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<span>Effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mitigation_and_elimination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mitigation_and_elimination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Mitigation and elimination</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mitigation_and_elimination-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Mitigation and elimination subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Mitigation_and_elimination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Conformal_coatings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conformal_coatings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Conformal coatings</span> </div> 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<div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Phenomenon in electrical devices</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SilverSulfideWhiskers1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/SilverSulfideWhiskers1.jpg/300px-SilverSulfideWhiskers1.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/SilverSulfideWhiskers1.jpg/450px-SilverSulfideWhiskers1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/SilverSulfideWhiskers1.jpg/600px-SilverSulfideWhiskers1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1099" data-file-height="752" /></a><figcaption>Silver whiskers growing out of surface-mount resistors</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Metal whiskering</b> is a phenomenon that occurs in electrical devices when metals form long whisker-like projections over time. <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">Tin</a> whiskers were noticed and documented in the <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tube</a> era of electronics early in the 20th century in equipment that used pure, or almost pure, tin solder in their production. It was noticed that small metal hairs or tendrils grew between metal solder pads, causing <a href="/wiki/Short_circuit" title="Short circuit">short circuits</a>. Metal whiskers form in the presence of compressive stress. <a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">Germanium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">cadmium</a>, and even <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> whiskers have been documented.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many techniques are used to mitigate the problem, including changes to the <a href="/wiki/Annealing_(metallurgy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Annealing (metallurgy)">annealing</a> process (heating and cooling), the addition of elements like copper and nickel, and the inclusion of <a href="/wiki/Conformal_coating" title="Conformal coating">conformal coatings</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Traditionally, lead has been added to slow down whisker growth in tin-based solders. </p><p>Following the <a href="/wiki/RoHS" class="mw-redirect" title="RoHS">Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive</a> (RoHS), the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> banned the use of lead in most consumer electronic products from 2006 due to health problems associated with lead and the "high-tech trash" problem, leading to a re-focusing on the issue of whisker formation in <a href="/wiki/Lead-free_solder" class="mw-redirect" title="Lead-free solder">lead-free solders</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mechanism">Mechanism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Whisker_(metallurgy)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Mechanism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tin_whisker_ESA385984.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Tin_whisker_ESA385984.jpg/220px-Tin_whisker_ESA385984.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Tin_whisker_ESA385984.jpg/330px-Tin_whisker_ESA385984.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Tin_whisker_ESA385984.jpg/440px-Tin_whisker_ESA385984.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1010" data-file-height="679" /></a><figcaption>Microscopic view of <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a> used to solder electronic components, showing a whisker</figcaption></figure> <p>Metal whiskering is a <a href="/wiki/Crystalline" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystalline">crystalline</a> <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgical</a> phenomenon involving the spontaneous growth of tiny, <a href="/wiki/Crystal_habit" title="Crystal habit">filiform</a> hairs from a <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metallic</a> surface. The effect is primarily seen on <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">elemental</a> metals but also occurs with <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloys</a>. </p><p>The mechanism behind metal whisker growth is <a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics#Condensed_matter_physics" title="List of unsolved problems in physics">not well understood</a>, but seems to be encouraged by compressive mechanical <a href="/wiki/Stress_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress (physics)">stresses</a> including: </p> <ul><li>energy gained due to electrostatic polarization of metal filaments in the electric field,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Residual_stress" title="Residual stress">residual stresses</a> caused by <a href="/wiki/Electroplating" title="Electroplating">electroplating</a>,</li> <li>mechanically induced stresses,</li> <li>stresses induced by <a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">diffusion</a> of different metals,</li> <li>thermally induced stresses, and</li> <li>strain gradients in materials.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Metal whiskers differ from metallic <a href="/wiki/Dendrite_(metal)" title="Dendrite (metal)">dendrites</a> in several respects: dendrites are <a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">fern</a>-shaped and grow across the surface of the metal, while metal whiskers are hair-like and project <a href="/wiki/Normal_(geometry)" title="Normal (geometry)">normal</a> to the surface. Dendrite growth requires moisture capable of dissolving the metal into a solution of metal ions, which are then redistributed by <a href="/wiki/Electromigration" title="Electromigration">electromigration</a> in the presence of an <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_field" title="Electromagnetic field">electromagnetic field</a>. While the precise mechanism for whisker formation remains unknown, it is known that whisker formation does not require either <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissolution (chemistry)">dissolution</a> of the metal or the presence of an electromagnetic field. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects">Effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Whisker_(metallurgy)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zinc_whiskers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Zinc_whiskers.jpg/300px-Zinc_whiskers.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Zinc_whiskers.jpg/450px-Zinc_whiskers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Zinc_whiskers.jpg/600px-Zinc_whiskers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2119" data-file-height="1808" /></a><figcaption>Several mm long zinc whiskers on zinc-coated steel</figcaption></figure> <p>Whiskers can cause <a href="/wiki/Short_circuit" title="Short circuit">short circuits</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electric_arc" title="Electric arc">arcing</a> in electrical equipment. The phenomenon was discovered by telephone companies in the late 1940s and it was later found that the addition of <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> to tin <a href="/wiki/Solder" title="Solder">solder</a> provided mitigation.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The European <a href="/wiki/RoHS" class="mw-redirect" title="RoHS">Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive</a> (RoHS), which took effect on July 1, 2006, restricted the use of lead in various types of electronic and electrical equipment. This has driven the use of lead-free alloys with a focus on preventing whisker formation <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033199720">.mw-parser-output div.crossreference{padding-left:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><span role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable crossreference">(see <a href="#Mitigation_and_elimination">§ Mitigation and elimination</a>)</span>. Others have focused on the development of oxygen-barrier coatings to prevent whisker formation.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Airborne zinc whiskers have been responsible for increased system failure rates in <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computer</a> <a href="/wiki/Server_room" title="Server room">server rooms</a>. Zinc whiskers grow from <a href="/wiki/Galvanization" title="Galvanization">galvanized</a> (electroplated) metal surfaces at a rate of up to a millimeter per year with a diameter of a few micrometers. Whiskers can form on the underside of zinc <a href="/wiki/Electroplating" title="Electroplating">electroplated</a> floor <a href="/wiki/Tile" title="Tile">tiles</a> on raised floors. These whiskers can then become airborne within the floor <a href="/wiki/Plenum_space" title="Plenum space">plenum</a> when the tiles are disturbed, usually during maintenance. Whiskers can be small enough to pass through air filters and can settle inside equipment, resulting in <a href="/wiki/Short_circuit" title="Short circuit">short circuits</a> and system failure.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">Tin</a> whiskers do not have to be airborne to damage equipment, as they are typically already growing directly in the environment where they can produce short circuits, i.e., the electronic equipment itself. At frequencies above 6 GHz or in fast digital circuits, tin whiskers can act like miniature <a href="/wiki/Antenna_(radio)" title="Antenna (radio)">antennas</a>, affecting the circuit <a href="/wiki/Characteristic_impedance" title="Characteristic impedance">impedance</a> and causing reflections. In computer disk drives they can break off and cause head crashes or bearing failures.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tin whiskers often cause failures in <a href="/wiki/Relay" title="Relay">relays</a> and have been found upon examination of failed relays in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear power</a> facilities.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Artificial_cardiac_pacemaker" title="Artificial cardiac pacemaker">Pacemakers</a> have been recalled due to tin whiskers.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research has also identified a particular failure mode for tin whiskers in vacuum (such as in space), where in high-power components a short-circuiting tin whisker is ionized into a plasma that is capable of conducting hundreds of amperes of current, massively increasing the damaging effect of the short circuit.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The possible increase in the use of pure tin in electronics due to the <a href="/wiki/RoHS" class="mw-redirect" title="RoHS">RoHS</a> directive drove <a href="/wiki/JEDEC" title="JEDEC">JEDEC</a> and <a href="/wiki/IPC_(electronics)" title="IPC (electronics)">IPC</a> to release a tin whisker acceptance testing standard and mitigation practices guideline intended to help manufacturers reduce the risk of tin whiskers in lead-free products.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">Silver</a> whiskers often appear in conjunction with a layer of <a href="/wiki/Silver_sulfide" title="Silver sulfide">silver sulfide</a>, which forms on the surface of <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a> <a href="/wiki/Electrical_contact" title="Electrical contact">electrical contacts</a> operating in an atmosphere rich in <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a> and high <a href="/wiki/Humidity" title="Humidity">humidity</a>. Such atmospheres can exist in <a href="/wiki/Sewage_treatment" title="Sewage treatment">sewage treatment</a> plants and <a href="/wiki/Paper_mill" title="Paper mill">paper mills</a>. </p><p>Whiskers over 20 μm in length were observed on <a href="/wiki/Gold_plating" title="Gold plating">gold-plated</a> surfaces and noted in a 2003 NASA internal memorandum.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The effects of metal whiskering were chronicled on <a href="/wiki/History_(U.S._TV_channel)" class="mw-redirect" title="History (U.S. TV channel)">History Channel</a>'s program <i>Engineering Disasters</i> 19.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mitigation_and_elimination">Mitigation and elimination</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Whisker_(metallurgy)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Mitigation and elimination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several approaches are used to reduce or eliminate whisker growth, with ongoing research in the area. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conformal_coatings">Conformal coatings</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Whisker_(metallurgy)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Conformal coatings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Conformal compound coatings stop the whiskers from penetrating a barrier, reaching a nearby termination and forming a short.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Altering_plating_chemistry">Altering plating chemistry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Whisker_(metallurgy)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Altering plating chemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Termination finishes of nickel, gold or palladium have been shown to eliminate whisker formation in controlled trials.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tin_whisker_examples_and_incidents">Tin whisker examples and incidents</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Whisker_(metallurgy)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Tin whisker examples and incidents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Galaxy_IV">Galaxy IV</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Whisker_(metallurgy)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Galaxy IV"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Galaxy_IV" title="Galaxy IV">Galaxy IV</a> was a telecommunications satellite that was disabled and lost due to short circuits caused by tin whiskers in 1998. It was initially thought that <a href="/wiki/Space_weather" title="Space weather">space weather</a> contributed to the failure, but later it was discovered that a conformal coating had been misapplied, allowing whiskers formed in the pure tin plating to find their way through a missing coating area, causing a failure of the main control computer. The manufacturer, Hughes, has moved to nickel plating, rather than tin, to reduce the risk of whisker growth. The trade-off has been an increase in weight, adding 50 to 100 kilograms (110 to 220 lb) per payload.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Millstone_Nuclear_Power_Plant">Millstone Nuclear Power Plant</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Whisker_(metallurgy)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Millstone Nuclear Power Plant"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On April 17, 2005, the <a href="/wiki/Millstone_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Millstone Nuclear Power Plant">Millstone Nuclear Power Plant</a> in Connecticut was shut down due to a "false alarm" that indicated an unsafe pressure drop in the reactor's steam system when the steam pressure was actually nominal. The false alarm was caused by a tin whisker that short circuited the logic board responsible for monitoring the steam pressure lines in the power plant.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Toyota_accelerator_position_sensors_false_positive">Toyota accelerator position sensors false positive</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Whisker_(metallurgy)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Toyota accelerator position sensors false positive"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In September 2011, three <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> investigators claimed that they identified tin whiskers on the accelerator position sensors<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of sampled <a href="/wiki/Toyota_Camry" title="Toyota Camry">Toyota Camry</a> models that could contribute to the "stuck accelerator" crashes affecting certain Toyota models during 2005–2010.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This contradicted an earlier 10-month joint investigation by the <a href="/wiki/National_Highway_Traffic_Safety_Administration" title="National Highway Traffic Safety Administration">National Highway Traffic Safety Administration</a> (NHTSA) and a large group of other NASA researchers that found no electronic defects.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2012, NHTSA maintained: "We do not believe that tin whiskers are a plausible explanation for these incidents...[the likely cause was] <a href="/wiki/Sudden_unintended_acceleration" title="Sudden unintended acceleration">pedal misapplication</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Toyota also maintains that tin whiskers were not the cause of any stuck accelerator issues: "In the words of U.S. Transportation Secretary Ray LaHood, 'The verdict is in. There is no electronic-based cause for unintended high-speed acceleration in Toyotas. Period.<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>" According to a Toyota press release, "no data indicates that tin whiskers are more prone to occur in Toyota vehicles than any other vehicle in the marketplace." Toyota also states that "their systems are designed to reduce the risk that tin whiskers will form in the first place."<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Whisker_(metallurgy)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Whiskers_(metal)" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Whiskers (metal)">Whiskers (metal)</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monocrystalline_whisker" title="Monocrystalline whisker">Monocrystalline whisker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrite_(metal)" title="Dendrite (metal)">Dendrite (metal)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_growth" title="Crystal growth">Crystal growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold-aluminium_intermetallic" class="mw-redirect" title="Gold-aluminium intermetallic">Gold-aluminium intermetallic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impurity" class="mw-redirect" title="Impurity">Impurity</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Whisker_(metallurgy)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLyudmyla_Panashchenko" class="citation web cs1">Lyudmyla Panashchenko. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nepp.nasa.gov/WHISKER/reference/tech_papers/2012-Panashchenko-IPC-Art-of-Metal-Whisker-Appreciation.pdf">"Whisker Resistant Metal Coatings"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 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Toyota. 24 January 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 September</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%27Tin+Whiskers%27+and+Other+Discredited+Unintended+Acceleration+Theories&rft.pub=Toyota&rft.date=2012-01-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpressroom.toyota.com%2Ftin-whiskers-other-discredited-unintended-acceleration-theories%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWhisker+%28metallurgy%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Whisker_(metallurgy)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nepp.nasa.gov/whisker/other_whisker/silver/index.htm">Images of silver 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