="/wiki/File:Sumer_satellite_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Sumer_satellite_map.jpg/300px-Sumer_satellite_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Sumer_satellite_map.jpg/450px-Sumer_satellite_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Sumer_satellite_map.jpg/600px-Sumer_satellite_map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2549" data-file-height="1739" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">The general location on a modern map, and main cities of Sumer with ancient coastline. The coastline nearly reached Ur in ancient times.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Geographical range</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a>, <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Period</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Late Neolithic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Middle Bronze Age</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Dates</th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 5500 – c. 1800 BC</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid period</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Followed by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a></td></tr></tbody></table>Sumer (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈsuːmər/</a>) is the earliest known <a href="/wiki/Civilization" title="Civilization">civilization</a>, located in the historical region of southern <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> (now south-central <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>), emerging during the <a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_Bronze_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Bronze Age">early Bronze</a> Ages between the sixth and fifth millennium BC. Like nearby <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a>, it is one of the <a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">cradles of civilization</a>, along with <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egypt</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Erligang_culture" title="Erligang culture">Erligang culture</a> of the Yellow River valley, <a href="/wiki/Caral-Supe_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Caral-Supe civilization">Caral-Supe</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a>. Living along the valleys of the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> and <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> rivers, Sumerian farmers grew an abundance of grain and other crops, a surplus which enabled them to form urban settlements. The world's earliest known texts come from the Sumerian cities of <a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr" title="Jemdet Nasr">Jemdet Nasr</a>, and date to between <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3350 – c. 2500 BC, following a period of <a href="/wiki/Proto-writing" title="Proto-writing">proto-writing</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 4000 – c. 2500 BC. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Name">Name</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:307px;max-width:307px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Sumerians</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:259px;max-width:259px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:141px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Head_of_Gudea_(Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Head_of_Gudea_%28Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art%29.jpg/257px-Head_of_Gudea_%28Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="257" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Head_of_Gudea_%28Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art%29.jpg/386px-Head_of_Gudea_%28Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Head_of_Gudea_%28Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art%29.jpg/514px-Head_of_Gudea_%28Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1391" data-file-height="766" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:44px;max-width:44px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:141px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Sa%C4%9D-g%C3%ADg_(cuneiforms).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Sa%C4%9D-g%C3%ADg_%28cuneiforms%29.jpg/42px-Sa%C4%9D-g%C3%ADg_%28cuneiforms%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="42" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Sa%C4%9D-g%C3%ADg_%28cuneiforms%29.jpg/63px-Sa%C4%9D-g%C3%ADg_%28cuneiforms%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Sa%C4%9D-g%C3%ADg_%28cuneiforms%29.jpg/84px-Sa%C4%9D-g%C3%ADg_%28cuneiforms%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="1069" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Left: Sculpture of the head of Sumerian ruler <a href="/wiki/Gudea" title="Gudea">Gudea</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2150 BC. Right: <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a> characters for Saĝ-gíg (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%92%8A%95" class="extiw" title="wikt:𒊕">𒊕</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%92%88%AA" class="extiw" title="wikt:𒈪">𒈪</a>), "Black Headed Ones", the native designation for the Sumerians. The first is the pictographic character for "head" (<a href="/wiki/File:Sa%C4%9D_(linear_script,_head).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Sa%C4%9D_%28linear_script%2C_head%29.jpg/14px-Sa%C4%9D_%28linear_script%2C_head%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="14" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Sa%C4%9D_%28linear_script%2C_head%29.jpg/21px-Sa%C4%9D_%28linear_script%2C_head%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Sa%C4%9D_%28linear_script%2C_head%29.jpg/28px-Sa%C4%9D_%28linear_script%2C_head%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="274" data-file-height="352" /></a>, later <a href="/wiki/File:Sa%C4%9D_(Sumero-Akkadian_cuneiform,_head).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Sa%C4%9D_%28Sumero-Akkadian_cuneiform%2C_head%29.jpg/12px-Sa%C4%9D_%28Sumero-Akkadian_cuneiform%2C_head%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="12" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Sa%C4%9D_%28Sumero-Akkadian_cuneiform%2C_head%29.jpg/18px-Sa%C4%9D_%28Sumero-Akkadian_cuneiform%2C_head%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Sa%C4%9D_%28Sumero-Akkadian_cuneiform%2C_head%29.jpg/24px-Sa%C4%9D_%28Sumero-Akkadian_cuneiform%2C_head%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="237" data-file-height="352" /></a>), the second the character for "night", and for "black" when pronounced gíg (<a href="/wiki/File:G%C3%ADg_(linear_script,_night-black).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/G%C3%ADg_%28linear_script%2C_night-black%29.jpg/14px-G%C3%ADg_%28linear_script%2C_night-black%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="14" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/G%C3%ADg_%28linear_script%2C_night-black%29.jpg/21px-G%C3%ADg_%28linear_script%2C_night-black%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/G%C3%ADg_%28linear_script%2C_night-black%29.jpg/28px-G%C3%ADg_%28linear_script%2C_night-black%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="274" data-file-height="352" /></a>, later <a href="/wiki/File:G%C3%ADg_(Sumero-Akkadian_cuneiform,_night-black).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/G%C3%ADg_%28Sumero-Akkadian_cuneiform%2C_night-black%29.jpg/12px-G%C3%ADg_%28Sumero-Akkadian_cuneiform%2C_night-black%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="12" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/G%C3%ADg_%28Sumero-Akkadian_cuneiform%2C_night-black%29.jpg/18px-G%C3%ADg_%28Sumero-Akkadian_cuneiform%2C_night-black%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/G%C3%ADg_%28Sumero-Akkadian_cuneiform%2C_night-black%29.jpg/24px-G%C3%ADg_%28Sumero-Akkadian_cuneiform%2C_night-black%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="266" data-file-height="390" /></a>).<a href="#cite_note-DAF-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-PUSD-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-IMD-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-GF-4">[4]</a></div></div></div></div> The term "Sumer" (<a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a>: 𒋗𒈨𒊒, romanized: šumeru)<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> comes from the <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a> name for the "Sumerians", the ancient non-<a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a>-speaking inhabitants of southern <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ANE29-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Piotr_Michalowski_2004,_Pages_19-59-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> In their inscriptions, the Sumerians called their land "Kengir", the "Country of the noble lords" (<a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a>: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%92%86%A0" class="extiw" title="wikt:𒆠">𒆠</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%92%82%97" class="extiw" title="wikt:𒂗">𒂗</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%92%84%80" class="extiw" title="wikt:𒄀">𒄀</a>, romanized: ki-en-gi(-r), <a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> ''country" + "lords" + "noble''), and their language "Emegir" (<a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a>: 𒅴𒂠, romanized: eme-g̃ir or 𒅴𒄀 eme-gi15).<a href="#cite_note-ANE29-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> The origin of the Sumerians is not known, but the people of Sumer referred to themselves as "Black-Headed Ones" or "Black-Headed People"<a href="#cite_note-ANE29-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a>: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%92%8A%95" class="extiw" title="wikt:𒊕">𒊕</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%92%88%AA" class="extiw" title="wikt:𒈪">𒈪</a>, romanized: sag̃-gíg, <a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> ''head" + "black'', or <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%92%8A%95" class="extiw" title="wikt:𒊕">𒊕</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%92%88%AA" class="extiw" title="wikt:𒈪">𒈪</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%92%82%B5" class="extiw" title="wikt:𒂵">𒂵</a>, sag̃-gíg-ga, phonetically /saŋ ɡi ɡa/, <a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> "head" + "black" + relative marker).<a href="#cite_note-DAF-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-PUSD-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-IMD-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-GF-4">[4]</a> For example, the Sumerian king <a href="/wiki/Shulgi" title="Shulgi">Shulgi</a> described himself as "the king of the four quarters, the pastor of the black-headed people".<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> The Akkadians also called the Sumerians "black-headed people", or ṣalmat-qaqqadi, in the Semitic Akkadian language.<a href="#cite_note-PUSD-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-IMD-3">[3]</a> The Akkadians, the East Semitic-speaking people who later conquered the Sumerian <a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city-states</a>, gave Sumer its main historical name, but the <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonological</a> development of the term šumerû is uncertain.<a href="#cite_note-Nimrod-17">[17]</a> Hebrew שִׁנְעָר <a href="/wiki/Shinar" title="Shinar">Šinʿar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian</a> Sngr, and <a href="/wiki/Hittite_language" title="Hittite language">Hittite</a> Šanhar(a), all referring to southern Mesopotamia, could be western variants of Sumer.<a href="#cite_note-Nimrod-17">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2></div> Most historians have suggested that Sumer was first permanently settled between <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 5500 – c. 3300 BC by a <a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asian</a> people who spoke the <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian language</a> (pointing to the names of cities, rivers, basic occupations, etc., as evidence), a non-Semitic and non-<a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> <a href="/wiki/Agglutinative_language" title="Agglutinative language">agglutinative</a> <a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">language isolate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SNK-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blau_Monuments_(front).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Blau_Monuments_%28front%29.jpg/320px-Blau_Monuments_%28front%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="320" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Blau_Monuments_%28front%29.jpg/480px-Blau_Monuments_%28front%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Blau_Monuments_%28front%29.jpg/640px-Blau_Monuments_%28front%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1660" data-file-height="834" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Blau_Monuments" title="Blau Monuments">Blau Monuments</a> combine <a href="/wiki/Proto-cuneiform" title="Proto-cuneiform">proto-cuneiform</a> characters and illustrations of early Sumerians, <a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr period</a>, 3100–2700 BC. British Museum.</figcaption></figure> Others have suggested that the Sumerians were a <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North African</a> people who migrated from the <a href="/wiki/Green_Sahara" class="mw-redirect" title="Green Sahara">Green Sahara</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> and were responsible for the spread of farming in the Middle East.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> However, contrary evidence strongly suggests that the first farming originated in the <a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Genomic_insights_into_the_origin_of-24">[24]</a> Although not specifically discussing Sumerians, Lazaridis et al. 2016 have suggested <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_E-M215_(Y-DNA)" class="mw-redirect" title="Haplogroup E-M215 (Y-DNA)">a partial North African origin</a> for some pre-Semitic cultures of the Middle East, particularly <a href="/wiki/Natufians" class="mw-redirect" title="Natufians">Natufians</a>, after testing the genomes of Natufian and <a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic">Pre-Pottery Neolithic</a> culture-bearers.<a href="#cite_note-Genomic_insights_into_the_origin_of-24">[24]</a> Craniometric analysis has also suggested an affinity between Natufians and ancient North Africans.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> Some scholars associate the Sumerians with the <a href="/wiki/Hurrians" title="Hurrians">Hurrians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Urartians" class="mw-redirect" title="Urartians">Urartians</a>, and suggest the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> as their homeland.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> This is not generally accepted.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Based on mentions of <a href="/wiki/Dilmun" title="Dilmun">Dilmun</a> as the “home city of the land of Sumer” in Sumerian legends and literature, other scholars have suggested the possibility that the Sumerians originated from Dilmun, which was theorized to be the island of Bahrain in the Persian Gulf.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a>In Sumerian mythology, Dilmun was also mentioned as the home of deities such as <a href="/wiki/Enki" title="Enki">Enki</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> The status of Dilmun as the Sumerians’ ancestral homeland has not been established, but archaeologists have found evidence of civilization in Bahrain, namely the existence of Mesopotamian-style round disks.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> A prehistoric people who lived in the region before the Sumerians have been termed the "<a href="/wiki/Proto-Euphratean_language" title="Proto-Euphratean language">Proto-Euphrateans</a>" or "<a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaidians</a>",<a href="#cite_note-britannica-36">[36]</a> and are theorized to have evolved from the <a href="/wiki/Samarra_culture" title="Samarra culture">Samarra culture</a> of northern Mesopotamia.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> The Ubaidians, though never mentioned by the Sumerians themselves, are assumed by modern-day scholars to have been the first civilizing force in Sumer. They drained the marshes for <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>, developed trade, and established industries, including <a href="/wiki/Weaving" title="Weaving">weaving</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leather_crafting" title="Leather crafting">leatherwork</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metalworking" title="Metalworking">metalwork</a>, <a href="/wiki/Masonry" title="Masonry">masonry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">pottery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-britannica-36">[36]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Enthroned_King_of_Ur.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Enthroned_King_of_Ur.jpg/330px-Enthroned_King_of_Ur.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Enthroned_King_of_Ur.jpg/495px-Enthroned_King_of_Ur.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Enthroned_King_of_Ur.jpg/660px-Enthroned_King_of_Ur.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3229" data-file-height="2266" /></a><figcaption>Enthroned Sumerian king of <a href="/wiki/Ur" title="Ur">Ur</a>, possibly <a href="/wiki/Ur-Pabilsag" title="Ur-Pabilsag">Ur-Pabilsag</a>, with attendants. <a href="/wiki/Standard_of_Ur" title="Standard of Ur">Standard of Ur</a>, c. 2600 BC.</figcaption></figure> Some scholars contest the idea of a Proto-Euphratean language or one substrate language; they think the Sumerian language may originally have been that of the <a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">hunting</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fishing" title="Fishing">fishing</a> peoples who lived in the marshland and the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabia" title="Eastern Arabia">Eastern Arabia littoral region</a> and were part of the Arabian <a href="/wiki/Bifacial" class="mw-redirect" title="Bifacial">bifacial</a> culture.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> <a href="/wiki/Juris_Zarins" title="Juris Zarins">Juris Zarins</a> believes the Sumerians lived along the coast of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabia" title="Eastern Arabia">Eastern Arabia</a>, today's <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> region, before it was flooded at the end of <a href="/wiki/Last_Glacial_Period" title="Last Glacial Period">the Ice Age</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Sumerian civilization took form in the <a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a> (4th millennium BC), continuing into the <a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic</a> periods. The Sumerian city of <a href="/wiki/Eridu" title="Eridu">Eridu</a>, on the coast of the Persian Gulf, is considered to have been one of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_continuously_inhabited_cities" title="List of oldest continuously inhabited cities">oldest cities</a>, where three separate cultures may have fused: that of peasant Ubaidian farmers, living in mud-brick huts and practicing irrigation; that of mobile nomadic Semitic pastoralists living in black tents and following herds of sheep and goats; and that of fisher folk, living in reed huts in the marshlands, who may have been the ancestors of the Sumerians.<a href="#cite_note-Leick,_Gwendolyn_2003-43">[43]</a> Reliable historical records begin with <a href="/wiki/Enmebaragesi" title="Enmebaragesi">Enmebaragesi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic I</a>). The Sumerians progressively lost control to Semitic states from the northwest. Sumer was conquered by the Semitic-speaking kings of the Akkadian Empire around 2270 BC (<a href="/wiki/Short_chronology" class="mw-redirect" title="Short chronology">short chronology</a>), but Sumerian continued as a <a href="/wiki/Sacred_language" title="Sacred language">sacred language</a>. Native Sumerian rule re-emerged for about a century in the <a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Third Dynasty of Ur</a> at approximately 2100–2000 BC, but the Akkadian language also remained in use for some time.<a href="#cite_note-Leick,_Gwendolyn_2003-43">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Archeological_discovery">Archeological discovery</h2></div> The Sumerians were entirely unknown during the early period of modern archeology. <a href="/wiki/Jules_Oppert" class="mw-redirect" title="Jules Oppert">Jules Oppert</a> was the first scholar to publish the word Sumer in a lecture on 17 January 1869. The first major excavations of Sumerian cities were in 1877 at <a href="/wiki/Girsu" title="Girsu">Girsu</a> by the French archeologist <a href="/wiki/Ernest_de_Sarzec" title="Ernest de Sarzec">Ernest de Sarzec</a>, in 1889 at <a href="/wiki/Nippur" title="Nippur">Nippur</a> by <a href="/wiki/John_Punnett_Peters" title="John Punnett Peters">John Punnett Peters</a> from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a> between 1889 and 1900, and in <a href="/wiki/Shuruppak" title="Shuruppak">Shuruppak</a> by German archeologist <a href="/wiki/Robert_Koldewey" title="Robert Koldewey">Robert Koldewey</a> in 1902–1903. Major publications of these finds were "Decouvertes en Chaldée par Ernest de Sarzec" by <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Heuzey" title="Léon Heuzey">Léon Heuzey</a> in 1884, "Les Inscriptions de Sumer et d'Akkad" by <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Thureau-Dangin" title="François Thureau-Dangin">François Thureau-Dangin</a> in 1905, and "Grundzüge der sumerischen Grammatik" on Sumerian grammar by <a href="/wiki/Arno_Poebel" title="Arno Poebel">Arno Poebel</a> in 1923.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="City-states_in_Mesopotamia">City-states in Mesopotamia</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="List of cities of the ancient Near East">List of cities of the ancient Near East</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Mesopotamia" title="Geography of Mesopotamia">Geography of Mesopotamia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Proto-cuneiform_Cities_list.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Proto-cuneiform_Cities_list.svg/290px-Proto-cuneiform_Cities_list.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Proto-cuneiform_Cities_list.svg/435px-Proto-cuneiform_Cities_list.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Proto-cuneiform_Cities_list.svg/580px-Proto-cuneiform_Cities_list.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="566" data-file-height="523" /></a><figcaption>A composite copy of a text listing cities from the late Uruk period such as: Nippur, Uruk, Ur, Eresh, Kesh, and Zabala.</figcaption></figure> In the late 4th millennium BC, Sumer was divided into many independent <a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city-states</a>, which were divided by canals and boundary stones. Each was centered on a temple dedicated to the particular patron god or goddess of the city and ruled over by a priestly governor (<a href="/wiki/Ens%C3%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="Ensí">ensi</a>) or by a king (<a href="/wiki/LUGAL" class="mw-redirect" title="LUGAL">lugal</a>) who was intimately tied to the city's religious rites. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Anu ziggurat and White Temple</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:290px;max-width:290px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:170px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg/288px-White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg" decoding="async" width="288" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg/432px-White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg/576px-White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1952" data-file-height="1158" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:290px;max-width:290px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:206px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:The_White_Temple_%27E_at_Uruk,_3500-3000_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/The_White_Temple_%27E_at_Uruk%2C_3500-3000_BCE.jpg/288px-The_White_Temple_%27E_at_Uruk%2C_3500-3000_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="288" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/The_White_Temple_%27E_at_Uruk%2C_3500-3000_BCE.jpg/432px-The_White_Temple_%27E_at_Uruk%2C_3500-3000_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/The_White_Temple_%27E_at_Uruk%2C_3500-3000_BCE.jpg/576px-The_White_Temple_%27E_at_Uruk%2C_3500-3000_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1184" data-file-height="847" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Anu ziggurat and White Temple at Uruk. The original pyramidal structure, the "Anu Ziggurat", dates to around 4000 BC, and the White Temple was built on top of it c. 3500 BC.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> The design of the ziggurat was probably a precursor to that of the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pyramids" title="Egyptian pyramids">Egyptian pyramids</a>, the earliest of which dates to c. 2600 BC.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></div></div></div></div> An incomplete list of cities that may have been visited, interacted and traded with, invaded, conquered, destroyed, occupied, colonized by and/or otherwise within the Sumerians’ sphere of influence (ordered from south to north): <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Eridu" title="Eridu">Eridu</a> (Tell Abu Shahrain)SC</li> <li>Kuara (probably <a href="/wiki/Tell_al-Lahm" title="Tell al-Lahm">Tell al-Lahm</a>)SU</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ur" title="Ur">Ur</a> (Tell al-Muqayyar)SC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kesh_(Sumer)" title="Kesh (Sumer)">Kesh</a> (probably <a href="/wiki/Tell_Jidr" class="mw-redirect" title="Tell Jidr">Tell Jidr</a>)SU</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larsa" title="Larsa">Larsa</a> (Tell as-Senkereh)S</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> (Warka)SC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bad-tibira" title="Bad-tibira">Bad-tibira</a> (probably Tell al-Madain)SC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a> (Tell al-Hiba)S</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Girsu" title="Girsu">Girsu</a> (Tello or Telloh)S</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umma" title="Umma">Umma</a> (Tell Jokha)S</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zabala_(Sumer)" title="Zabala (Sumer)">Zabala</a> (Tell Ibzeikh)S</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuruppak" title="Shuruppak">Shuruppak</a> (Tell Fara)SC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kisurra" title="Kisurra">Kisurra</a> (Tell Abu Hatab)S</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashkan-shapir" title="Mashkan-shapir">Mashkan-shapir</a> (Tell Abu Duwari)S</li> <li>Eresh (probably <a href="/wiki/Abu_Salabikh" title="Abu Salabikh">Abu Salabikh</a>) SU</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isin" title="Isin">Isin</a> (Ishan al-Bahriyat)SC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adab_(city)" title="Adab (city)">Adab</a> (Tell Bismaya)SC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nippur" title="Nippur">Nippur</a> (Afak)SH</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marad" title="Marad">Marad</a> (Tell Wannat es-Sadum)S</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dilbat" title="Dilbat">Dilbat</a> (Tell ed-Duleim)S</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borsippa" title="Borsippa">Borsippa</a> (Birs Nimrud)M</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larak_(Sumer)" title="Larak (Sumer)">Larak</a> (probably <a href="/wiki/Tell_al-Wilayah" title="Tell al-Wilayah">Tell al-Wilayah</a>)SCU</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)" title="Kish (Sumer)">Kish</a> (Tell Uheimir and Ingharra)MC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutha" title="Kutha">Kutha</a> (Tell Ibrahim)M</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sippar" title="Sippar">Sippar</a> (Tell Abu Habbah)MC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Der_(Sumer)" title="Der (Sumer)">Der</a> (al-Badra)M</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akshak" title="Akshak">Akshak</a> (probably Tell Rishad)MCU</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkad_(city)" title="Akkad (city)">Akkad</a> (probably Tell Mizyad)MCU</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eshnunna" title="Eshnunna">Eshnunna</a> (Tell Asmar)M</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awan_(ancient_city)" title="Awan (ancient city)">Awan</a> (probably <a href="/wiki/Godin_Tepe" title="Godin Tepe">Godin Tepe</a>)ICU</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a> (Tell Hariri)WC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamazi" title="Hamazi">Hamazi</a> (probably Kani Jowez)NCU</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagar,_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagar, Syria">Nagar</a> (Tell Brak)W</li></ol> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>(Sa city in <a href="/wiki/Southern_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Mesopotamia">southern Mesopotamia</a>)</li> <li>(Man outlying city in <a href="/wiki/Central_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Iraq">central Mesopotamia</a>)</li> <li>(Nan outlying city in <a href="/wiki/Northern_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Mesopotamia">northern Mesopotamia</a>)</li> <li>(Wan outlying city in <a href="/wiki/Western_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Mesopotamia">western Mesopotamia</a>)</li> <li>(Ian outlying city in <a href="/wiki/Western_Iran" title="Western Iran">western Iran</a>)</li> <li>(Ca city said on the <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_King_List" title="Sumerian King List">Sumerian King List</a> (SKL) to have exercised the Sumerian <a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">kingship</a>)</li> <li>(Ha <a href="/wiki/Holy_city" title="Holy city">holy city</a>)</li> <li>(Ua <a href="/wiki/Lost_city" title="Lost city">lost city</a>)</li></ul> </div> Apart from Mari, which lies full 330 kilometres (205 miles) north-west of Agade, but which is credited in the <a href="/wiki/Regnal_list" title="Regnal list">king list</a> as having exercised kingship in the Early Dynastic II period, and Nagar, an outpost, these cities are all in the Euphrates-Tigris alluvial plain, south of <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> in what are now the <a href="/wiki/Babylon_Governorate" title="Babylon Governorate">Bābil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diyala_Governorate" title="Diyala Governorate">Diyala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wasit_Governorate" title="Wasit Governorate">Wāsit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dhi_Qar_Governorate" title="Dhi Qar Governorate">Dhi Qar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basra_Governorate" title="Basra Governorate">Basra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muthanna_Governorate" title="Muthanna Governorate">Al-Muthannā</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al-Q%C4%81disiyyah_Governorate" title="Al-Qādisiyyah Governorate">Al-Qādisiyyah</a> governorates of <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Sumer" title="History of Sumer">History of Sumer</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_a_Sumerian_prisoner_on_a_victory_stele_of_Sargon_of_Akkad.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Portrait_of_a_Sumerian_prisoner_on_a_victory_stele_of_Sargon_of_Akkad.jpg/220px-Portrait_of_a_Sumerian_prisoner_on_a_victory_stele_of_Sargon_of_Akkad.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Portrait_of_a_Sumerian_prisoner_on_a_victory_stele_of_Sargon_of_Akkad.jpg/330px-Portrait_of_a_Sumerian_prisoner_on_a_victory_stele_of_Sargon_of_Akkad.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Portrait_of_a_Sumerian_prisoner_on_a_victory_stele_of_Sargon_of_Akkad.jpg/440px-Portrait_of_a_Sumerian_prisoner_on_a_victory_stele_of_Sargon_of_Akkad.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1169" data-file-height="1395" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of a Sumerian prisoner on a victory stele of <a href="/wiki/Sargon_of_Akkad" title="Sargon of Akkad">Sargon of Akkad</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2300 BC.<a href="#cite_note-ArchaeologyofElam-47">[47]</a> The hairstyle of the prisoners (curly hair on top and short hair on the sides) is characteristic of Sumerians, as also seen on the <a href="/wiki/Standard_of_Ur" title="Standard of Ur">Standard of Ur</a>.<a href="#cite_note-TwoSteles-48">[48]</a> <a href="/wiki/Louvre_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Louvre Museum">Louvre Museum</a>.</figcaption></figure> The Sumerian city-states rose to power during the prehistoric Ubaid and Uruk periods. Sumerian written history reaches back to the 27th century BC and before, but the historical record remains obscure until the Early Dynastic III period, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 23rd century BC, when the language of the written records becomes easier to decipher, which has allowed archaeologists to read contemporary records and inscriptions. The <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a> was the first state that successfully united larger parts of Mesopotamia in the 23rd century BC. After the <a href="/wiki/Gutian_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Gutian period">Gutian period</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Ur III kingdom</a> similarly united parts of northern and southern Mesopotamia. It ended in the face of <a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorite</a> incursions at the beginning of the second millennium BC. The Amorite "dynasty of <a href="/wiki/Isin" title="Isin">Isin</a>" persisted until <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1700 BC, when Mesopotamia was united under <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> rule. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Stone_Age#Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_C" class="mw-redirect" title="New Stone Age">New Stone Age</a>: <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 10000 – c. 5000 BC <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid period</a>: <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 6500 – c. 4100 BC</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper Age">Copper Age</a>: <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 5000 – c. 3300 BC <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a>: <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 4100 – c. 3100 BC <ul><li>Uruk XIV–V phases: <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 4100 – c. 3300 BC</li> <li>Uruk IV phase: <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3300 – c. 3100 BC</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Bronze_Age_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Bronze Age I">Early Bronze Age I</a>: <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3300 – c. 3000 BC <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr period</a> (Uruk III phase): <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3100 – c. 2900 BC <ul><li>Uruk III phase: <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3100 – c. 2900 BC</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Bronze_Age_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Bronze Age II">Early Bronze Age II</a>: <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3000 – c. 2700 BC <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic period</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2900 – c. 2334 BC <ul><li>Early Dynastic I period: <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2900 – c. 2800 BC <ul><li>Eridu dynasty (<a href="/wiki/Alulim" title="Alulim">Alulim</a>)</li> <li>Bad-tibira dynasty (<a href="/wiki/Dumuzid" title="Dumuzid">Dumuzid</a>)</li> <li>Larak dynasty (<a href="/wiki/En-sipad-zid-ana" title="En-sipad-zid-ana">En-sipad-zid-ana</a>)</li> <li>Sippar dynasty (<a href="/wiki/Enmeduranki" class="mw-redirect" title="Enmeduranki">Enmeduranki</a>)</li> <li>Shuruppak dynasty (<a href="/wiki/Ziusudra" title="Ziusudra">Ziusudra</a>)</li> <li>Kish I dynasty (<a href="/wiki/Enmebaragesi" title="Enmebaragesi">Enmebaragesi</a>)</li></ul></li> <li>Early Dynastic II period: <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2800 – c. 2600 BC <ul><li>Uruk I dynasty (<a href="/wiki/Gilgamesh" title="Gilgamesh">Gilgamesh</a>)</li></ul></li> <li>Early Dynastic IIIa period: <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2600 – c. 2500 BC <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_dynasty_of_Ur" class="mw-redirect" title="First dynasty of Ur">Ur I dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awan_dynasty" title="Awan dynasty">Awan dynasty</a></li> <li>Kish II dynasty</li> <li>Hamazi dynasty</li></ul></li> <li>Early Dynastic IIIb period: <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2500 – c. 2334 BC <ul><li>Uruk II dynasty</li> <li>Ur II dynasty</li> <li>Adab dynasty</li> <li>Mari dynasty</li> <li>Kish III dynasty</li> <li>Akshak dynasty</li> <li>Kish IV dynasty</li> <li>Uruk III dynasty</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Bronze_Age_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Bronze Age III">Early Bronze Age III</a>: <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2700 – c. 2200 BC <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Akkadian Period">Akkadian period</a>: <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2334 – c. 2154 BC <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Akkad" title="List of kings of Akkad">Akkad dynasty</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sargon_of_Akkad" title="Sargon of Akkad">Sargon</a>)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Bronze_Age_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Bronze Age IV">Early Bronze Age IV</a>: <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2200 – c. 2100 BC <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Gutian period">Gutian period</a>: <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2154 – c. 2119 BC <ul><li>Uruk IV dynasty</li> <li>Gutian dynasty</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Bronze_Age_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Bronze Age I">Middle Bronze Age I</a>: <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2100 – c. 2000 BC <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ur_III_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Ur III period">Ur III period</a>: <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2119 – c. 2004 BC <ul><li>Uruk V dynasty</li> <li>Ur III dynasty</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Middle Bronze Age II A: <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2000 – c. 1750 BC <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isin-Larsa_period" title="Isin-Larsa period">Isin-Larsa period</a>: <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2004 – c. 1736 BC <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dynasty_of_Isin" title="Dynasty of Isin">Isin I dynasty</a></li> <li>Larsa dynasty</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Middle Bronze Age II B: <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1750 – c. 1650 BC <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Babylonian period">Old Babylonian period</a>: <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1736 – c. 1475 BC <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sealand_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Sealand Dynasty">Sealand dynasty</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ubaid_period">Ubaid period</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid period</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Frieze-group-3-example1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Frieze-group-3-example1.jpg/220px-Frieze-group-3-example1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Frieze-group-3-example1.jpg/330px-Frieze-group-3-example1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Frieze-group-3-example1.jpg/440px-Frieze-group-3-example1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1815" data-file-height="1830" /></a><figcaption>A pottery jar from the <a href="/wiki/Late_Ubaid_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Ubaid Period">Late Ubaid Period</a></figcaption></figure> The Ubaid period is marked by a distinctive style of fine quality painted pottery which spread throughout Mesopotamia and the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>. The oldest evidence for occupation comes from <a href="/wiki/Tell_el-%27Oueili" title="Tell el-'Oueili">Tell el-'Oueili</a>, but, given that environmental conditions in southern Mesopotamia were favourable to human occupation well before the Ubaid period, it is likely that older sites exist but have not yet been found. It appears that this culture was derived from the <a href="/wiki/Samarra" title="Samarra">Samarran</a> culture from northern Mesopotamia. It is not known whether or not these were the actual Sumerians who are identified with the later Uruk culture. The story of the passing of the gifts of civilization (<a href="/wiki/Me_(mythology)" title="Me (mythology)">me</a>) to <a href="/wiki/Inanna" title="Inanna">Inanna</a>, goddess of Uruk and of love and war, by <a href="/wiki/Enki" title="Enki">Enki</a>, god of wisdom and chief god of Eridu, may reflect the transition from Eridu to Uruk.<a href="#cite_note-WolksteinKramer1983-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Uruk_period">Uruk period</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a></div> The archaeological transition from the Ubaid period to the Uruk period is marked by a gradual shift from painted pottery domestically produced on a slow <a href="/wiki/Potter%27s_wheel" title="Potter's wheel">wheel</a> to a great variety of unpainted pottery mass-produced by specialists on fast wheels. The Uruk period is a continuation and an outgrowth of Ubaid with pottery being the main visible change.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:242px;max-width:242px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Uruk King-priest feeding the sacred herd</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:240px;max-width:240px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:96px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Yale_University._Uruk_period_priest-king.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Yale_University._Uruk_period_priest-king.jpg/238px-Yale_University._Uruk_period_priest-king.jpg" decoding="async" width="238" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Yale_University._Uruk_period_priest-king.jpg/357px-Yale_University._Uruk_period_priest-king.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Yale_University._Uruk_period_priest-king.jpg/476px-Yale_University._Uruk_period_priest-king.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2071" data-file-height="841" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">The king-priest and his acolyte feeding the sacred herd. Uruk period, c. 3200 BC</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:240px;max-width:240px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:187px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Uruk_King_priest_feeding_the_sacred_herd.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Uruk_King_priest_feeding_the_sacred_herd.jpg/238px-Uruk_King_priest_feeding_the_sacred_herd.jpg" decoding="async" width="238" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Uruk_King_priest_feeding_the_sacred_herd.jpg/357px-Uruk_King_priest_feeding_the_sacred_herd.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Uruk_King_priest_feeding_the_sacred_herd.jpg/476px-Uruk_King_priest_feeding_the_sacred_herd.jpg 2x" data-file-width="949" data-file-height="746" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Cylinder_seal" title="Cylinder seal">Cylinder seal</a> of the Uruk period and its impression, c. 3100 BC – <a href="/wiki/Louvre_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Louvre Museum">Louvre Museum</a></div></div></div></div></div> By the time of the Uruk period, c. 4100–2900 BC calibrated, the volume of trade goods transported along the canals and rivers of southern Mesopotamia facilitated the rise of many large, <a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">stratified</a>, temple-centered cities, with populations of over 10,000 people, where centralized administrations employed specialized workers. It is fairly certain that it was during the Uruk period that Sumerian cities began to make use of <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_antiquity" title="Slavery in antiquity">slave labour</a> captured from the hill country, and there is ample evidence for captured slaves as workers in the earliest texts. Artifacts, and even colonies of this Uruk civilization have been found over a wide area—from the <a href="/wiki/Taurus_Mountains" title="Taurus Mountains">Taurus Mountains</a> in <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, to the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a> in the west, and as far east as western <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Algaze,_Guillermo_2005-52">[52]</a>: 2–3  The Uruk period civilization, exported by Sumerian traders and colonists, like that found at <a href="/wiki/Tell_Brak" title="Tell Brak">Tell Brak</a>, had an effect on all surrounding peoples, who gradually evolved their own comparable, competing economies and cultures. The cities of Sumer could not maintain remote, long-distance colonies by military force.<a href="#cite_note-Algaze,_Guillermo_2005-52">[52]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Sumerian cities during the Uruk period were probably <a href="/wiki/Theocratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Theocratic">theocratic</a> and were most likely headed by a priest-king (ensi), assisted by a council of elders, including both men and women.<a href="#cite_note-Jacobsen-53">[53]</a> It is quite possible that the later Sumerian <a href="/wiki/Pantheon_(gods)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pantheon (gods)">pantheon</a> was modeled upon this political structure. There was little evidence of organized warfare or professional soldiers during the Uruk period, and towns were generally unwalled. During this period Uruk became the most urbanized city in the world, surpassing for the first time 50,000 inhabitants. The ancient Sumerian king list includes the early dynasties of several prominent cities from this period. The first set of names on the list is of kings said to have reigned before a major flood occurred. These early names may be fictional, and include some legendary and mythological figures, such as <a href="/wiki/Alulim" title="Alulim">Alulim</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dumuzid,_the_Shepherd" class="mw-redirect" title="Dumuzid, the Shepherd">Dumizid</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Jacobsen-53">[53]</a> The end of the Uruk period coincided with the <a href="/wiki/Piora_oscillation" class="mw-redirect" title="Piora oscillation">Piora oscillation</a>, a dry period from c. 3200–2900 BC that marked the end of a long wetter, warmer climate period from about 9,000 to 5,000 years ago, called the <a href="/wiki/Holocene_climatic_optimum" title="Holocene climatic optimum">Holocene climatic optimum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Dynastic_Period">Early Dynastic Period</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)</a> and <a href="/wiki/First_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="First Dynasty of Ur">First Dynasty of Ur</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Meskalamdug_helmet_British_Museum_electrotype_copy_original_is_in_the_Iraq_Museum,_Bagdad.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Meskalamdug_helmet_British_Museum_electrotype_copy_original_is_in_the_Iraq_Museum%2C_Bagdad.jpg/220px-Meskalamdug_helmet_British_Museum_electrotype_copy_original_is_in_the_Iraq_Museum%2C_Bagdad.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Meskalamdug_helmet_British_Museum_electrotype_copy_original_is_in_the_Iraq_Museum%2C_Bagdad.jpg/330px-Meskalamdug_helmet_British_Museum_electrotype_copy_original_is_in_the_Iraq_Museum%2C_Bagdad.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Meskalamdug_helmet_British_Museum_electrotype_copy_original_is_in_the_Iraq_Museum%2C_Bagdad.jpg/440px-Meskalamdug_helmet_British_Museum_electrotype_copy_original_is_in_the_Iraq_Museum%2C_Bagdad.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3207" data-file-height="2995" /></a><figcaption>Golden helmet of <a href="/wiki/Meskalamdug" title="Meskalamdug">Meskalamdug</a>, possible founder of the <a href="/wiki/First_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="First Dynasty of Ur">First Dynasty of Ur</a>, 26th century BC</figcaption></figure> The dynastic period begins c. 2900 BC and was associated with a shift from the temple establishment headed by council of elders led by a priestly "En" (a male figure when it was a temple for a goddess, or a female figure when headed by a male god)<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> towards a more secular Lugal (Lu = man, Gal = great) and includes such legendary patriarchal figures as <a href="/wiki/Dumuzid" title="Dumuzid">Dumuzid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lugalbanda" title="Lugalbanda">Lugalbanda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gilgamesh" title="Gilgamesh">Gilgamesh</a>—who reigned shortly before the historic record opens c. 2900 BC, when the now deciphered syllabic writing started to develop from the early pictograms. The center of Sumerian culture remained in southern Mesopotamia, even though rulers soon began expanding into neighboring areas, and neighboring Semitic groups adopted much of Sumerian culture for their own. The earliest dynastic king on the Sumerian king list whose name is known from any other legendary source is <a href="/wiki/Etana" title="Etana">Etana</a>, 13th king of the first dynasty of <a href="/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)" title="Kish (Sumer)">Kish</a>. The earliest king authenticated through archaeological evidence is <a href="/wiki/Enmebaragesi" title="Enmebaragesi">Enmebaragesi</a> of Kish (Early Dynastic I), whose name is mentioned in the <a href="/wiki/Epic_of_Gilgamesh" title="Epic of Gilgamesh">Epic of Gilgamesh</a>—leading to the suggestion that Gilgamesh himself might have been a historical king of Uruk. As the Epic of Gilgamesh shows, this period was associated with increased war. Cities became walled, and increased in size as undefended villages in southern Mesopotamia disappeared. Both Enmerkar and Gilgamesh are credited with having built the walls of Uruk.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1st_Dynasty_of_Lagash">1st Dynasty of Lagash</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stele_of_Vultures_detail_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Stele_of_Vultures_detail_02.jpg/220px-Stele_of_Vultures_detail_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Stele_of_Vultures_detail_02.jpg/330px-Stele_of_Vultures_detail_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Stele_of_Vultures_detail_02.jpg/440px-Stele_of_Vultures_detail_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1100" /></a><figcaption>A fragment of <a href="/wiki/Eannatum" title="Eannatum">Eannatum</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Stele_of_the_Vultures" title="Stele of the Vultures">Stele of the Vultures</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a></div> The dynasty of Lagash (c. 2500–2270 BC), though omitted from the king list, is well attested through several important monuments and many archaeological finds. Although short-lived, one of the first empires known to history was that of <a href="/wiki/Eannatum" title="Eannatum">Eannatum</a> of Lagash, who annexed practically all of Sumer, including Kish, Uruk, <a href="/wiki/Ur" title="Ur">Ur</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Larsa" title="Larsa">Larsa</a>, and reduced to tribute the city-state of <a href="/wiki/Umma" title="Umma">Umma</a>, arch-rival of Lagash. In addition, his realm extended to parts of <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a> and along the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>. He seems to have used terror as a matter of policy.<a href="#cite_note-roux1993-57">[57]</a> Eannatum's <a href="/wiki/Stele_of_the_Vultures" title="Stele of the Vultures">Stele of the Vultures</a> depicts vultures pecking at the severed heads and other body parts of his enemies. His empire collapsed shortly after his death. Later, <a href="/wiki/Lugal-zage-si" title="Lugal-zage-si">Lugal-zage-si</a>, the priest-king of Umma, overthrew the primacy of the Lagash dynasty in the area, then conquered Uruk, making it his capital, and claimed an empire extending from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean. He was the last ethnically Sumerian king before <a href="/wiki/Sargon_of_Akkad" title="Sargon of Akkad">Sargon of Akkad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Leick,_Gwendolyn_2003-43">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Akkadian_Empire">Akkadian Empire</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prisoners_on_the_victory_stele_of_an_Akkadian_king_circa_2300_BCE_Louvre_Museum_Sb_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Prisoners_on_the_victory_stele_of_an_Akkadian_king_circa_2300_BCE_Louvre_Museum_Sb_3.jpg/200px-Prisoners_on_the_victory_stele_of_an_Akkadian_king_circa_2300_BCE_Louvre_Museum_Sb_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Prisoners_on_the_victory_stele_of_an_Akkadian_king_circa_2300_BCE_Louvre_Museum_Sb_3.jpg/300px-Prisoners_on_the_victory_stele_of_an_Akkadian_king_circa_2300_BCE_Louvre_Museum_Sb_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Prisoners_on_the_victory_stele_of_an_Akkadian_king_circa_2300_BCE_Louvre_Museum_Sb_3.jpg/400px-Prisoners_on_the_victory_stele_of_an_Akkadian_king_circa_2300_BCE_Louvre_Museum_Sb_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="946" data-file-height="1276" /></a><figcaption>Sumerian prisoners on a victory stele of the Akkadian king <a href="/wiki/Sargon_of_Akkad" title="Sargon of Akkad">Sargon</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2300 BC.<a href="#cite_note-ArchaeologyofElam-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-TwoSteles-48">[48]</a> Louvre Museum.</figcaption></figure> The Akkadian Empire dates to <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2234–2154 BC (<a href="/wiki/Middle_chronology" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle chronology">middle chronology</a>), founded by <a href="/wiki/Sargon_of_Akkad" title="Sargon of Akkad">Sargon of Akkad</a>. The <a href="/wiki/East_Semitic_languages" title="East Semitic languages">Eastern Semitic</a> <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian language</a> is first attested in proper names of the kings of Kish <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2800 BC,<a href="#cite_note-roux1993-57">[57]</a> preserved in later king lists. There are texts written entirely in Old Akkadian dating from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2500 BC. Use of Old Akkadian was at its peak during the rule of <a href="/wiki/Sargon_of_Akkad" title="Sargon of Akkad">Sargon the Great</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2334–2279 BC), but even then most administrative tablets continued to be written in Sumerian, the language used by the scribes. Gelb and Westenholz differentiate three stages of Old Akkadian: that of the pre-Sargonic era, that of the Akkadian empire, and that of the Ur III period that followed it.<a href="#cite_note-auto-58">[58]</a> Akkadian and Sumerian coexisted as vernacular languages for about one thousand years, but by around 1800 BC, Sumerian was becoming more of a literary language familiar mainly only to scholars and scribes. <a href="/wiki/Thorkild_Jacobsen" title="Thorkild Jacobsen">Thorkild Jacobsen</a> has argued that there is little break in historical continuity between the pre- and post-Sargon periods, and that too much emphasis has been placed on the perception of a "Semitic vs. Sumerian" conflict.<a href="#cite_note-auto-58">[58]</a> It is certain that Akkadian was also briefly imposed on neighboring parts of Elam that were previously conquered, by Sargon. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gutian_period">Gutian period</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gutian_dynasty_of_Sumer" class="mw-redirect" title="Gutian dynasty of Sumer">Gutian dynasty of Sumer</a></div> c. 2193–2119 BC (middle chronology) <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="2nd_Dynasty_of_Lagash">2nd Dynasty of Lagash</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg/220px-Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg/330px-Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg/440px-Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2600" data-file-height="3900" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gudea" title="Gudea">Gudea</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a>, the Sumerian ruler who was famous for his numerous portrait sculptures that have been recovered.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ur-Ningirsu_ruler_of_Lagash_portrait_circa_2110_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Ur-Ningirsu_ruler_of_Lagash_portrait_circa_2110_BCE.jpg/220px-Ur-Ningirsu_ruler_of_Lagash_portrait_circa_2110_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="328" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Ur-Ningirsu_ruler_of_Lagash_portrait_circa_2110_BCE.jpg/330px-Ur-Ningirsu_ruler_of_Lagash_portrait_circa_2110_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Ur-Ningirsu_ruler_of_Lagash_portrait_circa_2110_BCE.jpg/440px-Ur-Ningirsu_ruler_of_Lagash_portrait_circa_2110_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1914" data-file-height="2856" /></a><figcaption>A portrait of <a href="/wiki/Ur-Ningirsu" title="Ur-Ningirsu">Ur-Ningirsu</a>, son of Gudea, c. 2100 BC. <a href="/wiki/Louvre_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Louvre Museum">Louvre Museum</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a></div> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2200–2110 BC (middle chronology) Following the downfall of the Akkadian Empire at the hands of <a href="/wiki/Gutian_dynasty_of_Sumer" class="mw-redirect" title="Gutian dynasty of Sumer">Gutians</a>, another native Sumerian ruler, <a href="/wiki/Gudea" title="Gudea">Gudea</a> of Lagash, rose to local prominence and continued the practices of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Akkad#Sargonic_dynasty_(c._2334_–_2193_BC)" title="List of kings of Akkad">Sargonic kings</a>' claims to divinity. The previous Lagash dynasty, Gudea and his descendants also promoted artistic development and left a large number of archaeological artifacts. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ur_III_period">Ur III period</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Third Dynasty of Ur</a></div> Later, the Third Dynasty of Ur under <a href="/wiki/Ur-Nammu" title="Ur-Nammu">Ur-Nammu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shulgi" title="Shulgi">Shulgi</a> (c. 2112–2004 BC, middle chronology), whose power extended as far as southern <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a>, has been erroneously called a "Sumerian renaissance" in the past.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Already, the region was becoming more Semitic than Sumerian, with the resurgence of the Akkadian-speaking Semites in Assyria and elsewhere, and the influx of waves of Semitic Martu (<a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a>), who founded several competing local powers in the south, including <a href="/wiki/Isin" title="Isin">Isin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Larsa" title="Larsa">Larsa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eshnunna" title="Eshnunna">Eshnunna</a> and later, Babylonia. The last of these eventually came to briefly dominate the south of Mesopotamia as the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian Empire">Babylonian Empire</a>, just as the <a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Assyrian Empire">Old Assyrian Empire</a> had already done in the north from the late 21st century BC. The Sumerian language continued as a sacerdotal language taught in schools in Babylonia and Assyria, much as Latin was used in the Medieval period, for as long as cuneiform was used. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fall_and_transmission">Fall and transmission</h3></div> This period is generally taken to coincide with a major shift in population from southern Mesopotamia toward the north. Ecologically, the agricultural productivity of the Sumerian lands was being compromised as a result of rising salinity. <a href="/wiki/Soil_salinity" title="Soil salinity">Soil salinity</a> in this region had been long recognized as a major problem.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Poorly drained irrigated soils, in an arid climate with high levels of evaporation, led to the buildup of dissolved salts in the soil, eventually reducing agricultural yields severely.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-61">[61]</a> During the Akkadian and <a href="/wiki/Ur_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Ur III">Ur III</a> phases, there was a shift from the cultivation of <a href="/wiki/Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</a> to the more salt-tolerant <a href="/wiki/Barley" title="Barley">barley</a>, but this was insufficient, and during the period from 2100 BC to 1700 BC, it is estimated that the population in this area declined by nearly three-fifths.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-61">[61]</a> This greatly upset the balance of power within the region, weakening the areas where Sumerian was spoken, and comparatively strengthening those where Akkadian was the major language. Henceforth, Sumerian remained only a <a href="/wiki/Literary_language" title="Literary language">literary</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sacred_language" title="Sacred language">liturgical</a> language, similar to the position occupied by <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> in <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">medieval</a> Europe. Following an Elamite invasion and sack of Ur during the rule of <a href="/wiki/Ibbi-Sin" title="Ibbi-Sin">Ibbi-Sin</a> (c. 2028–2004 BC),[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Sumer came under Amorite rule (taken to introduce the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Bronze_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Bronze Age">Middle Bronze Age</a>). The independent Amorite states of the 20th to 18th centuries are summarized as the "<a href="/wiki/Dynasty_of_Isin" title="Dynasty of Isin">Dynasty of Isin</a>" in the Sumerian king list, ending with the rise of Babylonia under <a href="/wiki/Hammurabi" title="Hammurabi">Hammurabi</a> c. 1800 BC. Later rulers who dominated Assyria and Babylonia occasionally assumed the old Sargonic title "King of Sumer and Akkad", such as <a href="/wiki/Tukulti-Ninurta_I" title="Tukulti-Ninurta I">Tukulti-Ninurta I</a> of Assyria after c. 1225 BC. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Population">Population</h2></div> Uruk, one of Sumer's largest cities, has been estimated to have had a population of 50,000–80,000 at its height.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Given the other cities in Sumer, and the large agricultural population, a rough estimate for Sumer's population might be 0.8 million to 1.5 million. The <a href="/wiki/World_population" title="World population">world population</a> at this time has been estimated at 27 million.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Drawing_of_the_Ziggurat_of_Ur,_Iraq,_by_Marjorie_V._Duffell_for_C._L._Woolley,_1937.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Drawing_of_the_Ziggurat_of_Ur%2C_Iraq%2C_by_Marjorie_V._Duffell_for_C._L._Woolley%2C_1937.jpg/220px-Drawing_of_the_Ziggurat_of_Ur%2C_Iraq%2C_by_Marjorie_V._Duffell_for_C._L._Woolley%2C_1937.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Drawing_of_the_Ziggurat_of_Ur%2C_Iraq%2C_by_Marjorie_V._Duffell_for_C._L._Woolley%2C_1937.jpg/330px-Drawing_of_the_Ziggurat_of_Ur%2C_Iraq%2C_by_Marjorie_V._Duffell_for_C._L._Woolley%2C_1937.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Drawing_of_the_Ziggurat_of_Ur%2C_Iraq%2C_by_Marjorie_V._Duffell_for_C._L._Woolley%2C_1937.jpg/440px-Drawing_of_the_Ziggurat_of_Ur%2C_Iraq%2C_by_Marjorie_V._Duffell_for_C._L._Woolley%2C_1937.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3360" data-file-height="2180" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Great_Ziggurat_of_Ur" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Ziggurat of Ur">Great Ziggurat of Ur</a>, c. 2100 BC, near <a href="/wiki/Nasiriyah" title="Nasiriyah">Nasiriyah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a></figcaption></figure> The Sumerians spoke a <a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">language isolate</a>. A number of linguists have claimed to be able to detect a <a href="/wiki/Substrate_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Substrate language">substrate language</a> of unknown classification beneath Sumerian, because names of some of Sumer's major cities are not Sumerian, revealing influences of earlier inhabitants.<a href="#cite_note-Nemet-Nejat1998-64">[64]</a> However, the <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_record" title="Archaeological record">archaeological record</a> shows clear uninterrupted cultural continuity from the time of the early <a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid period</a> (5300–4700 BC <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">C-14</a>) settlements in southern Mesopotamia. The Sumerian people who settled here, farmed the lands in this region that were made fertile by silt deposited by the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>. Some archaeologists have speculated that the original speakers of ancient Sumerian may have been farmers, who moved down from the north of Mesopotamia after perfecting irrigation agriculture there. The Ubaid period pottery of southern Mesopotamia has been connected via <a href="/wiki/Choga_Mami" title="Choga Mami">Choga Mami</a> transitional ware, to the pottery of the <a href="/wiki/Samarra" title="Samarra">Samarra</a> period culture (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 5700–4900 BC <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">C-14</a>) in the north, who were the first to practice a primitive form of irrigation agriculture along the middle Tigris River and its tributaries. The connection is most clearly seen at <a href="/wiki/Tell_el-%27Oueili" title="Tell el-'Oueili">Tell el-'Oueili</a> near <a href="/wiki/Larsa" title="Larsa">Larsa</a>, excavated by the French in the 1980s, where eight levels yielded pre-Ubaid pottery resembling Samarran ware. According to this theory, farming peoples spread down into southern Mesopotamia because they had developed a temple-centered social organization for mobilizing labor and technology for water control, enabling them to survive and prosper in a difficult environment.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Others have suggested a continuity of Sumerians, from the indigenous hunter-fisherfolk traditions, associated with the bifacial assemblages found on the Arabian littoral. <a href="/wiki/Juris_Zarins" title="Juris Zarins">Juris Zarins</a> believes the Sumerians may have been the people living in the Persian Gulf region before it flooded at the end of the last Ice Age.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_and_family_life">Social and family life</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reconstructed_sumerian_headgear_necklaces_british_museum.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Reconstructed_sumerian_headgear_necklaces_british_museum.JPG/130px-Reconstructed_sumerian_headgear_necklaces_british_museum.JPG" decoding="async" width="130" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Reconstructed_sumerian_headgear_necklaces_british_museum.JPG/195px-Reconstructed_sumerian_headgear_necklaces_british_museum.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Reconstructed_sumerian_headgear_necklaces_british_museum.JPG/260px-Reconstructed_sumerian_headgear_necklaces_british_museum.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1396" data-file-height="2468" /></a><figcaption>A reconstruction in the British Museum of headgear and necklaces worn by the women at the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Cemetery_at_Ur" title="Royal Cemetery at Ur">Royal Cemetery at Ur</a>.</figcaption></figure> In the early Sumerian period, the primitive pictograms suggest<a href="#cite_note-Sayce-65">[65]</a> that <ul><li>"Pottery was very plentiful, and the forms of the vases, bowls and dishes were manifold; there were special jars for honey, butter, oil and wine, which was probably made from dates. Some of the vases had pointed feet, and stood on stands with crossed legs; others were flat-bottomed, and were set on square or rectangular frames of wood. The oil-jars, and probably others also, were sealed with clay, precisely as in early <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>. Vases and dishes of stone were made in imitation of those of clay."</li> <li>"A feathered head-dress was worn. Beds, stools and chairs were used, with carved legs resembling those of an ox. There were fire-places and fire-altars."</li> <li>"Knives, drills, wedges and an instrument that looks like a saw were all known. While spears, bows, arrows, and daggers (but not swords) were employed in war."</li> <li>"Tablets were used for writing purposes. Daggers with metal blades and wooden handles were worn, and copper was hammered into plates, while necklaces or collars were made of gold."</li> <li>"Time was reckoned in lunar months."</li></ul> There is considerable evidence concerning <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Sumerian music">Sumerian music</a>. <a href="/wiki/Lyres" class="mw-redirect" title="Lyres">Lyres</a> and flutes were played, among the best-known examples being the <a href="/wiki/Lyres_of_Ur" title="Lyres of Ur">Lyres of Ur</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Goss_2017_mesopotamian_flutes-66">[66]</a> Sumerian culture was male-dominated and stratified. The <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Ur-Nammu" title="Code of Ur-Nammu">Code of Ur-Nammu</a>, the oldest such codification yet discovered, dating to the Ur III, reveals a glimpse at societal structure in late Sumerian law. Beneath the lu-gal ("great man" or king), all members of society belonged to one of two basic strata: The "lu" or free person, and the slave (male, arad; female geme). The son of a lu was called a dumu-nita until he married. A woman (munus) went from being a daughter (dumu-mi), to a wife (dam), then if she outlived her husband, a widow (numasu) and she could then remarry another man who was from the same tribe.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In early Sumer women played an important public rule as priestesses. They could also own property, transact business and had their rights protected by the courts. Sons and daughters inherited property on equal terms. The status of women deteriorated in the centuries after 2300 BC. Their right to dispose of their property was limited, and the female deities also lost their former importance.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Inscriptions describing the reforms of king <a href="/wiki/Urukagina" title="Urukagina">Urukagina</a> of Lagash (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2350 BC) say that he abolished the former custom of <a href="/wiki/Polyandry" title="Polyandry">polyandry</a> in his country, prescribing that a woman who took multiple husbands be stoned with rocks upon which her crime had been written.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:342px;max-width:342px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Sumerian princess (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2150 BC)</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:153px;max-width:153px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:226px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Sumerian_princess_of_the_time_of_Gudea_circa_2150_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Sumerian_princess_of_the_time_of_Gudea_circa_2150_BCE.jpg/151px-Sumerian_princess_of_the_time_of_Gudea_circa_2150_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="151" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Sumerian_princess_of_the_time_of_Gudea_circa_2150_BCE.jpg/227px-Sumerian_princess_of_the_time_of_Gudea_circa_2150_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Sumerian_princess_of_the_time_of_Gudea_circa_2150_BCE.jpg/302px-Sumerian_princess_of_the_time_of_Gudea_circa_2150_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1565" data-file-height="2337" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">A Sumerian princess of the time of Gudea <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2150 BC.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:185px;max-width:185px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:226px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Sumerian_princess_of_the_time_of_Gudea_2150_BCE._Louvre_Museum_AO_295.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Sumerian_princess_of_the_time_of_Gudea_2150_BCE._Louvre_Museum_AO_295.jpg/183px-Sumerian_princess_of_the_time_of_Gudea_2150_BCE._Louvre_Museum_AO_295.jpg" decoding="async" width="183" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Sumerian_princess_of_the_time_of_Gudea_2150_BCE._Louvre_Museum_AO_295.jpg/275px-Sumerian_princess_of_the_time_of_Gudea_2150_BCE._Louvre_Museum_AO_295.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Sumerian_princess_of_the_time_of_Gudea_2150_BCE._Louvre_Museum_AO_295.jpg/366px-Sumerian_princess_of_the_time_of_Gudea_2150_BCE._Louvre_Museum_AO_295.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1633" data-file-height="2022" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Frontal detail. Louvre Museum AO 295.</div></div></div></div></div> Marriages were usually arranged by the parents of the bride and groom;<a href="#cite_note-Kramer1963-70">[70]</a>: 78  engagements were usually completed through the approval of contracts recorded on clay tablets.<a href="#cite_note-Kramer1963-70">[70]</a>: 78  These marriages became legal as soon as the groom delivered a bridal gift to his bride's father.<a href="#cite_note-Kramer1963-70">[70]</a>: 78  One Sumerian proverb describes the ideal, happy marriage, through the mouth of a husband, who boasts that his wife has borne him eight sons and is still eager to have sex.<a href="#cite_note-NemetNejat-71">[71]</a> The Sumerians considered it desirable for women to still be <a href="/wiki/Virgin" class="mw-redirect" title="Virgin">virgins</a> at the time of marriage,<a href="#cite_note-Cooper-72">[72]</a>: 100–101  but did not expect the same of men,<a href="#cite_note-Cooper-72">[72]</a>: 102–103  although one author considers <a href="/wiki/Premarital_sex" title="Premarital sex">premarital sex</a> in general to have been discouraged.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Neither Sumerian nor Akkadian had a word exactly corresponding to the English word '<a href="/wiki/Virginity" title="Virginity">virginity</a>', and the concept was expressed descriptively, for example as a/é-nu-gi4-a (Sum.)/la naqbat (Akk.) 'un-deflowered', or giš nunzua, 'never having known a penis'.<a href="#cite_note-Cooper-72">[72]</a>: 91–93  It is unclear whether terms such as šišitu in Akkadian medical texts indicate the hymen, but it appears that the intactness of the hymen was much less relevant to assessing a woman's virginity than in later cultures of the Near East. Most assessments of virginity depended on the woman's own account.<a href="#cite_note-Cooper-72">[72]</a>: 91–92  From the earliest records, the Sumerians had very relaxed attitudes toward sex.<a href="#cite_note-Dening1996-74">[74]</a> Their <a href="/wiki/Sexual_ethics" title="Sexual ethics">sexual mores</a> were determined not by whether a sexual act was deemed immoral, but rather by whether or not it made a person ritually unclean.<a href="#cite_note-Dening1996-74">[74]</a> The Sumerians widely believed that <a href="/wiki/Masturbation" title="Masturbation">masturbation</a> enhanced sexual potency, both for men and for women,<a href="#cite_note-Dening1996-74">[74]</a> and they frequently engaged in it, both alone and <a href="/wiki/Mutual_masturbation" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutual masturbation">with their partners</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Dening1996-74">[74]</a> The Sumerians did not regard <a href="/wiki/Anal_sex" title="Anal sex">anal sex</a> as taboo either.<a href="#cite_note-Dening1996-74">[74]</a> Entu priestesses were forbidden from producing offspring<a href="#cite_note-Leick2013-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-NemetNejat-71">[71]</a> and frequently engaged in anal sex as a method of <a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">birth control</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Leick2013-75">[75]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">need quotation to verify</a>]<a href="#cite_note-Dening1996-74">[74]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources">unreliable source?</a>]<a href="#cite_note-NemetNejat-71">[71]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>] Prostitution existed, but it is not clear if <a href="/wiki/Sacred_prostitution" title="Sacred prostitution">sacred prostitution</a> did.<a href="#cite_note-Black-76">[76]</a>: 151  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language_and_writing">Language and writing</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_writing" title="History of writing">History of writing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian language</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Cuneiform</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:P1150884_Louvre_Uruk_III_tablette_%C3%A9criture_pr%C3%A9cun%C3%A9iforme_AO19936_rwk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/P1150884_Louvre_Uruk_III_tablette_%C3%A9criture_pr%C3%A9cun%C3%A9iforme_AO19936_rwk.jpg/220px-P1150884_Louvre_Uruk_III_tablette_%C3%A9criture_pr%C3%A9cun%C3%A9iforme_AO19936_rwk.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/P1150884_Louvre_Uruk_III_tablette_%C3%A9criture_pr%C3%A9cun%C3%A9iforme_AO19936_rwk.jpg/330px-P1150884_Louvre_Uruk_III_tablette_%C3%A9criture_pr%C3%A9cun%C3%A9iforme_AO19936_rwk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/P1150884_Louvre_Uruk_III_tablette_%C3%A9criture_pr%C3%A9cun%C3%A9iforme_AO19936_rwk.jpg/440px-P1150884_Louvre_Uruk_III_tablette_%C3%A9criture_pr%C3%A9cun%C3%A9iforme_AO19936_rwk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1349" /></a><figcaption>A tablet with pictographic pre-cuneiform writing. Late 4th millennium BC, limestone. Height: 4.5 cm, width: 4.3 cm, depth: 2.4 cm. The <a href="/wiki/Louvre" title="Louvre">Louvre</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Development_of_writing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Development_of_writing.jpg/290px-Development_of_writing.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Development_of_writing.jpg/435px-Development_of_writing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Development_of_writing.jpg/580px-Development_of_writing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>Standard reconstruction of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_writing" title="History of writing">development of writing</a>. Egyptian hieroglyphics and Sumerian cuneiform are both considered to derive from pictographs.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></figcaption></figure> The most important archaeological discoveries in Sumer are a large number of <a href="/wiki/Clay_tablet" title="Clay tablet">clay tablets</a> written in <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuneiform script">cuneiform script</a>. Sumerian writing is considered to be a great milestone in the development of humanity's ability to not only create historical records but also in creating pieces of literature, both in the form of poetic epics and stories as well as prayers and laws. Although the writing system was first <a href="/wiki/Hieroglyphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyphic">hieroglyphic</a> using <a href="/wiki/Ideogram" title="Ideogram">ideograms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logogram" title="Logogram">logosyllabic</a> cuneiform soon followed.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Triangular or wedge-shaped reeds were used to write on moist clay. A large body of hundreds of thousands of texts in the Sumerian language have survived, including personal and business letters, receipts, <a href="/wiki/Lexical_lists" title="Lexical lists">lexical lists</a>, laws, hymns, prayers, stories, and daily records. Full libraries of clay tablets have been found. Monumental inscriptions and texts on different objects, like statues or bricks, are also very common. Many texts survive in multiple copies because they were repeatedly transcribed by scribes in training. Sumerian continued to be the language of religion and law in Mesopotamia long after Semitic speakers had become dominant. A prime example of cuneiform writing is a lengthy poem that was discovered in the ruins of Uruk. The <a href="/wiki/Epic_of_Gilgamesh" title="Epic of Gilgamesh">Epic of Gilgamesh</a> was written in the standard Sumerian cuneiform. It tells of a king from the early Dynastic II period named Gilgamesh or "Bilgamesh" in Sumerian. The story relates the fictional adventures of Gilgamesh and his companion, <a href="/wiki/Enkidu" title="Enkidu">Enkidu</a>. It was laid out on several clay tablets and is thought to be the earliest known surviving example of fictional literature. The Sumerian language is generally regarded as a <a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">language isolate</a> in <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, because it belongs to no known language family. Akkadian, by contrast, belongs to the Semitic branch of the <a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic languages</a>. There have been many failed attempts to connect Sumerian to other <a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">language families</a>. It is an <a href="/wiki/Agglutinative_language" title="Agglutinative language">agglutinative language</a>. In other words, <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morphemes</a> ("units of meaning") are added together to create words, unlike <a href="/wiki/Analytic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytic languages">analytic languages</a> where morphemes are purely added together to create sentences. Some authors have proposed that there may be evidence of a <a href="/wiki/Substratum_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Substratum (linguistics)">substratum</a> or adstratum language for geographic features and various crafts and agricultural activities, called variously <a href="/wiki/Proto-Euphratean" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Euphratean">Proto-Euphratean</a> or Proto Tigrean, but this is disputed by others. Understanding Sumerian texts today can be problematic. Most difficult are the earliest texts, which in many cases do not give the full grammatical structure of the language and seem to have been used as an "<a href="/wiki/Aide-m%C3%A9moire" title="Aide-mémoire">aide-mémoire</a>" for knowledgeable scribes.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as a spoken language somewhere around the turn of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium BC.<a href="#cite_note-woods-80">[80]</a> Sumerian continued to be used as a sacred, ceremonial, literary, and scientific language in Babylonia and Assyria until the 1st century AD.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Early_writing_tablet_recording_the_allocation_of_beer.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="An early writing tablet for recording the allocation of beer, 3100–3000 BC, from Iraq. British Museum, London"><img alt="An early writing tablet for recording the allocation of beer, 3100–3000 BC, from Iraq. British Museum, London" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Early_writing_tablet_recording_the_allocation_of_beer.jpg/170px-Early_writing_tablet_recording_the_allocation_of_beer.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Early_writing_tablet_recording_the_allocation_of_beer.jpg/255px-Early_writing_tablet_recording_the_allocation_of_beer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Early_writing_tablet_recording_the_allocation_of_beer.jpg/340px-Early_writing_tablet_recording_the_allocation_of_beer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2191" data-file-height="1679" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">An early writing tablet for recording the allocation of beer, 3100–3000 BC, from Iraq. <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>, London</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Cuneiform_tablet-_administrative_account_with_entries_concerning_malt_and_barley_groats_MET_DP293245.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A cuneiform tablet about an administrative account, with entries concerning malt and barley groats, 3100–2900 BC. Clay, 6.8 x 4.5 x 1.6 cm, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City"><img alt="A cuneiform tablet about an administrative account, with entries concerning malt and barley groats, 3100–2900 BC. Clay, 6.8 x 4.5 x 1.6 cm, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Cuneiform_tablet-_administrative_account_with_entries_concerning_malt_and_barley_groats_MET_DP293245.jpg/170px-Cuneiform_tablet-_administrative_account_with_entries_concerning_malt_and_barley_groats_MET_DP293245.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Cuneiform_tablet-_administrative_account_with_entries_concerning_malt_and_barley_groats_MET_DP293245.jpg/255px-Cuneiform_tablet-_administrative_account_with_entries_concerning_malt_and_barley_groats_MET_DP293245.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Cuneiform_tablet-_administrative_account_with_entries_concerning_malt_and_barley_groats_MET_DP293245.jpg/340px-Cuneiform_tablet-_administrative_account_with_entries_concerning_malt_and_barley_groats_MET_DP293245.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1297" data-file-height="923" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A cuneiform tablet about an administrative account, with entries concerning malt and barley groats, 3100–2900 BC. Clay, 6.8 x 4.5 x 1.6 cm, the <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a>, New York City</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Bill_of_sale_Louvre_AO3766.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A bill of sale of a field and a house, from Shuruppak, c. 2600 BC. Height: 8.5 cm, width: 8.5 cm, depth: 2 cm. The Louvre"><img alt="A bill of sale of a field and a house, from Shuruppak, c. 2600 BC. Height: 8.5 cm, width: 8.5 cm, depth: 2 cm. The Louvre" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Bill_of_sale_Louvre_AO3766.jpg/170px-Bill_of_sale_Louvre_AO3766.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Bill_of_sale_Louvre_AO3766.jpg/255px-Bill_of_sale_Louvre_AO3766.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Bill_of_sale_Louvre_AO3766.jpg/340px-Bill_of_sale_Louvre_AO3766.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3600" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A bill of sale of a field and a house, from <a href="/wiki/Shuruppak" title="Shuruppak">Shuruppak</a>, c. 2600 BC. Height: 8.5 cm, width: 8.5 cm, depth: 2 cm. The Louvre</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Stele_of_Vultures_detail_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Stele of the Vultures, c. 2450 BC, limestone, Found in 1881 by Édouard de Sarzec in Girsu, now Tell Telloh, Iraq. The Louvre"><img alt="Stele of the Vultures, c. 2450 BC, limestone, Found in 1881 by Édouard de Sarzec in Girsu, now Tell Telloh, Iraq. The Louvre" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Stele_of_Vultures_detail_02.jpg/170px-Stele_of_Vultures_detail_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Stele_of_Vultures_detail_02.jpg/255px-Stele_of_Vultures_detail_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Stele_of_Vultures_detail_02.jpg/340px-Stele_of_Vultures_detail_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1100" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Stele_of_the_Vultures" title="Stele of the Vultures">Stele of the Vultures</a>, c. 2450 BC, limestone, Found in 1881 by Édouard de Sarzec in <a href="/wiki/Girsu" title="Girsu">Girsu</a>, now Tell Telloh, Iraq. The Louvre</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_religion" title="Sumerian religion">Sumerian religion</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Sumerian religion</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:187px;max-width:187px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:158px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Wall_plaque_showing_libation_scene_from_Ur,_Iraq,_2500_BCE._British_Museum_(adjusted_for_perspective).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Wall_plaque_showing_libation_scene_from_Ur%2C_Iraq%2C_2500_BCE._British_Museum_%28adjusted_for_perspective%29.jpg/185px-Wall_plaque_showing_libation_scene_from_Ur%2C_Iraq%2C_2500_BCE._British_Museum_%28adjusted_for_perspective%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="185" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Wall_plaque_showing_libation_scene_from_Ur%2C_Iraq%2C_2500_BCE._British_Museum_%28adjusted_for_perspective%29.jpg/278px-Wall_plaque_showing_libation_scene_from_Ur%2C_Iraq%2C_2500_BCE._British_Museum_%28adjusted_for_perspective%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Wall_plaque_showing_libation_scene_from_Ur%2C_Iraq%2C_2500_BCE._British_Museum_%28adjusted_for_perspective%29.jpg/370px-Wall_plaque_showing_libation_scene_from_Ur%2C_Iraq%2C_2500_BCE._British_Museum_%28adjusted_for_perspective%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3186" data-file-height="2722" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Wall plaque showing libations to a seated god and a temple. <a href="/wiki/Ur" title="Ur">Ur</a>, 2500 BC</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:201px;max-width:201px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:158px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Wall_plaque_showing_libation_scene_from_Ur,_Iraq,_2500_BCE._British_Museum_(libation_detail).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Wall_plaque_showing_libation_scene_from_Ur%2C_Iraq%2C_2500_BCE._British_Museum_%28libation_detail%29.jpg/199px-Wall_plaque_showing_libation_scene_from_Ur%2C_Iraq%2C_2500_BCE._British_Museum_%28libation_detail%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="199" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Wall_plaque_showing_libation_scene_from_Ur%2C_Iraq%2C_2500_BCE._British_Museum_%28libation_detail%29.jpg/299px-Wall_plaque_showing_libation_scene_from_Ur%2C_Iraq%2C_2500_BCE._British_Museum_%28libation_detail%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Wall_plaque_showing_libation_scene_from_Ur%2C_Iraq%2C_2500_BCE._British_Museum_%28libation_detail%29.jpg/398px-Wall_plaque_showing_libation_scene_from_Ur%2C_Iraq%2C_2500_BCE._British_Museum_%28libation_detail%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1533" data-file-height="1219" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Naked priest offering libations to a Sumerian temple (detail), <a href="/wiki/Ur" title="Ur">Ur</a>, 2500 BC</div></div></div></div></div> The Sumerians credited their divinities for all matters pertaining to them and exhibited humility in the face of cosmic forces, such as <a href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">death</a> and <a href="/wiki/Divine_wrath" class="mw-redirect" title="Divine wrath">divine wrath</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kramer1963-70">[70]</a>: 3–4  Sumerian religion seems to have been founded upon two separate <a href="/wiki/Cosmogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmogeny">cosmogenic</a> myths. The first saw creation as the result of a series of <a href="/wiki/Hieros_gamos" title="Hieros gamos">hieroi gamoi</a> or sacred marriages, involving the reconciliation of opposites, postulated as a coming together of male and female divine beings, the gods. This pattern continued to influence regional Mesopotamian myths. Thus, in the later Akkadian <a href="/wiki/Enuma_Elish" class="mw-redirect" title="Enuma Elish">Enuma Elish</a>, creation was seen as the union of fresh and salt water, between male <a href="/wiki/Abzu" title="Abzu">Abzu</a>, and female <a href="/wiki/Tiamat" title="Tiamat">Tiamat</a>. The products of that union, <a href="/wiki/Lahm" title="Lahm">Lahm</a> and Lahmu, "the muddy ones", were titles given to the gate keepers of the E-Abzu temple of <a href="/wiki/Enki" title="Enki">Enki</a> in <a href="/wiki/Eridu" title="Eridu">Eridu</a>, the first Sumerian city. Mirroring the way that muddy islands emerge from the confluence of fresh and salty water at the mouth of the Euphrates, where the river deposits its load of silt, a second hieros gamos supposedly resulted in the creation of Anshar and Kishar, the "sky-pivot" (or axle), and the "earth pivot", parents in turn of <a href="/wiki/Anu" title="Anu">Anu</a> (the sky) and <a href="/wiki/Ki_(goddess)" title="Ki (goddess)">Ki</a> (the earth). Another important Sumerian hieros gamos was that between Ki, here known as <a href="/wiki/Ninhursag" title="Ninhursag">Ninhursag</a> or "Lady of the Mountains", and Enki of Eridu, the god of fresh water which brought forth greenery and pasture. At an early stage, following the dawn of recorded history, <a href="/wiki/Nippur" title="Nippur">Nippur</a>, in central Mesopotamia, replaced Eridu in the south as the primary temple city, whose priests exercised political <a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">hegemony</a> on the other city-states. Nippur retained this status throughout the Sumerian period. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Deities">Deities</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ea_(Babilonian)_-_EnKi_(Sumerian).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Ea_%28Babilonian%29_-_EnKi_%28Sumerian%29.jpg/290px-Ea_%28Babilonian%29_-_EnKi_%28Sumerian%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Ea_%28Babilonian%29_-_EnKi_%28Sumerian%29.jpg/435px-Ea_%28Babilonian%29_-_EnKi_%28Sumerian%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Ea_%28Babilonian%29_-_EnKi_%28Sumerian%29.jpg/580px-Ea_%28Babilonian%29_-_EnKi_%28Sumerian%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="962" data-file-height="611" /></a><figcaption>Akkadian cylinder seal from sometime around 2300 BC or thereabouts depicting the deities <a href="/wiki/Inanna" title="Inanna">Inanna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Utu" class="mw-redirect" title="Utu">Utu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enki" title="Enki">Enki</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Isimud" title="Isimud">Isimud</a></figcaption></figure> Sumerians believed in an anthropomorphic polytheism, or the belief in many gods in human form. There was no common set of gods; each city-state had its own patrons, temples, and priest-kings. Nonetheless, these were not exclusive; the gods of one city were often acknowledged elsewhere. Sumerian speakers were among the earliest people to record their beliefs in writing, and were a major inspiration in later <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_mythology" title="Mesopotamian mythology">Mesopotamian mythology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrology</a>. The Sumerians worshiped: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anu" title="Anu">An</a> as the full-time god equivalent to heaven; indeed, the word an in Sumerian means sky and his consort <a href="/wiki/Ki_(goddess)" title="Ki (goddess)">Ki</a>, means earth.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enki" title="Enki">Enki</a> in the south at the temple in Eridu. Enki was the god of beneficence and of wisdom, ruler of the freshwater depths beneath the earth, a healer and friend to humanity who in Sumerian myth was thought to have given humans the arts and sciences, the industries and manners of civilization; the first law book was considered his creation.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlil" title="Enlil">Enlil</a> was the god of storm, wind, and rain.<a href="#cite_note-ColemanDavidson2015-82">[82]</a>: 108  He was the chief god of the Sumerian pantheon<a href="#cite_note-ColemanDavidson2015-82">[82]</a>: 108 <a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a>: 115–121  and the patron god of Nippur.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a>: 231–234  His consort was <a href="/wiki/Ninlil" title="Ninlil">Ninlil</a>, the goddess of the south wind.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a>: 106 </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inanna" title="Inanna">Inanna</a> was the goddess of love, sexuality, and war;<a href="#cite_note-Black-76">[76]</a>: 109  the deification of Venus, the morning (eastern) and evening (western) star, at the temple (shared with An) at Uruk. Deified kings may have re-enacted the marriage of Inanna and <a href="/wiki/Dumuzid_the_Shepherd" class="mw-redirect" title="Dumuzid the Shepherd">Dumuzid</a> with priestesses.<a href="#cite_note-Black-76">[76]</a>: 151, 157–158 </li> <li>The sun-god <a href="/wiki/Utu" class="mw-redirect" title="Utu">Utu</a> at <a href="/wiki/Larsa" title="Larsa">Larsa</a> in the south and <a href="/wiki/Sippar" title="Sippar">Sippar</a> in the north,</li> <li>The moon god <a href="/wiki/Sin_(mythology)" title="Sin (mythology)">Sin</a> at Ur.</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Genealogy_of_Sumero-Akkadian_Gods.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Genealogy_of_Sumero-Akkadian_Gods.jpg/450px-Genealogy_of_Sumero-Akkadian_Gods.jpg" decoding="async" width="450" height="338" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Genealogy_of_Sumero-Akkadian_Gods.jpg/675px-Genealogy_of_Sumero-Akkadian_Gods.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Genealogy_of_Sumero-Akkadian_Gods.jpg/900px-Genealogy_of_Sumero-Akkadian_Gods.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Sumero-early Akkadian <a href="/wiki/Pantheon_(gods)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pantheon (gods)">pantheon</a></figcaption></figure> These <a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">deities</a> formed the main pantheon, and in addition to this there were hundreds of other minor gods. Sumerian gods were often associated with different cities, and their religious importance often waxed and waned with those cities' political power. The gods were said to have created human beings from clay for the purpose of serving them. The temples organized the mass labour projects needed for irrigation agriculture. Citizens had a labor duty to the temple, though they could avoid it by a payment of silver. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cosmology">Cosmology</h4></div> Sumerians believed that the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> consisted of a flat disk enclosed by a <a href="/wiki/Dome" title="Dome">dome</a>. The Sumerian <a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">afterlife</a> involved a descent into a gloomy <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_nether-world" class="mw-redirect" title="Sumerian nether-world">netherworld</a> to spend eternity in a wretched <a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">existence</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Gidim" class="mw-redirect" title="Gidim">Gidim</a> (ghost).<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> The universe was divided into four quarters: <ul><li>To the north were the hill-dwelling <a href="/wiki/Subartu" title="Subartu">Subartu</a>, who were periodically raided for slaves, timber, and other raw materials.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a></li> <li>To the west were the tent-dwelling <a href="/wiki/Amorite" class="mw-redirect" title="Amorite">Martu</a>, ancient Semitic-speaking peoples living as pastoral nomads tending herds of sheep and goats.</li> <li>To the south was the land of <a href="/wiki/Dilmun" title="Dilmun">Dilmun</a>, a trading state associated with the land of the dead and the place of creation.<a href="#cite_note-Carl_Phillips_2013-88">[88]</a></li> <li>To the east were the <a href="/wiki/Elamites" class="mw-redirect" title="Elamites">Elamites</a>, a rival people with whom the Sumerians were frequently at war.</li></ul> Their known world extended from The Upper Sea or Mediterranean coastline, to The Lower Sea, the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> and the land of <a href="/wiki/Meluhha" title="Meluhha">Meluhha</a> (probably the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley">Indus Valley</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Majan_(civilization)" class="mw-redirect" title="Majan (civilization)">Magan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a>), famed for its copper ores. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Temple_and_temple_organisation">Temple and temple organisation</h4></div> <a href="/wiki/Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">Ziggurats</a> (Sumerian temples) each had an individual name and consisted of a forecourt, with a central pond for purification.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> The temple itself had a central <a href="/wiki/Nave" title="Nave">nave</a> with aisles along either side. Flanking the aisles would be rooms for the priests. At one end would stand the <a href="/wiki/Podium" title="Podium">podium</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Mudbrick" title="Mudbrick">mudbrick</a> table for animal and vegetable <a href="/wiki/Sacrifice" title="Sacrifice">sacrifices</a>. <a href="/wiki/Granary" title="Granary">Granaries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Warehouse" title="Warehouse">storehouses</a> were usually located near the temples. After a time the Sumerians began to place the temples on top of multi-layered square constructions built as a series of rising terraces, giving rise to the Ziggurat style.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Funerary_practices">Funerary practices</h4></div> It was believed that when people died, they would be confined to a gloomy world of <a href="/wiki/Ereshkigal" title="Ereshkigal">Ereshkigal</a>, whose realm was guarded by gateways with various monsters designed to prevent people entering or leaving. The dead were buried outside the city walls in graveyards where a small mound covered the corpse, along with offerings to monsters and a small amount of food. Those who could afford it sought burial at Dilmun.<a href="#cite_note-Carl_Phillips_2013-88">[88]</a> <a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice" title="Human sacrifice">Human sacrifice</a> was found in the death pits at the Ur royal cemetery where Queen <a href="/wiki/Puabi" title="Puabi">Puabi</a> was accompanied in death by her servants. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agriculture_and_hunting">Agriculture and hunting</h3></div> The Sumerians adopted an agricultural lifestyle perhaps as early as <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 5000–4500 BC. The region demonstrated a number of core agricultural techniques, including organized <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a>, large-scale intensive cultivation of land, <a href="/wiki/Monocropping" title="Monocropping">monocropping</a> involving the use of <a href="/wiki/Plough" title="Plough">plough</a> agriculture, and the use of an agricultural <a href="/wiki/Division_of_labour" title="Division of labour">specialized labour force</a> under bureaucratic control. The necessity to manage temple accounts with this organization led to the development of <a href="/wiki/History_of_writing" title="History of writing">writing</a> (c. 3500 BC). <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ur_mosaic.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Ur_mosaic.jpg/300px-Ur_mosaic.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Ur_mosaic.jpg/450px-Ur_mosaic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Ur_mosaic.jpg/600px-Ur_mosaic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2196" data-file-height="931" /></a><figcaption>From the royal tombs of <a href="/wiki/Ur" title="Ur">Ur</a>, made of <a href="/wiki/Lapis_lazuli" title="Lapis lazuli">lapis lazuli</a> and shell, shows peacetime</figcaption></figure> In the early Sumerian Uruk period, the primitive pictograms suggest that <a href="/wiki/Sheep" title="Sheep">sheep</a>, <a href="/wiki/Goat" title="Goat">goats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cattle" title="Cattle">cattle</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pig" title="Pig">pigs</a> were domesticated. They used <a href="/wiki/Ox" title="Ox">oxen</a> as their primary beasts of burden and <a href="/wiki/Donkey" title="Donkey">donkeys</a> or <a href="/wiki/Equids" class="mw-redirect" title="Equids">equids</a> as their primary transport animal and "woollen clothing as well as rugs were made from the wool or hair of the animals. ... By the side of the house was an enclosed garden planted with trees and other plants; wheat and probably other <a href="/wiki/Cereal" title="Cereal">cereals</a> were sown in the fields, and the <a href="/wiki/Shaduf" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaduf">shaduf</a> was already employed for the purpose of irrigation. Plants were also grown in pots or vases."<a href="#cite_note-Sayce-65">[65]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Issue_of_barley_rations.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Issue_of_barley_rations.JPG/220px-Issue_of_barley_rations.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Issue_of_barley_rations.JPG/330px-Issue_of_barley_rations.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Issue_of_barley_rations.JPG/440px-Issue_of_barley_rations.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2246" /></a><figcaption>An account of barley rations issued monthly to adults and children written in <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuneiform script">cuneiform script</a> on a clay tablet, written in year 4 of King <a href="/wiki/Urukagina" title="Urukagina">Urukagina</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2350 BC</figcaption></figure> The Sumerians were one of the first known <a href="/wiki/Beer" title="Beer">beer</a>-drinking societies. Cereals were plentiful and were the key ingredient in their early brew. They brewed multiple kinds of beer consisting of wheat, barley, and mixed grain beers. Beer brewing was very important to the Sumerians. It was referenced in the Epic of Gilgamesh when Enkidu was introduced to the food and beer of Gilgamesh's people: "Drink the beer, as is the custom of the land... He drank the beer-seven jugs! and became expansive and sang with joy!"<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> The Sumerians practiced similar irrigation techniques as those used in Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> American anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Robert_McCormick_Adams" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert McCormick Adams">Robert McCormick Adams</a> says that irrigation development was associated with urbanization,<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> and that 89% of the population lived in the cities. They grew barley, <a href="/wiki/Chickpea" title="Chickpea">chickpeas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lentil" title="Lentil">lentils</a>, wheat, <a href="/wiki/Date_(fruit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Date (fruit)">dates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Onion" title="Onion">onions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Garlic" title="Garlic">garlic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lettuce" title="Lettuce">lettuce</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leek" title="Leek">leeks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mustard_plant" title="Mustard plant">mustard</a>. Sumerians caught many fish and hunted <a href="/wiki/Fowl" title="Fowl">fowl</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gazelle" title="Gazelle">gazelle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Sumerian agriculture depended heavily on <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a>. The irrigation was accomplished by the use of <a href="/wiki/Shaduf" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaduf">shaduf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">canals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Channel_(geography)" title="Channel (geography)">channels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dyke_(construction)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyke (construction)">dykes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Weir" title="Weir">weirs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Reservoirs" class="mw-redirect" title="Reservoirs">reservoirs</a>. The frequent violent floods of the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a>, and less so, of the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>, meant that canals required frequent repair and continual removal of <a href="/wiki/Silt" title="Silt">silt</a>, and survey markers and boundary stones needed to be continually replaced. The government required individuals to work on the canals in a <a href="/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" title="Corvée">corvée</a>, although the rich were able to exempt themselves. As is known from the "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sumerian_Farmer%27s_Almanac&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sumerian Farmer's Almanac (page does not exist)">Sumerian Farmer's Almanac</a>", after the flood season and after the <a href="/wiki/Spring_equinox_(northern_hemisphere)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spring equinox (northern hemisphere)">Spring equinox</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Akitu" title="Akitu">Akitu</a> or New Year Festival, using the canals, farmers would flood their fields and then drain the water. Next they made oxen stomp the ground and kill weeds. They then dragged the fields with <a href="/wiki/Pickaxe" title="Pickaxe">pickaxes</a>. After drying, they plowed, <a href="/wiki/Harrow_(tool)" title="Harrow (tool)">harrowed</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rake_(tool)" title="Rake (tool)">raked</a> the ground three times, and pulverized it with a <a href="/wiki/Mattock" title="Mattock">mattock</a>, before planting seed. Unfortunately, the high evaporation rate resulted in a gradual increase in the salinity of the fields. By the Ur III period, farmers had switched from wheat to the more salt-tolerant barley as their principal crop. Sumerians harvested during the <a href="/wiki/Spring_(season)" title="Spring (season)">spring</a> in three-person teams consisting of a <a href="/wiki/Reaper" title="Reaper">reaper</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Reaper-binder" title="Reaper-binder">binder</a>, and a sheaf handler.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> The farmers would use <a href="/wiki/Threshing" title="Threshing">threshing</a> wagons, driven by oxen, to separate the cereal heads from the <a href="/wiki/Stalk_(botany)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stalk (botany)">stalks</a> and then use threshing sleds to disengage the grain. They then <a href="/wiki/Winnowing" title="Winnowing">winnowed</a> the grain/chaff mixture. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art">Art</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Stele_of_the_Vultures" title="Stele of the Vultures">Stele of the Vultures</a> and <a href="/wiki/Royal_Cemetery_at_Ur" title="Royal Cemetery at Ur">Royal Cemetery at Ur</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_Tombs_of_Ur_Objects_from_tomb_PG_580.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Royal_Tombs_of_Ur_Objects_from_tomb_PG_580.jpg/260px-Royal_Tombs_of_Ur_Objects_from_tomb_PG_580.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Royal_Tombs_of_Ur_Objects_from_tomb_PG_580.jpg/390px-Royal_Tombs_of_Ur_Objects_from_tomb_PG_580.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Royal_Tombs_of_Ur_Objects_from_tomb_PG_580.jpg/520px-Royal_Tombs_of_Ur_Objects_from_tomb_PG_580.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3032" data-file-height="1576" /></a><figcaption>Gold dagger from Sumerian tomb PG 580, <a href="/wiki/Royal_Cemetery_at_Ur" title="Royal Cemetery at Ur">Royal Cemetery at Ur</a>.</figcaption></figure> The Sumerians were great artists. Sumerian artefacts show great detail and ornamentation, with fine semi-precious stones imported from other lands, such as <a href="/wiki/Lapis_lazuli" title="Lapis lazuli">lapis lazuli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marble" title="Marble">marble</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Diorite" title="Diorite">diorite</a>, and precious metals like hammered gold, incorporated into the design. Since stone was rare it was reserved for sculpture. The most widespread material in Sumer was clay, as a result many Sumerian objects are made of clay. Metals such as gold, silver, copper, and bronze, along with shells and gemstones, were used for the finest sculptures and inlays. Small stones of all kinds, including more precious stones such as lapis lazuli, alabaster, and serpentine, were used for <a href="/wiki/Cylinder_seal" title="Cylinder seal">cylinder seals</a>. Some of the most famous masterpieces are the Lyres of Ur, which are considered to be the world's oldest surviving <a href="/wiki/Stringed_instrument" class="mw-redirect" title="Stringed instrument">stringed instruments</a>. They were discovered by <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Woolley" title="Leonard Woolley">Leonard Woolley</a> when the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Cemetery_of_Ur" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Cemetery of Ur">Royal Cemetery of Ur</a> was excavated between 1922 and 1934. <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Cylinder_seal_and_modern_impression-_ritual_scene_before_a_temple_facade_MET_DP270679.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cylinder seal and impression in which appears a ritual scene before a temple façade; 3500–3100 BC; bituminous limestone; height: 4.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)"><img alt="Cylinder seal and impression in which appears a ritual scene before a temple façade; 3500–3100 BC; bituminous limestone; height: 4.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Cylinder_seal_and_modern_impression-_ritual_scene_before_a_temple_facade_MET_DP270679.jpg/170px-Cylinder_seal_and_modern_impression-_ritual_scene_before_a_temple_facade_MET_DP270679.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Cylinder_seal_and_modern_impression-_ritual_scene_before_a_temple_facade_MET_DP270679.jpg/255px-Cylinder_seal_and_modern_impression-_ritual_scene_before_a_temple_facade_MET_DP270679.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Cylinder_seal_and_modern_impression-_ritual_scene_before_a_temple_facade_MET_DP270679.jpg/340px-Cylinder_seal_and_modern_impression-_ritual_scene_before_a_temple_facade_MET_DP270679.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3921" data-file-height="2502" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Cylinder seal and impression in which appears a ritual scene before a temple façade; 3500–3100 BC; bituminous limestone; height: 4.5 cm; <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a> (New York City)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Raminathicket2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ram in a Thicket; 2600–2400 BC; gold, copper, shell, lapis lazuli and limestone; height: 45.7 cm; from the Royal Cemetery at Ur (Dhi Qar Governorate, Iraq); British Museum (London)"><img alt="Ram in a Thicket; 2600–2400 BC; gold, copper, shell, lapis lazuli and limestone; height: 45.7 cm; from the Royal Cemetery at Ur (Dhi Qar Governorate, Iraq); British Museum (London)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Raminathicket2.jpg/127px-Raminathicket2.jpg" decoding="async" width="127" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Raminathicket2.jpg/190px-Raminathicket2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Raminathicket2.jpg/253px-Raminathicket2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1092" data-file-height="1464" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Ram_in_a_Thicket" title="Ram in a Thicket">Ram in a Thicket</a>; 2600–2400 BC; gold, copper, shell, lapis lazuli and limestone; height: 45.7 cm; from the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Cemetery_at_Ur" title="Royal Cemetery at Ur">Royal Cemetery at Ur</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dhi_Qar_Governorate" title="Dhi Qar Governorate">Dhi Qar Governorate</a>, Iraq); <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a> (London)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Denis_Bourez_-_British_Museum,_London_(8747049029)_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Standard of Ur; 2600–2400 BC; shell, red limestone and lapis lazuli on wood; length: 49.5 cm; from the Royal Cemetery at Ur; British Museum"><img alt="Standard of Ur; 2600–2400 BC; shell, red limestone and lapis lazuli on wood; length: 49.5 cm; from the Royal Cemetery at Ur; British Museum" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Denis_Bourez_-_British_Museum%2C_London_%288747049029%29_%282%29.jpg/170px-Denis_Bourez_-_British_Museum%2C_London_%288747049029%29_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Denis_Bourez_-_British_Museum%2C_London_%288747049029%29_%282%29.jpg/255px-Denis_Bourez_-_British_Museum%2C_London_%288747049029%29_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Denis_Bourez_-_British_Museum%2C_London_%288747049029%29_%282%29.jpg/340px-Denis_Bourez_-_British_Museum%2C_London_%288747049029%29_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="3216" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_Ur" title="Standard of Ur">Standard of Ur</a>; 2600–2400 BC; shell, red limestone and lapis lazuli on wood; length: 49.5 cm; from the Royal Cemetery at Ur; British Museum</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Bull%27s_head_ornament_for_a_lyre_MET_DP260070.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Bull's head ornament from a lyre; 2600–2350 BC; bronze inlaid with shell and lapis lazuli; height: 13.3 cm, width: 10.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art"><img alt="Bull's head ornament from a lyre; 2600–2350 BC; bronze inlaid with shell and lapis lazuli; height: 13.3 cm, width: 10.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Bull%27s_head_ornament_for_a_lyre_MET_DP260070.jpg/152px-Bull%27s_head_ornament_for_a_lyre_MET_DP260070.jpg" decoding="async" width="152" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Bull%27s_head_ornament_for_a_lyre_MET_DP260070.jpg/229px-Bull%27s_head_ornament_for_a_lyre_MET_DP260070.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Bull%27s_head_ornament_for_a_lyre_MET_DP260070.jpg/305px-Bull%27s_head_ornament_for_a_lyre_MET_DP260070.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1793" data-file-height="2000" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Bull's head ornament from a lyre; 2600–2350 BC; bronze inlaid with shell and <a href="/wiki/Lapis_lazuli" title="Lapis lazuli">lapis lazuli</a>; height: 13.3 cm, width: 10.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Architecture">Architecture</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Sumerian architecture">Sumerian architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">Ziggurat</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mudhif" title="Mudhif">Mudhif</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Clay_nail" title="Clay nail">Clay nail</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ancient_ziggurat_at_Ali_Air_Base_Iraq_2005.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Ancient_ziggurat_at_Ali_Air_Base_Iraq_2005.jpg/310px-Ancient_ziggurat_at_Ali_Air_Base_Iraq_2005.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Ancient_ziggurat_at_Ali_Air_Base_Iraq_2005.jpg/465px-Ancient_ziggurat_at_Ali_Air_Base_Iraq_2005.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Ancient_ziggurat_at_Ali_Air_Base_Iraq_2005.jpg/620px-Ancient_ziggurat_at_Ali_Air_Base_Iraq_2005.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2576" data-file-height="1932" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Great_Ziggurat_of_Ur" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Ziggurat of Ur">Great Ziggurat of Ur</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dhi_Qar_Governorate" title="Dhi Qar Governorate">Dhi Qar Governorate</a>, Iraq), built during the <a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Third Dynasty of Ur</a> (c. 2100 BC), dedicated to the moon god <a href="/wiki/Sin_(mythology)" title="Sin (mythology)">Nanna</a></figcaption></figure> The Tigris-Euphrates plain lacked minerals and trees. Sumerian structures were made of plano-convex mudbrick, not fixed with <a href="/wiki/Mortar_(masonry)" title="Mortar (masonry)">mortar</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cement" title="Cement">cement</a>. Mud-brick buildings eventually deteriorate, so they were periodically destroyed, leveled, and rebuilt on the same spot. This constant rebuilding gradually raised the level of cities, which thus came to be elevated above the surrounding plain. The resultant hills, known as <a href="/wiki/Tell_(archaeology)" title="Tell (archaeology)">tells</a>, are found throughout the ancient Near East. According to <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Sayce" title="Archibald Sayce">Archibald Sayce</a>, the primitive <a href="/wiki/Pictogram" title="Pictogram">pictograms</a> of the early Sumerian (i.e. Uruk) era suggest that "Stone was scarce, but was already cut into blocks and seals. Brick was the ordinary building material, and with it cities, forts, temples and houses were constructed. The city was provided with towers and stood on an artificial platform; the house also had a tower-like appearance. It was provided with a door which turned on a hinge, and could be opened with a sort of key; the city gate was on a larger scale, and seems to have been double. The foundation stones—or rather bricks—of a house were consecrated by certain objects that were deposited under them."<a href="#cite_note-Sayce-65">[65]</a> The most impressive and famous of Sumerian buildings are the ziggurats, large layered platforms that supported temples. Sumerian cylinder seals also depict houses built from reeds not unlike those built by the <a href="/wiki/Marsh_Arabs" title="Marsh Arabs">Marsh Arabs</a> of Southern Iraq until as recently as 400 CE. The Sumerians also developed the <a href="/wiki/Arch" title="Arch">arch</a>, which enabled them to develop a strong type of dome. They built this by constructing and linking several arches. Sumerian temples and palaces made use of more advanced materials and techniques, such as <a href="/wiki/Buttress" title="Buttress">buttresses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alcove_(architecture)" title="Alcove (architecture)">recesses</a>, half <a href="/wiki/Column" title="Column">columns</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Clay_nail" title="Clay nail">clay nails</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mathematics">Mathematics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_mathematics" title="Babylonian mathematics">Babylonian mathematics</a></div> The Sumerians developed a complex system of <a href="/wiki/Metrology" title="Metrology">metrology</a> c. 4000 BC. This advanced metrology resulted in the creation of arithmetic, geometry, and algebra. From c. 2600 BC onwards, the Sumerians wrote <a href="/wiki/Multiplication_table" title="Multiplication table">multiplication tables</a> on clay tablets and dealt with <a href="/wiki/Geometrical" class="mw-redirect" title="Geometrical">geometrical</a> exercises and <a href="/wiki/Division_(mathematics)" title="Division (mathematics)">division</a> problems. The earliest traces of the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_numerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian numerals">Babylonian numerals</a> also date back to this period.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> The period c. 2700–2300 BC saw the first appearance of the <a href="/wiki/Abacus" title="Abacus">abacus</a>, and a table of successive columns which delimited the successive orders of magnitude of their <a href="/wiki/Sexagesimal" title="Sexagesimal">sexagesimal</a> number system.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> The Sumerians were the first to use a place value numeral system. There is also anecdotal evidence the Sumerians may have used a type of slide rule in astronomical calculations. They were the first to find the area of a triangle and the volume of a cube.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economy_and_trade">Economy and trade</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Sumer" title="Economy of Sumer">Economy of Sumer</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bill_of_sale_Louvre_AO3765.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Bill_of_sale_Louvre_AO3765.jpg/220px-Bill_of_sale_Louvre_AO3765.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Bill_of_sale_Louvre_AO3765.jpg/330px-Bill_of_sale_Louvre_AO3765.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Bill_of_sale_Louvre_AO3765.jpg/440px-Bill_of_sale_Louvre_AO3765.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1650" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Bill of sale of a male slave and a building in <a href="/wiki/Shuruppak" title="Shuruppak">Shuruppak</a>, Sumerian tablet, c. 2600 BC</figcaption></figure> Discoveries of <a href="/wiki/Obsidian" title="Obsidian">obsidian</a> from far-away locations in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> and lapis lazuli from <a href="/wiki/Badakhshan" title="Badakhshan">Badakhshan</a> in northeastern <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, beads from Dilmun (modern <a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a>), and several seals inscribed with the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilisation">Indus Valley</a> <a href="/wiki/Indus_script" title="Indus script">script</a> suggest a remarkably wide-ranging network of ancient trade centered on the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>. For example, <a href="/wiki/Imports_to_Ur" title="Imports to Ur">Imports to Ur</a> came from many parts of the world. In particular, the metals of all types had to be imported. The Epic of Gilgamesh refers to trade with far lands for goods, such as wood, that were scarce in Mesopotamia. In particular, <a href="/wiki/Cedrus_libani" title="Cedrus libani">cedar</a> from <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a> was prized. The finding of resin in the tomb of Queen <a href="/wiki/Puabi" title="Puabi">Puabi</a> at Ur, indicates it was traded from as far away as <a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a>. The Sumerians used slaves, although they were not a major part of the economy. Slave women worked as <a href="/wiki/Weaving" title="Weaving">weavers</a>, pressers, <a href="/wiki/Miller" title="Miller">millers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Porter_(carrying)" class="mw-redirect" title="Porter (carrying)">porters</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Sumerian potters decorated pots with <a href="/wiki/Cedar_oil" title="Cedar oil">cedar oil</a> <a href="/wiki/Paint" title="Paint">paints</a>. The potters used a <a href="/wiki/Bow_drill" title="Bow drill">bow drill</a> to produce the fire needed for baking the pottery. Sumerian <a href="/wiki/Masonry" title="Masonry">masons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewelry" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewelry">jewelers</a> knew and made use of <a href="/wiki/Alabaster" title="Alabaster">alabaster</a> (<a href="/wiki/Calcite" title="Calcite">calcite</a>), <a href="/wiki/Ivory" title="Ivory">ivory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carnelian" title="Carnelian">carnelian</a>, and lapis lazuli.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Trade_with_the_Indus_valley">Trade with the Indus valley</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indus-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus-Mesopotamia relations">Indus-Mesopotamia relations</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Museum_Middle_East_14022019_Gold_and_carnelian_beads_2600-2300_BC_Royal_cemetery_of_Ur_(composite).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/British_Museum_Middle_East_14022019_Gold_and_carnelian_beads_2600-2300_BC_Royal_cemetery_of_Ur_%28composite%29.jpg/220px-British_Museum_Middle_East_14022019_Gold_and_carnelian_beads_2600-2300_BC_Royal_cemetery_of_Ur_%28composite%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/British_Museum_Middle_East_14022019_Gold_and_carnelian_beads_2600-2300_BC_Royal_cemetery_of_Ur_%28composite%29.jpg/330px-British_Museum_Middle_East_14022019_Gold_and_carnelian_beads_2600-2300_BC_Royal_cemetery_of_Ur_%28composite%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/British_Museum_Middle_East_14022019_Gold_and_carnelian_beads_2600-2300_BC_Royal_cemetery_of_Ur_%28composite%29.jpg/440px-British_Museum_Middle_East_14022019_Gold_and_carnelian_beads_2600-2300_BC_Royal_cemetery_of_Ur_%28composite%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4568" data-file-height="3192" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Etched_carnelian_beads" title="Etched carnelian beads">etched carnelian beads</a> with white designs in this necklace from the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Cemetery_of_Ur" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Cemetery of Ur">Royal Cemetery of Ur</a>, dating to the <a href="/wiki/First_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="First Dynasty of Ur">First Dynasty of Ur</a>, are thought to have come from the Indus Valley. <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BM_Carnelian-100">[100]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mesopotamia-Indus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Mesopotamia-Indus.jpg/220px-Mesopotamia-Indus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Mesopotamia-Indus.jpg/330px-Mesopotamia-Indus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Mesopotamia-Indus.jpg/440px-Mesopotamia-Indus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="997" data-file-height="633" /></a><figcaption>The trade routes between Mesopotamia and the Indus would have been significantly shorter due to lower sea levels in the 3rd millennium BC.<a href="#cite_note-JR12-101">[101]</a></figcaption></figure> Evidence for imports from the Indus to Ur can be found from around 2350 BC.<a href="#cite_note-JR14-102">[102]</a> Various objects made with shell species that are characteristic of the Indus coast, particularly <a href="/wiki/Turbinella_pyrum" title="Turbinella pyrum">Turbinella pyrum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pleuroploca_trapezium" title="Pleuroploca trapezium">Pleuroploca trapezium</a>, have been found in the archaeological sites of Mesopotamia dating from around 2500–2000 BC.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> <a href="/wiki/Carnelian" title="Carnelian">Carnelian</a> beads from the Indus were found in the Sumerian tombs of Ur, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Cemetery_at_Ur" title="Royal Cemetery at Ur">Royal Cemetery at Ur</a>, dating to 2600–2450.<a href="#cite_note-JMI-104">[104]</a> In particular, carnelian beads with an etched design in white were probably imported from the Indus Valley, and made according to a technique of acid-etching developed by the <a href="/wiki/Harappa" title="Harappa">Harappans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-BM_Carnelian-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> Lapis lazuli was imported in great quantity by Egypt, and already used in many tombs of the <a href="/wiki/Naqada_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Naqada II">Naqada II</a> period (c. 3200 BC). Lapis lazuli probably originated in northern <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, as no other sources are known, and had to be transported across the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_plateau" title="Iranian plateau">Iranian plateau</a> to Mesopotamia, and then Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-CP-108">[108]</a> Several Indus seals with Harappan script have also been found in Mesopotamia, particularly in Ur, Babylon and Kish.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gudea" title="Gudea">Gudea</a>, the ruler of the Neo-Summerian Empire at Lagash, is recorded as having imported "translucent carnelian" from <a href="/wiki/Meluhha" title="Meluhha">Meluhha</a>, generally thought to be the Indus Valley area.<a href="#cite_note-JMI-104">[104]</a> Various inscriptions also mention the presence of Meluhha traders and interpreters in Mesopotamia.<a href="#cite_note-JMI-104">[104]</a> About twenty seals have been found from the Akkadian and Ur III sites, that have connections with Harappa and often use Harappan symbols or writing.<a href="#cite_note-JMI-104">[104]</a> The Indus Valley Civilization only flourished in its most developed form between 2400 and 1800 BC, but at the time of these exchanges, it was a much larger entity than the Mesopotamian civilization, covering an area of 1.2 million square kilometers with thousands of settlements, compared to an area of only about 65.000 square kilometers for the occupied area of Mesopotamia, while the largest cities were comparable in size at about 30–40,000 inhabitants.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Money_and_credit">Money and credit</h4></div> Large institutions kept their accounts in barley and <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a>, often with a fixed rate between them. The obligations, loans and prices in general were usually denominated in one of them. Many transactions involved debt, for example goods consigned to merchants by temple and beer advanced by "ale women".<a href="#cite_note-debt-116">[116]</a> Commercial credit and agricultural consumer loans were the main types of loans. The trade credit was usually extended by temples in order to finance trade expeditions and was nominated in silver. The interest rate was set at 1/60 a month (one <a href="/wiki/Shekel" title="Shekel">shekel</a> per <a href="/wiki/Mina_(unit)" title="Mina (unit)">mina</a>) some time before 2000 BC and it remained at that level for about two thousand years.<a href="#cite_note-debt-116">[116]</a> Rural loans commonly arose as a result of unpaid obligations due to an institution (such as a temple), in this case the arrears were considered to be lent to the debtor.<a href="#cite_note-debt2-117">[117]</a> They were denominated in barley or other crops and the interest rate was typically much higher than for commercial loans and could amount to 1/3 to 1/2 of the loan principal.<a href="#cite_note-debt-116">[116]</a> Periodically, rulers signed "clean slate" decrees that cancelled all the rural (but not commercial) debt and allowed bondservants to return to their homes. Customarily, rulers did it at the beginning of the first full year of their reign, but they could also be proclaimed at times of military conflict or crop failure. The first known ones were made by <a href="/wiki/Enmetena" class="mw-redirect" title="Enmetena">Enmetena</a> and <a href="/wiki/Urukagina" title="Urukagina">Urukagina</a> of Lagash in 2400–2350 BC. According to Hudson, the purpose of these decrees was to prevent debts mounting to a degree that they threatened the fighting force, which could happen if peasants lost their subsistence land or became bondservants due to inability to repay their debt.<a href="#cite_note-debt-116">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military">Military</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Standard_of_Ur_chariots.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Standard_of_Ur_chariots.jpg/400px-Standard_of_Ur_chariots.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="73" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Standard_of_Ur_chariots.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="490" data-file-height="89" /></a><figcaption>Early chariots on the <a href="/wiki/Standard_of_Ur" title="Standard of Ur">Standard of Ur</a>, c. 2600 BC</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stele_of_the_vultures_(phalanx).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Stele_of_the_vultures_%28phalanx%29.jpg/220px-Stele_of_the_vultures_%28phalanx%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Stele_of_the_vultures_%28phalanx%29.jpg/330px-Stele_of_the_vultures_%28phalanx%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Stele_of_the_vultures_%28phalanx%29.jpg/440px-Stele_of_the_vultures_%28phalanx%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2247" data-file-height="1515" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Phalanx" title="Phalanx">Phalanx</a> battle formations led by Sumerian king <a href="/wiki/Eannatum" title="Eannatum">Eannatum</a>, on a fragment of the <a href="/wiki/Stele_of_the_Vultures" title="Stele of the Vultures">Stele of the Vultures</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Silver_model_of_a_boat,_tomb_PG_789,_Royal_Cemetery_of_UR,_2600-2500_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Silver_model_of_a_boat%2C_tomb_PG_789%2C_Royal_Cemetery_of_UR%2C_2600-2500_BCE.jpg/220px-Silver_model_of_a_boat%2C_tomb_PG_789%2C_Royal_Cemetery_of_UR%2C_2600-2500_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Silver_model_of_a_boat%2C_tomb_PG_789%2C_Royal_Cemetery_of_UR%2C_2600-2500_BCE.jpg/330px-Silver_model_of_a_boat%2C_tomb_PG_789%2C_Royal_Cemetery_of_UR%2C_2600-2500_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Silver_model_of_a_boat%2C_tomb_PG_789%2C_Royal_Cemetery_of_UR%2C_2600-2500_BCE.jpg/440px-Silver_model_of_a_boat%2C_tomb_PG_789%2C_Royal_Cemetery_of_UR%2C_2600-2500_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1922" data-file-height="790" /></a><figcaption>Silver model of a <a href="/wiki/Boat" title="Boat">boat</a>, tomb PG 789, <a href="/wiki/Royal_Cemetery_of_Ur" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Cemetery of Ur">Royal Cemetery of Ur</a>, 2600–2500 BC</figcaption></figure> The almost constant wars among the Sumerian city-states for 2000 years helped to develop the military technology and techniques of Sumer to a high level.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> The first war recorded in any detail was between Lagash and Umma in c. 2450 BC on a stele called the <a href="/wiki/Stele_of_the_Vultures" title="Stele of the Vultures">Stele of the Vultures</a>. It shows the king of Lagash leading a Sumerian army consisting mostly of <a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">infantry</a>. The infantry carried <a href="/wiki/Spear" title="Spear">spears</a>, wore <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> <a href="/wiki/Helmet" title="Helmet">helmets</a>, and carried rectangular <a href="/wiki/Shield" title="Shield">shields</a>. The spearmen are shown arranged in what resembles the <a href="/wiki/Phalanx_formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Phalanx formation">phalanx formation</a>, which requires training and discipline; this implies that the Sumerians may have used professional soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> The Sumerian military used carts harnessed to <a href="/wiki/Onager" title="Onager">onagers</a>. These early <a href="/wiki/Chariot" title="Chariot">chariots</a> functioned less effectively in combat than did later designs, and some have suggested that these chariots served primarily as transports, though the crew carried battle-axes and <a href="/wiki/Lance" title="Lance">lances</a>. The Sumerian chariot comprised a four or two-<a href="/wiki/Wheel" title="Wheel">wheeled</a> device manned by a crew of two and harnessed to four onagers. The cart was composed of a <a href="/wiki/Basket" title="Basket">woven basket</a> and the wheels had a solid three-piece design. Sumerian cities were surrounded by <a href="/wiki/Defensive_wall" title="Defensive wall">defensive walls</a>. The Sumerians engaged in <a href="/wiki/Siege" title="Siege">siege</a> warfare between their cities, but the mudbrick walls were able to deter some foes. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Technology">Technology</h3></div> Examples of Sumerian technology include: the wheel, cuneiform script, <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic" title="Arithmetic">arithmetic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> systems, Sumerian boats, <a href="/wiki/Lunisolar_calendar" title="Lunisolar calendar">lunisolar calendar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leather" title="Leather">leather</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saw" title="Saw">saws</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chisel" title="Chisel">chisels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hammer" title="Hammer">hammers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brace_(tool)" title="Brace (tool)">braces</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bit_(horse)" title="Bit (horse)">bits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nail_(engineering)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nail (engineering)">nails</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pin" title="Pin">pins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewelry_ring" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewelry ring">rings</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hoe_(tool)" title="Hoe (tool)">hoes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Axe" title="Axe">axes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Knife" title="Knife">knives</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lance" title="Lance">lancepoints</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arrow_(weapon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arrow (weapon)">arrowheads</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sword" title="Sword">swords</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adhesive" title="Adhesive">glue</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dagger" title="Dagger">daggers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Waterskin" title="Waterskin">waterskins</a>, bags, <a href="/wiki/Horse_harness" title="Horse harness">harnesses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armor" class="mw-redirect" title="Armor">armor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quiver" title="Quiver">quivers</a>, <a href="/wiki/War_chariot" class="mw-redirect" title="War chariot">war chariots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scabbard" title="Scabbard">scabbards</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boot" title="Boot">boots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sandal_(footwear)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sandal (footwear)">sandals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harpoon" title="Harpoon">harpoons</a> and beer. The Sumerians had three main types of boats: <ul><li>clinker-built sailboats stitched together with hair, featuring <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">bitumen</a> waterproofing</li> <li>skin boats constructed from animal skins and reeds</li> <li>wooden-oared ships, sometimes pulled upstream by people and animals walking along the nearby banks</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;border-color:lightgrey"><div style="position:relative;width:300px;border:1px solid lightgray"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Asia_physical_(continental).png" class="mw-file-description" title="Sumer is located in Continental Asia"><img alt="Sumer is located in Continental Asia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png/300px-Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png/450px-Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png/600px-Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png 2x" data-file-width="3196" data-file-height="1840" /></a><div id="annotation_270x03" style="position:absolute; left:270px; top:03px; font-size:10px; font-weight:bold; font-size:10; line-height:12px; text-align:center;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=BCE_3000&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="BCE 3000 (page does not exist)">-3000</a></div><div id="annotation_48x87" style="position:absolute; left:48px; top:87px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/File:Orange_dot_(semi-transparent).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Orange_dot_%28semi-transparent%29.png/20px-Orange_dot_%28semi-transparent%29.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Orange_dot_%28semi-transparent%29.png/30px-Orange_dot_%28semi-transparent%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Orange_dot_%28semi-transparent%29.png/40px-Orange_dot_%28semi-transparent%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1456" data-file-height="1456" /></a></div><div id="annotation_46x93" style="position:absolute; left:46px; top:93px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">SUMER</a></div><div id="annotation_73x90" style="position:absolute; left:73px; top:90px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Elamite">Proto- Elamite</a></div><div id="annotation_25x85" style="position:absolute; left:25px; top:85px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">EBLA</a></div><div id="annotation_282x75" style="position:absolute; left:282px; top:75px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px;"><a href="/wiki/Jeulmun_pottery_period" title="Jeulmun pottery period">Jeul- mun</a></div><div id="annotation_115x95" style="position:absolute; left:115px; top:95px; font-size:5px; font-weight:bold; font-size:5; line-height:7px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION</a></div><div id="annotation_1x30" style="position:absolute; left:1px; top:30px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Corded_Ware_culture" title="Corded Ware culture">Corded Ware Culture</a></div><div id="annotation_40x40" style="position:absolute; left:40px; top:40px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya Culture</a></div><div id="annotation_45x65" style="position:absolute; left:45px; top:65px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Kura%E2%80%93Araxes_culture" title="Kura–Araxes culture">Kura- Araxes</a></div><div id="annotation_175x37" style="position:absolute; left:175px; top:37px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Afanasievo_culture" title="Afanasievo culture">Afanasievo culture</a></div><div id="annotation_110x27" style="position:absolute; left:110px; top:27px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Botai_culture" title="Botai culture">Botai culture</a></div><div id="annotation_145x27" style="position:absolute; left:145px; top:27px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Bolshemys_culture" title="Bolshemys culture">Bolshemys culture</a></div><div id="annotation_110x67" style="position:absolute; left:110px; top:67px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Sarazm" title="Sarazm">Sarazm culture</a></div><div id="annotation_225x40" style="position:absolute; left:225px; top:40px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Northeast_Asian" title="Ancient Northeast Asian">Ancient Northeast Asians</a></div><div id="annotation_250x63" style="position:absolute; left:250px; top:63px; font-size:6.5px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6.5; line-height:8.5px;"><a href="/wiki/Hongshan_culture" title="Hongshan culture">Hongshan</a></div><div id="annotation_230x75" style="position:absolute; left:230px; top:75px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Longshan_culture" title="Longshan culture">Long- shan</a></div><div id="annotation_253x75" style="position:absolute; left:253px; top:75px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Dawenkou_culture" title="Dawenkou culture">Dawen- kou</a></div><div id="annotation_260x93" style="position:absolute; left:260px; top:93px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Liangzhu_culture" title="Liangzhu culture">Liang- zhu</a></div><div id="annotation_206x73" style="position:absolute; left:206px; top:73px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Majiayao_culture" title="Majiayao culture">Majia- yao</a></div><div id="annotation_235x100" style="position:absolute; left:235px; top:100px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Qujialing_culture" title="Qujialing culture">Qujia- ling</a></div><div id="annotation_01x105" style="position:absolute; left:01px; top:105px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Egypt)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)">EARLY DYNASTIC EGYPT</a></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Asia_physical_(continental).png" title="File:Map Asia physical (continental).png">class=notpageimage| </a></div>Sumer and contemporary polities and cultures <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3000 BC</div></div></div> Evidence of wheeled vehicles appeared in the mid-4th millennium BC, near-simultaneously in Mesopotamia, the Northern Caucasus (<a href="/wiki/Maykop_culture" title="Maykop culture">Maykop culture</a>) and Central Europe. The wheel initially took the form of the potter's wheel. The new concept led to wheeled <a href="/wiki/Vehicle" title="Vehicle">vehicles</a> and mill wheels. The Sumerians' cuneiform script is the oldest (or second oldest after the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Egyptian hieroglyphs</a>) which has been deciphered (the status of even older inscriptions such as the <a href="/wiki/Jiahu_symbols" title="Jiahu symbols">Jiahu symbols</a> and <a href="/wiki/T%C4%83rt%C4%83ria_tablets" title="Tărtăria tablets">Tartaria tablets</a> is controversial). The Sumerians were among the first astronomers, mapping the stars into sets of constellations, many of which survived in the <a href="/wiki/Zodiac" title="Zodiac">zodiac</a> and were also recognized by the ancient Greeks.<a href="#cite_note-Thompson-120">[120]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources">unreliable source</a>] They were also aware of the <a href="/wiki/Classical_planet" title="Classical planet">five planets</a> that are easily visible to the naked eye.<a href="#cite_note-SumerFAQ2-121">[121]</a> They invented and developed arithmetic by using several different number systems including a <a href="/wiki/Mixed_radix" title="Mixed radix">mixed radix</a> system with an alternating base 10 and base 6. This <a href="/wiki/Sexagesimal" title="Sexagesimal">sexagesimal</a> system became the standard number system in Sumer and Babylonia. They may have invented military formations and introduced the basic divisions between <a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">infantry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">cavalry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Archers" class="mw-redirect" title="Archers">archers</a>. They developed the first known codified legal and administrative systems, complete with courts, jails, and government records. The first true city-states arose in Sumer, roughly contemporaneously with similar entities in what are now <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>. Several centuries after the invention of cuneiform, the use of writing expanded beyond debt/payment certificates and inventory lists to be applied for the first time, about 2600 BC, to messages and mail delivery, history, legend, mathematics, astronomical records, and other pursuits. Conjointly with the spread of writing, the first formal schools were established, usually under the auspices of a city-state's primary temple. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraq" title="History of Iraq">History of Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numeral_system" title="Numeral system">Numeral system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_units_of_measurement" title="Ancient Mesopotamian units of measurement">Ancient Mesopotamian units of measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Ancient Mesopotamian religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus–Mesopotamia relations">Indus–Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations" title="Egypt–Mesopotamia relations">Egypt–Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_institutions_in_Mesopotamia" title="History of institutions in Mesopotamia">History of institutions in Mesopotamia</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-DAF-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DAF_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DAF_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFoxvog2016" class="citation book cs1">Foxvog, Daniel A. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cdli.ucla.edu/pubs/cdlp/cdlp0003_20160104.pdf">Elementary Sumerian Glossary</a> (PDF). University of California at Berkeley. p. 52.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elementary+Sumerian+Glossary&rft.pages=52&rft.pub=University+of+California+at+Berkeley&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Foxvog&rft.aufirst=Daniel+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcdli.ucla.edu%2Fpubs%2Fcdlp%2Fcdlp0003_20160104.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-PUSD-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PUSD_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PUSD_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PUSD_2-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://psd.museum.upenn.edu/epsd/epsd/e4703.html">"The Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary: saĝgiga [humankind]"</a>. psd.museum.upenn.edu.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=psd.museum.upenn.edu&rft.atitle=The+Pennsylvania+Sumerian+Dictionary%3A+sa%C4%9Dgiga+%5Bhumankind%5D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpsd.museum.upenn.edu%2Fepsd%2Fepsd%2Fe4703.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-IMD-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IMD_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IMD_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IMD_3-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiakonoffD'I︠A︡konov1991" class="citation book cs1">Diakonoff, I. M.; D'I︠A︡konov, Igor' Mik︠h︡aílovich (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JSRAUIYENZoC&pg=PA72">Early Antiquity</a>. University of Chicago Press. p. 72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-14465-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-14465-8"><bdi>978-0-226-14465-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Antiquity&rft.pages=72&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-226-14465-8&rft.aulast=Diakonoff&rft.aufirst=I.+M.&rft.au=D%27I%EF%B8%A0A%EF%B8%A1konov%2C+Igor%27+Mik%EF%B8%A0h%EF%B8%A1a%C3%ADlovich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJSRAUIYENZoC%26pg%3DPA72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GF-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GF_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GF_4-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeuersteinKakFrawley2005" class="citation book cs1">Feuerstein, Georg; Kak, Subhash; Frawley, David (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wNlsRZh3rwgC&pg=PA117">The Search of the Cradle of Civilization: New Light on Ancient India</a> (Second Revised ed.). Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. p. 117. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-2037-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-2037-1"><bdi>978-81-208-2037-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Search+of+the+Cradle+of+Civilization%3A+New+Light+on+Ancient+India&rft.pages=117&rft.edition=Second+Revised&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publishers&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-81-208-2037-1&rft.aulast=Feuerstein&rft.aufirst=Georg&rft.au=Kak%2C+Subhash&rft.au=Frawley%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwNlsRZh3rwgC%26pg%3DPA117&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://psd.museum.upenn.edu/epsd/epsd/e1283.html">"emeĝir [SUMERIAN]"</a>. The Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Anthropology and Archaeology. Retrieved 14 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Pennsylvania+Sumerian+Dictionary&rft.atitle=eme%C4%9Dir+%5BSUMERIAN%5D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpsd.museum.upenn.edu%2Fepsd%2Fepsd%2Fe1283.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ANE29-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ANE29_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ANE29_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ANE29_6-2">c</a> "The area in question (the extreme south of Mesopotamia) may now be called Sumer, and its inhabitants Sumerians, although these names are only English approximations of the Akkadian designations; the Sumerians themselves called their land Kengir, their language Emegir, and themselves Sag-giga, "black-headed ones." in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFW._HalloW._Simpson1971" class="citation book cs1">W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. p. 29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Near+East&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=New+York%3A+Harcourt%2C+Brace%2C+Jovanovich&rft.date=1971&rft.au=W.+Hallo&rft.au=W.+Simpson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackGeorgePostgateBreckwoldt2000" class="citation book cs1">Black, Jeremy A.; George, A. R.; Postgate, J. N.; Breckwoldt, Tina (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-qIuVCsRb98C&pg=PA384">A Concise Dictionary of Akkadian</a>. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 384. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-04264-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-04264-2"><bdi>978-3-447-04264-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+Dictionary+of+Akkadian&rft.pages=384&rft.pub=Otto+Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-3-447-04264-2&rft.aulast=Black&rft.aufirst=Jeremy+A.&rft.au=George%2C+A.+R.&rft.au=Postgate%2C+J.+N.&rft.au=Breckwoldt%2C+Tina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-qIuVCsRb98C%26pg%3DPA384&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillerShipp1996" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Douglas B.; Shipp, R. Mark (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=27m3y6MNRzYC&pg=PA68">An Akkadian Handbook: Paradigms, Helps, Glossary, Logograms, and Sign List</a>. Eisenbrauns. p. 68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-931464-86-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-931464-86-7"><bdi>978-0-931464-86-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Akkadian+Handbook%3A+Paradigms%2C+Helps%2C+Glossary%2C+Logograms%2C+and+Sign+List&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-931464-86-7&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Douglas+B.&rft.au=Shipp%2C+R.+Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D27m3y6MNRzYC%26pg%3DPA68&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Piotr_Michalowski_2004,_Pages_19-59-9"><a href="#cite_ref-Piotr_Michalowski_2004,_Pages_19-59_9-0">^</a> Piotr Michalowski, "Sumerian," The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages." Ed. Roger D. Woodard (2004, Cambridge University Press). Pages 19–59 </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoŭ1993" class="citation book cs1">Roŭ, Georges (1993). Ancient Iraq (3rd ed.). London, England: Penguin Books. pp. 80–82.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Iraq&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pages=80-82&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Ro%C5%AD&rft.aufirst=Georges&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToornBeckingHorst1999" class="citation book cs1">Toorn, Karel van der; Becking, Bob; Horst, Pieter Willem van der (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yCkRz5pfxz0C&pg=PA32">Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible</a>. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2491-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2491-2"><bdi>978-0-8028-2491-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Deities+and+Demons+in+the+Bible&rft.pages=32&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-2491-2&rft.aulast=Toorn&rft.aufirst=Karel+van+der&rft.au=Becking%2C+Bob&rft.au=Horst%2C+Pieter+Willem+van+der&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyCkRz5pfxz0C%26pg%3DPA32&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdzard2003" class="citation book cs1">Edzard, Dietz Otto (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HOx5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">Sumerian Grammar</a>. Brill. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-474-0340-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-474-0340-1"><bdi>978-90-474-0340-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sumerian+Grammar&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-90-474-0340-1&rft.aulast=Edzard&rft.aufirst=Dietz+Otto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHOx5DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> "The origin of the Sumerians is unknown; they described themselves as the 'black-headed people'" <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaywood2005" class="citation book cs1">Haywood, John (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xtjtAAAAMAAJ">The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Civilizations</a>. Penguin. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-101448-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-101448-7"><bdi>978-0-14-101448-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Penguin+Historical+Atlas+of+Ancient+Civilizations&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-14-101448-7&rft.aulast=Haywood&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxtjtAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiakonoff2013" class="citation book cs1">Diakonoff, I. M. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JU8pegs94uoC&pg=PA72">Early Antiquity</a>. University of Chicago Press. p. 72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-14467-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-14467-2"><bdi>978-0-226-14467-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Antiquity&rft.pages=72&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-226-14467-2&rft.aulast=Diakonoff&rft.aufirst=I.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJU8pegs94uoC%26pg%3DPA72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinerFiner1997" class="citation book cs1">Finer, Samuel Edward; Finer, S. E. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aEziNfjinnMC&pg=PA99">The History of Government from the Earliest Times: Ancient monarchies and empires</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 99. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-820664-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-820664-4"><bdi>978-0-19-820664-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Government+from+the+Earliest+Times%3A+Ancient+monarchies+and+empires&rft.pages=99&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-19-820664-4&rft.aulast=Finer&rft.aufirst=Samuel+Edward&rft.au=Finer%2C+S.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaEziNfjinnMC%26pg%3DPA99&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> "I am the king of the four quarters, I am a shepherd, the pastor of the "black-headed people"" in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiverani2013" class="citation book cs1">Liverani, Mario (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA167">The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy</a>. Routledge. p. 167. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-75084-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-75084-9"><bdi>978-1-134-75084-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Near+East%3A+History%2C+Society+and+Economy&rft.pages=167&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-134-75084-9&rft.aulast=Liverani&rft.aufirst=Mario&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0d1JAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA167&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nimrod-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nimrod_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nimrod_17-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_der_Toornvan_der_Horst1990" class="citation journal cs1">van der Toorn, K.; van der Horst, P. W. (January 1990). "Nimrod before and after the Bible". The Harvard Theological Review. 83 (1): 1–29. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0017816000005502">10.1017/S0017816000005502</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161371511">161371511</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Harvard+Theological+Review&rft.atitle=Nimrod+before+and+after+the+Bible&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-29&rft.date=1990-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0017816000005502&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161371511%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=van+der+Toorn&rft.aufirst=K.&rft.au=van+der+Horst%2C+P.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SNK-18"><a href="#cite_ref-SNK_18-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKramer1988" class="citation book cs1">Kramer, Samuel Noah (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KliA7MjJEDQC&pg=PA44">In the World of Sumer: An Autobiography</a>. Wayne State University Press. p. 44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-2121-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8143-2121-8"><bdi>978-0-8143-2121-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+World+of+Sumer%3A+An+Autobiography&rft.pages=44&rft.pub=Wayne+State+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-8143-2121-8&rft.aulast=Kramer&rft.aufirst=Samuel+Noah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKliA7MjJEDQC%26pg%3DPA44&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131105200811/http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/ED/TRC/MESO/writing.html">"Ancient Mesopotamia. Teaching materials"</a>. Oriental Institute in collaboration with Chicago Web Docent and eCUIP, The Digital Library. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/ED/TRC/MESO/writing.html">the original</a> on 5 November 2013. Retrieved 5 March 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ancient+Mesopotamia.+Teaching+materials&rft.pub=Oriental+Institute+in+collaboration+with+Chicago+Web+Docent+and+eCUIP%2C+The+Digital+Library&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foi.uchicago.edu%2FOI%2FMUS%2FED%2FTRC%2FMESO%2Fwriting.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ubai/hd_ubai.htm">""The Ubaid Period (5500–4000 B.C.)" In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (October 2003)"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210707020947/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ubai/hd_ubai.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-07-07. Retrieved 2014-02-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22The+Ubaid+Period+%285500%E2%80%934000+B.C.%29%22+In+Heilbrunn+Timeline+of+Art+History.+Department+of+Ancient+Near+Eastern+Art.+The+Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art%2C+New+York+%28October+2003%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.metmuseum.org%2Ftoah%2Fhd%2Fubai%2Fhd_ubai.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/articles/u/ubaid_culture.aspx">""Ubaid Culture", The British Museum"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Ubaid+Culture%22%2C+The+British+Museum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britishmuseum.org%2Fexplore%2Fhighlights%2Farticles%2Fu%2Fubaid_culture.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140321143949/http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/saoc63.pdf">""Beyond the Ubaid", (Carter, Rober A. and Graham, Philip, eds.), University of Durham, April 2006"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/saoc63.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2014-03-21. Retrieved 2014-02-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Beyond+the+Ubaid%22%2C+%28Carter%2C+Rober+A.+and+Graham%2C+Philip%2C+eds.%29%2C+University+of+Durham%2C+April+2006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foi.uchicago.edu%2Fpdf%2Fsaoc63.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArnaiz-VillenaMartínez-LasoGómez-Casado2000" class="citation book cs1">Arnaiz-Villena, Antonio; Martínez-Laso, Jorge; Gómez-Casado, Eduardo (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MJWcSRSz9wEC&pg=PA22">Prehistoric Iberia: Genetics, Anthropology, and Linguistics : [proceedings of an International Conference on Prehistoric Iberia : Genetics, Anthropology, and Linguistics, Held November 16–17, 1998, in Madrid, Spain]</a>. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-46364-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-306-46364-8"><bdi>978-0-306-46364-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prehistoric+Iberia%3A+Genetics%2C+Anthropology%2C+and+Linguistics+%3A+%5Bproceedings+of+an+International+Conference+on+Prehistoric+Iberia+%3A+Genetics%2C+Anthropology%2C+and+Linguistics%2C+Held+November+16%E2%80%9317%2C+1998%2C+in+Madrid%2C+Spain%5D&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-306-46364-8&rft.aulast=Arnaiz-Villena&rft.aufirst=Antonio&rft.au=Mart%C3%ADnez-Laso%2C+Jorge&rft.au=G%C3%B3mez-Casado%2C+Eduardo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMJWcSRSz9wEC%26pg%3DPA22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Genomic_insights_into_the_origin_of-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Genomic_insights_into_the_origin_of_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Genomic_insights_into_the_origin_of_24-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLazaridisNadelRollefson2016" class="citation journal cs1">Lazaridis, I.; Nadel, D.; Rollefson, G. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5003663">"Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East"</a>. Nature. 536 (7617): 419–424. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016Natur.536..419L">2016Natur.536..419L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature19310">10.1038/nature19310</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5003663">5003663</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27459054">27459054</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Genomic+insights+into+the+origin+of+farming+in+the+ancient+Near+East&rft.volume=536&rft.issue=7617&rft.pages=419-424&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5003663%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27459054&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature19310&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016Natur.536..419L&rft.aulast=Lazaridis&rft.aufirst=I.&rft.au=Nadel%2C+D.&rft.au=Rollefson%2C+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5003663&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> "Craniometric analyses have suggested an affinity between the Natufians and populations of north or sub-Saharan Africa, a result that finds some support from Y chromosome analysis which shows that the Natufians and successor Levantine Neolithic populations carried haplogroup E, of likely ultimate African origin, which has not been detected in other ancient males from West Eurasia. However, no affinity of Natufians to sub-Saharan Africans is evident in our genome-wide analysis, as present-day sub-Saharan Africans do not share more alleles with Natufians than with other ancient Eurasians" in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReichPinhasiPattersonHovhannisyan2016" class="citation journal cs1">Reich, David; Pinhasi, Ron; Patterson, Nick; Hovhannisyan, Nelli A.; Yengo, Loic; Wilson, James F.; Torroni, Antonio; Tönjes, Anke; Stumvoll, Michael (August 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5003663">"Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East"</a>. Nature. 536 (7617): 419–424. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016Natur.536..419L">2016Natur.536..419L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature19310">10.1038/nature19310</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5003663">5003663</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27459054">27459054</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Genomic+insights+into+the+origin+of+farming+in+the+ancient+Near+East&rft.volume=536&rft.issue=7617&rft.pages=419-424&rft.date=2016-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5003663%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016Natur.536..419L&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27459054&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature19310&rft.issn=1476-4687&rft.aulast=Reich&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Pinhasi%2C+Ron&rft.au=Patterson%2C+Nick&rft.au=Hovhannisyan%2C+Nelli+A.&rft.au=Yengo%2C+Loic&rft.au=Wilson%2C+James+F.&rft.au=Torroni%2C+Antonio&rft.au=T%C3%B6njes%2C+Anke&rft.au=Stumvoll%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5003663&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210415032734/https://scientificrussia.ru/articles/shumery-imeli-svjazi-na-kavkaze">"Sumerians had connections with the Caucasus"</a>. scientificrussia. 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John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-23583-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-23583-5"><bdi>978-0-631-23583-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+dictionary+of+archaeology&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-631-23583-5&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft.au=Jameson%2C+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzmvNogJO2ZgC%26q%3Dsamarra%2Bculture%26pg%3DPA505&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> Margarethe Uepermann (2007), "Structuring the Late Stone Age of Southeastern Arabia". Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy, Vol. 3, Issue 2, pp. 65–109. </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamblin1987" class="citation journal cs1">Hamblin, Dora Jane (May 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140109135715/http://www.theeffect.org/resources/articles/pdfsetc/Eden.pdf">"Has the Garden of Eden been located at last?"</a> (PDF). Smithsonian Magazine. 18 (2). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theeffect.org/resources/articles/pdfsetc/Eden.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 9 January 2014. Retrieved 8 January 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian+Magazine&rft.atitle=Has+the+Garden+of+Eden+been+located+at+last%3F&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=2&rft.date=1987-05&rft.aulast=Hamblin&rft.aufirst=Dora+Jane&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theeffect.org%2Fresources%2Farticles%2Fpdfsetc%2FEden.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Leick,_Gwendolyn_2003-43">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Leick,_Gwendolyn_2003_43-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leick,_Gwendolyn_2003_43-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leick,_Gwendolyn_2003_43-2">c</a> Leick, Gwendolyn (2003), "Mesopotamia, the Invention of the City" (Penguin) </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Kramer (1963), The Sumerians, pp. 20–26. </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrüsemannEssHilgertSalje2019" class="citation book cs1">Crüsemann, Nicola; Ess, Margarete van; Hilgert, Markus; Salje, Beate; Potts, Timothy (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=muCvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT325">Uruk: First City of the Ancient World</a>. Getty Publications. p. 325. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60606-444-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60606-444-3"><bdi>978-1-60606-444-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Uruk%3A+First+City+of+the+Ancient+World&rft.pages=325&rft.pub=Getty+Publications&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-60606-444-3&rft.aulast=Cr%C3%BCsemann&rft.aufirst=Nicola&rft.au=Ess%2C+Margarete+van&rft.au=Hilgert%2C+Markus&rft.au=Salje%2C+Beate&rft.au=Potts%2C+Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmuCvDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT325&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> "The stepped design of the Pyramid of Zoser at Saqqara, the oldest known pyramid along the Nile, suggests that it was borrowed from the Mesopotamian ziggurat concept." in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeld2018" class="citation book cs1">Held, Colbert C. (University of Nebraska) (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fOlgDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA63">Middle East Patterns, Student Economy Edition: Places, People, and Politics</a>. Routledge. p. 63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-429-96199-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-429-96199-1"><bdi>978-0-429-96199-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Middle+East+Patterns%2C+Student+Economy+Edition%3A+Places%2C+People%2C+and+Politics&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-429-96199-1&rft.aulast=Held&rft.aufirst=Colbert+C.+%28University+of+Nebraska%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfOlgDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ArchaeologyofElam-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ArchaeologyofElam_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ArchaeologyofElam_47-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPotts1999" class="citation book cs1">Potts, D. T. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mc4cfzkRVj4C&pg=PA104">The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 104. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56496-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56496-0"><bdi>978-0-521-56496-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Archaeology+of+Elam%3A+Formation+and+Transformation+of+an+Ancient+Iranian+State&rft.pages=104&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-521-56496-0&rft.aulast=Potts&rft.aufirst=D.+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dmc4cfzkRVj4C%26pg%3DPA104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-TwoSteles-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TwoSteles_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-TwoSteles_48-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNigro1998" class="citation journal cs1">Nigro, Lorenzo (1998). "The Two Steles of Sargon: Iconology and Visual Propaganda at the Beginning of Royal Akkadian Relief". Iraq. 60. British Institute for the Study of Iraq: 85–102. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4200454">10.2307/4200454</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11573%2F109737">11573/109737</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4200454">4200454</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:193050892">193050892</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Iraq&rft.atitle=The+Two+Steles+of+Sargon%3A+Iconology+and+Visual+Propaganda+at+the+Beginning+of+Royal+Akkadian+Relief&rft.volume=60&rft.pages=85-102&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11573%2F109737&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A193050892%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4200454%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F4200454&rft.aulast=Nigro&rft.aufirst=Lorenzo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-WolksteinKramer1983-49"><a href="#cite_ref-WolksteinKramer1983_49-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolksteinKramer1983" class="citation book cs1">Wolkstein, Diane; Kramer, Samuel Noah (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/inanna00dian/page/174/mode/2up">Inanna: Queen of Heaven and Earth: Her Stories and Hymns from Sumer</a>. Elizabeth Williams-Forte. New York: Harper & Row. p. 174. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-014713-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-014713-6"><bdi>978-0-06-014713-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inanna%3A+Queen+of+Heaven+and+Earth%3A+Her+Stories+and+Hymns+from+Sumer&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=174&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Row&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-06-014713-6&rft.aulast=Wolkstein&rft.aufirst=Diane&rft.au=Kramer%2C+Samuel+Noah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finanna00dian%2Fpage%2F174%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenricksonThuesenThuesen1989" class="citation book cs1">Henrickson, Elizabeth F.; Thuesen, Ingolf; Thuesen, I. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gnpyREWsfG0C&pg=PA353">Upon this Foundation: The N̜baid Reconsidered : Proceedings from the U̜baid Symposium, Elsinore, May 30th–June1st, 1988</a>. Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 353. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-87-7289-070-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-87-7289-070-8"><bdi>978-87-7289-070-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Upon+this+Foundation%3A+The+N%CC%9Cbaid+Reconsidered+%3A+Proceedings+from+the+U%CC%9Cbaid+Symposium%2C+Elsinore%2C+May+30th%E2%80%93June1st%2C+1988&rft.pages=353&rft.pub=Museum+Tusculanum+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-87-7289-070-8&rft.aulast=Henrickson&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+F.&rft.au=Thuesen%2C+Ingolf&rft.au=Thuesen%2C+I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgnpyREWsfG0C%26pg%3DPA353&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlassner2003" class="citation book cs1">Glassner, Jean-Jacques (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fhMTRcUm9WsC&pg=PA31">The Invention of Cuneiform: Writing in Sumer</a>. JHU Press. p. 31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-7389-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-7389-8"><bdi>978-0-8018-7389-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Invention+of+Cuneiform%3A+Writing+in+Sumer&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=JHU+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-7389-8&rft.aulast=Glassner&rft.aufirst=Jean-Jacques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfhMTRcUm9WsC%26pg%3DPA31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Algaze,_Guillermo_2005-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Algaze,_Guillermo_2005_52-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Algaze,_Guillermo_2005_52-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Guillermo_Algaze" title="Guillermo Algaze">Algaze, Guillermo</a> (2005). <a href="//archive.org/details/urukworldsystemd0000alga" class="extiw" title="iarchive:urukworldsystemd0000alga">The Uruk World System: The Dynamics of Expansion of Early Mesopotamian Civilization</a>, Second Edition, University of Chicago Press. </li> <li id="cite_note-Jacobsen-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jacobsen_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jacobsen_53-1">b</a> Jacobsen, Thorkild (Ed) (1939),"The Sumerian King List" (Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago; Assyriological Studies, No. 11., 1939). </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> Lamb, Hubert H. (1995). Climate, History, and the Modern World. London: Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-12735-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-12735-1">0-415-12735-1</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> Jacobsen, Thorkild (1976), "The Harps that Once...; Sumerian Poetry in Translation" and "Treasures of Darkness: a history of Mesopotamian Religion". </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> George, Andrew (Translator) (2003), "The Epic of Gilgamesh" (Penguin Classics). </li> <li id="cite_note-roux1993-57">^ <a href="#cite_ref-roux1993_57-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-roux1993_57-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoux1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Georges_Roux_(assyriologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Georges Roux (assyriologist)">Roux, Georges</a> (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientiraq00roux">Ancient Iraq</a>. Harmondsworth: Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-012523-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-012523-8"><bdi>978-0-14-012523-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Iraq&rft.place=Harmondsworth&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-14-012523-8&rft.aulast=Roux&rft.aufirst=Georges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientiraq00roux&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-58">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_58-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_58-1">b</a> T. Jacobsen. Toward the Image of Tammuz and Other Essays on Mesopotamian History and Culture. </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooper2016" class="citation book cs1">Cooper, Jerrold S. (2016). "Sumerian literature and Sumerian identity". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/944087535">Problems of canonicity and identity formation in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia</a>. Kim Ryholt, Gojko Barjamovic, Københavns universitet, Denmark. Problems of Canonicity and Identity Formation in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia (2010: Copenhagen, Denmark) Literature and Identity Formation (2010: Copenhagen, Denmark. Copenhagen, Denmark. pp. 1–18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-87-635-4372-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-87-635-4372-9"><bdi>978-87-635-4372-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/944087535">944087535</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sumerian+literature+and+Sumerian+identity&rft.btitle=Problems+of+canonicity+and+identity+formation+in+ancient+Egypt+and+Mesopotamia&rft.place=Copenhagen%2C+Denmark&rft.pages=1-18&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F944087535&rft.isbn=978-87-635-4372-9&rft.aulast=Cooper&rft.aufirst=Jerrold+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F944087535&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThorkild_JacobsenRobert_M._Adams1958" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thorkild_Jacobsen" title="Thorkild Jacobsen">Thorkild Jacobsen</a>; <a href="/wiki/Robert_McCormick_Adams_Jr." title="Robert McCormick Adams Jr.">Robert M. Adams</a> (1 November 1958). "Salt and Silt in Ancient Mesopotamian Agriculture: Progressive changes in soil salinity and sedimentation contributed to the breakup of past civilizations". <a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a>. 128 (3334): 1251–1258. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2FSCIENCE.128.3334.1251">10.1126/SCIENCE.128.3334.1251</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075">0036-8075</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17793690">17793690</a>. <a href="/wiki/WDQ_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="WDQ (identifier)">Wikidata</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q34677808" class="extiw" title="d:Q34677808">Q34677808</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Salt+and+Silt+in+Ancient+Mesopotamian+Agriculture%3A+Progressive+changes+in+soil+salinity+and+sedimentation+contributed+to+the+breakup+of+past+civilizations&rft.volume=128&rft.issue=3334&rft.pages=1251-1258&rft.date=1958-11-01&rft.issn=0036-8075&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17793690&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2FSCIENCE.128.3334.1251&rft.au=Thorkild+Jacobsen&rft.au=Robert+M.+Adams&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto1-61">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_61-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_61-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson2004" class="citation journal cs1">Thompson, William R. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120219134627/http://jwsr.ucr.edu/archive/vol10/number3/pdf/jwsr-v10n3-thompson.pdf">"Complexity, Diminishing Marginal Returns and Serial Mesopotamian Fragmentation"</a> (PDF). Journal of World-Systems Research. 10 (3): 612–652. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5195%2Fjwsr.2004.288">10.5195/jwsr.2004.288</a>. Archived from the original on February 19, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World-Systems+Research&rft.atitle=Complexity%2C+Diminishing+Marginal+Returns+and+Serial+Mesopotamian+Fragmentation&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=612-652&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5195%2Fjwsr.2004.288&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=William+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjwsr.ucr.edu%2Farchive%2Fvol10%2Fnumber3%2Fpdf%2Fjwsr-v10n3-thompson.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20150411005800/http://proteus.brown.edu/mesopotamianarchaeology/Home">"The Archaeology of Mesopotamia: Home"</a>. 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Retrieved 2019-07-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Archaeology+of+Mesopotamia%3A+Home&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fproteus.brown.edu%2Fmesopotamianarchaeology%2FHome&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones, 1978, Atlas of World Population History, Facts on File, New York, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7139-1031-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7139-1031-3">0-7139-1031-3</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Nemet-Nejat1998-64"><a href="#cite_ref-Nemet-Nejat1998_64-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNemet-Nejat1998" class="citation book cs1">Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinancie00neme">Daily life in ancient Mesopotamia</a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinancie00neme/page/13">13</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29497-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29497-6"><bdi>978-0-313-29497-6</bdi></a>. Retrieved 29 November 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Daily+life+in+ancient+Mesopotamia&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-313-29497-6&rft.aulast=Nemet-Nejat&rft.aufirst=Karen+Rhea&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdailylifeinancie00neme&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sayce-65">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sayce_65-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sayce_65-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sayce_65-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSayce_(Reverend)1908" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Archibald_Sayce" title="Archibald Sayce">Sayce (Reverend), A. 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London, England; Brighton, England; New York: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. pp. 98–100.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Archaeology+of+the+Cuneiform+Inscriptions&rft.place=London%2C+England%3B+Brighton%2C+England%3B+New+York&rft.pages=98-100&rft.edition=2nd+revised&rft.pub=Society+for+Promoting+Christian+Knowledge&rft.date=1908&rft.aulast=Sayce+%28Reverend%29&rft.aufirst=A.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Farchaeologyofcun00sayc%2Farchaeologyofcun00sayc_djvu.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Goss_2017_mesopotamian_flutes-66"><a href="#cite_ref-Goss_2017_mesopotamian_flutes_66-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoss2017" class="citation web cs1">Goss, Clint (15 April 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.Flutopedia.com/mesopotamian_flutes.htm">"Flutes of Gilgamesh and Ancient Mesopotamia"</a>. Flutopedia. Retrieved 14 June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Flutopedia&rft.atitle=Flutes+of+Gilgamesh+and+Ancient+Mesopotamia&rft.date=2017-04-15&rft.aulast=Goss&rft.aufirst=Clint&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.Flutopedia.com%2Fmesopotamian_flutes.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaringCashford1993" class="citation book cs1">Baring, Anne; Cashford, Jules (1993). The Myth of the Goddess Evolution of an Image. Penguin Books Limited. p. 159. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780141941400" title="Special:BookSources/9780141941400"><bdi>9780141941400</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Myth+of+the+Goddess+Evolution+of+an+Image&rft.pages=159&rft.pub=Penguin+Books+Limited&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9780141941400&rft.aulast=Baring&rft.aufirst=Anne&rft.au=Cashford%2C+Jules&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlassman2017" class="citation book cs1">Glassman, Ronald M. (2017). The Origins of Democracy in Tribes, City-States and Nation-States. Springer International Publishing. p. 344. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783319516950" title="Special:BookSources/9783319516950"><bdi>9783319516950</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Democracy+in+Tribes%2C+City-States+and+Nation-States&rft.pages=344&rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9783319516950&rft.aulast=Glassman&rft.aufirst=Ronald+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> Cinthia Gannett (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mpjk74blFDgC&dq=urukagina+%22two+men%22&pg=PA62">Gender and the Journal: Diaries and Academic Discourse, p. 62</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Kramer1963-70">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kramer1963_70-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kramer1963_70-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kramer1963_70-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kramer1963_70-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKramer1963" class="citation book cs1">Kramer, Samuel Noah (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sumerianstheirhi00samu">The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character</a>. The Univ. of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-45238-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-45238-8"><bdi>978-0-226-45238-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sumerians%3A+Their+History%2C+Culture%2C+and+Character&rft.pub=The+Univ.+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1963&rft.isbn=978-0-226-45238-8&rft.aulast=Kramer&rft.aufirst=Samuel+Noah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsumerianstheirhi00samu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NemetNejat-71">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NemetNejat_71-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NemetNejat_71-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NemetNejat_71-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNemet-Nejat1998" class="citation cs2"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karen_Rhea_Nemet-Nejat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Karen Rhea Nemet-Nejat (page does not exist)">Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea</a> (1998), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinancie00neme/page/132">Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia</a>, Greenwood, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinancie00neme/page/132">132</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29497-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29497-6"><bdi>978-0-313-29497-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Daily+Life+in+Ancient+Mesopotamia&rft.pages=132&rft.pub=Greenwood&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-313-29497-6&rft.aulast=Nemet-Nejat&rft.aufirst=Karen+Rhea&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdailylifeinancie00neme%2Fpage%2F132&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988">. </li> <li id="cite_note-Cooper-72">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cooper_72-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cooper_72-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cooper_72-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cooper_72-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooper2001" class="citation book cs1">Cooper, Jerrold S. (2001). "Virginity in Ancient Mesopotamia". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://krieger2.jhu.edu/neareast/pdf/jcooper/jc%20Virginity.pdf">Sex and Gender in the Ancient Near East: Proceedings of the 47th Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale, Helsinki</a> (PDF). Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-951-45-9054-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-951-45-9054-2"><bdi>978-951-45-9054-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Virginity+in+Ancient+Mesopotamia&rft.btitle=Sex+and+Gender+in+the+Ancient+Near+East%3A+Proceedings+of+the+47th+Rencontre+Assyriologique+Internationale%2C+Helsinki&rft.place=Baltimore%2C+Maryland&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-951-45-9054-2&rft.aulast=Cooper&rft.aufirst=Jerrold+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fkrieger2.jhu.edu%2Fneareast%2Fpdf%2Fjcooper%2Fjc%2520Virginity.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> Dale Launderville. Celibacy in the Ancient World: Its Ideal and Practice in Pre-Hellenistic Israel, Mesopotamia, and Greece, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-Dening1996-74">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dening1996_74-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dening1996_74-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dening1996_74-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dening1996_74-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dening1996_74-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dening1996_74-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDening1996" class="citation book cs1">Dening, Sarah (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ishtartemple.org/myth.htm">"Chapter 3: Sex in Ancient Civilizations"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mythologyofsexan0000deni">The Mythology of Sex</a>. London, England: Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-861207-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-861207-2"><bdi>978-0-02-861207-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+3%3A+Sex+in+Ancient+Civilizations&rft.btitle=The+Mythology+of+Sex&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-02-861207-2&rft.aulast=Dening&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ishtartemple.org%2Fmyth.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Leick2013-75">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Leick2013_75-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leick2013_75-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeick2013" class="citation cs2">Leick, Gwendolyn (2013) [1994], <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WKoWblE4pd0C&pg=PA64">Sex and Eroticism in Mesopotamian Literature</a>, New York: Routledge, p. 219, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-92074-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-92074-7"><bdi>978-1-134-92074-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sex+and+Eroticism+in+Mesopotamian+Literature&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=219&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-134-92074-7&rft.aulast=Leick&rft.aufirst=Gwendolyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWKoWblE4pd0C%26pg%3DPA64&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988">. </li> <li id="cite_note-Black-76">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Black_76-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Black_76-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Black_76-2">c</a> Black, Jeremy; Green, Anthony (1992), <a href="//archive.org/details/gods-demons-and-symbols-of-ancient-mesopotamia-an-illustrated-dictionary_202012" class="extiw" title="iarchive:gods-demons-and-symbols-of-ancient-mesopotamia-an-illustrated-dictionary 202012">Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary</a>, University of Texas Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-292-70794-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-292-70794-0">0-292-70794-0</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarracloughStone1989" class="citation book cs1">Barraclough, Geoffrey; Stone, Norman (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780723003045">The Times Atlas of World History</a>. Hammond Incorporated. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780723003045/page/53">53</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7230-0304-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7230-0304-5"><bdi>978-0-7230-0304-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Times+Atlas+of+World+History&rft.pages=53&rft.pub=Hammond+Incorporated&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-7230-0304-5&rft.aulast=Barraclough&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rft.au=Stone%2C+Norman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780723003045&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSenner1991" class="citation book cs1">Senner, Wayne M. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Kc4xAlunCSEC&pg=PA77">The Origins of Writing</a>. University of Nebraska Press. p. 77. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-9167-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-9167-6"><bdi>978-0-8032-9167-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Writing&rft.pages=77&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-8032-9167-6&rft.aulast=Senner&rft.aufirst=Wayne+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKc4xAlunCSEC%26pg%3DPA77&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllan2013" class="citation book cs1">Allan, Keith (2013). The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 56–57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-164343-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-164343-9"><bdi>978-0-19-164343-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+the+History+of+Linguistics&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=56-57&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-164343-9&rft.aulast=Allan&rft.aufirst=Keith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-woods-80"><a href="#cite_ref-woods_80-0">^</a> Woods, C. 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/OIS2.pdf">"Bilingualism, Scribal Learning, and the Death of Sumerian"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130429121058/http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/OIS2.pdf">Archived</a> 2013-04-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. In S. L. Sanders (ed), Margins of Writing, Origins of Culture: 91–120 Chicago. </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbellMixco2007" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Lyle; Mixco, Mauricio J. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/glossaryhistoric00camp_191">A glossary of historical linguistics</a>. Edinburgh University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/glossaryhistoric00camp_191/page/n202">196</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-2379-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-2379-2"><bdi>978-0-7486-2379-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+glossary+of+historical+linguistics&rft.pages=196&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7486-2379-2&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Lyle&rft.au=Mixco%2C+Mauricio+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fglossaryhistoric00camp_191&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ColemanDavidson2015-82">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ColemanDavidson2015_82-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ColemanDavidson2015_82-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColemanDavidson2015" class="citation cs2">Coleman, J. A.; Davidson, George (2015), The Dictionary of Mythology: An A–Z of Themes, Legends, and Heroes, London, England: Arcturus Publishing Limited, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78404-478-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78404-478-7"><bdi>978-1-78404-478-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dictionary+of+Mythology%3A+An+A%E2%80%93Z+of+Themes%2C+Legends%2C+and+Heroes&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pub=Arcturus+Publishing+Limited&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-78404-478-7&rft.aulast=Coleman&rft.aufirst=J.+A.&rft.au=Davidson%2C+George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988">. </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKramer1983" class="citation cs2">Kramer, Samuel Noah (1983), "The Sumerian Deluge Myth: Reviewed and Revised", Anatolian Studies, 33: 115–121, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3642699">10.2307/3642699</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3642699">3642699</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163489322">163489322</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anatolian+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Sumerian+Deluge+Myth%3A+Reviewed+and+Revised&rft.volume=33&rft.pages=115-121&rft.date=1983&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163489322%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3642699%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3642699&rft.aulast=Kramer&rft.aufirst=Samuel+Noah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988">. </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHallo1996" class="citation cs2">Hallo, William W. (1996), "Review: Enki and the Theology of Eridu", Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 116</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Review%3A+Enki+and+the+Theology+of+Eridu&rft.btitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Hallo&rft.aufirst=William+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackCunninghamRobson2006" class="citation cs2">Black, Jeremy A.; Cunningham, Graham; Robson, Eleanor (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a1W2mTtGVV4C&pg=PA106">The Literature of Ancient Sumer</a>, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-929633-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-929633-0"><bdi>978-0-19-929633-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Literature+of+Ancient+Sumer&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-19-929633-0&rft.aulast=Black&rft.aufirst=Jeremy+A.&rft.au=Cunningham%2C+Graham&rft.au=Robson%2C+Eleanor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da1W2mTtGVV4C%26pg%3DPA106&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackGreen1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Black_(assyriologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeremy Black (assyriologist)">Black, Jeremy</a>; Green, Anthony (1992). Gods, Demons, and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary. University of Texas Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-70794-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-70794-8"><bdi>978-0-292-70794-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gods%2C+Demons%2C+and+Symbols+of+Ancient+Mesopotamia%3A+An+Illustrated+Dictionary&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-292-70794-8&rft.aulast=Black&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft.au=Green%2C+Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> Whatever the assertions of cosmography here, when modern-day archaeologists carve out areas of exploration based on physical-remains and other data, there is an emphasis on three, vide Marcella Frangipane, "Different Trajectories in State Formation in Greater Mesopotamia: A View from Arslantepe (Turkey)", Journal of Archaeological Research 26 (2018): 3–63. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10814-017-9106-2">https://doi.org/10.1007/s10814-017-9106-2</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221123080651/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10814-017-9106-2">Archived</a> 2022-11-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>: "southern Mesopotamia, northern Mesopotamia, and [to the west] Upper Euphrates valley" (3), with no reference to any of these proper-names. </li> <li id="cite_note-Carl_Phillips_2013-88">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Carl_Phillips_2013_88-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carl_Phillips_2013_88-1">b</a> Geoffrey Bibby and Carl Phillips, Looking for Dilmun (London, England: Stacey International, 1996; reprinted London, England: Knopf, 2013). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-905743-90-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-905743-90-5">978-0-905743-90-5</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> Leick, Gwendolyn (2003), Mesopotamia: The Invention of the City' (Penguin). </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> Mark M. Jarzombek and Vikramaditya Prakash, A Global History of Architecture (London, England: Wiley, 2011), pp. 33–39. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-90248-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-90248-6">978-0-470-90248-6</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGately2008" class="citation book cs1">Gately, Iain (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/drinkculturalhis00gate_0/page/5">Drink: A Cultural History of Alcohol</a>. Gotham Books. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/drinkculturalhis00gate_0/page/5">5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59240-303-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59240-303-5"><bdi>978-1-59240-303-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Drink%3A+A+Cultural+History+of+Alcohol&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Gotham+Books&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-59240-303-5&rft.aulast=Gately&rft.aufirst=Iain&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdrinkculturalhis00gate_0%2Fpage%2F5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMackenzie1927" class="citation book cs1">Mackenzie, Donald Alexander (1927). Footprints of Early Man. Blackie & Son Limited.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Footprints+of+Early+Man&rft.pub=Blackie+%26+Son+Limited&rft.date=1927&rft.aulast=Mackenzie&rft.aufirst=Donald+Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdams1981" class="citation book cs1">Adams, R. McC. (1981). Heartland of Cities. University of Chicago Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heartland+of+Cities&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=R.+McC.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTannahill1968" class="citation book cs1">Tannahill, Reay (1968). The fine art of food. London: Folio Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0850670063" title="Special:BookSources/0850670063"><bdi>0850670063</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+fine+art+of+food&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Folio+Society&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=0850670063&rft.aulast=Tannahill&rft.aufirst=Reay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> Melvin Kranzberg, Joseph Gies. By the sweat of thy brow: Work in the Western world. Putnam, 1975. </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> Duncan J. Melville (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://it.stlawu.edu/~dmelvill/mesomath/3Mill/chronology.html">Third Millennium Chronology</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180707213616/http://it.stlawu.edu/~dmelvill/mesomath/3Mill/chronology.html">Archived</a> 2018-07-07 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Third Millennium Mathematics. <a href="/wiki/St._Lawrence_University" title="St. Lawrence University">St. Lawrence University</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIfrah2001" class="citation book cs1">Ifrah, Georges (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_w3q2">The Universal History of Computing: From the Abacus to the Quantum Computer</a>. New York, New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-39671-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-39671-0"><bdi>978-0-471-39671-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Universal+History+of+Computing%3A+From+the+Abacus+to+the+Quantum+Computer&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-471-39671-0&rft.aulast=Ifrah&rft.aufirst=Georges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Funset0000unse_w3q2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndersonWilson2004" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, Marlow; Wilson, Robin J. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BKRE5AjRM3AC&q=sherlock+holmes+in+babylon">Sherlock Holmes in Babylon: and other tales of mathematical history</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88385-546-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88385-546-1"><bdi>978-0-88385-546-1</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2012-03-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sherlock+Holmes+in+Babylon%3A+and+other+tales+of+mathematical+history&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-88385-546-1&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Marlow&rft.au=Wilson%2C+Robin+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBKRE5AjRM3AC%26q%3Dsherlock%2Bholmes%2Bin%2Bbabylon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> Marian H. Feldman, Diplomacy by design: Luxury arts and an "international style" in the ancient Near East, 1400–1200 BC, (Chicago, Illinois: University Press, 2006), pp. 120–121. </li> <li id="cite_note-BM_Carnelian-100">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BM_Carnelian_100-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BM_Carnelian_100-1">b</a> British Museum notice: "Gold and carnelians beads. The two beads etched with patterns in white were probably imported from the Indus Valley. They were made by a technique developed by the Harappan civilization". <a href="/wiki/File:Ur_Grave_gold_and_carnelian_beads_necklace.jpg" title="File:Ur Grave gold and carnelian beads necklace.jpg">Photograph of the necklace in question</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-JR12-101"><a href="#cite_ref-JR12_101-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReade2008" class="citation book cs1">Reade, Julian E. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/28245304">The Indus-Mesopotamia relationship reconsidered (Gs Elisabeth During Caspers)</a>. Archaeopress. pp. 12–14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4073-0312-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4073-0312-3"><bdi>978-1-4073-0312-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Indus-Mesopotamia+relationship+reconsidered+%28Gs+Elisabeth+During+Caspers%29&rft.pages=12-14&rft.pub=Archaeopress&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4073-0312-3&rft.aulast=Reade&rft.aufirst=Julian+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F28245304&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-JR14-102"><a href="#cite_ref-JR14_102-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReade2008" class="citation book cs1">Reade, Julian E. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/28245304">The Indus-Mesopotamia relationship reconsidered (Gs Elisabeth During Caspers)</a>. Archaeopress. pp. 14–17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4073-0312-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4073-0312-3"><bdi>978-1-4073-0312-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Indus-Mesopotamia+relationship+reconsidered+%28Gs+Elisabeth+During+Caspers%29&rft.pages=14-17&rft.pub=Archaeopress&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4073-0312-3&rft.aulast=Reade&rft.aufirst=Julian+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F28245304&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGensheimer1984" class="citation journal cs1">Gensheimer, T. R. (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/paleo_0153-9345_1984_num_10_1_4350">"The Role of shell in Mesopotamia : evidence for trade exchange with Oman and the Indus Valley"</a>. Paléorient. 10: 71–72. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fpaleo.1984.4350">10.3406/paleo.1984.4350</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pal%C3%A9orient&rft.atitle=The+Role+of+shell+in+Mesopotamia+%3A+evidence+for+trade+exchange+with+Oman+and+the+Indus+Valley&rft.volume=10&rft.pages=71-72&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fpaleo.1984.4350&rft.aulast=Gensheimer&rft.aufirst=T.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.persee.fr%2Fdoc%2Fpaleo_0153-9345_1984_num_10_1_4350&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-JMI-104">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JMI_104-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JMI_104-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JMI_104-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JMI_104-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcIntosh2008" class="citation book cs1">McIntosh, Jane (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC&pg=PA189">The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives</a>. ABC-CLIO. pp. 182–190. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-907-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-907-2"><bdi>978-1-57607-907-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Indus+Valley%3A+New+Perspectives&rft.pages=182-190&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-57607-907-2&rft.aulast=McIntosh&rft.aufirst=Jane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1AJO2A-CbccC%26pg%3DPA189&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> For the etching technique, see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacKay1925" class="citation journal cs1">MacKay, Ernest (1925). "Sumerian Connexions with Ancient India". The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (4): 699. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25220818">25220818</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+the+Royal+Asiatic+Society+of+Great+Britain+and+Ireland&rft.atitle=Sumerian+Connexions+with+Ancient+India&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=699&rft.date=1925&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25220818%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=MacKay&rft.aufirst=Ernest&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuimet2016" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Guimet, Musée (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-HpYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA355">Les Cités oubliées de l'Indus: Archéologie du Pakistan</a> (in French). FeniXX réédition numérique. p. 355. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-402-05246-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-402-05246-7"><bdi>978-2-402-05246-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Les+Cit%C3%A9s+oubli%C3%A9es+de+l%27Indus%3A+Arch%C3%A9ologie+du+Pakistan&rft.pages=355&rft.pub=FeniXX+r%C3%A9%C3%A9dition+num%C3%A9rique&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-2-402-05246-7&rft.aulast=Guimet&rft.aufirst=Mus%C3%A9e&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-HpYDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA355&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDemand2011" class="citation book cs1">Demand, Nancy H. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YVSg-DOHzJMC&pg=PA71">The Mediterranean Context of Early Greek History</a>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 71–72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-4234-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-4234-5"><bdi>978-1-4443-4234-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mediterranean+Context+of+Early+Greek+History&rft.pages=71-72&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-4234-5&rft.aulast=Demand&rft.aufirst=Nancy+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYVSg-DOHzJMC%26pg%3DPA71&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CP-108"><a href="#cite_ref-CP_108-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRowlands1987" class="citation book cs1">Rowlands, Michael J. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YDs9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA37">Centre and Periphery in the Ancient World</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-25103-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-25103-7"><bdi>978-0-521-25103-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Centre+and+Periphery+in+the+Ancient+World&rft.pages=37&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-521-25103-7&rft.aulast=Rowlands&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYDs9AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> For a full list of discoveries of Indus seals in Mesopotamia, see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReade2013" class="citation book cs1">Reade, Julian (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PtzWAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA148">Indian Ocean In Antiquity</a>. Routledge. pp. 148–152. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-15531-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-15531-4"><bdi>978-1-136-15531-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Ocean+In+Antiquity&rft.pages=148-152&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-136-15531-4&rft.aulast=Reade&rft.aufirst=Julian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPtzWAQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA148&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> For another list of Mesopotamian finds of Indus seals: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPossehl2002" class="citation book cs1">Possehl, Gregory L. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pmAuAsi4ePIC&pg=PA221">The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective</a>. Rowman Altamira. p. 221. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-0172-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-0172-2"><bdi>978-0-7591-0172-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Indus+Civilization%3A+A+Contemporary+Perspective&rft.pages=221&rft.pub=Rowman+Altamira&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7591-0172-2&rft.aulast=Possehl&rft.aufirst=Gregory+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpmAuAsi4ePIC%26pg%3DPA221&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=805148&partId=1&images=true">"Indus stamp-seal found in Ur BM 122187"</a>. British Museum.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=British+Museum&rft.atitle=Indus+stamp-seal+found+in+Ur+BM+122187&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britishmuseum.org%2Fresearch%2Fcollection_online%2Fcollection_object_details.aspx%3FobjectId%3D805148%26partId%3D1%26images%3Dtrue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=804667&partId=1&museumno=1932.1008.178&page=2">"Indus stamp-seal discovered in Ur BM 123208"</a>. British Museum.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=British+Museum&rft.atitle=Indus+stamp-seal+discovered+in+Ur+BM+123208&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britishmuseum.org%2Fresearch%2Fcollection_online%2Fcollection_object_details.aspx%3FobjectId%3D804667%26partId%3D1%26museumno%3D1932.1008.178%26page%3D2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=805338&partId=1&images=true">"Indus stamp-seal discovered in Ur BM 120228"</a>. British Museum.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=British+Museum&rft.atitle=Indus+stamp-seal+discovered+in+Ur+BM+120228&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britishmuseum.org%2Fresearch%2Fcollection_online%2Fcollection_object_details.aspx%3FobjectId%3D805338%26partId%3D1%26images%3Dtrue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGadd1958" class="citation book cs1">Gadd, G. J. (1958). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.33779/page/n11">Seals of Ancient Indian style found at Ur</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seals+of+Ancient+Indian+style+found+at+Ur&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Gadd&rft.aufirst=G.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.gov.ignca.33779%2Fpage%2Fn11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPodany2012" class="citation book cs1">Podany, Amanda H. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JTvRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49">Brotherhood of Kings: How International Relations Shaped the Ancient Near East</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-971829-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-971829-0"><bdi>978-0-19-971829-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brotherhood+of+Kings%3A+How+International+Relations+Shaped+the+Ancient+Near+East&rft.pages=49&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-971829-0&rft.aulast=Podany&rft.aufirst=Amanda+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJTvRCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAruzWallenfels2003" class="citation book cs1">Aruz, Joan; Wallenfels, Ronald (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA246">Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus</a>. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 246. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58839-043-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58839-043-1"><bdi>978-1-58839-043-1</bdi></a>. <q>Square-shaped Indus seals of fired steatite have been found at a few sites in Mesopotamia.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Art+of+the+First+Cities%3A+The+Third+Millennium+B.C.+from+the+Mediterranean+to+the+Indus&rft.pages=246&rft.pub=Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-58839-043-1&rft.aulast=Aruz&rft.aufirst=Joan&rft.au=Wallenfels%2C+Ronald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8l9X_3rHFdEC%26pg%3DPA246&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCotterell2011" class="citation book cs1">Cotterell, Arthur (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9_vVTWXK5kQC&pg=PT42">Asia: A Concise History</a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-82959-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-82959-2"><bdi>978-0-470-82959-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asia%3A+A+Concise+History&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-470-82959-2&rft.aulast=Cotterell&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9_vVTWXK5kQC%26pg%3DPT42&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-debt-116">^ <a href="#cite_ref-debt_116-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-debt_116-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-debt_116-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-debt_116-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHudson1998" class="citation book cs1">Hudson, Michael (1998). Michael Hudson and Marc Van De Mieroop (ed.). Debt and Economic Renewal in the Ancient Near East. Bethesda, Maryland: CDL. pp. 23–35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-883053-71-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-883053-71-0"><bdi>978-1-883053-71-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Debt+and+Economic+Renewal+in+the+Ancient+Near+East&rft.place=Bethesda%2C+Maryland&rft.pages=23-35&rft.pub=CDL&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-1-883053-71-0&rft.aulast=Hudson&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-debt2-117"><a href="#cite_ref-debt2_117-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_De_Mieroop1998" class="citation book cs1">Van De Mieroop, Marc (1998). Michael Hudson and Marc Van De Mieroop (ed.). Debt and Economic Renewal in the Ancient Near East. Bethesda, Maryland: CDL. p. 63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-883053-71-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-883053-71-0"><bdi>978-1-883053-71-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Debt+and+Economic+Renewal+in+the+Ancient+Near+East&rft.place=Bethesda%2C+Maryland&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=CDL&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-1-883053-71-0&rft.aulast=Van+De+Mieroop&rft.aufirst=Marc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> Roux, Georges (1992), "Ancient Iraq" (Penguin). </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> Winter, Irene J. (1985). "After the Battle is Over: The 'Stele of the Vultures' and the Beginning of Historical Narrative in the Art of the Ancient Near East". In Kessler, Herbert L.; Simpson, Marianna Shreve. Pictorial Narrative in Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Center for Advanced Study in the Visual Arts, Symposium Series IV 16. Washington, D.C.: National Gallery of Art. pp. 11–32. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0091-7338">0091-7338</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Thompson-120"><a href="#cite_ref-Thompson_120-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson" class="citation web cs1">Thompson, Gary. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120821025411/http://members.optusnet.com.au/~gtosiris/page11-4.html">"History of Constellation and Star Names"</a>. Members.optusnet.com.au. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://members.optusnet.com.au/~gtosiris/page11-4.html">the original</a> on 2012-08-21. Retrieved 2012-03-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+Constellation+and+Star+Names&rft.pub=Members.optusnet.com.au&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Gary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmembers.optusnet.com.au%2F~gtosiris%2Fpage11-4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SumerFAQ2-121"><a href="#cite_ref-SumerFAQ2_121-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sumerian.org/sumerfaq.htm#s39">"Sumerian Questions and Answers"</a>. Sumerian.org. Retrieved 2012-03-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sumerian+Questions+and+Answers&rft.pub=Sumerian.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sumerian.org%2Fsumerfaq.htm%23s39&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em"> <ul><li>Ascalone, Enrico. 2007. Mesopotamia: Assyrians, Sumerians, Babylonians (Dictionaries of Civilizations; 1). Berkeley, California: University of California Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-25266-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-25266-7">0-520-25266-7</a> (paperback).</li> <li>Bottéro, Jean, André Finet, Bertrand Lafont, and George Roux. 2001. Everyday Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Edinburgh, Scotland: Edinburgh University Press, Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Crawford" title="Harriet Crawford">Crawford, Harriet E. W.</a> 2004. Sumer and the Sumerians. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Leick, Gwendolyn. 2002. Mesopotamia: Invention of the City. London, England and New York: Penguin.</li> <li>Lloyd, Seton. 1978. The Archaeology of Mesopotamia: From the Old Stone Age to the Persian Conquest. London, England: Thames and Hudson.</li> <li>Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea. 1998. Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. London, England and Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKramer1972" class="citation book cs1">Kramer, Samuel Noah (1972). Sumerian Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and Literary Achievement in the Third Millennium B.C. (Revised ed.). Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1047-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1047-7"><bdi>978-0-8122-1047-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sumerian+Mythology%3A+A+Study+of+Spiritual+and+Literary+Achievement+in+the+Third+Millennium+B.C.&rft.place=Philadelphia%2C+Pennsylvania&rft.edition=Revised&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-1047-7&rft.aulast=Kramer&rft.aufirst=Samuel+Noah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Roux, Georges. 1992. Ancient Iraq, 560 pages. London, England: Penguin (earlier printings may have different pagination: 1966, 480 pages, Pelican; 1964, 431 pages, London, England: Allen and Urwin).</li> <li>Schomp, Virginia. Ancient Mesopotamia: The Sumerians, Babylonians, and Assyrians.</li> <li>Sumer: Cities of Eden (Timelife Lost Civilizations). Alexandria, Virginia: <a href="/wiki/Time-Life_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Time-Life Books">Time-Life Books</a>, 1993 (hardcover), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8094-9887-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8094-9887-1">0-8094-9887-1</a>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Woolley" title="Leonard Woolley">Woolley, C. Leonard</a>. 1929. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fadedpage.com/books/20170924/html.php">The Sumerians</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210415032728/https://www.fadedpage.com/books/20170924/html.php">Archived</a> 2021-04-15 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Oxford: Clarendon Press.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="External_links">External links</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikimedia_Commons" title="Wikimedia Commons">Wikimedia Commons</a> has media related to: <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Sumer" class="extiw" title="commons:Sumer">Sumer</a> (<a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Sumer" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Sumer">category</a>)</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/Sumer.html">Ancient Sumer History – The History of the Ancient Near East Electronic Compendium</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.penn.museum/sites/iraq/">Iraq's Ancient Past</a> – <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania_Museum_of_Archaeology_and_Anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology">Penn Museum</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sumerianshakespeare.com/21101.html">A brief introduction to Sumerian history</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Geography">Geography</h4></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKessler2008" class="citation web cs1">Kessler, Peter (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/MainFeaturesMesopotamia.htm">"Ancient Mesopotamia"</a>. The History Files. Kessler Associates.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+History+Files&rft.atitle=Ancient+Mesopotamia&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Kessler&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyfiles.co.uk%2FMainFeaturesMesopotamia.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Language">Language</h4></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sumerian.org/">Sumerian Language Page</a>, perhaps the oldest Sumerian website on the web (it dates back to 1996), features compiled lexicon, detailed FAQ, extensive links, and so on.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackBainesDahlVan_De_Mieroop" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Black_(assyriologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeremy Black (assyriologist)">Black, Jeremy Allen</a>; <a href="/wiki/John_Baines_(Egyptologist)" title="John Baines (Egyptologist)">Baines, John Robert</a>; Dahl, Jacob L.; <a href="/wiki/Marc_Van_De_Mieroop" title="Marc Van De Mieroop">Van De Mieroop, Marc</a>. Cunningham, Graham; Ebeling, Jarle; Flückiger-Hawker, Esther; <a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Robson" title="Eleanor Robson">Robson, Eleanor</a>; Taylor, Jon; Zólyomi, Gábor (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/">"ETCSL: The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Faculty_of_Oriental_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Faculty of Oriental Studies">Faculty of Oriental Studies</a> (revised ed.). <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>. Retrieved 2022-09-23. <q>The <a href="/wiki/Electronic_Text_Corpus_of_Sumerian_Literature" title="Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature">Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature</a> (ETCSL), a project of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a>, comprises a selection of nearly 400 literary compositions recorded on sources which come from ancient Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) and date to the late third and early second millennia BCE.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ETCSL%3A+The+Electronic+Text+Corpus+of+Sumerian+Literature&rft.place=United+Kingdom&rft.edition=revised&rft.aulast=Black&rft.aufirst=Jeremy+Allen&rft.au=Baines%2C+John+Robert&rft.au=Dahl%2C+Jacob+L.&rft.au=Van+De+Mieroop%2C+Marc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fetcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRennDahlLafontPagé-Perron2022" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Renn" title="Jürgen Renn">Renn, Jürgen</a>; Dahl, Jacob L.; Lafont, Bertrand; Pagé-Perron, Émilie (2022) [1998]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cdli.ucla.edu/">"CDLI: Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative"</a> (published 1998–2022). Retrieved 2022-09-23. <q>Images presented online by the research project <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform_Digital_Library_Initiative" title="Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative">Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative</a> (CDLI) are for the non-commercial use of students, scholars, and the public. Support for the project has been generously provided by the <a href="/wiki/Mellon_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Mellon Foundation">Mellon Foundation</a>, the <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a> (NSF), the <a href="/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Humanities" title="National Endowment for the Humanities">National Endowment for the Humanities</a> (NEH), the <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Museum_and_Library_Services" title="Institute of Museum and Library Services">Institute of Museum and Library Services</a> (ILMS), and by the <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Society" title="Max Planck Society">Max Planck Society</a> (MPS), Oxford and <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Los_Angeles" title="University of California, Los Angeles">University of California, Los Angeles</a> (UCLA); network services are from UCLA's Center for Digital Humanities.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=CDLI%3A+Cuneiform+Digital+Library+Initiative&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Renn&rft.aufirst=J%C3%BCrgen&rft.au=Dahl%2C+Jacob+L.&rft.au=Lafont%2C+Bertrand&rft.au=Pag%C3%A9-Perron%2C+%C3%89milie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcdli.ucla.edu%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSjöbergLeichtyTinney2022" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/%C3%85ke_W._Sj%C3%B6berg" title="Åke W. Sjöberg">Sjöberg, Åke Waldemar</a>; Leichty, Erle; Tinney, Steve (2022) [2003]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://psd.museum.upenn.edu/">"PSD: The Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary"</a> (published 2003–2022). Retrieved 2022-09-23. <q>The <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Sumerian_Dictionary_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary Project">Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary Project</a> (PSD) is carried out in the Babylonian Section of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania_Museum_of_Archaeology_and_Anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology">University of Pennsylvania Museum of Anthropology and Archaeology</a>. It is funded by the NEH and private contributions. [They] work with several other projects in the development of tools and corpora. 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title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-width:0;"><div style="padding:0"> <table style="width:100%"> <tbody><tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;"> </th> <td colspan="3" style="background:white">Northwestern Mesopotamia </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:white">Northern Mesopotamia </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:white">Southern Mesopotamia </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 3500–2350 BCE </th> <td colspan="6" style="background:white">Late Chalcolithic 4-5 / Early Jezirah 1-3 </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#FFD380"><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr period</a> / <a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic period</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 2350–2200 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#FFB080"><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 2200–2100 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#F8F3C6"><a href="/wiki/Gutian_people" title="Gutian people">Gutians</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 2100–2000 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#FFA380"><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Third Dynasty of Ur</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 2000–1800 BCE </th> <td colspan="3" style="background:#FFD0BD"><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Amorite" class="mw-redirect" title="Amorite">Amorite</a> city-states </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#FFFF80"><a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_period" title="Old Assyrian period">Old Assyrian period</a> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:palegoldenrod"><a href="/wiki/Isin" title="Isin">Isin</a>/<a href="/wiki/Larsa" title="Larsa">Larsa</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Amorite" class="mw-redirect" title="Amorite">Amorite</a> city-states </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1800–1600 BCE </th> <td colspan="2" style="background:#F7C1F7"><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Old Hittite Kingdom</a> </td> <td colspan="7" style="background:#B2CAF6"><a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian Empire</a> (Southern Akkadians) </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1600–1400 BCE </th> <td colspan="6" style="background:#E6C29F"><a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hurrians" title="Hurrians">Hurrians</a>) </td> <td colspan="3" rowspan="3" style="background:#88D0CC"><a href="/wiki/Kardunia%C5%A1" title="Karduniaš">Karduniaš</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1400–1200 BCE </th> <td colspan="2" style="background:#FFB4DA"><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Middle Hittite Kingdom</a> </td> <td style="background:#FFEB80"> </td> <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" style="background:#FFEB80"><a href="/wiki/Assyria#Middle_Assyrian_Empire_—_Assyrian_resurgence" title="Assyria">Middle Assyria</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1200–1150 BCE </th> <td colspan="2" style="background:#FF8080"><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronze Age Collapse">Bronze Age Collapse</a> ("<a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a>") </td> <td style="background:moccasin"><a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1150–911 BCE </th> <td rowspan="2" style="background:#C590C5"><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background:#FF8CB9"><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Neo-Hittite</a> <a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">city-states</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background:peachpuff"><a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Aram-</a> <a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Damascus</a> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:moccasin"><a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a> </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="background:#A0B4F0"><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Middle Babylonia</a> </td> <td rowspan="3" style="background:lightblue"><a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chal-</a> <a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">de-</a> <a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">ans</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">911–729 BCE </th> <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" style="background:#F6DB88"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">729–609 BCE </th> <td colspan="3" style="background:#F6DB88"> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:#F6DB88"> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">626–539 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#8EC8FF"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldeans</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">539–331 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:mediumspringgreen"><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">336–301 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#BEFD80"><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonian Empire">Macedonian Empire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greeks">Ancient Greeks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">Macedonians</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="1" style="background:#e6e7e8;">311–129 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#99E699"><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="1" style="background:#e6e7e8;">129–63 BCE </th> <td colspan="3" style="background:#99E699"><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> </td> <td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="background:#80C0C0"><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="1" style="background:#e6e7e8;">63 BCE–224 CE </th> <td colspan="3" rowspan="4" style="background:#D29595"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> - <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Syria</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="1" style="background:#e6e7e8;">224–mid 7C </th> <td colspan="6" rowspan="3" style="background:#90D9D5"><a href="/wiki/Sassanid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid Empire">Sassanid Empire</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Mesopotamia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Mesopotamia_topics" title="Template:Ancient Mesopotamia topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Mesopotamia_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Mesopotamia topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Mesopotamia_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Mesopotamia topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Mesopotamia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Ancient Mesopotamia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Mesopotamia" title="Geography of Mesopotamia">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Upper Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Mesopotamia" title="Lower Mesopotamia">Lower Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Marshes" title="Mesopotamian Marshes">Mesopotamian Marshes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taurus_Mountains" title="Taurus Mountains">Taurus Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris%E2%80%93Euphrates_river_system" title="Tigris–Euphrates river system">Tigris–Euphrates river system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamrin_Mountains" title="Hamrin Mountains">Hamrin Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinjar_Mountains" title="Sinjar Mountains">Sinjar Mountains</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkad_(city)" title="Akkad (city)">Akkad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armani_(kingdom)" title="Armani (kingdom)">Armani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_people" title="Gutian people">Gutium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamazi" title="Hamazi">Hamazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subartu" title="Subartu">Subartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suhum" title="Suhum">Suhum</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turukkaeans" title="Turukkaeans">Tukri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="List of cities of the ancient Near East">Cities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Ishtar_Gate.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Ishtar Gate in the city of Babylon"><img alt="Ishtar Gate in the city of Babylon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif/110px-Ishtar_Gate.gif" decoding="async" width="110" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif/165px-Ishtar_Gate.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ishtar_Gate.gif/220px-Ishtar_Gate.gif 2x" data-file-width="275" data-file-height="300" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">(Pre)history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Mesopotamia" title="Prehistory of Mesopotamia">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acheulean" title="Acheulean">Acheulean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mousterian" title="Mousterian">Mousterian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trialetian" class="mw-redirect" title="Trialetian">Trialetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarzian_culture" title="Zarzian culture">Zarzian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natufian_culture" title="Natufian culture">Natufian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemrik_9" title="Nemrik 9">Nemrik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khiamian" class="mw-redirect" title="Khiamian">Khiamian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_A" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic A">Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_B" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic B">Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassuna_culture" title="Hassuna culture">Hassuna</a>/<a href="/wiki/Samarra_culture" title="Samarra culture">Samarra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kish_civilization" title="Kish civilization">Kish civilization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mesopotamia" title="History of Mesopotamia">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_rule_in_Mesopotamia" title="Gutian rule in Mesopotamia">Gutians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Ur III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isin-Larsa_period" title="Isin-Larsa period">Isin-Larsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassite_dynasty" title="Kassite dynasty">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Babylonian_period" title="Middle Babylonian period">Middle Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Assyria" title="Achaemenid Assyria">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Assyriology" title="Assyriology">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amorite_language" title="Amorite language">Amorite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eblaite_language" title="Eblaite language">Eblaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_language" title="Gutian language">Gutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_language" title="Hittite language">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurrian_language" title="Hurrian language">Hurrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassite_language" title="Kassite language">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luwian_language" title="Luwian language">Luwian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Median_language" title="Median language">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Persian" title="Old Persian">Old Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_language" title="Parthian language">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Armenian_language" title="Proto-Armenian language">Proto-Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutean_language" title="Sutean language">Sutean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartian_language" title="Urartian language">Urartian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture/society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Mesopotamia" title="Architecture of Mesopotamia">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Mesopotamia" title="Art of Mesopotamia">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akitu" title="Akitu">Akitu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Cuneiform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_mathematics" title="Babylonian mathematics">Babylonian mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_literature" title="Akkadian literature">Akkadian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Sumer" title="Economy of Sumer">Economy of Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warfare_in_Sumer" title="Warfare in Sumer">Warfare in Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire">Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sumerian_cuisine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sumerian cuisine (page does not exist)">Sumerian cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_literature" title="Sumerian literature">Sumerian literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Mesopotamia" title="Music of Mesopotamia">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus-Mesopotamia relations">Indus-Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt-Mesopotamia relations">Egypt-Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_royal_titulary" title="Akkadian royal titulary">Royal titles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mesopotamian_dynasties" title="List of Mesopotamian dynasties">List of rulers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archaeology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_looting_in_Iraq" title="Archaeological looting in Iraq">Looting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_cultural_heritage_by_ISIL" class="mw-redirect" title="Destruction of cultural heritage by ISIL">Destruction by ISIL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_(archaeology)" title="Tell (archaeology)">Tell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Ancient Mesopotamian religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_religion" title="Sumerian religion">Sumerian religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mesopotamian_deities" title="List of Mesopotamian deities">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_myths" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesopotamian myths">Mesopotamian myths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_divination" title="Mesopotamian divination">Divination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_prayer" title="Mesopotamian prayer">Prayers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">Ziggurat (Temple)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assyriology" title="Assyriology">Assyriology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Assyriologists" title="List of Assyriologists">Assyriologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittitology" title="Hittitology">Hittitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Sumerian_Dictionary" title="Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary">Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Assyrian_Dictionary" title="Chicago Assyrian Dictionary">Chicago Assyrian Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Hittite_Dictionary" title="Chicago Hittite Dictionary">Chicago Hittite Dictionary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Iraq&#124;link=Iraq_Iraq_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Iraq_topics" title="Template:Iraq topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Iraq_topics" title="Template talk:Iraq topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Iraq_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Iraq topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Iraq&#124;link=Iraq_Iraq_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq"><img alt="Iraq" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg/23px-Flag_of_Iraq.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg/35px-Flag_of_Iraq.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg/45px-Flag_of_Iraq.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraq" title="History of Iraq">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraq" title="History of Iraq">Chronology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassuna_culture" title="Hassuna culture">Hassuna culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf-Ubaid_Transitional_period" title="Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period">Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samarra_culture" title="Samarra culture">Samarra culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr period</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subartu" title="Subartu">Subartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_rule_in_Mesopotamia" title="Gutian rule in Mesopotamia">Gutian dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isin-Larsa_period" title="Isin-Larsa period">Isin-Larsa period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">First Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Assyrian Period">Old Assyrian Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite dynasty of the Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Assyria" title="Achaemenid Assyria">Achaemenid Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asoristan" title="Asoristan">Sassanid Asorestan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">638–1958</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qara_Qoyunlu" title="Qara Qoyunlu">Qara Qoyunlu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Aq Qoyunlu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Iraq" title="Ottoman Iraq">Ottoman Iraq</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_dynasty_(Iraq)" title="Mamluk dynasty (Iraq)">Mamluk dynasty</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Mesopotamia" title="Mandate for Mesopotamia">Mandate for Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Iraq" title="Mandatory Iraq">Mandatory Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iraq" title="Kingdom of Iraq">Kingdom of Iraq</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Iraq" title="List of kings of Iraq">Kings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Federation" title="Arab Federation">Arab Federation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Republic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Republic_(1958%E2%80%931968)" title="Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)">1958–1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Iraq">1968–2003</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Iraq_(2003%E2%80%932011)" title="Occupation of Iraq (2003–2011)">2003–2011</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">2011–present</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">National Command</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_conflict" title="Iraqi–Kurdish conflict">Iraqi–Kurdish conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1974%E2%80%9375_Shatt_al-Arab_conflict" title="1974–75 Shatt al-Arab conflict">1974–1975 Shatt al-Arab clashes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Shia_uprising_in_Iraq" title="1977 Shia uprising in Iraq">1977 Shia uprising in Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979%E2%80%931980_Shia_uprising_in_Iraq" title="1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq">1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Iraq and weapons of mass destruction">Weapons of mass destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Opera" title="Operation Opera">Operation Opera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Kuwait" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of Kuwait">Invasion of Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1991_Iraqi_uprisings" title="1991 Iraqi uprisings">1991 uprisings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanctions_against_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanctions against Iraq">Sanctions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">U.S. invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_insurgency_(2003%E2%80%932011)" title="Iraqi insurgency (2003–2011)">Iraqi insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Withdrawal_of_United_States_troops_from_Iraq_(2007%E2%80%932011)" title="Withdrawal of United States troops from Iraq (2007–2011)">U.S. troop withdrawal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_insurgency_(2011%E2%80%932013)" title="Iraqi insurgency (2011–2013)">Insurgency (2011–2013)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Iraq_(2013%E2%80%932017)" title="War in Iraq (2013–2017)">War (2014–2017)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Mosul" title="Fall of Mosul">Fall of Mosul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mosul_(2016%E2%80%932017)" title="Battle of Mosul (2016–2017)">Mosul liberation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_insurgency_in_Iraq_(2017%E2%80%93present)" title="Islamic State insurgency in Iraq (2017–present)">Insurgency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2019%E2%80%932021_Iraqi_protests" title="2019–2021 Iraqi protests">2019–2021 protests</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021%E2%80%932022_Iraqi_political_crisis" title="2021–2022 Iraqi political crisis">2021–2022 Iraqi political crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Geography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Iraq" title="Geography of Iraq">Geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Faw_peninsula" title="Al-Faw peninsula">Faw peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Upper Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Mesopotamia" title="Lower Mesopotamia">Lower Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Iraq" title="Template:Borders of Iraq">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamrin_Mountains" title="Hamrin Mountains">Hamrin Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Kurdistan" title="Iraqi Kurdistan">Iraqi Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lakes_of_Iraq" title="Category:Lakes of Iraq">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Iraq" title="List of islands of Iraq">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Marshes" title="Mesopotamian Marshes">Mesopotamian Marshes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_in_Iraq" title="List of places in Iraq">Places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shatt_al-Arab" title="Shatt al-Arab">Shatt al-Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_Qasr" title="Umm Qasr">Umm Qasr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Iraq" title="Wildlife of Iraq">Wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinjar_Mountains" title="Sinjar Mountains">Sinjar Mountains</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Politics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Iraq" title="Politics of Iraq">Politics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governorates_of_Iraq" title="Governorates of Iraq">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Iraq" title="Constitution of Iraq">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Representatives_of_Iraq" title="Council of Representatives of Iraq">Council of Representatives (legislative)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_Iraq" title="Democracy in Iraq">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Iraq" title="Elections in Iraq">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_aid_to_Iraq" title="Foreign aid to Iraq">Foreign aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Iraq" title="Foreign relations of Iraq">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_Iraq" title="Federal government of Iraq">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Iraq)" title="Council of Ministers (Iraq)">Council of Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_Council_of_Iraq" title="Presidency Council of Iraq">Presidency Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Iraq" title="President of Iraq">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Iraq" title="List of presidents of Iraq">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Iraq" title="Prime Minister of Iraq">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Iraq" title="List of prime ministers of Iraq">List</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Iraq" title="Human rights in Iraq">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_pre-Saddam_Iraq" title="Human rights in pre-Saddam Iraq">in pre-Saddam Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Saddam_Hussein%27s_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Human rights in Saddam Hussein's Iraq">in Saddam Hussein's Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_post-invasion_Iraq" title="Human rights in post-invasion Iraq">in post-invasion Iraq</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Islamic_State-controlled_territory" title="Human rights in Islamic State-controlled territory">in ISIL-controlled territory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Iraq">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_Iraq" title="Freedom of religion in Iraq">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Iraq" title="Women in Iraq">Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Iraq" title="Law of Iraq">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Armed_Forces" title="Iraqi Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Police" title="Iraqi Police">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Iraq" title="List of political parties in Iraq">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Iraq" title="Judiciary of Iraq">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Iraq" title="List of wars involving Iraq">Wars and conflicts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Economy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Iraq" title="Economy of Iraq">Economy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Iraq" title="List of banks in Iraq">Banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Iraq" title="Central Bank of Iraq">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Iraq" title="List of companies of Iraq">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Iraq" title="Corruption in Iraq">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_dinar" title="Iraqi dinar">Dinar (currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_of_Iraq" title="Infrastructure of Iraq">Infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investment_in_post-invasion_Iraq" title="Investment in post-invasion Iraq">Foreign Investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Iraq" title="Petroleum industry in Iraq">Oil Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_reserves_in_Iraq" title="Oil reserves in Iraq">Oil reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investment_in_post-invasion_Iraq" title="Investment in post-invasion Iraq">Reconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_Stock_Exchange" title="Iraq Stock Exchange">Stock Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Iraq" title="Telecommunications in Iraq">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Iraq" title="Transport in Iraq">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_airlines_of_Iraq" title="List of airlines of Iraq">Airlines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Republic_Railways" title="Iraqi Republic Railways">Railways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Iraq" title="Tourism in Iraq">Tourism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Iraq" title="Category:Society of Iraq">Society</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Iraq" title="Demographics of Iraq">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqis" title="Iraqis">Iraqis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Iraq" title="Languages of Iraq">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_languages" title="Neo-Aramaic languages">Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_language" title="Kurdish language">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Turkmen#Language" title="Iraqi Turkmen">Iraqi Turkmen/Turkoman dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minorities_in_Iraq" title="Minorities in Iraq">Minorities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Armenians" title="Iraqi Armenians">Armenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassians_in_Iraq" title="Circassians in Iraq">Circassians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Iraq" title="Kurds in Iraq">Kurds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaeans" title="Mandaeans">Mandaeans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsh_Arabs" title="Marsh Arabs">Marsh Arabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajam_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Ajam of Iraq">Persians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solluba" title="Solluba">Solluba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Turkmen" title="Iraqi Turkmen">Iraqi Turkmen</a>/Turkoman</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq" title="History of the Jews in Iraq">Jews</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iraq" title="Religion in Iraq">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism_in_Iraq" title="Secularism in Iraq">Secularism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Iraq" title="Islam in Iraq">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Iraq" title="Christianity in Iraq">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaeism" title="Mandaeism">Mandaeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazidis" title="Yazidis">Yazidis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_Iraq" title="Irreligion in Iraq">Irreligion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_art" title="Iraqi art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Iraq" title="Cinema of Iraq">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_cuisine" title="Iraqi cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Iraq" title="Culture of Iraq">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Iraq">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Iraq" title="Education in Iraq">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Iraq" title="Health in Iraq">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Iraq" title="Mass media in Iraq">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Iraq" title="Television in Iraq">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Iraq" title="Music of Iraq">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_Iraq" title="Smoking in Iraq">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Iraq" title="Sport in Iraq">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting_in_Iraq" title="Squatting in Iraq">Squatting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Iraq" title="Public holidays in Iraq">Public holidays</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akitu" title="Akitu">Mesopotamian spring festival (Akitu)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehwa_Rabba" title="Dehwa Rabba">Mandaean New Year</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Iraq" title="Category:Iraq">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Iraq" title="Portal:Iraq">Portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Iraq" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Iraq">WikiProject</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Iraq" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Iraq">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Rulers_of_the_Ancient_Near_East" style="display:table;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Rulers_of_the_Ancient_Near_East" title="Template:Rulers of the Ancient Near East"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Rulers_of_the_Ancient_Near_East" title="Template talk:Rulers of the Ancient Near East"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Rulers_of_the_Ancient_Near_East" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Rulers of the Ancient Near East"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Rulers_of_the_Ancient_Near_East" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Rulers of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">Ancient Near East</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-width:0;"><div style="padding:0"><div style="overflow:auto"> <table style="width:100%" class="wraplinks"> <tbody><tr> <td style="padding:0; font-size:96.6%;"> <table class="wikitable" style="width:100%; margin:0; font-size:96.6%;"> <tbody><tr> <th>Territories/ dates <a href="#cite_note-122">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[5]</a></th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egypt</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)" title="Kish (Sumer)">Kish</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Assur" title="Assur">Assur</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Akshak" title="Akshak">Akshak</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Akkad_(city)" title="Akkad (city)">Akkad</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Adab_(city)" title="Adab (city)">Adab</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Umma" title="Umma">Umma</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Ur" title="Ur">Ur</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a> </th></tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top;"> <td rowspan="2">4000–3200 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Naqada_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Naqada I">Naqada I</a> <a href="/wiki/Gerzeh_culture" title="Gerzeh culture">Naqada II</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_(front_top_part_detail).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Gebel el-Arak Knife"><img alt="Gebel el-Arak Knife" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg/50px-Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="50" height="35" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg/75px-Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg/100px-Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1582" data-file-height="1100" /></a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="1" rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Egypt-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt-Mesopotamia relations">Egypt-Mesopotamia relations</a> </td> <td colspan="9" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mesopotamia" title="History of Mesopotamia">Pre-Dynastic period</a> (4000–2900 BCE) </td> <td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa I</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="9" rowspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"> <a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a> (4000–3100 BCE) <a href="/wiki/File:White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg/100px-White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="59" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg/150px-White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg/200px-White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1952" data-file-height="1158" /></a> (<a href="/wiki/Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">Anu Ziggurat</a>, 4000 BCE) <a href="/wiki/File:Rolzegel.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Rolzegel.JPG/100px-Rolzegel.JPG" decoding="async" width="100" height="41" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Rolzegel.JPG/150px-Rolzegel.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Rolzegel.JPG/200px-Rolzegel.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1726" data-file-height="714" /></a> (Anonymous "King-priests") </td> <td colspan="1" rowspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa II</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Susa II Priest-King with bow and arrows"><img alt="Susa II Priest-King with bow and arrows" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg/35px-Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg" decoding="async" width="35" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg/53px-Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg/70px-Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1283" data-file-height="1663" /></a> (Uruk influence or control) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">3200–3100 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Naqada_III" title="Naqada III">Proto-Dynastic period</a> (<a href="/wiki/Naqada_III" title="Naqada III">Naqada III</a>) Early or legendary kings: </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Finger_Snail" title="Finger Snail">Finger Snail</a> <a href="/wiki/Fish_(pharaoh)" title="Fish (pharaoh)">Fish</a> <a href="/wiki/Elephant_(pharaoh)" title="Elephant (pharaoh)">Pen-Abu</a> Animal <a href="/wiki/Stork_(Pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stork (Pharaoh)">Stork</a> <a href="/wiki/Canide_(Pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Canide (Pharaoh)">Canide</a> <a href="/wiki/Bull_(Pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bull (Pharaoh)">Bull</a> <a href="/wiki/Scorpion_I" title="Scorpion I">Scorpion I</a> <a href="/wiki/Crocodile_(pharaoh)" title="Crocodile (pharaoh)">Shendjw</a> <a href="/wiki/Iry-Hor" title="Iry-Hor">Iry-Hor</a> <a href="/wiki/Ka_(pharaoh)" title="Ka (pharaoh)">Ka</a> <a href="/wiki/Scorpion_II" title="Scorpion II">Scorpion II</a> <a href="/wiki/Narmer" title="Narmer">Narmer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Menes" title="Menes">Menes</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Lower_Egypt" title="Lower Egypt">Lower Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Hedju_Hor" title="Hedju Hor">Hedju Hor</a> <a href="/wiki/Ny-Hor" title="Ny-Hor">Ny-Hor</a> <a href="/wiki/Hsekiu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hsekiu">Hsekiu</a> <a href="/wiki/Khayu" class="mw-redirect" title="Khayu">Khayu</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiu_(pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiu (pharaoh)">Tiu</a> <a href="/wiki/Thesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Thesh">Thesh</a> <a href="/wiki/Neheb" class="mw-redirect" title="Neheb">Neheb</a> <a href="/wiki/Wazner" class="mw-redirect" title="Wazner">Wazner</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nat-Hor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nat-Hor (page does not exist)">Nat-Hor</a> <a href="/wiki/Mekh" class="mw-redirect" title="Mekh">Mekh</a> <a href="/wiki/Double_Falcon" title="Double Falcon">Double Falcon</a> <a href="/wiki/Wash_(pharaoh)" title="Wash (pharaoh)">Wash</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1">3100–2900 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" rowspan="1" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Egypt)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)">Early Dynastic Period</a> <a href="/wiki/First_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="First Dynasty of Egypt">First Dynasty of Egypt</a><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Narmer Palette"><img alt="Narmer Palette" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg/40px-Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg" decoding="async" width="40" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg/60px-Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg/80px-Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1611" data-file-height="2404" /></a><figcaption>Narmer Palette</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Narmer" title="Narmer">Narmer</a> <a href="/wiki/Menes" title="Menes">Menes</a> <a href="/wiki/Neithhotep" title="Neithhotep">Neithhotep</a>♀ (regent) <a href="/wiki/Hor-Aha" title="Hor-Aha">Hor-Aha</a> <a href="/wiki/Djer" title="Djer">Djer</a> <a href="/wiki/Djet" title="Djet">Djet</a> <a href="/wiki/Merneith" title="Merneith">Merneith</a>♀ (regent) <a href="/wiki/Den_(pharaoh)" title="Den (pharaoh)">Den</a> <a href="/wiki/Anedjib" title="Anedjib">Anedjib</a> <a href="/wiki/Semerkhet" title="Semerkhet">Semerkhet</a> <a href="/wiki/Qa%27a" title="Qa'a">Qa'a</a> <a href="/wiki/Sneferka" title="Sneferka">Sneferka</a> <a href="/wiki/Horus_Bird_(Pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Horus Bird (Pharaoh)">Horus Bird</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="1" rowspan="13"><a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaanites</a> </td> <td colspan="9" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr period</a> (3100–2900 BCE) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="7"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Elamite">Proto-Elamite</a> <a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Elamite">period</a> (<a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa III</a>) (3100–2700 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2900 BCE </td> <td rowspan="8" colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"><a href="/wiki/Second_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Second Dynasty of Egypt">Second Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Hotepsekhemwy" title="Hotepsekhemwy">Hotepsekhemwy</a> <a href="/wiki/Nebra_(Pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nebra (Pharaoh)">Nebra/Raneb</a> <a href="/wiki/Nynetjer" title="Nynetjer">Nynetjer</a> <a href="/wiki/Ba_(pharaoh)" title="Ba (pharaoh)">Ba</a> <a href="/wiki/Nubnefer" title="Nubnefer">Nubnefer</a> <a href="/wiki/Horus_Sa" title="Horus Sa">Horus Sa</a> <a href="/wiki/Weneg_(pharaoh)" title="Weneg (pharaoh)">Weneg-Nebty</a> <a href="/wiki/Wadjenes" title="Wadjenes">Wadjenes</a> <a href="/wiki/Senedj" title="Senedj">Senedj</a> <a href="/wiki/Seth-Peribsen" title="Seth-Peribsen">Seth-Peribsen</a> <a href="/wiki/Sekhemib-Perenmaat" title="Sekhemib-Perenmaat">Sekhemib-Perenmaat</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkara_I" title="Neferkara I">Neferkara I</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkasokar" title="Neferkasokar">Neferkasokar</a> <a href="/wiki/Hudjefa_I" title="Hudjefa I">Hudjefa I</a> <a href="/wiki/Khasekhemwy" title="Khasekhemwy">Khasekhemwy</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Khasekhemwy"><img alt="Khasekhemwy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG/30px-Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG" decoding="async" width="30" height="38" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG/45px-Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG/60px-Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4103" data-file-height="5203" /></a> </td> <td colspan="9" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic Period I</a> (2900–2700 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">First Eblaite</a> Kingdom </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">First kingdom of Mari</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="7" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)" title="Kish (Sumer)">Kish</a> I dynasty <a href="/wiki/Jushur" title="Jushur">Jushur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kullassina-bel" title="Kullassina-bel">Kullassina-bel</a> <a href="/wiki/Nangishlishma" title="Nangishlishma">Nangishlishma</a>, <a href="/wiki/En-tarah-ana" title="En-tarah-ana">En-tarah-ana</a> <a href="/wiki/Babum" title="Babum">Babum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Puannum" title="Puannum">Puannum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kalibum" title="Kalibum">Kalibum</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2800 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Kalumum" title="Kalumum">Kalumum</a> <a href="/wiki/Zuqaqip" title="Zuqaqip">Zuqaqip</a> <a href="/wiki/Atab" title="Atab">Atab</a> <a href="/wiki/Mashda" title="Mashda">Mashda</a> <a href="/wiki/Arwium" title="Arwium">Arwium</a> <a href="/wiki/Etana" title="Etana">Etana</a> <a href="/wiki/Balih" title="Balih">Balih</a> <a href="/wiki/En-me-nuna" title="En-me-nuna">En-me-nuna</a> <a href="/wiki/Melem-Kish" title="Melem-Kish">Melem-Kish</a> <a href="/wiki/Barsal-nuna" title="Barsal-nuna">Barsal-nuna</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> I dynasty <a href="/wiki/Mesh-ki-ang-gasher" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesh-ki-ang-gasher">Mesh-ki-ang-gasher</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Enmerkar" title="Enmerkar">Enmerkar</a> ("conqueror of <a href="/wiki/Aratta" title="Aratta">Aratta</a>") </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">2700 BCE </td> <td colspan="9" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic Period II</a> (2700–2600 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="3"> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="3"> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Zamug" title="Zamug">Zamug</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tizqar" title="Tizqar">Tizqar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ilku" title="Ilku">Ilku</a> <a href="/wiki/Iltasadum" title="Iltasadum">Iltasadum</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Lugalbanda" title="Lugalbanda">Lugalbanda</a> <a href="/wiki/Dumuzid,_the_Fisherman" class="mw-redirect" title="Dumuzid, the Fisherman">Dumuzid, the Fisherman</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="8" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Enmebaragesi" title="Enmebaragesi">Enmebaragesi</a> ("made the land of Elam submit")<a href="#cite_note-SKL-127">[6]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Aga_of_Kish" title="Aga of Kish">Aga of Kish</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/5px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/8px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Ak_gal-ukkin_(detail).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Aga of Kish"><img alt="Aga of Kish" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Ak_gal-ukkin_%28detail%29.jpg/22px-Ak_gal-ukkin_%28detail%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="22" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Ak_gal-ukkin_%28detail%29.jpg/33px-Ak_gal-ukkin_%28detail%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Ak_gal-ukkin_%28detail%29.jpg/44px-Ak_gal-ukkin_%28detail%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="559" data-file-height="826" /></a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Gilgamesh" title="Gilgamesh">Gilgamesh</a><a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/15px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/20px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda,_2600_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg/30px-Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="29" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg/45px-Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg/60px-Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="612" data-file-height="595" /></a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Old Elamite period</a> (2700–1500 BCE) <a href="/wiki/Indus-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus-Mesopotamia relations">Indus-Mesopotamia relations</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">2600 BCE </td> <td rowspan="3" colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Third Dynasty of Egypt">Third Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Djoser" title="Djoser">Djoser</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Saqqara,_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2,_Ancient_Egypt.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Saqqarah Djeser pyramid"><img alt="Saqqarah Djeser pyramid" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg/50px-Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg" decoding="async" width="50" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg/75px-Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg/100px-Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2048" /></a> (First <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pyramids" title="Egyptian pyramids">Egyptian pyramids</a>) <a href="/wiki/Sekhemkhet" title="Sekhemkhet">Sekhemkhet</a> <a href="/wiki/Sanakht" title="Sanakht">Sanakht</a> <a href="/wiki/Nebka" title="Nebka">Nebka</a> <a href="/wiki/Khaba" title="Khaba">Khaba</a> <a href="/wiki/Qahedjet" title="Qahedjet">Qahedjet</a> <a href="/wiki/Huni" title="Huni">Huni</a> </td> <td colspan="9" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic Period III</a> (2600–2340 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Sagisu" title="Sagisu">Sagisu</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Abur-lim&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abur-lim (page does not exist)">Abur-lim</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Agur-lim&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Agur-lim (page does not exist)">Agur-lim</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibbi-Damu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibbi-Damu (page does not exist)">Ibbi-Damu</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Baba-Damu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Baba-Damu (page does not exist)">Baba-Damu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="2"> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" rowspan="2" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)" title="Kish (Sumer)">Kish</a> II dynasty (5 kings) <a href="/wiki/Uhub" title="Uhub">Uhub</a> <a href="/wiki/Mesilim" title="Mesilim">Mesilim</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Ur-Nungal" title="Ur-Nungal">Ur-Nungal</a> <a href="/wiki/Udul-kalama" title="Udul-kalama">Udulkalama</a> <a href="/wiki/La-ba%27shum" title="La-ba'shum">Labashum</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a> <a href="/wiki/En-hegal" title="En-hegal">En-hegal</a> <a href="/wiki/Lugalshaengur" title="Lugalshaengur">Lugal- shaengur</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ur_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Ur I">Ur</a> <a href="/wiki/A-Imdugud" title="A-Imdugud">A-Imdugud</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-Pabilsag" title="Ur-Pabilsag">Ur-Pabilsag</a><a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/5px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/8px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Ur-Palbisag.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Ur-Palbisag.jpg/30px-Ur-Palbisag.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="48" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Ur-Palbisag.jpg/45px-Ur-Palbisag.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Ur-Palbisag.jpg/60px-Ur-Palbisag.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1385" data-file-height="2201" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Meskalamdug" title="Meskalamdug">Meskalamdug</a> (Queen <a href="/wiki/Puabi" title="Puabi">Puabi</a>) <a href="/wiki/Akalamdug" title="Akalamdug">Akalamdug</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/En-nun-tarah-ana" title="En-nun-tarah-ana">Enun-dara-anna</a> <a href="/wiki/Mes-he" class="mw-redirect" title="Mes-he">Mes-he</a> <a href="/wiki/Melamanna" class="mw-redirect" title="Melamanna">Melamanna</a> <a href="/wiki/Lugal-kitun" title="Lugal-kitun">Lugal-kitun</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Adab_(city)" title="Adab (city)">Adab</a> <a href="/wiki/Nin-kisalsi" title="Nin-kisalsi">Nin-kisalsi</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Me-durba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Me-durba (page does not exist)">Me-durba</a> <a href="/wiki/Lugal-dalu" title="Lugal-dalu">Lugal-dalu</a> </td> <td colspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="1"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2575 BCE </td> <td rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fourth Dynasty of Egypt">Fourth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Sneferu" title="Sneferu">Snefru</a> <a href="/wiki/Khufu" title="Khufu">Khufu</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Kheops-Pyramid.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Kheops-Pyramid.jpg/50px-Kheops-Pyramid.jpg" decoding="async" width="50" height="31" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Kheops-Pyramid.jpg/75px-Kheops-Pyramid.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Kheops-Pyramid.jpg/100px-Kheops-Pyramid.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1581" data-file-height="971" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Djedefre" title="Djedefre">Djedefre</a> <a href="/wiki/Khafre" title="Khafre">Khafre</a> <a href="/wiki/Bikheris" title="Bikheris">Bikheris</a> <a href="/wiki/Menkaure" title="Menkaure">Menkaure</a> <a href="/wiki/Shepseskaf" title="Shepseskaf">Shepseskaf</a> <a href="/wiki/Thamphthis" title="Thamphthis">Thamphthis</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;" colspan="8"><a href="/wiki/First_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="First Dynasty of Ur">Ur I dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Mesannepada" title="Mesannepada">Mesannepada</a> "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk </td></tr> <tr> <td>2500 BCE </td> <td rowspan="22" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> (2500-539 BCE) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="5"><a href="/wiki/The_second_kingdom_of_Mari" class="mw-redirect" title="The second kingdom of Mari">Second kingdom of Mari</a> <a href="/wiki/Ikun-Shamash" title="Ikun-Shamash">Ikun-Shamash</a> <a href="/wiki/Iku-Shamagan" title="Iku-Shamagan">Iku-Shamagan</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_(retouched).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Iku-Shamagan"><img alt="Iku-Shamagan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_%28retouched%29.jpg/30px-Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_%28retouched%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="52" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_%28retouched%29.jpg/45px-Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_%28retouched%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_%28retouched%29.jpg/60px-Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_%28retouched%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1202" data-file-height="2102" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Ansud" title="Ansud">Ansud</a> <a href="/wiki/Sa%27umu" class="mw-redirect" title="Sa'umu">Sa'umu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishtup-Ishar" title="Ishtup-Ishar">Ishtup-Ishar</a> <a href="/wiki/Ikun-Mari" title="Ikun-Mari">Ikun-Mari</a> <a href="/wiki/Iblul-Il" title="Iblul-Il">Iblul-Il</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nizi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nizi (page does not exist)">Nizi</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" rowspan="3">Kish III dynasty <a href="/wiki/Ku-Baba" class="mw-redirect" title="Ku-Baba">Ku-Baba</a>♀ </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Akshak" title="Akshak">Akshak dynasty</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Unzi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Unzi (page does not exist)">Unzi</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Undalulu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Undalulu (page does not exist)">Undalulu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> II dynasty <a href="/wiki/Enshakushanna" title="Enshakushanna">Ensha- kushanna</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Mug-si" title="Mug-si">Mug-si</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Umma" title="Umma">Umma</a> I dynasty <a href="/wiki/Pabilgagaltuku" title="Pabilgagaltuku">Pabilgagaltuku</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a> I dynasty <a href="/wiki/Ur-Nanshe" title="Ur-Nanshe">Ur-Nanshe</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Ur-Nanshe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Ur-Nanshe.jpg/30px-Ur-Nanshe.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="42" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Ur-Nanshe.jpg/45px-Ur-Nanshe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Ur-Nanshe.jpg/60px-Ur-Nanshe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="663" data-file-height="918" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Akurgal" title="Akurgal">Akurgal</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/A%27annepada" title="A'annepada">A'annepada</a> <a href="/wiki/Meskiagnun" title="Meskiagnun">Meskiagnun</a> <a href="/wiki/Elulu" title="Elulu">Elulu</a> <a href="/wiki/Balulu" title="Balulu">Balulu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Awan_dynasty" title="Awan dynasty">Awan dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Peli_(king_of_Awan)" title="Peli (king of Awan)">Peli</a> <a href="/wiki/Tata_(king_of_Awan)" title="Tata (king of Awan)">Tata</a> <a href="/wiki/Ukku-Tanhish" title="Ukku-Tanhish">Ukkutahesh</a> <a href="/wiki/Hishutash" title="Hishutash">Hishur</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2450 BCE </td> <td rowspan="4" colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fifth Dynasty of Egypt">Fifth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Userkaf" title="Userkaf">Userkaf</a> <a href="/wiki/Sahure" title="Sahure">Sahure</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferirkare_Kakai" title="Neferirkare Kakai">Neferirkare Kakai</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferefre" title="Neferefre">Neferefre</a> <a href="/wiki/Shepseskare" title="Shepseskare">Shepseskare</a> <a href="/wiki/Nyuserre_Ini" title="Nyuserre Ini">Nyuserre Ini</a> <a href="/wiki/Menkauhor_Kaiu" title="Menkauhor Kaiu">Menkauhor Kaiu</a> <a href="/wiki/Djedkare_Isesi" title="Djedkare Isesi">Djedkare Isesi</a> <a href="/wiki/Unas" title="Unas">Unas</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="2"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Enar-Damu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Enar-Damu (page does not exist)">Enar-Damu</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ishar-Malik&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ishar-Malik (page does not exist)">Ishar-Malik</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ush,_king_of_Umma" title="Ush, king of Umma">Ush</a> <a href="/wiki/Enakalle" title="Enakalle">Enakalle</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;"><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elamite</a> invasions (3 kings)<a href="#cite_note-SKL-127">[6]</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Shushun-Tarana" title="Shushun-Tarana">Shushun- tarana</a> <a href="/wiki/Napi-Ilhush" title="Napi-Ilhush">Napilhush</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2425 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;"><a href="/wiki/Kun-Damu" title="Kun-Damu">Kun-Damu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" colspan="8"><a href="/wiki/Eannatum" title="Eannatum">Eannatum</a><a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/5px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/8px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG/30px-P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG" decoding="async" width="30" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG/45px-P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG/60px-P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2600" data-file-height="2595" /></a> (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) </td></tr> <tr> <td>2400 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adub-Damu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Adub-Damu (page does not exist)">Adub-Damu</a> <a href="/wiki/Igrish-Halam" title="Igrish-Halam">Igrish-Halam</a> <a href="/wiki/Irkab-Damu" title="Irkab-Damu">Irkab-Damu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)" title="Kish (Sumer)">Kish</a> IV dynasty <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Suen" title="Puzur-Suen">Puzur-Suen</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-Zababa" title="Ur-Zababa">Ur-Zababa</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urur&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Urur (page does not exist)">Urur</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Lugal-kinishe-dudu" title="Lugal-kinishe-dudu">Lugal-kinishe-dudu</a> <a href="/wiki/Lugal-kisalsi" title="Lugal-kisalsi">Lugal-kisalsi</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/wiki/E-iginimpa%27e" title="E-iginimpa'e">E-iginimpa'e</a> <a href="/wiki/Meskigal" title="Meskigal">Meskigal</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Ur-Lumma" title="Ur-Lumma">Ur-Lumma</a> <a href="/wiki/Il,_king_of_Umma" title="Il, king of Umma">Il</a> <a href="/wiki/Gishakidu" title="Gishakidu">Gishakidu</a> (Queen <a href="/wiki/Bara-irnun" title="Bara-irnun">Bara-irnun</a>) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;"><a href="/wiki/Enannatum_I" title="Enannatum I">Enannatum</a> <a href="/wiki/Entemena" title="Entemena">Entemena</a> <a href="/wiki/Enannatum_II" title="Enannatum II">Enannatum II</a> <a href="/wiki/Enentarzi" title="Enentarzi">Enentarzi</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;"><a href="/wiki/Ur" title="Ur">Ur</a> II dynasty Nanni <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna_II&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II (page does not exist)">Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;"><a href="/wiki/Kikku-Siwe-Temti" title="Kikku-Siwe-Temti">Kiku-siwe-tempti</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2380 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="6"><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Sixth Dynasty of Egypt">Sixth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Teti" title="Teti">Teti</a> <a href="/wiki/Userkare" title="Userkare">Userkare</a> <a href="/wiki/Pepi_I_Meryre" title="Pepi I Meryre">Pepi I</a> <a href="/wiki/Merenre_Nemtyemsaf_I" title="Merenre Nemtyemsaf I">Merenre Nemtyemsaf I</a> <a href="/wiki/Pepi_II_Neferkare" title="Pepi II Neferkare">Pepi II</a> <a href="/wiki/Merenre_Nemtyemsaf_II" title="Merenre Nemtyemsaf II">Merenre Nemtyemsaf II</a> <a href="/wiki/Netjerkare_Siptah" title="Netjerkare Siptah">Netjerkare Siptah</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I,_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.,_39.121.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Kneeling statuette of Pepy I"><img alt="Kneeling statuette of Pepy I" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg/30px-Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg/45px-Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg/60px-Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1148" data-file-height="1536" /></a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="10" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Adab_(city)" title="Adab (city)">Adab</a> dynasty <a href="/wiki/Lugalannemundu" class="mw-redirect" title="Lugalannemundu">Lugalannemundu</a> "King of the four quarters of the world" </td></tr> <tr> <td>2370 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Isar-Damu" title="Isar-Damu">Isar-Damu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="2"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Enna-Dagan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Enna-Dagan (page does not exist)">Enna-Dagan</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ikun-Ishar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ikun-Ishar (page does not exist)">Ikun-Ishar</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishqi-Mari" title="Ishqi-Mari">Ishqi-Mari</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="4" rowspan="1">Invasion by <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a> Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter<a href="#cite_note-SKL-127">[6]</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Ukush" title="Ukush">Ukush</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Lugalanda" title="Lugalanda">Lugalanda</a> <a href="/wiki/Urukagina" title="Urukagina">Urukagina</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Luh-ishan" title="Luh-ishan">Luh-ishan</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2350 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Puzur-Nirah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Puzur-Nirah (page does not exist)">Puzur-Nirah</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ishu-Il&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ishu-Il (page does not exist)">Ishu-Il</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shu-Sin_(Akshak)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shu-Sin (Akshak) (page does not exist)">Shu-Sin</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> III dynasty <a href="/wiki/Lugal-zage-si" title="Lugal-zage-si">Lugalzagesi</a> (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2340 BCE </td> <td> </td> <td colspan="10" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Period</a> (2340–2150 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="9"><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Sargon_of_Akkad" title="Sargon of Akkad">Sargon of Akkad</a> <a href="/wiki/Rimush" title="Rimush">Rimush</a> <a href="/wiki/Manishtushu" title="Manishtushu">Manishtushu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="1" rowspan="3">Akkadian Governors: <a href="/wiki/Eshpum" title="Eshpum">Eshpum</a> <a href="/wiki/Ilshu-rabi" title="Ilshu-rabi">Ilshu-rabi</a> <a href="/wiki/Epirmupi" title="Epirmupi">Epirmupi</a> <a href="/wiki/Ili-ishmani" title="Ili-ishmani">Ili-ishmani</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2250 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="7"><a href="/wiki/Naram-Sin_of_Akkad" title="Naram-Sin of Akkad">Naram-Sin</a><a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/5px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/8px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Relief_of_Naram-Sin_(portrait).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg/25px-Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="25" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg/38px-Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg/50px-Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1567" data-file-height="2300" /></a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" rowspan="2" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Lugal-ushumgal" title="Lugal-ushumgal">Lugal-ushumgal</a> (vassal of the Akkadians) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2200 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/First_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="First Intermediate Period of Egypt">First Intermediate Period</a> <a href="/wiki/Seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Seventh Dynasty of Egypt">Seventh Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Eighth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eighth Dynasty of Egypt">Eighth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Menkare" title="Menkare">Menkare</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_II" title="Neferkare II">Neferkare II</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_Neby" title="Neferkare Neby">Neferkare Neby</a> <a href="/wiki/Djedkare_Shemai" title="Djedkare Shemai">Djedkare Shemai</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_Khendu" title="Neferkare Khendu">Neferkare Khendu</a> <a href="/wiki/Merenhor" title="Merenhor">Merenhor</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkamin" title="Neferkamin">Neferkamin</a> <a href="/wiki/Nikare" title="Nikare">Nikare</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_Tereru" title="Neferkare Tereru">Neferkare Tereru</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkahor" title="Neferkahor">Neferkahor</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_Pepiseneb" title="Neferkare Pepiseneb">Neferkare Pepiseneb</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkamin_Anu" title="Neferkamin Anu">Neferkamin Anu</a> <a href="/wiki/Qakare_Ibi" title="Qakare Ibi">Qakare Ibi</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkaure" title="Neferkaure">Neferkaure</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkauhor" title="Neferkauhor">Neferkauhor</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferirkare" title="Neferirkare">Neferirkare</a> </td> <td colspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="6">Second <a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Eblaite</a> Kingdom </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Third kingdom of Mari</a> (<a href="/wiki/Shakkanakku" title="Shakkanakku">Shakkanakku</a> dynasty) <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ididish&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ididish (page does not exist)">Ididish</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shu-Dagan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shu-Dagan (page does not exist)">Shu-Dagan</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishma-Dagan" title="Ishma-Dagan">Ishma-Dagan</a> (Vassals of the Akkadians) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="5"> <a href="/wiki/Shar-Kali-Sharri" title="Shar-Kali-Sharri">Shar-Kali-Sharri</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Igigi_of_Akkad" title="Igigi of Akkad">Igigi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imi" title="Imi">Imi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nanum_of_Akkad" title="Nanum of Akkad">Nanum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ilulu" title="Ilulu">Ilulu</a> (3 years) <a href="/wiki/Dudu_of_Akkad" title="Dudu of Akkad">Dudu</a> <a href="/wiki/Shu-turul" title="Shu-turul">Shu-turul</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> IV dynasty <a href="/wiki/Ur-nigin" title="Ur-nigin">Ur-nigin</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-gigir" title="Ur-gigir">Ur-gigir</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="2"> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" rowspan="1" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a> II dynasty <a href="/wiki/Puzer-Mama" title="Puzer-Mama">Puzer-Mama</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-Ningirsu_I" title="Ur-Ningirsu I">Ur-Ningirsu I</a> <a href="/wiki/Pirig-me" title="Pirig-me">Pirig-me</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lu-Baba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lu-Baba (page does not exist)">Lu-Baba</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lu-gula&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lu-gula (page does not exist)">Lu-gula</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kaku_of_Lagash&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kaku of Lagash (page does not exist)">Ka-ku</a> </td> <td colspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Hishep-Ratep" class="mw-redirect" title="Hishep-Ratep">Hishep-Ratep</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Helu_(Awan)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Helu (Awan) (page does not exist)">Helu</a> <a href="/wiki/Khita" title="Khita">Khita</a> <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Inshushinak" title="Puzur-Inshushinak">Puzur-Inshushinak</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">2150 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Ninth Dynasty of Egypt">Ninth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Meryibre_Khety" title="Meryibre Khety">Meryibre Khety</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare,_ninth_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Neferkare, ninth dynasty">Neferkare VII</a> <a href="/wiki/Nebkaure_Khety" title="Nebkaure Khety">Nebkaure Khety</a> <a href="/wiki/Setut" title="Setut">Setut</a> </td> <td colspan="8" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Ur III period</a> (2150–2000 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/N%C3%BBr-M%C3%AAr" title="Nûr-Mêr">Nûr-Mêr</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishtup-Ilum" title="Ishtup-Ilum">Ishtup-Ilum</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Ishtup-Ilum_statue_(head).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Ishtup-Ilum_statue_%28head%29.jpg/25px-Ishtup-Ilum_statue_%28head%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="25" height="36" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Ishtup-Ilum_statue_%28head%29.jpg/38px-Ishtup-Ilum_statue_%28head%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Ishtup-Ilum_statue_%28head%29.jpg/50px-Ishtup-Ilum_statue_%28head%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="568" data-file-height="810" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Ishgum-Addu" title="Ishgum-Addu">Ishgum-Addu</a> <a href="/wiki/Apil-kin" title="Apil-kin">Apil-kin</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#A9A9A9;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Gutian_dynasty_of_Sumer" class="mw-redirect" title="Gutian dynasty of Sumer">Gutian dynasty</a> (21 kings) <a href="/wiki/La-erabum" title="La-erabum">La-erabum</a> <a href="/wiki/Si%27um" title="Si'um">Si'um</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kuda_(Uruk)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kuda (Uruk) (page does not exist)">Kuda (Uruk)</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Puzur-ili&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Puzur-ili (page does not exist)">Puzur-ili</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ur-Utu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ur-Utu (page does not exist)">Ur-Utu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#A9A9A9;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"> </td> <td colspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE; rowspan=2"><a href="/wiki/Umma" title="Umma">Umma</a> II dynasty <a href="/wiki/Lugalannatum" title="Lugalannatum">Lugalannatum</a> (vassal of the Gutians) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" rowspan="2" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ur-Baba" title="Ur-Baba">Ur-Baba</a> <a href="/wiki/Gudea" title="Gudea">Gudea</a><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg/30px-Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg/45px-Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg/60px-Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2600" data-file-height="3900" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Ur-Ningirsu" title="Ur-Ningirsu">Ur-Ningirsu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-gar" title="Ur-gar">Ur-gar</a> <a href="/wiki/Nam-mahani" title="Nam-mahani">Nam-mahani</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#A9A9A9;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Tirigan" title="Tirigan">Tirigan</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2125 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Tenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Tenth Dynasty of Egypt">Tenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Meryhathor" title="Meryhathor">Meryhathor</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_VIII" title="Neferkare VIII">Neferkare VIII</a> <a href="/wiki/Wahkare_Khety" title="Wahkare Khety">Wahkare Khety</a> <a href="/wiki/Merikare" title="Merikare">Merykare</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="7"><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> V dynasty <a href="/wiki/Utu-hengal" title="Utu-hengal">Utu-hengal</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2100 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="1">(Vassals of UR III) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Iddi-ilum" title="Iddi-ilum">Iddi-ilum</a> <a href="/wiki/Ili-Ishar" title="Ili-Ishar">Ili-Ishar</a> <a href="/wiki/Tura-Dagan" title="Tura-Dagan">Tura-Dagan</a> <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Ishtar" title="Puzur-Ishtar">Puzur-Ishtar</a> (Vassals of Ur III)<a href="#cite_note-128">[7]</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;" colspan="8" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Third_dynasty_of_Ur" class="mw-redirect" title="Third dynasty of Ur">Ur III dynasty</a> "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad"<a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/5px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/8px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:King_Ur-Nammu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/King_Ur-Nammu.jpg/35px-King_Ur-Nammu.jpg" decoding="async" width="35" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/King_Ur-Nammu.jpg/53px-King_Ur-Nammu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/King_Ur-Nammu.jpg/70px-King_Ur-Nammu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="734" data-file-height="632" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-Nammu" title="Ur-Nammu">Ur-Nammu</a> <a href="/wiki/Shulgi" title="Shulgi">Shulgi</a> <a href="/wiki/Amar-Sin" title="Amar-Sin">Amar-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Shu-Sin" title="Shu-Sin">Shu-Sin</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">2025-1763 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" colspan="7" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorite</a> invasions </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Ibbi-Sin" title="Ibbi-Sin">Ibbi-Sin</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Elamite">Elamite</a> invasions <a href="/wiki/Kindattu" title="Kindattu">Kindattu</a> (<a href="/wiki/Shimashki_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Shimashki Dynasty">Shimashki Dynasty</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt">Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_I" title="Mentuhotep I">Mentuhotep I</a> <a href="/wiki/Intef_I" title="Intef I">Intef I</a> <a href="/wiki/Intef_II" title="Intef II">Intef II</a> <a href="/wiki/Intef_III" title="Intef III">Intef III</a> <a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_II" title="Mentuhotep II">Mentuhotep II</a> <a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_III" title="Mentuhotep III">Mentuhotep III</a> <a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_IV" title="Mentuhotep IV">Mentuhotep IV</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Third Eblaite</a> Kingdom (<a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a>) <a href="/wiki/Ibbit-Lim" title="Ibbit-Lim">Ibbit-Lim</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Ibbit-Lim.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Ibbit-Lim.png/30px-Ibbit-Lim.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Ibbit-Lim.png/45px-Ibbit-Lim.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Ibbit-Lim.png/60px-Ibbit-Lim.png 2x" data-file-width="343" data-file-height="345" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Immeya" title="Immeya">Immeya</a> <a href="/wiki/Indilimma" title="Indilimma">Indilimma</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" rowspan="2">(<a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorite</a> <a href="/wiki/Shakkanakku" title="Shakkanakku">Shakkanakkus</a>) <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hitial-Erra&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hitial-Erra (page does not exist)">Hitial-Erra</a> <a href="/wiki/Hanun-Dagan" title="Hanun-Dagan">Hanun-Dagan</a> (...) Lim Dynasty of <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a> (<a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a>) <a href="/wiki/Yaggid-Lim" title="Yaggid-Lim">Yaggid-Lim</a> <a href="/wiki/Yahdun-Lim" title="Yahdun-Lim">Yahdun-Lim</a> <a href="/wiki/Yasmah-Adad" title="Yasmah-Adad">Yasmah-Adad</a> <a href="/wiki/Zimri-Lim" title="Zimri-Lim">Zimri-Lim</a> (Queen <a href="/wiki/Shibtu" title="Shibtu">Shibtu</a>) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_period" title="Old Assyrian period">Old Assyria</a> <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Ashur_I" title="Puzur-Ashur I">Puzur-Ashur I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shalim-ahum" title="Shalim-ahum">Shalim-ahum</a> <a href="/wiki/Ilu-shuma" title="Ilu-shuma">Ilu-shuma</a> <a href="/wiki/Erishum_I" title="Erishum I">Erishum I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ikunum" title="Ikunum">Ikunum</a> <a href="/wiki/Sargon_I" title="Sargon I">Sargon I</a> <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Ashur_II" title="Puzur-Ashur II">Puzur-Ashur II</a> <a href="/wiki/Naram-Sin_of_Assyria" title="Naram-Sin of Assyria">Naram-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Erishum_II" title="Erishum II">Erishum II</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Isin-Larsa_period" title="Isin-Larsa period">Isin-Larsa period</a> (<a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a>) <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_(1940).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg/30px-Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="44" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg/45px-Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg/60px-Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1072" data-file-height="1558" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Dynasty_of_Isin" title="Dynasty of Isin">Dynasty of Isin</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ishbi-Erra" title="Ishbi-Erra">Ishbi-Erra</a> <a href="/wiki/Shu-Ilishu" title="Shu-Ilishu">Shu-Ilishu</a> <a href="/wiki/Iddin-Dagan" title="Iddin-Dagan">Iddin-Dagan</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishme-Dagan" title="Ishme-Dagan">Ishme-Dagan</a> <a href="/wiki/Lipit-Eshtar" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipit-Eshtar">Lipit-Eshtar</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-Ninurta" title="Ur-Ninurta">Ur-Ninurta</a> <a href="/wiki/Bur-Suen" title="Bur-Suen">Bur-Suen</a> <a href="/wiki/Lipit-Enlil" title="Lipit-Enlil">Lipit-Enlil</a> <a href="/wiki/Erra-imitti" title="Erra-imitti">Erra-imitti</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-bani" title="Enlil-bani">Enlil-bani</a> <a href="/wiki/Zambiya" title="Zambiya">Zambiya</a> <a href="/wiki/Iter-pisha" title="Iter-pisha">Iter-pisha</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-du-kuga" title="Ur-du-kuga">Ur-du-kuga</a> <a href="/wiki/Suen-magir" title="Suen-magir">Suen-magir</a> <a href="/wiki/Damiq-ilishu" title="Damiq-ilishu">Damiq-ilishu</a> Dynasty of Larsa: <a href="/wiki/Naplanum" title="Naplanum">Naplanum</a> <a href="/wiki/Emisum" title="Emisum">Emisum</a> <a href="/wiki/Samium" title="Samium">Samium</a> <a href="/wiki/Zabaia" title="Zabaia">Zabaia</a> <a href="/wiki/Gungunum" title="Gungunum">Gungunum</a> <a href="/wiki/Abisare" title="Abisare">Abisare</a> <a href="/wiki/Sumuel" title="Sumuel">Sumuel</a> <a href="/wiki/Nur-Adad" title="Nur-Adad">Nur-Adad</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-Iddinam" title="Sin-Iddinam">Sin-Iddinam</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-Eribam" title="Sin-Eribam">Sin-Eribam</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-Iqisham" title="Sin-Iqisham">Sin-Iqisham</a> <a href="/wiki/Silli-Adad" title="Silli-Adad">Silli-Adad</a> <a href="/wiki/Warad-Sin" title="Warad-Sin">Warad-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Rim-Sin_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Rim-Sin I">Rim-Sin I</a> (...) <a href="/wiki/Rim-Sin_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Rim-Sin II">Rim-Sin II</a> Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk <a href="/wiki/S%C3%AEn-k%C4%81%C5%A1id" title="Sîn-kāšid">Sîn-kāšid</a> Sîn-iribam <a href="/wiki/S%C3%AEn-g%C4%81mil" title="Sîn-gāmil">Sîn-gāmil</a> Ilum-gamil <a href="/wiki/An-am" title="An-am">An-am</a> <a href="/wiki/Irdanene" title="Irdanene">Irdanene</a> <a href="/wiki/R%C3%AEm-Anum" title="Rîm-Anum">Rîm-Anum</a> Nabi-ilišu </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Sukkalmah_dynasty" title="Sukkalmah dynasty">Sukkalmah dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Siwe-Palar-Khuppak" title="Siwe-Palar-Khuppak">Siwe-Palar-Khuppak</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt">Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_I" title="Amenemhat I">Amenemhat I</a> <a href="/wiki/Senusret_I" title="Senusret I">Senusret I</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_II" title="Amenemhat II">Amenemhat II</a> <a href="/wiki/Senusret_II" title="Senusret II">Senusret II</a> <a href="/wiki/Senusret_III" title="Senusret III">Senusret III</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_III" title="Amenemhat III">Amenemhat III</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_IV" title="Amenemhat IV">Amenemhat IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Sobekneferu" title="Sobekneferu">Sobekneferu</a>♀ </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">1800–1595 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a> (<a href="/wiki/Biblical" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical">Biblical</a>) <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Byblos" title="Kings of Byblos">Kings of Byblos</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Tyre" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Tyre">Kings of Tyre</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Sidon" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Sidon">Kings of Sidon</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Yamhad" title="Yamhad">Yamhad</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yamhad_dynasty" title="Yamhad dynasty">Yamhad dynasty</a>) (Amorites) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="2" rowspan="6"><a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_period" title="Old Assyrian period">Old Assyria</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Assyrian_kings" title="List of Assyrian kings">Shamshi-Adad</a> dynasty 1808–1736 BCE) (Amorites) <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_I" title="Shamshi-Adad I">Shamshi-Adad I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishme-Dagan_I" title="Ishme-Dagan I">Ishme-Dagan I</a> <a href="/wiki/Mut-Ashkur" title="Mut-Ashkur">Mut-Ashkur</a> <a href="/wiki/Rimush_of_Assyria" title="Rimush of Assyria">Rimush</a> <a href="/wiki/Asinum" title="Asinum">Asinum</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-dugul" title="Ashur-dugul">Ashur-dugul</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-apla-idi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashur-apla-idi">Ashur-apla-idi</a> <a href="/wiki/Nasir-Sin" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasir-Sin">Nasir-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-namir" class="mw-redirect" title="Sin-namir">Sin-namir</a> <a href="/wiki/Ipqi-Ishtar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ipqi-Ishtar">Ipqi-Ishtar</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-salulu" class="mw-redirect" title="Adad-salulu">Adad-salulu</a> <a href="/wiki/Adasi_(Assyria)" title="Adasi (Assyria)">Adasi</a> (Non-dynastic usurpers 1735–1701 BCE) <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Sin" title="Puzur-Sin">Puzur-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-dugul" title="Ashur-dugul">Ashur-dugul</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-apla-idi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashur-apla-idi">Ashur-apla-idi</a> <a href="/wiki/Nasir-Sin" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasir-Sin">Nasir-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-namir" class="mw-redirect" title="Sin-namir">Sin-namir</a> <a href="/wiki/Ipqi-Ishtar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ipqi-Ishtar">Ipqi-Ishtar</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-salulu" class="mw-redirect" title="Adad-salulu">Adad-salulu</a> <a href="/wiki/Adasi_(Assyria)" title="Adasi (Assyria)">Adasi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Adaside_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Adaside dynasty">Adaside dynasty</a> 1700–722 BCE) <a href="/wiki/Bel-bani" title="Bel-bani">Bel-bani</a> <a href="/wiki/Libaya" title="Libaya">Libaya</a> <a href="/wiki/Sharma-Adad_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharma-Adad I">Sharma-Adad I</a> <a href="/wiki/Iptar-Sin" title="Iptar-Sin">Iptar-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Bazaya" title="Bazaya">Bazaya</a> <a href="/wiki/Lullaya" title="Lullaya">Lullaya</a> <a href="/wiki/Shu-Ninua" title="Shu-Ninua">Shu-Ninua</a> <a href="/wiki/Sharma-Adad_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharma-Adad II">Sharma-Adad II</a> <a href="/wiki/Erishum_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Erishum III">Erishum III</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_II" title="Shamshi-Adad II">Shamshi-Adad II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishme-Dagan_II" title="Ishme-Dagan II">Ishme-Dagan II</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_III" title="Shamshi-Adad III">Shamshi-Adad III</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nirari_I" title="Ashur-nirari I">Ashur-nirari I</a> <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Ashur_III" title="Puzur-Ashur III">Puzur-Ashur III</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-nasir_I" title="Enlil-nasir I">Enlil-nasir I</a> <a href="/wiki/Nur-ili" title="Nur-ili">Nur-ili</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-shaduni" title="Ashur-shaduni">Ashur-shaduni</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-rabi_I" title="Ashur-rabi I">Ashur-rabi I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nadin-ahhe_I" title="Ashur-nadin-ahhe I">Ashur-nadin-ahhe I</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-Nasir_II" title="Enlil-Nasir II">Enlil-Nasir II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nirari_II" title="Ashur-nirari II">Ashur-nirari II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-bel-nisheshu" title="Ashur-bel-nisheshu">Ashur-bel-nisheshu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-rim-nisheshu" title="Ashur-rim-nisheshu">Ashur-rim-nisheshu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nadin-ahhe_II" title="Ashur-nadin-ahhe II">Ashur-nadin-ahhe II</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" colspan="4" rowspan="2"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg/40px-F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg" decoding="async" width="40" height="44" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg/60px-F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg/80px-F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3170" data-file-height="3500" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian dynasty">First Babylonian dynasty</a> ("Old Babylonian Period") (<a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a>) <a href="/wiki/Sumu-abum" title="Sumu-abum">Sumu-abum</a> <a href="/wiki/Sumu-la-El" title="Sumu-la-El">Sumu-la-El</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-muballit" class="mw-redirect" title="Sin-muballit">Sin-muballit</a><a href="/wiki/Sabium" title="Sabium">Sabium</a> <a href="/wiki/Apil-Sin" title="Apil-Sin">Apil-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-muballit" class="mw-redirect" title="Sin-muballit">Sin-muballit</a> <a href="/wiki/Hammurabi" title="Hammurabi">Hammurabi</a> <a href="/wiki/Samsu-iluna" title="Samsu-iluna">Samsu-iluna</a> <a href="/wiki/Abi-eshuh" class="mw-redirect" title="Abi-eshuh">Abi-eshuh</a> <a href="/wiki/Ammi-ditana" class="mw-redirect" title="Ammi-ditana">Ammi-ditana</a> <a href="/wiki/Ammi-saduqa" class="mw-redirect" title="Ammi-saduqa">Ammi-saduqa</a> <a href="/wiki/Samsu-Ditana" title="Samsu-Ditana">Samsu-Ditana</a> <a href="/wiki/Early_Kassite_rulers" title="Early Kassite rulers">Early Kassite rulers</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"> Second Babylonian dynasty ("<a href="/wiki/Sealand_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Sealand Dynasty">Sealand Dynasty</a>") <a href="/wiki/Ilum-ma-ili" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilum-ma-ili">Ilum-ma-ili</a> <a href="/wiki/Itti-ili-nibi" class="mw-redirect" title="Itti-ili-nibi">Itti-ili-nibi</a> <a href="/wiki/Damqi-ilishu" class="mw-redirect" title="Damqi-ilishu">Damqi-ilishu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishkibal" class="mw-redirect" title="Ishkibal">Ishkibal</a> <a href="/wiki/Shushushi" class="mw-redirect" title="Shushushi">Shushushi</a> <a href="/wiki/Gulkishar" class="mw-redirect" title="Gulkishar">Gulkishar</a> <a href="/wiki/Sealand_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Sealand Dynasty">mDIŠ+U-EN</a> <a href="/wiki/Peshgaldaramesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Peshgaldaramesh">Peshgaldaramesh</a> <a href="/wiki/Ayadaragalama" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayadaragalama">Ayadaragalama</a> <a href="/wiki/Akurduana" class="mw-redirect" title="Akurduana">Akurduana</a> <a href="/wiki/Melamkurkurra" class="mw-redirect" title="Melamkurkurra">Melamkurkurra</a> <a href="/wiki/Ea-gamil" class="mw-redirect" title="Ea-gamil">Ea-gamil</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Second_Intermediate_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Intermediate Period">Second Intermediate Period</a> <a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Sixteenth</a> Dynasty <a href="/wiki/Abydos_Dynasty" title="Abydos Dynasty">Abydos</a> Dynasty <a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt">Seventeenth</a> Dynasty </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> ("<a href="/wiki/Hyksos" title="Hyksos">Hyksos</a>") <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_(axe_of_Ahmose_I,_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II)_Colorized_per_source.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos"><img alt="Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg/35px-Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg" decoding="async" width="35" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg/53px-Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg/70px-Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg 2x" data-file-width="614" data-file-height="690" /></a><figcaption>Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Semqen" title="Semqen">Semqen</a> <a href="/wiki/Aperanat" title="Aperanat">'Aper-'Anati</a> <a href="/wiki/Sakir-Har" title="Sakir-Har">Sakir-Har</a> <a href="/wiki/Khyan" title="Khyan">Khyan</a> <a href="/wiki/Apepi_(pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Apepi (pharaoh)">Apepi</a> <a href="/wiki/Khamudi" title="Khamudi">Khamudi</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a> (1600–1260 BCE) <a href="/wiki/Kirta" title="Kirta">Kirta</a> <a href="/wiki/Shuttarna_I" title="Shuttarna I">Shuttarna I</a> <a href="/wiki/Parshatatar" class="mw-redirect" title="Parshatatar">Parshatatar</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">1531–1155 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tutankhamun"><img alt="Tutankhamun" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg/30px-CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="38" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg/45px-CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg/60px-CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Tutankhamun</figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Ahmose_I" title="Ahmose I">Ahmose I</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenhotep_I" title="Amenhotep I">Amenhotep I</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="6" rowspan="3"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg/30px-Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg/45px-Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg/60px-Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2639" data-file-height="3973" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure>Third Babylonian dynasty (<a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a>) <a href="/wiki/Agum-Kakrime" class="mw-redirect" title="Agum-Kakrime">Agum-Kakrime</a> <a href="/wiki/Burnaburiash_I" title="Burnaburiash I">Burnaburiash I</a> <a href="/wiki/Kashtiliash_III" title="Kashtiliash III">Kashtiliash III</a> <a href="/wiki/Ulamburiash" title="Ulamburiash">Ulamburiash</a> <a href="/wiki/Agum_III" title="Agum III">Agum III</a> <a href="/wiki/Karaindash" title="Karaindash">Karaindash</a> <a href="/wiki/Kadashman-harbe_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Kadashman-harbe I">Kadashman-harbe I</a> <a href="/wiki/Kurigalzu_I" title="Kurigalzu I">Kurigalzu I</a> <a href="/wiki/Kadashman-Enlil_I" title="Kadashman-Enlil I">Kadashman-Enlil I</a> <a href="/wiki/Burnaburiash_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Burnaburiash II">Burnaburiash II</a> <a href="/wiki/Kara-hardash" title="Kara-hardash">Kara-hardash</a> <a href="/wiki/Nazi-Bugash" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi-Bugash">Nazi-Bugash</a> <a href="/wiki/Kurigalzu_II" title="Kurigalzu II">Kurigalzu II</a> <a href="/wiki/Nazi-Maruttash" title="Nazi-Maruttash">Nazi-Maruttash</a> <a href="/wiki/Kadashman-Turgu" title="Kadashman-Turgu">Kadashman-Turgu</a> <a href="/wiki/Kadashman-Enlil_II" title="Kadashman-Enlil II">Kadashman-Enlil II</a> <a href="/wiki/Kudur-Enlil" title="Kudur-Enlil">Kudur-Enlil</a> <a href="/wiki/Shagarakti-Shuriash" title="Shagarakti-Shuriash">Shagarakti-Shuriash</a> <a href="/wiki/Kashtiliashu_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Kashtiliashu IV">Kashtiliashu IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-nadin-shumi" title="Enlil-nadin-shumi">Enlil-nadin-shumi</a> <a href="/wiki/Kadashman-Harbe_II" title="Kadashman-Harbe II">Kadashman-Harbe II</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-shuma-iddina" title="Adad-shuma-iddina">Adad-shuma-iddina</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-shuma-usur" title="Adad-shuma-usur">Adad-shuma-usur</a> <a href="/wiki/Meli-Shipak_II" title="Meli-Shipak II">Meli-Shipak II</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-apla-iddina_I" title="Marduk-apla-iddina I">Marduk-apla-iddina I</a> <a href="/wiki/Zababa-shuma-iddin" title="Zababa-shuma-iddin">Zababa-shuma-iddin</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-nadin-ahi" title="Enlil-nadin-ahi">Enlil-nadin-ahi</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Middle Elamite period</a> (1500–1100 BCE) <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Elam" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Elam">Kidinuid dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Elam" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Elam">Igehalkid dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Untash-Napirisha" title="Untash-Napirisha">Untash-Napirisha</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="4" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Thutmose_I" title="Thutmose I">Thutmose I</a> <a href="/wiki/Thutmose_II" title="Thutmose II">Thutmose II</a> <a href="/wiki/Hatshepsut" title="Hatshepsut">Hatshepsut</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Thutmose_III" title="Thutmose III">Thutmose III</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Amenhotep_II" title="Amenhotep II">Amenhotep II</a> <a href="/wiki/Thutmose_IV" title="Thutmose IV">Thutmose IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenhotep_III" title="Amenhotep III">Amenhotep III</a> <a href="/wiki/Akhenaten" title="Akhenaten">Akhenaten</a> <a href="/wiki/Smenkhkare" title="Smenkhkare">Smenkhkare</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferneferuaten" title="Neferneferuaten">Neferneferuaten</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Tutankhamun" title="Tutankhamun">Tutankhamun</a> <a href="/wiki/Ay_(pharaoh)" title="Ay (pharaoh)">Ay</a> <a href="/wiki/Horemheb" title="Horemheb">Horemheb</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Hittite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hittite Empire">Hittite Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_I" title="Ramesses I">Ramesses I</a> <a href="/wiki/Seti_I" title="Seti I">Seti I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_II" title="Ramesses II">Ramesses II</a> <a href="/wiki/Merneptah" title="Merneptah">Merneptah</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenmesse" title="Amenmesse">Amenmesses</a> <a href="/wiki/Seti_II" title="Seti II">Seti II</a> <a href="/wiki/Siptah" title="Siptah">Siptah</a> <a href="/wiki/Twosret" class="mw-redirect" title="Twosret">Twosret</a>♀ </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="7" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Elamite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Elamite Empire">Elamite Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Shutrukid_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Shutrukid Dynasty">Shutrukid dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Shutruk-Nakhunte" title="Shutruk-Nakhunte">Shutruk-Nakhunte</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1155–1025 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt">Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Setnakhte" title="Setnakhte">Setnakhte</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_III" title="Ramesses III">Ramesses III</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_IV" title="Ramesses IV">Ramesses IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_V" title="Ramesses V">Ramesses V</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_VI" title="Ramesses VI">Ramesses VI</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_VII" title="Ramesses VII">Ramesses VII</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_VIII" title="Ramesses VIII">Ramesses VIII</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_IX" title="Ramesses IX">Ramesses IX</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_X" title="Ramesses X">Ramesses X</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_XI" title="Ramesses XI">Ramesses XI</a> <a href="/wiki/Third_Intermediate_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Intermediate Period">Third Intermediate Period</a> <a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Smendes" title="Smendes">Smendes</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemnisu" title="Amenemnisu">Amenemnisu</a> <a href="/wiki/Psusennes_I" title="Psusennes I">Psusennes I</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemope_(pharaoh)" title="Amenemope (pharaoh)">Amenemope</a> <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_the_Elder" title="Osorkon the Elder">Osorkon the Elder</a> <a href="/wiki/Siamun" title="Siamun">Siamun</a> <a href="/wiki/Psusennes_II" title="Psusennes II">Psusennes II</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Byblos" title="Kings of Byblos">Kings of Byblos</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Tyre" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Tyre">Kings of Tyre</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Sidon" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Sidon">Kings of Sidon</a> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(united_monarchy)" title="Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)">Kingdom of Israel</a> <a href="/wiki/Saul" title="Saul">Saul</a> <a href="/wiki/Ish-bosheth" title="Ish-bosheth">Ish-bosheth</a> <a href="/wiki/David" title="David">David</a> <a href="/wiki/Solomon" title="Solomon">Solomon</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="1" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Syro-Hittite_states" title="Syro-Hittite states">Syro-Hittite states</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyria</a> <a href="/wiki/Eriba-Adad_I" title="Eriba-Adad I">Eriba-Adad I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-uballit_I" title="Ashur-uballit I">Ashur-uballit I</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-nirari" title="Enlil-nirari">Enlil-nirari</a> <a href="/wiki/Arik-den-ili" title="Arik-den-ili">Arik-den-ili</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-nirari_I" title="Adad-nirari I">Adad-nirari I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_I" title="Shalmaneser I">Shalmaneser I</a> <a href="/wiki/Tukulti-Ninurta_I" title="Tukulti-Ninurta I">Tukulti-Ninurta I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nadin-apli" title="Ashur-nadin-apli">Ashur-nadin-apli</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nirari_III" title="Ashur-nirari III">Ashur-nirari III</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-kudurri-usur" title="Enlil-kudurri-usur">Enlil-kudurri-usur</a> <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-apal-Ekur" title="Ninurta-apal-Ekur">Ninurta-apal-Ekur</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-dan_I" title="Ashur-dan I">Ashur-dan I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur" title="Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur">Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur</a> <a href="/wiki/Mutakkil-Nusku" title="Mutakkil-Nusku">Mutakkil-Nusku</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-resh-ishi_I" title="Ashur-resh-ishi I">Ashur-resh-ishi I</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_I" title="Tiglath-Pileser I">Tiglath-Pileser I</a> <a href="/wiki/Asharid-apal-Ekur" title="Asharid-apal-Ekur">Asharid-apal-Ekur</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-bel-kala" title="Ashur-bel-kala">Ashur-bel-kala</a> <a href="/wiki/Eriba-Adad_II" title="Eriba-Adad II">Eriba-Adad II</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_IV" title="Shamshi-Adad IV">Shamshi-Adad IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashurnasirpal_I" title="Ashurnasirpal I">Ashurnasirpal I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_II" title="Shalmaneser II">Shalmaneser II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nirari_IV" title="Ashur-nirari IV">Ashur-nirari IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-rabi_II" title="Ashur-rabi II">Ashur-rabi II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-resh-ishi_II" title="Ashur-resh-ishi II">Ashur-resh-ishi II</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_II" title="Tiglath-Pileser II">Tiglath-Pileser II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-dan_II" title="Ashur-dan II">Ashur-dan II</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="6">Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("<a href="/wiki/Second_Dynasty_of_Isin" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Dynasty of Isin">Second Dynasty of Isin</a>") <a href="/wiki/Marduk-kabit-ahheshu" title="Marduk-kabit-ahheshu">Marduk-kabit-ahheshu</a> <a href="/wiki/Itti-Marduk-balatu_(king)" title="Itti-Marduk-balatu (king)">Itti-Marduk-balatu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-nadin-shumi" title="Ninurta-nadin-shumi">Ninurta-nadin-shumi</a> <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_I" title="Nebuchadnezzar I">Nebuchadnezzar I</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-nadin-apli" title="Enlil-nadin-apli">Enlil-nadin-apli</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-nadin-ahhe" title="Marduk-nadin-ahhe">Marduk-nadin-ahhe</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-shapik-zeri" title="Marduk-shapik-zeri">Marduk-shapik-zeri</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-apla-iddina" title="Adad-apla-iddina">Adad-apla-iddina</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-ahhe-eriba" title="Marduk-ahhe-eriba">Marduk-ahhe-eriba</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-zer-X" title="Marduk-zer-X">Marduk-zer-X</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-shum-libur" title="Nabu-shum-libur">Nabu-shum-libur</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Neo-Elamite period</a> (1100–540 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td>1025–934 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="6">Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") <a href="/wiki/Simbar-shipak" title="Simbar-shipak">Simbar-shipak</a> <a href="/wiki/Ea-mukin-zeri" title="Ea-mukin-zeri">Ea-mukin-zeri</a> <a href="/wiki/Kashshu-nadin-ahi" title="Kashshu-nadin-ahi">Kashshu-nadin-ahi</a> <a href="/wiki/Eulmash-shakin-shumi" title="Eulmash-shakin-shumi">Eulmash-shakin-shumi</a> <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-kudurri-usur_I" title="Ninurta-kudurri-usur I">Ninurta-kudurri-usur I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shirikti-shuqamuna" title="Shirikti-shuqamuna">Shirikti-shuqamuna</a> <a href="/wiki/Mar-biti-apla-usur" title="Mar-biti-apla-usur">Mar-biti-apla-usur</a> <a href="/wiki/Nab%C3%BB-mukin-apli" title="Nabû-mukin-apli">Nabû-mukin-apli</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>911–745 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_I" title="Shoshenq I">Shoshenq I</a> <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_I" title="Osorkon I">Osorkon I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_II" title="Shoshenq II">Shoshenq II</a> <a href="/wiki/Takelot_I" title="Takelot I">Takelot I</a> <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_II" title="Osorkon II">Osorkon II</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_III" title="Shoshenq III">Shoshenq III</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_IV" title="Shoshenq IV">Shoshenq IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Pami" title="Pami">Pami</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_V" title="Shoshenq V">Shoshenq V</a> <a href="/wiki/Pedubast_II" title="Pedubast II">Pedubast II</a> <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_IV" title="Osorkon IV">Osorkon IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Harsiese_A" title="Harsiese A">Harsiese A</a> <a href="/wiki/Takelot_II" title="Takelot II">Takelot II</a> <a href="/wiki/Pedubast_I" title="Pedubast I">Pedubast I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_VI" title="Shoshenq VI">Shoshenq VI</a> <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_III" title="Osorkon III">Osorkon III</a> <a href="/wiki/Takelot_III" title="Takelot III">Takelot III</a> <a href="/wiki/Rudamun" title="Rudamun">Rudamun</a> <a href="/wiki/Ini_(pharaoh)" title="Ini (pharaoh)">Menkheperre Ini</a> <a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Tefnakht" title="Tefnakht">Tefnakht</a> <a href="/wiki/Bakenranef" title="Bakenranef">Bakenranef</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Samaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Samaria">Kingdom of Samaria</a> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Kingdom of Judah</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-nirari_II" title="Adad-nirari II">Adad-nirari II</a> <a href="/wiki/Tukulti-Ninurta_II" title="Tukulti-Ninurta II">Tukulti-Ninurta II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashurnasirpal_II" title="Ashurnasirpal II">Ashurnasirpal II</a> <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_III" title="Shalmaneser III">Shalmaneser III</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_V" title="Shamshi-Adad V">Shamshi-Adad V</a> <a href="/wiki/Shammuramat" title="Shammuramat">Shammuramat</a>♀ (regent) <a href="/wiki/Adad-nirari_III" title="Adad-nirari III">Adad-nirari III</a> <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_IV" title="Shalmaneser IV">Shalmaneser IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-dan_III" title="Ashur-dan III">Ashur-Dan III</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nirari_V" title="Ashur-nirari V">Ashur-nirari V</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="6"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg/45px-Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg" decoding="async" width="45" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg/68px-Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg/90px-Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1154" data-file-height="937" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure>Eight Babylonian Dynasty <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-kudurri-usur_II" title="Ninurta-kudurri-usur II">Ninurta-kudurri-usur II</a> <a href="/wiki/Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina" title="Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina">Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamash-mudammiq" title="Shamash-mudammiq">Shamash-mudammiq</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-shuma-ukin_I" title="Nabu-shuma-ukin I">Nabu-shuma-ukin I</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-apla-iddina" title="Nabu-apla-iddina">Nabu-apla-iddina</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-zakir-shumi_I" title="Marduk-zakir-shumi I">Marduk-zakir-shumi I</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-balassu-iqbi" title="Marduk-balassu-iqbi">Marduk-balassu-iqbi</a> <a href="/wiki/Baba-aha-iddina" title="Baba-aha-iddina">Baba-aha-iddina</a> (five kings) <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-apla-X" title="Ninurta-apla-X">Ninurta-apla-X</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-bel-zeri" title="Marduk-bel-zeri">Marduk-bel-zeri</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-apla-usur" title="Marduk-apla-usur">Marduk-apla-usur</a> <a href="/wiki/Eriba-Marduk" title="Eriba-Marduk">Eriba-Marduk</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-shuma-ishkun" title="Nabu-shuma-ishkun">Nabu-shuma-ishkun</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabonassar" title="Nabonassar">Nabonassar</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-nadin-zeri" title="Nabu-nadin-zeri">Nabu-nadin-zeri</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-shuma-ukin_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Nabu-shuma-ukin II">Nabu-shuma-ukin II</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-mukin-zeri" title="Nabu-mukin-zeri">Nabu-mukin-zeri</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Elam" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Elam">Humban-Tahrid dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Urtak_(king_of_Elam)" title="Urtak (king of Elam)">Urtak</a> <a href="/wiki/Teumman" title="Teumman">Teumman</a> <a href="/wiki/Ummanigash_(son_of_Urtak)" title="Ummanigash (son of Urtak)">Ummanigash</a> <a href="/wiki/Tammaritu_(son_of_Urtak)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tammaritu (son of Urtak)">Tammaritu I</a> <a href="/wiki/Indabibi" title="Indabibi">Indabibi</a> <a href="/wiki/Humban-haltash_III" title="Humban-haltash III">Humban-haltash III</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">745–609 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Taharqa"><img alt="Taharqa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg/30px-Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg/45px-Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg/60px-Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2112" data-file-height="2816" /></a><figcaption>Taharqa</figcaption></figure>("<a href="/wiki/Black_Pharaohs" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Pharaohs">Black Pharaohs</a>") <a href="/wiki/Piye" title="Piye">Piye</a> <a href="/wiki/Shebitku" title="Shebitku">Shebitku</a> <a href="/wiki/Shabaka" title="Shabaka">Shabaka</a> <a href="/wiki/Taharqa" title="Taharqa">Taharqa</a> <a href="/wiki/Tantamani" title="Tantamani">Tanutamun</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="10" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sargonid_dynasty" title="Sargonid dynasty">Sargonid dynasty</a>) <a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_III" title="Tiglath-Pileser III">Tiglath-Pileser</a>† <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_V" title="Shalmaneser V">Shalmaneser</a>† <a href="/wiki/Marduk-apla-iddina_II" title="Marduk-apla-iddina II">Marduk-apla-iddina II</a> <a href="/wiki/Sargon_II" title="Sargon II">Sargon</a>† <a href="/wiki/Sennacherib" title="Sennacherib">Sennacherib</a>† <a href="/wiki/Marduk-zakir-shumi_II" title="Marduk-zakir-shumi II">Marduk-zakir-shumi II</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-apla-iddina_II" title="Marduk-apla-iddina II">Marduk-apla-iddina II</a> <a href="/wiki/Bel-ibni" title="Bel-ibni">Bel-ibni</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nadin-shumi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashur-nadin-shumi">Ashur-nadin-shumi</a>† <a href="/wiki/Nergal-ushezib" title="Nergal-ushezib">Nergal-ushezib</a> <a href="/wiki/Mushezib-Marduk" title="Mushezib-Marduk">Mushezib-Marduk</a> <a href="/wiki/Esarhaddon" title="Esarhaddon">Esarhaddon</a>† <a href="/wiki/Ashurbanipal" title="Ashurbanipal">Ashurbanipal</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-etil-ilani" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashur-etil-ilani">Ashur-etil-ilani</a> <a href="/wiki/Sinsharishkun" title="Sinsharishkun">Sinsharishkun</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-shumu-lishir" class="mw-redirect" title="Sin-shumu-lishir">Sin-shumu-lishir</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-uballit_II" title="Ashur-uballit II">Ashur-uballit II</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Assyrian conquest of Egypt">Assyrian conquest of Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_conquest_of_Elam" title="Assyrian conquest of Elam">Assyrian conquest of Elam</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>626–539 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Late_Period_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Late Period of ancient Egypt">Late Period</a> <a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Necho_I" title="Necho I">Necho I</a> <a href="/wiki/Psamtik_I" title="Psamtik I">Psamtik I</a> <a href="/wiki/Necho_II" title="Necho II">Necho II</a> <a href="/wiki/Psamtik_II" title="Psamtik II">Psamtik II</a> <a href="/wiki/Apries" title="Apries">Wahibre</a> <a href="/wiki/Amasis_II" title="Amasis II">Ahmose II</a> <a href="/wiki/Psamtik_III" title="Psamtik III">Psamtik III</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="10"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabopolassar" title="Nabopolassar">Nabopolassar</a> <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II" title="Nebuchadnezzar II">Nebuchadnezzar II</a> <a href="/wiki/Amel-Marduk" title="Amel-Marduk">Amel-Marduk</a> <a href="/wiki/Neriglissar" title="Neriglissar">Neriglissar</a> <a href="/wiki/Labashi-Marduk" title="Labashi-Marduk">Labashi-Marduk</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabonidus" title="Nabonidus">Nabonidus</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="10"><a href="/wiki/Median_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Median Empire">Median Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Deioces" title="Deioces">Deioces</a> <a href="/wiki/Phraortes" title="Phraortes">Phraortes</a> <a href="/wiki/Madyes" title="Madyes">Madyes</a> <a href="/wiki/Cyaxares" title="Cyaxares">Cyaxares</a> <a href="/wiki/Astyages" title="Astyages">Astyages</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">539–331 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt</a> (<a href="/wiki/First_Achaemenid_conquest_of_Egypt" title="First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt">First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt</a>) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="1" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Byblos" title="Kings of Byblos">Kings of Byblos</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Tyre" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Tyre">Kings of Tyre</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Sidon" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Sidon">Kings of Sidon</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="10" rowspan="3"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Darius_In_Parse.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Darius_In_Parse.JPG/30px-Darius_In_Parse.JPG" decoding="async" width="30" height="53" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Darius_In_Parse.JPG/45px-Darius_In_Parse.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Darius_In_Parse.JPG/60px-Darius_In_Parse.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1775" data-file-height="3130" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus</a> <a href="/wiki/Cambyses_II" title="Cambyses II">Cambyses</a> <a href="/wiki/Darius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius I">Darius I</a> <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes</a> <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_I" title="Artaxerxes I">Artaxerxes I</a> <a href="/wiki/Darius_II" title="Darius II">Darius II</a> <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_II" title="Artaxerxes II">Artaxerxes II</a> <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_III" title="Artaxerxes III">Artaxerxes III</a> <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Artaxerxes IV">Artaxerxes IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-eighth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Twenty-ninth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Thirtieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt">Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Thirty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt">Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>331–141 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFDAB9;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty" title="Argead dynasty">Argead dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Egypt">Ptolemaic Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy I Soter</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_Keraunos" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy Keraunos">Ptolemy Keraunos</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_II_Philadelphus" title="Ptolemy II Philadelphus">Ptolemy II Philadelphus</a> <a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_II" title="Arsinoe II">Arsinoe II</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_III_Euergetes" title="Ptolemy III Euergetes">Ptolemy III Euergetes</a> <a href="/wiki/Berenice_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Berenice II">Berenice II Euergetis</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_IV_Philopator" title="Ptolemy IV Philopator">Ptolemy IV Philopator</a> <a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_III_Philopator" class="mw-redirect" title="Arsinoe III Philopator">Arsinoe III Philopator</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_V_Epiphanes" title="Ptolemy V Epiphanes">Ptolemy V Epiphanes</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_I_Syra" title="Cleopatra I Syra">Cleopatra I Syra</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VI_Philometor" title="Ptolemy VI Philometor">Ptolemy VI Philometor</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VII_Neos_Philopator" title="Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator">Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_II_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra II of Egypt">Cleopatra II Philometor Soter</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VIII_Physcon" title="Ptolemy VIII Physcon">Ptolemy VIII Physcon</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_III_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra III of Egypt">Cleopatra III</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_IX_Lathyros" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy IX Lathyros">Ptolemy IX Lathyros</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_IV_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra IV of Egypt">Cleopatra IV</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_X_Alexander_I" title="Ptolemy X Alexander I">Ptolemy X Alexander</a> <a href="/wiki/Berenice_III_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Berenice III of Egypt">Berenice III</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XI_Alexander_II" title="Ptolemy XI Alexander II">Ptolemy XI Alexander</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XII_Auletes" title="Ptolemy XII Auletes">Ptolemy XII Auletes</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_V" title="Cleopatra V">Cleopatra V</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_VI_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra VI of Egypt">Cleopatra VI Tryphaena</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Berenice_IV_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Berenice IV of Egypt">Berenice IV Epiphanea</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XIII_Theos_Philopator" title="Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator">Ptolemy XIII</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XIV_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy XIV of Egypt">Ptolemy XIV</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra VII Philopator</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Caesarion" title="Caesarion">Ptolemy XV Caesarion</a> <a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_IV" title="Arsinoe IV">Arsinoe IV</a>♀ </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFDAB9;" colspan="11">Hellenistic Period <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from Babylon"><img alt="Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from Babylon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg/60px-Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg/90px-Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg/120px-Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="395" /></a><figcaption>Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from Babylon</figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty" title="Argead dynasty">Argead dynasty</a>: <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander III</a> <a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Macedon" title="Philip III of Macedon">Philip III</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_IV_of_Macedon" title="Alexander IV of Macedon">Alexander IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Antigonid_dynasty" title="Antigonid dynasty">Antigonid dynasty</a>: <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_I_Monophthalmus" title="Antigonus I Monophthalmus">Antigonus I</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a>: <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_I_Nicator" title="Seleucus I Nicator">Seleucus I</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_I_Soter" title="Antiochus I Soter">Antiochus I</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_II_Theos" title="Antiochus II Theos">Antiochus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_II_Callinicus" title="Seleucus II Callinicus">Seleucus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_III_Ceraunus" title="Seleucus III Ceraunus">Seleucus III</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_III_the_Great" title="Antiochus III the Great">Antiochus III</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_IV_Philopator" title="Seleucus IV Philopator">Seleucus IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_IV_Epiphanes" title="Antiochus IV Epiphanes">Antiochus IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_V_Eupator" title="Antiochus V Eupator">Antiochus V</a> <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_Soter" title="Demetrius I Soter">Demetrius I</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Balas" title="Alexander Balas">Alexander III</a> <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_II_Nicator" title="Demetrius II Nicator">Demetrius II</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_VI_Dionysus" title="Antiochus VI Dionysus">Antiochus VI Dionysus</a> <a href="/wiki/Diodotus_Tryphon" title="Diodotus Tryphon">Diodotus Tryphon</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_VII_Sidetes" title="Antiochus VII Sidetes">Antiochus VII Sidetes</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>141–30 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Kingdom of Judea</a> <a href="/wiki/Simon_Thassi" title="Simon Thassi">Simon Thassi</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Hyrcanus" title="John Hyrcanus">John Hyrcanus</a> <a href="/wiki/Aristobulus_I" title="Aristobulus I">Aristobulus I</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Jannaeus" title="Alexander Jannaeus">Alexander Jannaeus</a> <a href="/wiki/Salome_Alexandra" title="Salome Alexandra">Salome Alexandra</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Hyrcanus_II" title="Hyrcanus II">Hyrcanus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Aristobulus_II" title="Aristobulus II">Aristobulus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_II_Mattathias" title="Antigonus II Mattathias">Antigonus II Mattathias</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFDAB9;" colspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_Zabinas" title="Alexander II Zabinas">Alexander II Zabinas</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_V_Philometor" title="Seleucus V Philometor">Seleucus V Philometor</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_VIII_Grypus" title="Antiochus VIII Grypus">Antiochus VIII Grypus</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_IX_Cyzicenus" title="Antiochus IX Cyzicenus">Antiochus IX Cyzicenus</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_VI_Epiphanes" title="Seleucus VI Epiphanes">Seleucus VI Epiphanes</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_X_Eusebes" title="Antiochus X Eusebes">Antiochus X Eusebes</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_XI_Epiphanes" title="Antiochus XI Epiphanes">Antiochus XI Epiphanes</a> <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_III_Eucaerus" title="Demetrius III Eucaerus">Demetrius III Eucaerus</a> <a href="/wiki/Philip_I_Philadelphus" title="Philip I Philadelphus">Philip I Philadelphus</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_XII_Dionysus" title="Antiochus XII Dionysus">Antiochus XII Dionysus</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_XIII_Asiaticus" title="Antiochus XIII Asiaticus">Antiochus XIII Asiaticus</a> <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_Philoromaeus" title="Philip II Philoromaeus">Philip II Philoromaeus</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFDEAD;" colspan="9" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_I_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates I of Parthia">Mithridates I</a> <a href="/wiki/Phraates_II" title="Phraates II">Phraates</a> <a href="/wiki/Hyspaosines" title="Hyspaosines">Hyspaosines</a> <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_I_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus I of Parthia">Artabanus</a> <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_II_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates II of Parthia">Mithridates II</a> <a href="/wiki/Gotarzes_I" title="Gotarzes I">Gotarzes</a> <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_III_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates III of Parthia">Mithridates III</a> <a href="/wiki/Orodes_I_of_Parthia" title="Orodes I of Parthia">Orodes I</a> <a href="/wiki/Sinatruces_of_Parthia" title="Sinatruces of Parthia">Sinatruces</a> <a href="/wiki/Phraates_III" title="Phraates III">Phraates III</a> <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_IV_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates IV of Parthia">Mithridates IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Orodes_II" title="Orodes II">Orodes II</a> <a href="/wiki/Phraates_IV" title="Phraates IV">Phraates IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiridates_II_of_Parthia" title="Tiridates II of Parthia">Tiridates II</a> <a href="/wiki/Musa_of_Parthia" title="Musa of Parthia">Musa</a> <a href="/wiki/Phraates_V" title="Phraates V">Phraates V</a> <a href="/wiki/Orodes_III_of_Parthia" title="Orodes III of Parthia">Orodes III</a> <a href="/wiki/Vonones_I" title="Vonones I">Vonones I</a> <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_II_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus II of Parthia">Artabanus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiridates_III_of_Parthia" title="Tiridates III of Parthia">Tiridates III</a> <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_II_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus II of Parthia">Artabanus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Vardanes_I" title="Vardanes I">Vardanes I</a> <a href="/wiki/Gotarzes_II_of_Parthia" class="mw-redirect" title="Gotarzes II of Parthia">Gotarzes II</a> <a href="/wiki/Meherdates" title="Meherdates">Meherdates</a> <a href="/wiki/Vonones_II" title="Vonones II">Vonones II</a> <a href="/wiki/Vologases_I_of_Parthia" title="Vologases I of Parthia">Vologases I</a> <a href="/wiki/Vardanes_II" title="Vardanes II">Vardanes II</a> <a href="/wiki/Pacorus_II" title="Pacorus II">Pacorus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Vologases_II_of_Parthia" title="Vologases II of Parthia">Vologases II</a> <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_III_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus III of Parthia">Artabanus III</a> <a href="/wiki/Osroes_I" title="Osroes I">Osroes I</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">30 BCE–116 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="4" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="2" rowspan="4">(<a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman conquest of Egypt">Roman conquest of Egypt</a>) <a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Province of Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Judea_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Judea (Roman province)">Judea</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Syria_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria (Roman province)">Syria</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1">116–117 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Province of Mesopotamia</a> under <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="6" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Parthamaspates_of_Parthia" title="Parthamaspates of Parthia">Parthamaspates of Parthia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>117–224 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Syria_Palaestina" title="Syria Palaestina">Syria Palaestina</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Province of Mesopotamia</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFDEAD;" colspan="8" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Sinatruces_II_of_Parthia" title="Sinatruces II of Parthia">Sinatruces II</a> <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_V_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates V of Parthia">Mithridates V</a> <a href="/wiki/Vologases_IV" title="Vologases IV">Vologases IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Osroes_II" title="Osroes II">Osroes II</a> <a href="/wiki/Vologases_V" title="Vologases V">Vologases V</a> <a href="/wiki/Vologases_VI" title="Vologases VI">Vologases VI</a> <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_IV_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus IV of Parthia">Artabanus IV</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>224–270 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="8" rowspan="6"><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Asoristan" title="Asoristan">Province of Asoristan</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coin_of_Ardashir_I_(phase_3),_Hamadan_mint.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint."><img alt="Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg/40px-Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg" decoding="async" width="40" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg/60px-Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg/80px-Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg 2x" data-file-width="397" data-file-height="388" /></a><figcaption>Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint.</figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Ardashir_I" title="Ardashir I">Ardashir I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a> <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_I" title="Hormizd I">Hormizd I</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_I" title="Bahram I">Bahram I</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_II" title="Bahram II">Bahram II</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_III" title="Bahram III">Bahram III</a> <a href="/wiki/Narseh" title="Narseh">Narseh</a> <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_II" title="Hormizd II">Hormizd II</a> <a href="/wiki/Adur_Narseh" title="Adur Narseh">Adur Narseh</a> <a href="/wiki/Shapur_II" title="Shapur II">Shapur II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ardashir_II" title="Ardashir II">Ardashir II</a> <a href="/wiki/Shapur_III" title="Shapur III">Shapur III</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_IV" title="Bahram IV">Bahram IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_I" title="Yazdegerd I">Yazdegerd I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shapur_IV" title="Shapur IV">Shapur IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_(son_of_Bahram_IV)" title="Khosrow (son of Bahram IV)">Khosrow</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_V" title="Bahram V">Bahram V</a> <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_II" title="Yazdegerd II">Yazdegerd II</a> <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_III" title="Hormizd III">Hormizd III</a> <a href="/wiki/Peroz_I" title="Peroz I">Peroz I</a> <a href="/wiki/Balash" title="Balash">Balash</a> <a href="/wiki/Kavad_I" title="Kavad I">Kavad I</a> <a href="/wiki/Jamasp" title="Jamasp">Jamasp</a> <a href="/wiki/Kavad_I" title="Kavad I">Kavad I</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_I" title="Khosrow I">Khosrow I</a> <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_IV" title="Hormizd IV">Hormizd IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_II" title="Khosrow II">Khosrow II</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_Chobin" title="Bahram Chobin">Bahram VI Chobin</a> <a href="/wiki/Vistahm" title="Vistahm">Vistahm</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>270–273 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#48D1CC;" colspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Vaballathus" title="Vaballathus">Vaballathus</a> <a href="/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia">Zenobia</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Antiochus" title="Septimius Antiochus">Antiochus</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">273–395 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Province of Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Syria_Palaestina" title="Syria Palaestina">Syria Palaestina</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Syria_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria (Roman province)">Syria</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Province of Mesopotamia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">395–618 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Egypt">Byzantine Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Palaestina_Prima" title="Palaestina Prima">Palaestina Prima</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palaestina_Secunda" title="Palaestina Secunda">Palaestina Secunda</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Syria">Byzantine Syria</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Mesopotamia">Byzantine Mesopotamia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>618–628 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="2">(<a href="/wiki/Sasanian_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Sasanian conquest of Egypt">Sasanian conquest of Egypt</a>) <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Egypt" title="Sasanian Egypt">Province of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Shahrbaraz" title="Shahrbaraz">Shahrbaraz</a> <a href="/wiki/Sahralanyozan" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahralanyozan">Sahralanyozan</a> <a href="/wiki/Shahrbaraz" title="Shahrbaraz">Shahrbaraz</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="11" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Asoristan" title="Asoristan">Province of Asoristan</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_II" title="Khosrow II">Khosrow II</a> <a href="/wiki/Kavad_II" title="Kavad II">Kavad II</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">628–641 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="8" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ardashir_III" title="Ardashir III">Ardashir III</a> <a href="/wiki/Shahrbaraz" title="Shahrbaraz">Shahrbaraz</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_III" title="Khosrow III">Khosrow III</a> <a href="/wiki/Boran" title="Boran">Boran</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Shapur-i_Shahrvaraz" title="Shapur-i Shahrvaraz">Shapur-i Shahrvaraz</a> <a href="/wiki/Azarmidokht" title="Azarmidokht">Azarmidokht</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Farrukh_Hormizd" title="Farrukh Hormizd">Farrukh Hormizd</a> <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_VI" title="Hormizd VI">Hormizd VI</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_IV" title="Khosrow IV">Khosrow IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Boran" title="Boran">Boran</a> <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_III" title="Yazdegerd III">Yazdegerd III</a> <a href="/wiki/Peroz_III" title="Peroz III">Peroz III</a> <a href="/wiki/Narsieh" title="Narsieh">Narsieh</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Egypt">Byzantine Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Palaestina_Prima" title="Palaestina Prima">Palaestina Prima</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palaestina_Secunda" title="Palaestina Secunda">Palaestina Secunda</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Syria">Byzantine Syria</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Mesopotamia">Byzantine Mesopotamia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>639–651 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#8FBC8F;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Egypt">Muslim conquest of Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#8FBC8F;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">Muslim conquest of the Levant</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#8FBC8F;" colspan="9"><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left; background:#F5F5F5; border:0px" rowspan="1" colspan="7"><a href="/wiki/File:Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg/10px-Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg/15px-Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg/20px-Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="585" /></a><a href="/wiki/Template:Neolithic_Chronology" title="Template:Neolithic Chronology"> Chronology of the Neolithic period</a> </td> <td style="text-align:right; background:#F5F5F5; border:0px" colspan="7" align="right"><a href="/wiki/File:Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg/12px-Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg/18px-Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg/24px-Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="585" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Template:Rulers_of_the_Ancient_Central_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Rulers of the Ancient Central Asia">Rulers of Ancient Central Asia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="14"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> Rulers with names in italics are considered fictional. </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalloSimpson1971" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_W._Hallo" title="William W. Hallo">Hallo, W.</a>; <a href="/wiki/William_Kelly_Simpson" title="William Kelly Simpson">Simpson, W.</a> (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Near+East&rft.pages=48-49&rft.pub=New+York%3A+Harcourt%2C+Brace%2C+Jovanovich&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Hallo&rft.aufirst=W.&rft.au=Simpson%2C+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdli.ox.ac.uk/wiki/rulers_of_mesopotamia">"Rulers of Mesopotamia"</a>. cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rulers+of+Mesopotamia&rft.pub=University+of+Oxford%2C+CNRS&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcdli.ox.ac.uk%2Fwiki%2Frulers_of_mesopotamia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomasPotts2020" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Ariane; <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Potts" title="Timothy Potts">Potts, Timothy</a> (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VsHEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR14">Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins</a>. Getty Publications. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60606-649-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60606-649-2"><bdi>978-1-60606-649-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mesopotamia%3A+Civilization+Begins&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=Getty+Publications&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-60606-649-2&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Ariane&rft.au=Potts%2C+Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVsHEDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPR14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoux1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Georges_Roux" title="Georges Roux">Roux, Georges</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=klZX8B_RzzYC&pg=PT534">Ancient Iraq</a>. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-193825-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-193825-7"><bdi>978-0-14-193825-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Iraq&rft.pages=532-534+%28Chronological+Tables%29&rft.pub=Penguin+Books+Limited&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-14-193825-7&rft.aulast=Roux&rft.aufirst=Georges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DklZX8B_RzzYC%26pg%3DPT534&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SKL-127">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SKL_127-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SKL_127-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SKL_127-2">c</a> Per <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_King_List" title="Sumerian King List">Sumerian King List</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnger2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Merrill_Unger" title="Merrill Unger">Unger, Merrill F.</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qw6vCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5">Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History</a>. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62564-606-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62564-606-4"><bdi>978-1-62564-606-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Israel+and+the+Aramaeans+of+Damascus%3A+A+Study+in+Archaeological+Illumination+of+Bible+History&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Wipf+and+Stock+Publishers&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-62564-606-4&rft.aulast=Unger&rft.aufirst=Merrill+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dqw6vCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASumer" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link 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/></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85130418">United States</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85026445">2</a></li></ul></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge131003&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007548500805171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geographic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a 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