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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Materials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Materials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Materials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Materials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electrical_ratings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrical_ratings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Electrical ratings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrical_ratings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arc_suppression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arc_suppression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Arc suppression</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arc_suppression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electrical_contact_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrical_contact_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Electrical contact theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrical_contact_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relay_contacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relay_contacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Relay contacts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relay_contacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contact_form" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contact_form"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Contact form</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Contact_form-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Contact form subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Contact_form-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Form_A_contacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Form_A_contacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Form A contacts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Form_A_contacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Form_B_contacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Form_B_contacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Form B contacts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Form_B_contacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Form_C_contacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Form_C_contacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Form C contacts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Form_C_contacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Form_D_contacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Form_D_contacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Form D contacts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Form_D_contacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Form_E_contacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Form_E_contacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Form E contacts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Form_E_contacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Form_K_contacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Form_K_contacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Form K contacts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Form_K_contacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Form_X_contacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Form_X_contacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7</span> <span>Form X contacts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Form_X_contacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Form_Y_contacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Form_Y_contacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.8</span> <span>Form Y contacts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Form_Y_contacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Form_Z_contacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Form_Z_contacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.9</span> <span>Form Z contacts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Form_Z_contacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Make-break_order" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Make-break_order"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.10</span> <span>Make-break order</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Make-break_order-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Electrical contact</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 16 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-16" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">16 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B3_%D9%83%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A" title="تلامس كهربائي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تلامس كهربائي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrick%C3%BD_kontakt" title="Elektrický kontakt – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Elektrický kontakt" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrisk_kontakt" title="Elektrisk kontakt – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Elektrisk kontakt" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrischer_Kontakt" title="Elektrischer Kontakt – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Elektrischer Kontakt" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kontakt" title="Kontakt – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kontakt" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contacto_el%C3%A9ctrico" title="Contacto eléctrico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Contacto eléctrico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%AA" title="کنتاکت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کنتاکت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contact_%C3%A9lectrique" title="Contact électrique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Contact électrique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B7%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AF%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%BF" title="Էլեկտրական կոնտակտ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Էլեկտրական կոնտակտ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kontakt_(elektrotehnika)" title="Kontakt (elektrotehnika) – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kontakt (elektrotehnika)" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kontakts_(elektrotehnika)" title="Kontakts (elektrotehnika) – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kontakts (elektrotehnika)" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contact_(elektriciteit)" title="Contact (elektriciteit) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Contact (elektriciteit)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82" title="Электрический контакт – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Электрический контакт" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektri%C4%8Dni_spoj" title="Električni spoj – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Električni spoj" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrik_kontaklar%C4%B1" title="Elektrik kontakları – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Elektrik kontakları" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82" title="Електричний контакт – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Електричний контакт" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q394001#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav 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class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Electrical circuit component</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Relay_principle_vertical.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Relay_principle_vertical.jpg/170px-Relay_principle_vertical.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Relay_principle_vertical.jpg/255px-Relay_principle_vertical.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Relay_principle_vertical.jpg/340px-Relay_principle_vertical.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1030" data-file-height="1787" /></a><figcaption>An electromagnetic relay with a pair of contacts</figcaption></figure> <p>An <b>electrical contact</b> is an <a href="/wiki/Electronic_component" title="Electronic component">electrical circuit component</a> found in electrical <a href="/wiki/Switch" title="Switch">switches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Relay" title="Relay">relays</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrical_connector" title="Electrical connector">connectors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Circuit_breaker" title="Circuit breaker">circuit breakers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each contact is a piece of <a href="/wiki/Electrically_conductive" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrically conductive">electrically conductive</a> material, typically <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</a>. When a pair of contacts touch, they can pass an electrical current with a certain <a href="/wiki/Contact_resistance" title="Contact resistance">contact resistance</a>, dependent on surface structure, surface chemistry and contact time;<sup id="cite_ref-ecr_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ecr-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> when the pair is separated by an <a href="/wiki/Insulator_(electricity)" title="Insulator (electricity)">insulating</a> gap, then the pair does not pass a <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">current</a>. When the contacts touch, the switch is <i>closed</i>; when the contacts are separated, the switch is <i>open</i>. The gap must be an insulating medium, such as air, vacuum, oil, <a href="/wiki/SF6" class="mw-redirect" title="SF6">SF<sub>6</sub></a>. Contacts may be operated by humans in <a href="/wiki/Push-button" title="Push-button">push-buttons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Switches" class="mw-redirect" title="Switches">switches</a>, by mechanical pressure in sensors or machine cams, and <a href="/wiki/Electromechanics" title="Electromechanics">electromechanically</a> in relays. The surfaces where contacts touch are usually composed of metals such as silver or gold alloys<sup id="cite_ref-Matsushita_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matsushita-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that have high <a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity" title="Electrical resistivity and conductivity">electrical conductivity</a>, wear resistance, oxidation resistance and other properties.<sup id="cite_ref-PEP_Brainin_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PEP_Brainin-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Materials">Materials</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_contact&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Materials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Contacts can be produced from a wide variety of materials. Typical materials include:<sup id="cite_ref-PEP_Brainin_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PEP_Brainin-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">Silver</a> alloys</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">Gold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platinum_group" title="Platinum group">Platinum-group metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">Carbon</a><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Electrical_ratings">Electrical ratings<span class="anchor" id="Rating"></span></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_contact&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Electrical ratings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Contacts are rated for the current carrying capacity while closed, breaking capacity when opening (due to arcing) and voltage rating. Opening voltage rating may be an AC voltage rating, DC voltage rating or both.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Arc_suppression">Arc suppression<span class="anchor" id="Arcing"></span></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_contact&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Arc suppression"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hochleistungs-Freischalter_Typ_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Hochleistungs-Freischalter_Typ_II.jpg/220px-Hochleistungs-Freischalter_Typ_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Hochleistungs-Freischalter_Typ_II.jpg/330px-Hochleistungs-Freischalter_Typ_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Hochleistungs-Freischalter_Typ_II.jpg/440px-Hochleistungs-Freischalter_Typ_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2250" /></a><figcaption>Contacts of a high-voltage switch employing open air as an insulating medium</figcaption></figure> <p>When relay contacts open to interrupt a high current with an <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction" title="Electromagnetic induction">inductive load</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Voltage_spike" title="Voltage spike">voltage spike</a> will result, striking an <a href="/wiki/Electric_arc" title="Electric arc">arc</a> across the contacts. If the voltage is high enough, an arc may be struck even without an inductive load. Regardless of how the arc forms, it will persist until the current through the arc falls to the point too low to sustain it. Arcing damages the electrical contacts, and a sustained arc may prevent the open contacts from removing power from the system being controlled.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Alternating_current" title="Alternating current">AC</a> systems, where the current passes through zero twice for each cycle, all but the most energetic arcs are extinguished at the zero crossing. The problem is more severe with <a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">DC</a> where such zero crossings do not occur. This is why contacts rated for one voltage for switching AC frequently have a lower voltage rating for DC.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Electrical_contact_theory">Electrical contact theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_contact&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Electrical contact theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Holm" title="Ragnar Holm">Ragnar Holm</a> contributed greatly to electrical contact theory and application.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Macroscopically smooth and clean surfaces are microscopically rough and, in air, contaminated with oxides, adsorbed water vapor, and atmospheric contaminants. When two metal electrical contacts touch, the actual metal-to-metal contact area is small compared to the total contact-to-contact area physically touching. In electrical contact theory, the relatively small area where electrical current flows between two contacts is called the a-spot where "a" stands for <a href="/wiki/Asperity_(materials_science)" title="Asperity (materials science)">asperity</a>. If the small a-spot is treated as a circular area and the <a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity" title="Electrical resistivity and conductivity">resistivity</a> of the metal is homogeneous, then the current and voltage in the metal conductor has spherical symmetry and a simple calculation can relate the size of the a-spot to the resistance of the electrical contact interface. If there is metal-to-metal contact between electrical contacts, then the <a href="/wiki/Electrical_contact_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical contact resistance">electrical contact resistance</a>, or ECR (as opposed to the bulk resistance of the contact metal) is mostly due to constriction of the current through a very small area, the a-spot. For contact spots of radii smaller than the mean free path of electrons <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \lambda }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>λ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \lambda }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b43d0ea3c9c025af1be9128e62a18fa74bedda2a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.355ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \lambda }"></span>, <a href="/wiki/Ballistic_conduction" title="Ballistic conduction">ballistic conduction</a> of electrons occurs, resulting in a phenomenon known also as <a href="/wiki/Ballistic_conduction#Importance" title="Ballistic conduction"><i>Sharvin resistance</i></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contact force or pressure increases the size of the a-spot which decreases the constriction resistance and the electrical contact resistance.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the size of contacting asperities becomes larger than the mean free path of electrons, Holm-type contacts become the dominant transport mechanism, resulting in a relatively low contact resistance.<sup id="cite_ref-ecr_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ecr-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relay_contacts">Relay contacts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_contact&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Relay contacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kontakt.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Kontakt.svg/220px-Kontakt.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Kontakt.svg/330px-Kontakt.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Kontakt.svg/440px-Kontakt.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="240" /></a><figcaption>Schematic for an electromechanical relay showing a coil, four pair of <i><a href="/wiki/Normally_open" class="mw-redirect" title="Normally open">normally open</a></i> and one pair of <i><a href="/wiki/Normally_closed" class="mw-redirect" title="Normally closed">normally closed</a></i> contacts</figcaption></figure> <p>The National Association of Relay Manufacturers and its successor, the Relay and Switch Industry Association define 23 distinct forms of electrical contact found in relays and switches.<sup id="cite_ref-Relay_Handbook_1.6_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Relay_Handbook_1.6-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A <i><a href="/wiki/Normally_closed" class="mw-redirect" title="Normally closed">normally closed</a></i> (<i><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238216509">.mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}</style><span class="vanchor"><span id="NC"></span><span class="vanchor-text">NC</span></span></i>) contact pair is closed (in a conductive state) when it, or the device operating it, is in a deenergized state or relaxed state. </p><p>A <i><a href="/wiki/Normally_open" class="mw-redirect" title="Normally open">normally open</a></i> (<i><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="NO"></span><span class="vanchor-text">NO</span></span></i>) contact pair is open (in a non-conductive state) when it, or the device operating it, is in a deenergized state or relaxed state.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contact_form">Contact form<span class="anchor" id="Latch"></span></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_contact&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Contact form"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The National Association of Relay Manufacturers and its successor, the Relay and Switch Industry Association define 23 distinct <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Contact_form">electrical contact forms</a> found in relays and switches.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following contact forms are particularly common: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Form_A_contacts">Form A contacts<span class="anchor" id="Form_A"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_contact&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Form A contacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Form A</i> contacts ("make contacts") are <i>normally open</i> contacts. The contacts are open when the energizing force (magnet or relay solenoid) is <i>not</i> present. When the energizing force is present, the contact will close. An alternate notation for <i>Form A</i> is <a href="/wiki/Switch#Contact_terminology" title="Switch">SPST-NO</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Relay_Handbook_1.6_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Relay_Handbook_1.6-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Form_B_contacts">Form B contacts<span class="anchor" id="Form_B"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_contact&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Form B contacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Form B</i> contacts ("break contacts") are normally closed contacts. Its operation is logically inverted from Form A. An alternate notation for <i>Form B</i> is <a href="/wiki/Switch#Contact_terminology" title="Switch">SPST-NC</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Relay_Handbook_1.6_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Relay_Handbook_1.6-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Form_C_contacts">Form C contacts<span class="anchor" id="Form_C"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_contact&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Form C contacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Relay2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Relay2.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="200" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a><figcaption>A small relay using a <i>Form C</i> contacts</figcaption></figure> <p><i>Form C</i> contacts ("change over" or "transfer" contacts) are composed of a normally closed contact pair and a normally open contact pair that are operated by the same device; there is a common electrical connection between a contact of each pair that results in only three connection terminals. These terminals are usually labelled as <i>normally open</i>, <i>common</i>, and <i>normally closed</i> (<i>NO-C-NC</i>). An alternate notation for <i>Form C</i> is <a href="/wiki/Switch#Contact_terminology" title="Switch">SPDT</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Relay_Handbook_1.6_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Relay_Handbook_1.6-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These contacts are quite frequently found in electrical switches and relays as the common contact element provides a mechanically economical method of providing a higher contact count.<sup id="cite_ref-Relay_Handbook_1.6_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Relay_Handbook_1.6-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Form_D_contacts">Form D contacts<span class="anchor" id="Form_D"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_contact&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Form D contacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Form D</i> contacts ("continuity transfer" contacts) differ from <i>Form C</i> in only one regard, the <a href="#Make_break_order">make-break order</a> during transition. Where <i>Form C</i> guarantees that, briefly, both connections are open, <i>Form D</i> guarantees that, briefly, all three terminals will be connected. This is a relatively uncommon configuration.<sup id="cite_ref-Relay_Handbook_1.6_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Relay_Handbook_1.6-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Form_E_contacts">Form E contacts<span class="anchor" id="Form_E"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_contact&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Form E contacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Form E</i> is a combination of form D and B. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Form_K_contacts">Form K contacts<span class="anchor" id="Form_K"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_contact&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Form K contacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Form K</i> contacts (center-off) differ from <i>Form C</i> in that there is a center-off or normally-open position where neither connection is made. <a href="/wiki/Switch#Contact_terminology" title="Switch">SPDT</a> toggle switches with a center off position are common, but relays with this configuration are relatively rare.<sup id="cite_ref-Relay_Handbook_1.6_12-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Relay_Handbook_1.6-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Form_X_contacts">Form X contacts<span class="anchor" id="Form_X"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_contact&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Form X contacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Togglesw2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Togglesw2.jpg/220px-Togglesw2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Togglesw2.jpg/330px-Togglesw2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Togglesw2.jpg/440px-Togglesw2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Toggle_switch" class="mw-redirect" title="Toggle switch">Toggle switch</a> with one <i>Form X</i> contact. When actuated, the moving contact swings left to bridge the gap between the two fixed contacts.</figcaption></figure> <p><i>Form X</i> or double-make contacts are equivalent to two <i>Form A</i> contacts in series, mechanically linked and operated by a single actuator, and can also be described as <a href="/wiki/Switch#Contact_terminology" title="Switch">SPST-NO</a> contacts. These are commonly found in <a href="/wiki/Contactor" title="Contactor">contactors</a> and in toggle switches designed to handle high power inductive loads.<sup id="cite_ref-Relay_Handbook_1.6_12-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Relay_Handbook_1.6-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Form_Y_contacts">Form Y contacts<span class="anchor" id="Form_Y"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_contact&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Form Y contacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Form Y</i> or double-break contacts are equivalent to two <i>Form B</i> contacts in series, mechanically linked and operated by a single actuator, and can also be described as <a href="/wiki/Switch#Contact_terminology" title="Switch">SPST-NC</a> contacts.<sup id="cite_ref-Relay_Handbook_1.6_12-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Relay_Handbook_1.6-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Form_Z_contacts">Form Z contacts<span class="anchor" id="Form_Z"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_contact&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Form Z contacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Form Z</i> or double-make double-break contacts are comparable to <i>Form C</i> contacts, but they almost always have four external connections, two for the normally open path and two for the normally closed path. As with forms <i>X</i> and <i>Y</i>, both current paths involve two contacts in series, mechanically linked and operated by a single actuator. Again, this is also described as an <a href="/wiki/Switch#Contact_terminology" title="Switch">SPDT</a> contact.<sup id="cite_ref-Relay_Handbook_1.6_12-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Relay_Handbook_1.6-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Make-break_order">Make-break order</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_contact&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Make-break order"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ueberlappende_kontakte_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Ueberlappende_kontakte_en.svg/220px-Ueberlappende_kontakte_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Ueberlappende_kontakte_en.svg/330px-Ueberlappende_kontakte_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Ueberlappende_kontakte_en.svg/440px-Ueberlappende_kontakte_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="350" /></a><figcaption>Types of make and break</figcaption></figure> <p>Where a switch contains both normally open (NO) and normally closed (NC) contacts, the order in which they make and break may be significant. In most cases, the rule is <i><a href="/wiki/Break-before-make" class="mw-redirect" title="Break-before-make">break-before-make</a></i> or <i>B-B-M</i>; that is, the NO and NC contacts are never simultaneously closed during the transition between states. This is not always the case, <i>Form C</i> contacts follow this rule, while the otherwise equivalent <i>Form D</i> contacts follow the opposite rule, make before break. The less common configuration, when the NO and NC contacts are simultaneously closed during the transition, is <i><a href="/wiki/Make-before-break" class="mw-redirect" title="Make-before-break">make-before-break</a></i> or <i>M-B-B</i>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_contact&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contact_bounce#Contact_bounce" class="mw-redirect" title="Contact bounce">Contact bounce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latching_relay#Latching_relay" class="mw-redirect" title="Latching relay">Latching relay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetting_current" title="Wetting current">Wetting current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetting_voltage" class="mw-redirect" title="Wetting voltage">Wetting voltage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_splice" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical splice">Electrical splice</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_contact&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://components.omron.com/relay-basics">Relay Basics; 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-03-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ieee-holm.org&rft.atitle=IEEE+Holm+Conferences+on+Electrical+Contacts&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fieee-holm.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+contact" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhai2016" class="citation journal cs1">Zhai, C; et al. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02307660/file/Interfacial%20electromechanical%20EML%20authors%20version.pdf">"Interfacial electro-mechanical behaviour at rough surfaces"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Extreme Mechanics Letters</i>. <b>9</b>: 422–429. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.eml.2016.03.021">10.1016/j.eml.2016.03.021</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Extreme+Mechanics+Letters&rft.atitle=Interfacial+electro-mechanical+behaviour+at+rough+surfaces&rft.volume=9&rft.pages=422-429&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.eml.2016.03.021&rft.aulast=Zhai&rft.aufirst=C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhal.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Fhal-02307660%2Ffile%2FInterfacial%2520electromechanical%2520EML%2520authors%2520version.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+contact" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolm1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Holm" title="Ragnar Holm">Holm, Ragnar</a> (1999). <i>Electric Contacts: Theory and Applications</i> (4th ed.). Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3540038757" title="Special:BookSources/978-3540038757"><bdi>978-3540038757</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electric+Contacts%3A+Theory+and+Applications&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-3540038757&rft.aulast=Holm&rft.aufirst=Ragnar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+contact" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Relay_Handbook_1.6-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Relay_Handbook_1.6_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Relay_Handbook_1.6_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Relay_Handbook_1.6_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Relay_Handbook_1.6_12-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Relay_Handbook_1.6_12-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Relay_Handbook_1.6_12-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Relay_Handbook_1.6_12-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Relay_Handbook_1.6_12-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Relay_Handbook_1.6_12-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Relay_Handbook_1.6_12-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Section 1.6, Engineers' Relay Handbook, 5th ed, Relay and Switch Industry Association, Arlington, VA; 3rd ed, National Association of Relay Manufacturers, Elkhart Ind., 1980; 2nd Ed. Hayden, New York, 1966; large parts of the 5th edition are on line <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.esterline.com/powersystems/DesignReference/RelayHandbook.aspx">here</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170705143411/http://www.esterline.com/powersystems/DesignReference/RelayHandbook.aspx">Archived</a> 2017-07-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Section 1.6, Engineers' Relay Handbook, 5th ed, Relay and Switch Industry Association, Arlington, VA; 3rd ed, National Association of Relay Manufacturers, Elkhart Ind., 1980; 2nd Ed. Hayden, New York, 1966; large parts of the 5th edition are on line <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.esterline.com/powersystems/DesignReference/RelayHandbook.aspx">here</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170705143411/http://www.esterline.com/powersystems/DesignReference/RelayHandbook.aspx">Archived</a> 2017-07-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electrical_contact&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPitney2014" class="citation book cs1">Pitney, Kenneth E. (2014) [1973]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.deringerney.com/techpapers/abstract/?DocumentId=pnk8SYvTdl5PBEYgylFWFjQO5IfWmXnrKiYltdIYKjM%3d"><i>Ney Contact Manual - Electrical Contacts for Low Energy Uses</i></a> (reprint of 1st ed.). Deringer-Ney, originally JM Ney Co. <a href="/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ASIN (identifier)">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0006CB8BC">B0006CB8BC</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ney+Contact+Manual+-+Electrical+Contacts+for+Low+Energy+Uses&rft.edition=reprint+of+1st&rft.pub=Deringer-Ney%2C+originally+JM+Ney+Co.&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2Fdp%2FB0006CB8BC%23id-name%3DASIN&rft.aulast=Pitney&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.deringerney.com%2Ftechpapers%2Fabstract%2F%3FDocumentId%3Dpnk8SYvTdl5PBEYgylFWFjQO5IfWmXnrKiYltdIYKjM%253d&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+contact" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged December 2018">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup> (NB. Free download after registration.)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSlade2014" class="citation book cs1">Slade, Paul G. (2014-02-12) [1999]. <i>Electrical Contacts: Principles and Applications</i>. Electrical engineering and electronics. Vol. 105 (2 ed.). <a href="/wiki/CRC_Press" title="CRC Press">CRC Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis,_Inc." class="mw-redirect" title="Taylor & Francis, Inc.">Taylor & Francis, Inc.</a> <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-43988130-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-43988130-9"><bdi>978-1-43988130-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electrical+Contacts%3A+Principles+and+Applications&rft.series=Electrical+engineering+and+electronics&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=CRC+Press%2C+Taylor+%26+Francis%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2014-02-12&rft.isbn=978-1-43988130-9&rft.aulast=Slade&rft.aufirst=Paul+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+contact" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolmHolm2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Holm" title="Ragnar Holm">Holm, Ragnar</a>; <a href="/wiki/Else_Holm" class="mw-redirect" title="Else Holm">Holm, Else</a> (2013-06-29) [1967]. Williamson, J. B. P. (ed.). <i>Electric Contacts: Theory and Application</i> (reprint of 4th revised ed.). <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science_%26_Business_Media" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer Science & Business Media">Springer Science & Business Media</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-03875-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-03875-7"><bdi>978-3-540-03875-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electric+Contacts%3A+Theory+and+Application&rft.edition=reprint+of+4th+revised&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2013-06-29&rft.isbn=978-3-540-03875-7&rft.aulast=Holm&rft.aufirst=Ragnar&rft.au=Holm%2C+Else&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+contact" class="Z3988"></span> (NB. A rewrite of the earlier "<i>Electric Contacts Handbook</i>".)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolmHolm1958" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Holm" title="Ragnar Holm">Holm, Ragnar</a>; <a href="/wiki/Else_Holm" class="mw-redirect" title="Else Holm">Holm, Else</a> (1958). <i>Electric Contacts Handbook</i> (3rd completely rewritten ed.). Berlin / Göttingen / Heidelberg, Germany: <a href="/wiki/Springer-Verlag" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer-Verlag">Springer-Verlag</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-66223790-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-66223790-8"><bdi>978-3-66223790-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electric+Contacts+Handbook&rft.place=Berlin+%2F+G%C3%B6ttingen+%2F+Heidelberg%2C+Germany&rft.edition=3rd+completely+rewritten&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=1958&rft.isbn=978-3-66223790-8&rft.aulast=Holm&rft.aufirst=Ragnar&rft.au=Holm%2C+Else&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+contact" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.gbv.de/dms/ilmenau/toc/176968075.PDF">[1]</a> (NB. A rewrite and translation of the earlier "<i>Die technische Physik der elektrischen Kontakte</i>" (1941) in German language, which is available as reprint under <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-662-42222-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-662-42222-9">978-3-662-42222-9</a>.)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuckWalczukBureschWeiser2016" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Huck, Manfred; Walczuk, Eugeniucz; Buresch, Isabell; Weiser, Josef; Borchert, Lothar; Faber, Manfred; Bahrs, Willy; Saeger, Karl E.; Imm, Reinhard; Behrens, Volker; Heber, Jochen; Großmann, Hermann; Streuli, Max; Schuler, Peter; Heinzel, Helmut; Harmsen, Ulf; Györy, Imre; Ganz, Joachim; Horn, Jochen; Kaspar, Franz; Lindmayer, Manfred; Berger, Frank; Baujan, Guenter; Kriechel, Ralph; Wolf, Johann; Schreiner, Günter; Schröther, Gerhard; Maute, Uwe; Linnemann, Hartmut; Thar, Ralph; Möller, Wolfgang; Rieder, Werner; Kaminski, Jan; Popa, Heinz-Erich; Schneider, Karl-Heinz; Bolz, Jakob; Vermij, L.; Mayer, Ursula (2016) [1984]. Vinaricky, Eduard; Schröder, Karl-Heinz; Weiser, Josef; Keil, Albert; Merl, Wilhelm A.; Meyer, Carl-Ludwig (eds.). <i>Elektrische Kontakte, Werkstoffe und Anwendungen: Grundlagen, Technologien, Prüfverfahren</i> (in German) (3 ed.). Berlin / Heidelberg / New York / Tokyo: <a href="/wiki/Springer-Verlag" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer-Verlag">Springer-Verlag</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-45426-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-45426-4"><bdi>978-3-642-45426-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elektrische+Kontakte%2C+Werkstoffe+und+Anwendungen%3A+Grundlagen%2C+Technologien%2C+Pr%C3%BCfverfahren&rft.place=Berlin+%2F+Heidelberg+%2F+New+York+%2F+Tokyo&rft.edition=3&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-3-642-45426-4&rft.aulast=Huck&rft.aufirst=Manfred&rft.au=Walczuk%2C+Eugeniucz&rft.au=Buresch%2C+Isabell&rft.au=Weiser%2C+Josef&rft.au=Borchert%2C+Lothar&rft.au=Faber%2C+Manfred&rft.au=Bahrs%2C+Willy&rft.au=Saeger%2C+Karl+E.&rft.au=Imm%2C+Reinhard&rft.au=Behrens%2C+Volker&rft.au=Heber%2C+Jochen&rft.au=Gro%C3%9Fmann%2C+Hermann&rft.au=Streuli%2C+Max&rft.au=Schuler%2C+Peter&rft.au=Heinzel%2C+Helmut&rft.au=Harmsen%2C+Ulf&rft.au=Gy%C3%B6ry%2C+Imre&rft.au=Ganz%2C+Joachim&rft.au=Horn%2C+Jochen&rft.au=Kaspar%2C+Franz&rft.au=Lindmayer%2C+Manfred&rft.au=Berger%2C+Frank&rft.au=Baujan%2C+Guenter&rft.au=Kriechel%2C+Ralph&rft.au=Wolf%2C+Johann&rft.au=Schreiner%2C+G%C3%BCnter&rft.au=Schr%C3%B6ther%2C+Gerhard&rft.au=Maute%2C+Uwe&rft.au=Linnemann%2C+Hartmut&rft.au=Thar%2C+Ralph&rft.au=M%C3%B6ller%2C+Wolfgang&rft.au=Rieder%2C+Werner&rft.au=Kaminski%2C+Jan&rft.au=Popa%2C+Heinz-Erich&rft.au=Schneider%2C+Karl-Heinz&rft.au=Bolz%2C+Jakob&rft.au=Vermij%2C+L.&rft.au=Mayer%2C+Ursula&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectrical+contact" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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