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id="toc-Historical_overview" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_overview"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Historical overview </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_overview-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Checked_and_free_vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Checked_and_free_vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Checked and free vowels </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Checked_and_free_vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Double_vowels_and_consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Double_vowels_and_consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Double vowels and consonants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Double_vowels_and_consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-⟨e⟩" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#⟨e⟩"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 ⟨e⟩ </div> </a> <ul id="toc-⟨e⟩-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphological_alternations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphological_alternations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Morphological alternations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morphological_alternations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exceptions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exceptions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Exceptions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exceptions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Final_devoicing_and_the_'t_kofschip_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Final_devoicing_and_the_'t_kofschip_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Final devoicing and the 't kofschip rule </div> </a> <button 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:auto"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_grammar" title="Dutch grammar">Dutch grammar</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Dutch verbs</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_conjugation" title="Dutch conjugation">Dutch conjugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%27t_kofschip" title="'t kofschip">'t kofschip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-rules" title="T-rules">T-rules</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Dutch nouns</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_Dutch_declension" title="Archaic Dutch declension">Archaic Dutch declension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_in_Dutch_grammar" title="Gender in Dutch grammar">Gender in Dutch grammar</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Dutch orthography</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Dutch_dictionaries" title="List of Dutch dictionaries">List of Dutch dictionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IJ_(digraph)" title="IJ (digraph)">IJ</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Dutch_phonology" title="Dutch phonology">Dutch phonology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_G_in_Dutch" title="Hard and soft G in Dutch">Hard and soft G</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Dutch_grammar" title="Template:Dutch grammar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Dutch_grammar" title="Template talk:Dutch grammar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Dutch_grammar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Dutch grammar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Dutch orthography uses the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a>. The spelling system is issued by government decree and is compulsory for all government documentation and educational establishments. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legal_basis">Legal basis</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_orthography&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Legal basis">edit</a>]</div> In the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, the official spelling is regulated by the Spelling Act of 15 September 2005.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> This came into force on 22 February 2006, replacing the Act on the Spelling of the Dutch Language of 14 February 1947.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> The Spelling Act gives the Committee of Ministers of the Dutch Language Union the authority to determine the spelling of Dutch by ministerial decision. In addition, the law requires that this spelling be followed "at the governmental bodies, at educational institutions funded from the public purse, as well as at the exams for which legal requirements have been established". In other cases, it is recommended, but it is not mandatory to follow the official spelling. The Decree on the Spelling Regulations of 2005–2006 contains the annexed spelling rules decided by the Committee of Ministers on 25 April 2005.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> This decree entered into force on 1 August 2006, replacing the Spelling Decree of 19 June 1996.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a>, the same spelling rules are currently applied by the Decree of the <a href="/wiki/Flemish_Government" title="Flemish Government">Flemish Government</a> Establishing the Rules of the Official Spelling and Grammar of the Dutch language of 30 June 2006.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alphabet">Alphabet</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_orthography&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Alphabet">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dutch_alphabet_(1560).gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Dutch_alphabet_%281560%29.gif/220px-Dutch_alphabet_%281560%29.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Dutch_alphabet_%281560%29.gif/330px-Dutch_alphabet_%281560%29.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Dutch_alphabet_%281560%29.gif/440px-Dutch_alphabet_%281560%29.gif 2x" data-file-width="1008" data-file-height="838" /></a><figcaption>The Dutch alphabet in 1560, still including the <a href="/wiki/Long_s" title="Long s">long s</a></figcaption></figure> The modern Dutch alphabet, used for the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch language</a>, consists of the 26 letters of the <a href="/wiki/ISO_basic_Latin_alphabet" title="ISO basic Latin alphabet">ISO basic Latin alphabet</a>. Depending on how ⟨y⟩ is used, six (or five) letters are <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowels</a> and 20 (or 21) letters are <a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">consonants</a>. In some aspects, the <a href="/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)" title="Digraph (orthography)">digraph</a> <a href="/wiki/IJ_(digraph)" title="IJ (digraph)">⟨ij⟩</a> behaves as a single letter. ⟨e⟩ is the most frequently used letter in the Dutch alphabet, as <a href="/wiki/English_letter_frequency" class="mw-redirect" title="English letter frequency">it is in English</a>. The least frequently used letters are ⟨q⟩ and ⟨x⟩, similar to English. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Comparison_of_normal_and_italic_of_ij_and_%C3%BF.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Comparison_of_normal_and_italic_of_ij_and_%C3%BF.svg/220px-Comparison_of_normal_and_italic_of_ij_and_%C3%BF.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Comparison_of_normal_and_italic_of_ij_and_%C3%BF.svg/330px-Comparison_of_normal_and_italic_of_ij_and_%C3%BF.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Comparison_of_normal_and_italic_of_ij_and_%C3%BF.svg/440px-Comparison_of_normal_and_italic_of_ij_and_%C3%BF.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="570" data-file-height="429" /></a><figcaption>⟨<a href="/wiki/I" title="I">i</a>⟩ and ⟨<a href="/wiki/J" title="J">j</a>⟩ together (1), the digraph <a href="/wiki/IJ_(digraph)" title="IJ (digraph)">⟨ij⟩</a> (2) and ⟨<a href="/wiki/Y" title="Y">y</a>⟩ (4) can all be found in Dutch words; only ⟨ÿ⟩ (3) is not used in Dutch.</figcaption></figure> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Letter</th> <th>Letter name</th> <th>Spelling alphabet<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/A" title="A">A</a></td> <td>[aː]</td> <td>Anton </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/B" title="B">B</a></td> <td>[beː]</td> <td>Bernhard </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/C" title="C">C</a></td> <td>[seː]</td> <td>Cornelis </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/D" title="D">D</a></td> <td>[deː]</td> <td>Dirk </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/E" title="E">E</a></td> <td>[eː]</td> <td>Eduard </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/F" title="F">F</a></td> <td>[ɛf]</td> <td>Ferdinand </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/G" title="G">G</a></td> <td>[ɣeː]<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></td> <td>Gerard </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/H" title="H">H</a></td> <td>[ɦaː]</td> <td>Hendrik </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/I" title="I">I</a></td> <td>[i]</td> <td>Izaak </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/J" title="J">J</a></td> <td>[jeː]</td> <td>Johan/Jacob </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/K" title="K">K</a></td> <td>[kaː]</td> <td>Karel </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/L" title="L">L</a></td> <td>[ɛɫ]</td> <td>Lodewijk/Leo </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/M" title="M">M</a></td> <td>[ɛm]</td> <td>Maria </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/N" title="N">N</a></td> <td>[ɛn]</td> <td>Nico </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/O" title="O">O</a></td> <td>[oː]</td> <td>Otto </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/P" title="P">P</a></td> <td>[peː]</td> <td>Pieter </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Q" title="Q">Q</a><a href="#cite_note-loan-8">[8]</a></td> <td>[ky]</td> <td>Quirinus/Quinten </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/R" title="R">R</a></td> <td>[ɛɾ]</td> <td>Richard/Rudolf </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/S" title="S">S</a></td> <td>[ɛs]</td> <td>Simon </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/T" title="T">T</a></td> <td>[teː]</td> <td>Theodoor </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/U" title="U">U</a></td> <td>[y]</td> <td>Utrecht </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/V" title="V">V</a></td> <td>[veː]</td> <td>Victor </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/W" title="W">W</a></td> <td>[ʋeː]</td> <td>Willem </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/X" title="X">X</a><a href="#cite_note-loan-8">[8]</a></td> <td>[ɪks]</td> <td>Xantippe </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/IJ_(digraph)" title="IJ (digraph)">IJ</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></td> <td>[ɛɪ]</td> <td>IJmuiden/IJsbrand </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Y" title="Y">Y</a><a href="#cite_note-loan-8">[8]</a></td> <td>[ɛɪ]<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></td> <td>Ypsilon </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Z" title="Z">Z</a></td> <td>[zɛt]</td> <td>Zacharias </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sound_to_spelling_correspondences">Sound to spelling correspondences</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_orthography&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Sound to spelling correspondences">edit</a>]</div> Dutch uses the following letters and letter combinations. For simplicity, dialectal variation and subphonemic distinctions are not always indicated. See <a href="/wiki/Dutch_phonology" title="Dutch phonology">Dutch phonology</a> for more information. The following list shows letters and combinations, along with their pronunciations, found in modern native or nativised vocabulary: <table> <tbody><tr> <td style="vertical-align: top"> <table class="wikitable"> <caption><a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">Consonants</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">spelling</th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>normally</th> <th>final </th></tr> <tr> <td>b </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a>/</td> <td>/p/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ch </td> <td colspan="2">/x/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>d </td> <td>/d/</td> <td>/t/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>f </td> <td colspan="2">/f/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>g </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a>/</td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>h </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_glottal_fricative" title="Voiced glottal fricative">ɦ</a>/</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>j </td> <td>/j/</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>k </td> <td colspan="2">/k/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>l </td> <td colspan="2">/l/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>m </td> <td colspan="2">/m/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>n </td> <td colspan="2">/n/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ng </td> <td colspan="2">/ŋ/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>p </td> <td colspan="2">/p/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>r </td> <td colspan="2">/r/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>s </td> <td colspan="2">/s/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>sch </td> <td>/sx/, /s/<a href="#cite_note-sch-11">[11]</a></td> <td>/s/<a href="#cite_note-sch-11">[11]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>t </td> <td colspan="2">/t/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>th </td> <td>/t/<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>v </td> <td>/v/</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>w </td> <td colspan="2">/<a href="/wiki/Labiodental_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Labiodental approximant">ʋ</a>/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>z </td> <td>/z/</td> <td>— </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align: top"> <table class="wikitable"> <caption><a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">Vowels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthongs</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">spelling</th> <th colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>checked </th> <th>rare</th> <th>free </th></tr> <tr> <td>a </td> <td>/ɑ/ </td> <td></td> <td>/aː/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>aa </td> <td>/aː/ </td> <td></td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>aai </td> <td colspan="3">/aːi̯/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ai </td> <td colspan="3">/ɑi̯/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>au </td> <td colspan="3">/ɔu̯/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>auw </td> <td colspan="3">/ɔu̯/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>e </td> <td>/ɛ/ </td> <td>/ə/<a href="#cite_note-unstressed-13">[13]</a></td> <td>/eː/, /ə/<a href="#cite_note-unstressed-13">[13]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>ee </td> <td colspan="3">/eː/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>eeuw </td> <td colspan="3">/eːu̯/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ei </td> <td colspan="3">/ɛi̯/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>eu </td> <td colspan="3">/ø(ː)/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>i </td> <td>/ɪ/ </td> <td>/ə/<a href="#cite_note-unstressed-13">[13]</a></td> <td>/i(ː)/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ie </td> <td colspan="3">/i(ː)/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ieuw </td> <td colspan="3">/iu̯/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ij </td> <td>/ɛi̯/ </td> <td>/i(ː)/, /ə/<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>o </td> <td>/ɔ/ </td> <td></td> <td>/oː/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>oe </td> <td colspan="3">/u(ː)/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>oei </td> <td colspan="3">/ui̯/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>oi </td> <td colspan="3">/ɔi̯/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>oo </td> <td>/oː/ </td> <td></td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>ooi </td> <td colspan="3">/oːi̯/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ou </td> <td colspan="3">/ɔu̯/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ouw </td> <td colspan="3">/ɔu̯/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>u </td> <td>/ʏ/ </td> <td></td> <td>/y(ː)/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ui </td> <td colspan="3">/œy̯/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>uu </td> <td>/y(ː)/ </td> <td></td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>uw </td> <td colspan="3">/yu̯/ </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> The following additional letters and pronunciations appear in non-native vocabulary or words using older, obsolete spellings (often conserved in proper names): <table> <tbody><tr> <td style="vertical-align: top"> <table class="wikitable"> <caption><a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">Consonants</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">spelling</th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>normally</th> <th>final </th></tr> <tr> <td>c </td> <td>/s/, /k/, /tʃ/<a href="#cite_note-c-15">[15]</a></td> <td>/k/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ç </td> <td>/s/<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>ck </td> <td colspan="2">/k/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ch </td> <td>/ʃ/, /tʃ/, /k/<a href="#cite_note-ch-17">[17]</a></td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>g </td> <td>/ʒ/, /dʒ/, /ɡ/<a href="#cite_note-g-18">[18]</a></td> <td>/k/<a href="#cite_note-g-18">[18]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>gh </td> <td>/ɣ/, /x/</td> <td>/x/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>gch </td> <td>/x/</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>(i)ll </td> <td colspan="2">/j/<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>j </td> <td>/ʒ/, /dʒ/, /x/<a href="#cite_note-j-20">[20]</a></td> <td>/ʃ/, /x/ <a href="#cite_note-j-20">[20]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>ñ </td> <td>/nj/<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>ph </td> <td colspan="2">/f/<a href="#cite_note-ph-22">[22]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>q </td> <td colspan="2">/k/<a href="#cite_note-q-23">[23]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>qu </td> <td colspan="2">/kʋ/, /k/<a href="#cite_note-qu-24">[24]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>s </td> <td>/z/<a href="#cite_note-s-25">[25]</a></td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>sch </td> <td>/ʃ/<a href="#cite_note-sch2-26">[26]</a></td> <td>/ʃ/, /s/<a href="#cite_note-sch2-26">[26]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>sh </td> <td colspan="2">/ʃ/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>sj </td> <td colspan="2">/ʃ/<a href="#cite_note-(t)sj-27">[27]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>sz </td> <td>—</td> <td>/s/<a href="#cite_note-sz-28">[28]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>ti(e) </td> <td>/(t)si/<a href="#cite_note-ti-29">[29]</a></td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>th </td> <td>/t/, /d/<a href="#cite_note-th-30">[30]</a></td> <td>/t/<a href="#cite_note-th-30">[30]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>tsj </td> <td colspan="2">/tʃ/<a href="#cite_note-(t)sj-27">[27]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>x </td> <td>/ks/, /ɡz/<a href="#cite_note-x-31">[31]</a></td> <td>/ks/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>y </td> <td colspan="2">/j/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>z </td> <td colspan="2">/ts/, /dz/<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align: top"> <table class="wikitable"> <caption><a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">Vowels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthongs</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">spelling</th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>checked</th> <th>free </th></tr> <tr> <td>aaij, aay, aij, ay </td> <td colspan="2">/aːi̯/<a href="#cite_note-ij-y-33">[33]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>aauw </td> <td colspan="2">/ɔu/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ae </td> <td colspan="2">/aː/, /eː/<a href="#cite_note-ae-34">[34]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>aei, aeij, aey </td> <td colspan="2">/aːi̯/<a href="#cite_note-ij-y-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-ae-34">[34]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>ai </td> <td colspan="2">/ɛː/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>au(x), eau(x) </td> <td colspan="2">/oː/<a href="#cite_note-au-35">[35]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>è, ê </td> <td colspan="2">/ɛ/, /ɛː/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>é </td> <td colspan="2">/eː/, /ei̯/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>eij, ey </td> <td colspan="2">/ɛi̯/<a href="#cite_note-ij-y-33">[33]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>eu </td> <td colspan="2">/œː/, /œy̯/<a href="#cite_note-eu-36">[36]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>o, ô </td> <td>/ɔː/</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>oeij, oey </td> <td colspan="2">/ui̯/<a href="#cite_note-ij-y-33">[33]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>oi </td> <td colspan="2">/ʋɑ/, /ʋaː/, /oː/<a href="#cite_note-oi-37">[37]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>oo </td> <td colspan="2">/u(ː)/<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>ooij, ooy, oij, oy </td> <td colspan="2">/oːi̯/<a href="#cite_note-ij-y-33">[33]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>ou </td> <td colspan="2">/u(ː)/<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>u </td> <td colspan="2">/u(ː)/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ui </td> <td colspan="2">/ʋi(ː)/, /uː/<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>uij, uy </td> <td colspan="2">/œy̯/<a href="#cite_note-ij-y-33">[33]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>y </td> <td colspan="2">/i/, /ɪ/, /ɛi̯/<a href="#cite_note-y-41">[41]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Loanwords">Loanwords</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_orthography&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Loanwords">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Dutch_orthography" title="Special:EditPage/Dutch orthography">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (March 2020) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Loanwords" class="mw-redirect" title="Loanwords">Loanwords</a> often keep their original spellings: cadeau /kaːˈdoː/ 'gift' (from French) (this word is also informally written kado, but this spelling is not recognized by the <a href="/wiki/Word_list_of_the_Dutch_language" title="Word list of the Dutch language">standard spelling dictionary</a>). ⟨c, qu, x, y⟩ are sometimes adapted to ⟨k, kw, ks, i⟩, but ⟨c, x, y⟩ (and rarely ⟨qu⟩) are usually retained. Greek letters ⟨φ, ῥ⟩ become ⟨f, r⟩, not ⟨ph, rh⟩, but ⟨θ⟩ usually becomes ⟨th⟩ (except before a consonant, after ⟨f, ch⟩ and word finally). -⟨eon, ion, yon⟩- in French loanwords are written with a single ⟨n⟩ (mayonaise) except when a <a href="/wiki/Schwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Schwa">schwa</a> follows (stationnement). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vowel_length">Vowel length</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_orthography&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Vowel length">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Dutch_orthography" title="Special:EditPage/Dutch orthography">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (March 2020) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Vowel length is always indicated but in different ways by using an intricate system of single and double letters. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_overview">Historical overview</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_orthography&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Historical overview">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Old_Dutch" title="Old Dutch">Old Dutch</a> possessed phonemic consonant length in addition to phonemic vowel length, with no correspondence between them. Thus, long vowels could appear in closed syllables, and short vowels could occur in open syllables. In the transition to early <a href="/wiki/Middle_Dutch" title="Middle Dutch">Middle Dutch</a>, short vowels were lengthened when they stood in open syllables. Short vowels could now occur only in closed syllables. Consonants could still be long in pronunciation and acted to close the preceding syllable. Therefore, any short vowel that was followed by a long consonant remained short. The spelling system used by early Middle Dutch scribes accounted for that by indicating the vowel length only when it was necessary (sometimes by doubling the vowel but also in other ways). As the length was implicit in open syllables, it was not indicated there, and only a single vowel was written. Long consonants were indicated usually by doubling the consonant letter, which meant that a short vowel was always followed by at least two consonant letters or by just one consonant at the end of a word. Later in Middle Dutch, the distinction between short and long consonants started to disappear. That made it possible for short vowels to appear in open syllables once again. Because there was no longer a phonetic distinction between single and double consonants (they were both pronounced short now), Dutch writers started to use double consonants to indicate that the preceding vowel was short even when the consonant had not been long in the past. That eventually led to the modern Dutch spelling system. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Checked_and_free_vowels">Checked and free vowels</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_orthography&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Checked and free vowels">edit</a>]</div> Modern Dutch spelling still retains many of the details of the late Middle Dutch system. The distinction between <a href="/wiki/Checked_and_free_vowels" title="Checked and free vowels">checked and free vowels</a> is important in Dutch spelling. A checked vowel is one that is followed by a consonant in the same syllable (the syllable is closed) while a free vowel ends the syllable (the syllable is open). This distinction can apply to pronunciation or spelling independently, but a syllable that is checked in pronunciation will always be checked in spelling as well (except in some unassimilated loanwords). <ul><li>Checked in neither: la-ten /ˈlaː.tə(n)/ ("to leave", "to let")</li> <li>Checked in spelling only: lat-ten /ˈlɑ.tə(n)/ ("laths")</li> <li>Checked in both: lat /lɑt/ ("lath"), lat-je /ˈlɑt.jə/ ("little lath")</li></ul> A single vowel that is checked in neither is always long/tense. A vowel that is checked in both is always short/lax. The following table shows the pronunciation of the same three-letter sequence in different situations, with hyphens indicating the syllable divisions in the written form, and the IPA period to indicate them in the spoken form: <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Pronunciation of checked and free single vowels </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Letter </th> <th colspan="2">Free in both </th> <th colspan="3">Checked in both </th></tr> <tr> <th>Pronunciation </th> <th>Example Multiple syllables </th> <th>Pronunciation </th> <th>Example One syllable </th> <th>Example Multiple syllables </th></tr> <tr> <th>a </th> <td style="text-align: center">aː </td> <td>ra-men /ˈraː.mə(n)/ ("windows, to estimate") </td> <td style="text-align: center">ɑ </td> <td>ram /rɑm/ ("ram") </td> <td>ram-pen /ˈrɑm.pə(n)/ ("disasters") </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: center">e </th> <td style="text-align: center">eː </td> <td>te-len /ˈteː.lə(n)/ ("to cultivate") </td> <td style="text-align: center">ɛ </td> <td>tel /tɛl/ ("count") </td> <td>tel-den /ˈtɛl.də(n)/ ("counted") </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: center">i </th> <td style="text-align: center">i(ː) </td> <td>Ti-ne /ˈti.nə/ (a name) </td> <td style="text-align: center">ɪ </td> <td>tin /tɪn/ ("tin") </td> <td>tin-ten /ˈtɪn.tə(n)/ ("tints") </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: center">o </th> <td style="text-align: center">oː </td> <td>ko-per /ˈkoː.pər/ ("copper, buyer") </td> <td style="text-align: center">ɔ </td> <td>kop /kɔp/ ("cup, head") </td> <td>kop-te /ˈkɔp.tə/ ("headed [a ball]") </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: center">u </th> <td style="text-align: center">y(ː) </td> <td>Lu-kas /ˈly.kɑs/ (a name) </td> <td style="text-align: center">ʏ </td> <td>buk /bʏk/ ("bow" [verb]) </td> <td>buk-te /bʏk.tə/ ("bowed") </td></tr></tbody></table> Free ⟨i⟩ is fairly rare and is mostly confined to loanwords and names. As tense /y/ is rare except before /r/, free ⟨u⟩ is likewise rare except before ⟨r⟩. The same rule applies to word-final vowels, which are always long because they are not followed by any consonant (but see below on ⟨e⟩). Short vowels, not followed by any consonant, do not normally exist in Dutch, and there is no normal way to indicate them in the spelling. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Double_vowels_and_consonants">Double vowels and consonants</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_orthography&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Double vowels and consonants">edit</a>]</div> When a vowel is short/lax but is free in pronunciation, the spelling is made checked by doubling the following consonant, so that the vowel is kept short according to the default rules. That has no effect on pronunciation, as modern Dutch does not have long consonants: <ul><li>ram-men /ˈrɑ.mə(n)/ ("rams, to ram")</li> <li>tel-len /ˈtɛ.lə(n)/ ("to count")</li> <li>tin-nen /ˈtɪ.nə(n)/ ("made of tin")</li> <li>kop-pen /ˈkɔ.pə(n)/ ("cups, heads, to head [a ball]")</li> <li>luk-ken /ˈlʏ.kə(n)/ ("to succeed")</li></ul> When a vowel is long/tense but still checked in pronunciation, it is necessarily checked in spelling as well. A change is thus needed to indicate the length, which is done by doubling the vowel. Doubled ⟨i⟩ does not occur. <ul><li>raam /raːm/ ("window"), raam-de /ˈraːm.də/ ("estimated")</li> <li>teel /teːl/ ("cultivate"), teel-de /ˈteːl.də/ ("cultivated")</li> <li>koop /koːp/ ("buy, sale"), koop-sel /ˈkoːp.səl/ ("something bought")</li> <li>Luuk /lyk/ (a name)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="⟨e⟩">⟨e⟩</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_orthography&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: ⟨e⟩">edit</a>]</div> A single ⟨e⟩ indicates short and long e but is also used to indicate the neutral schwa sound /ə/ in unstressed syllables. Because the schwa is always short, ⟨e⟩ is never followed by a double consonant when it represents /ə/. <ul><li>ap-pe-len /ˈɑ.pə.lə(n)/ ("apples")</li> <li>ge-ko-men /ɣə.ˈkoː.mə(n)/ ("(has) come")</li> <li>kin-de-ren /ˈkɪn.də.rə(n)/ ("children")</li></ul> A word-final long /eː/ is written ⟨ee⟩ (or ⟨é⟩ in some loanwords), as an exception to the normal rules. That means that a word-final single ⟨e⟩ will almost always represent a schwa. <ul><li>jee /jeː/ (expression of woe), je /jə/ ("you")</li> <li>mee /meː/ ("along, with"), me /mə/ ("me")</li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/wee#Dutch" class="extiw" title="wikt:wee">wee</a> /ʋeː/ ("contraction of the <a href="/wiki/Womb" class="mw-redirect" title="Womb">womb</a>"), we /ʋə/ ("<a href="/wiki/We" title="We">we</a>")</li> <li>Exception: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Enschede#Dutch" class="extiw" title="wikt:Enschede">Enschede</a> /ɛn.sxə.ˈde/ (city name; formerly Enschedé)</li></ul> Because the position of the stress in a polysyllabic word is not indicated in the <a href="/wiki/Spelling" title="Spelling">spelling</a>, that can lead to <a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">ambiguity</a>. Some pairs of words are spelled identically, but ⟨e⟩ represents either stressed /ɛ/ or /eː/ or unstressed /ə/, depending on how the stress is placed. <ul><li>be-de-len /ˈbeː.də.lə(n)/ ("to beg") or /bə.ˈdeː.lə(n)/ ("to impart with, to grant [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>]")</li> <li>ver-gaan-de /ˈvɛr.ˌɣaːn.də/ ("far-going, far-reaching") or /vər.ˈɣaːn.də/ ("perishing")</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Morphological_alternations">Morphological alternations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_orthography&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Morphological alternations">edit</a>]</div> The length of a vowel generally does not change in the pronunciation of different forms of a word. However, in different forms of a word, a syllable may alternate between checked and free depending on the syllable that follows. The spelling rules nonetheless follow the simplest representation, writing double letters only when necessary. Consequently, some forms of the same word may be written with single letters while others are written with double letters. Such alternations commonly occur between the singular and plural of a noun or between the infinitive and the conjugated forms of verbs. Examples of alternations are shown below. Note that free /i/ is spelled ⟨ie⟩ in native words: <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Spelling alternation between free and checked </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Long/tense vowel</th> <th>When free</th> <th>When checked </th> <th>Short/lax vowel</th> <th>When checked</th> <th>When free </th></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: center">aː </th> <td>laten /ˈlaːtə(n)/ ("to let")</td> <td>laat /laːt/ ("(I) let") </td> <th style="text-align: center">ɑ </th> <td>lat /lɑt/ ("lat")</td> <td>latten /ˈlɑtə(n)/ ("lats") </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: center">eː </th> <td>leken /ˈleːkə(n)/ ("appeared", plural)</td> <td>leek /leːk/ ("appeared", singular) </td> <th style="text-align: center">ɛ </th> <td>lek /lɛk/ ("(I) leak")</td> <td>lekken /ˈlɛkə(n)/ ("to leak") </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: center">i(ː) </th> <td>dief /diːf/ ("robber") </td> <td>dieven diːvə(n)/ ("robbers") </td> <th style="text-align: center">ɪ </th> <td>til /tɪl/ ("(I) lift")</td> <td>tillen /ˈtɪlə(n)/ ("to lift") </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: center">oː </th> <td>bonen /ˈboːnə(n)/ ("beans")</td> <td>boon /boːn/ ("bean") </td> <th style="text-align: center">ɔ </th> <td>bon /bɔn/ ("ticket")</td> <td>bonnen /ˈbɔnə(n)/ ("tickets") </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: center">y(ː) </th> <td>muren /ˈmyːrə(n)/ ("walls")</td> <td>muur /myːr/ ("wall") </td> <th style="text-align: center">ʏ </th> <td>mus /mʏs/ ("sparrow")</td> <td>mussen /ˈmʏsə(n)/ ("sparrows") </td></tr></tbody></table> There are some irregular nouns that change their vowel from short/lax in the singular to long/tense in the plural. Their spelling does not alternate between single and double letters. However, the sound /ɪ/ becomes /eː/ in the plural in such nouns, not /iː/ That is reflected in the spelling. <ul><li>dag /dɑx/ ("day"), da-gen /ˈdaː.ɣə(n)/ ("days")</li> <li>stad /stɑt/ ("city, town"), ste-den /steːdə(n)/ ("cities, towns")</li> <li>weg /ʋɛx/ ("road, way"), we-gen /ˈʋeː.ɣə(n)/ ("roads, ways")</li> <li>schip /sxɪp/ ("ship"), sche-pen /ˈsxeː.pə(n)/ ("ships")</li> <li>lot /lɔt/ ("lottery ticket"), lo-ten /ˈloː.tə(n)/ ("lottery tickets")</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exceptions">Exceptions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_orthography&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Exceptions">edit</a>]</div> As a rule, the simplest representation is always chosen. A double vowel is never written in an open syllable, and a double consonant is never written at the end of a word or when next to another consonant. A double vowel is rarely followed by a double consonant, as it could be simplified by writing them both single. The past tense of verbs may have a double vowel, followed by a double consonant, to distinguish those forms from the present tense. <ul><li>ha-ten ("hate"), haat-ten ("hated"), both /ˈɦaː.tə(n)/</li> <li>ra-den ("guess"), raad-den ("guessed"), both /ˈraː.də(n)/</li></ul> Compounds should be read as if each word were spelled separately, and they may therefore appear to violate the normal rules. That may sometimes cause confusion if the word is not known to be a compound. <ul><li>dag-ar-bei-der /ˈdɑx.ˌɑr.bɛi.dər/ or more fluently /ˈdɑ.ˌɣɑr.bɛi.dər/ ("day labourer"), a compound of dag ("day") + arbeider ("labourer") so it is not divided as *da-gar-bei-der */ˈdaː.ˌɣɑr.bɛi.dər/. If it were not a compound, it would be written *dag-gar-bei-der to keep the first "a" short.</li> <li>een-en-twin-tig /ˈeː.nən.ˌtʋɪn.təx/ ("twenty-one"), a compound of een ("one") + en ("and") + twintig ("twenty"). If it were not a compound, it would be written *e-nen-twin-tig to avoid having a double vowel at the end of a syllable.</li> <li>mee-doen /ˈmeː.dun/ ("to participate"), a compound of mee ("along (with)") + doen ("do"). If it were not a compound, it would be written *me-doen to avoid having a double vowel at the end of a syllable. The word mee itself has a double vowel because of the exception with final -⟨e⟩, as noted above.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Final_devoicing_and_the_'t_kofschip_rule">Final devoicing and the 't kofschip rule</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_orthography&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Final devoicing and the 't kofschip rule">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Final_obstruent_devoicing" class="mw-redirect" title="Final obstruent devoicing">Final obstruent devoicing</a> and <a href="/wiki/%27t_kofschip" title="'t kofschip">'t kofschip</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/T-rules" title="T-rules">T-rules</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Dutch_orthography" title="Special:EditPage/Dutch orthography">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (March 2020) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Final devoicing is not indicated in Dutch spelling; words are usually spelled according to the historically original consonant. Therefore, a word may be written with a letter for a voiced consonant at the end of a word but still be pronounced with a voiceless consonant: <ul><li>heb /ɦɛp/ "(I) have" but hebben /ˈɦɛbə(n)/ "to have"</li> <li>paard /paːrt/ "horse" but paarden /ˈpaːrdə(n)/ "horses"</li> <li>leg /lɛx/ "(I) lay" but leggen /ˈlɛɣə(n)/ "to lay"</li></ul> Weak verbs form their past tense and past participle by addition of a dental, ⟨d⟩ or ⟨t⟩ depending on the <a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voicing</a> of the preceding consonant(s) (see <a href="/wiki/Assimilation_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Assimilation (linguistics)">Assimilation (linguistics)</a>). However, because final consonants are always devoiced, there is no difference in pronunciation between these in the participle. Nonetheless, in accordance with the above rules, the orthography operates as if the consonant were still voiced. The same dental consonant letter is spelled in the past participle as in the past tense forms in which it is not word-final. To help memorise when to write ⟨d⟩ and when ⟨t⟩, Dutch students are taught the rule "'t kofschip is met thee beladen" ("the merchant ship is loaded with tea"). If the verb stem in the infinitive ends with one of the consonants of "'t kofschip" (⟨-t, -k, -f, -s, -ch, -p⟩), the past tense dental is a -⟨t⟩-; otherwise, it is a -⟨d⟩-. However, the rule also applies to loanwords ending in -⟨c⟩, -⟨q⟩ or -⟨x⟩, as these are also voiceless. <table class="wikitable" border="1"> <caption>Examples </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Dutch </th> <th>Meaning </th> <th>Dutch sentence </th> <th>English corresponding sentence </th></tr> <tr> <td>werken </td> <td>to work </td> <td>ik werkte </td> <td>I worked </td></tr> <tr> <td>krabben </td> <td>to scratch </td> <td>ik krabde </td> <td>I scratched </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="⟨v⟩_and_⟨z⟩">⟨v⟩ and ⟨z⟩</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_orthography&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: ⟨v⟩ and ⟨z⟩">edit</a>]</div> ⟨v⟩ and ⟨z⟩ are somewhat special: <ul><li>They are permitted only at the start of a syllable in native words, not at the end.</li> <li>For historic reasons, in native words they are never preceded by a short/lax vowel and so never occur doubled.</li> <li>When the sounds /v/ and /z/ occur at the end of a syllable, they are written ⟨f⟩ and ⟨s⟩ respectively.</li></ul> Then, therefore, final devoicing is reflected in the spelling: <ul><li>blijven /ˈblɛivə(n)/ ("to stay") → blijf /blɛif/ "(I) stay"</li> <li>huizen /ˈɦœyzə(n)/ "houses" → huis /ɦœys/ "house"</li></ul> However, ⟨f⟩ and ⟨s⟩ are also written at the end of a syllable that is not final. The pronunciation remains voiced even if the spelling shows a voiceless consonant. This is most common in the past tense forms of weak verbs: <ul><li>leven /ˈleːvə(n)/ ("to live") → leefde /ˈleːvdə/ "(I) lived"</li> <li>blozen /ˈbloːzə(n)/ ("to blush") → bloosde /ˈbloːzdə/ "(I) blushed"</li></ul> Compare this to verbs in which the final consonant is underlyingly voiceless. Here, the dental assimilation rule calls for the ending -te, which gives away the voicelessness of the previous sound even if the spelling of that sound itself does not: <ul><li>blaffen /ˈblɑfə(n)/ ("to bark") → blafte /ˈblɑftə/ "(I) barked"</li> <li>ruisen /ˈrœysə(n)/ ("to rustle, to hiss") → ruiste /ˈrœystə/ "(I) rustled"</li></ul> Some modern loanwords and new coinages do not follow these rules. However, these words tend to not follow the other spelling rules as well: buzzen ("to page (call on a pager)") → buzz ("(I) page"), buzzde ("(I) paged"). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diacritics">Diacritics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_orthography&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Diacritics">edit</a>]</div> Dutch uses the <a href="/wiki/Acute_accent" title="Acute accent">acute accent</a> to mark stress and the <a href="/wiki/Diaeresis_(diacritic)" title="Diaeresis (diacritic)">diaeresis</a> (trema) to disambiguate diphthongs/triphthongs. Occasionally, other diacritics are used in loanwords and native onomatopoeic words. Accents are not necessarily placed on capital letters (for example, the word Eén at the beginning of a sentence) unless the whole word is written in capitals.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Acute_accent">Acute accent</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_orthography&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Acute accent">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VRT_E%C3%A9n_logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/VRT_E%C3%A9n_logo.svg/220px-VRT_E%C3%A9n_logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/VRT_E%C3%A9n_logo.svg/330px-VRT_E%C3%A9n_logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/VRT_E%C3%A9n_logo.svg/440px-VRT_E%C3%A9n_logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="243" /></a><figcaption>Former logo of <a href="/wiki/E%C3%A9n" class="mw-redirect" title="Eén">Eén</a> (One), a Flemish TV station in Belgium</figcaption></figure> Acute accents may be used to emphasise a word in a phrase, on the vowel in the stressed syllable. If the vowel is written as a digraph, an acute accent is put on both parts of the digraph. Although that rule includes ⟨<a href="/wiki/IJ_(digraph)" title="IJ (digraph)">ij</a>⟩, the acute accent on the ⟨j⟩ is frequently omitted in typing (resulting in ⟨íj⟩ instead of ⟨íj́⟩), as putting an acute accent on a ⟨j⟩ is still problematic in most word processing software.<a href="#cite_note-klemtoon-43">[43]</a> If the vowel is written as more than two letters, the accent is put on the first two vowel letters – except when the first letter is a capital one. According to the <a href="/wiki/Taalunie" class="mw-redirect" title="Taalunie">Taalunie</a>, accents on capital letters are used only in <a href="/wiki/All_caps" title="All caps">all caps</a> and in loanwords.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> So, it is correct to write één, Eén, and ÉÉN, but not to write *Één. The <a href="/wiki/Genootschap_Onze_Taal" title="Genootschap Onze Taal">Genootschap Onze Taal</a> states that accents can be put on capital letters whenever the need arises, but makes an exception for Eén.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Stress on a short vowel, written with only one letter, is occasionally marked with a <a href="/wiki/Grave_accent" title="Grave accent">grave accent</a>: Kàn jij dat? (equivalent to the example below), <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/wel" class="extiw" title="wikt:wel">wèl</a>. However, it is technically incorrect to do so.<a href="#cite_note-klemtoon-43">[43]</a> Additionally, the acute accent may also be used to mark different meanings of various words, including een/één (<a href="/wiki/Indefinite_article" class="mw-redirect" title="Indefinite article">a(n)</a>/<a href="/wiki/1_(number)" class="mw-redirect" title="1 (number)">one</a>), voor/vóór (for/before), vóórkomen/voorkómen (to occur/to prevent), and vérstrekkend/verstrékkend (far-reaching/issuing), as shown in the examples below. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Examples">Examples</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_orthography&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Examples">edit</a>]</div> <table> <tbody><tr> <td>Dat was háár ijsje.</td> <td>That was her ice cream. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ik wil het nú!</td> <td>I want it now! </td></tr> <tr> <td>Dat is héél mooi.</td> <td>That is very nice. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Kán jij dat?</td> <td>Can you (are you able to) do that? </td></tr> <tr> <td>Tóé nou!</td> <td>Come on! </td></tr> <tr> <td>Die fiets is niet óúd, hij is níéuw!</td> <td>That bike is not old, it is new! </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hij heeft een boek.</td> <td>He has a book. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hij heeft één boek.</td> <td>He has one book. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ik zal voor jou opstaan.</td> <td>I will get up for you. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ik zal vóór jou opstaan.</td> <td>I will get up before you. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diaeresis">Diaeresis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_orthography&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Diaeresis">edit</a>]</div> A <a href="/wiki/Diaeresis_(diacritic)" title="Diaeresis (diacritic)">diaeresis</a> is used to mark a <a href="/wiki/Hiatus_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hiatus (linguistics)">hiatus</a>, if the combination of vowel letters may be either mistaken for a digraph or interpreted in more than one way: geïnd (collected), geüpload (uploaded), egoïstisch (egoistic), sympathieën (sympathies, preferences), coördinaat (coordinate), reëel (realistic), zeeën (seas), met z'n tweeën (two together; the two of them) and even until 1996 zeeëend (sea duck; now spelled zee-eend). On a line break that separates the vowels but keeps parts of a digraph together, the diaeresis becomes redundant and so is not written: ego-/istisch, sympathie-/en, re-/eel, zee-/en, met z'n twee-/en. The rule can be extended to names, such as Michaëlla, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Micha%C3%ABlla_Krajicek" title="Michaëlla Krajicek">Michaëlla Krajicek</a>. The diaeresis is only used in derivational suffixes since 1996; compounds are written with a hyphen, for example auto-ongeluk (car accident). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_diacritics">Other diacritics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_orthography&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Other diacritics">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Grave_accent" title="Grave accent">grave accent</a> is used in some French loanwords and native <a href="/wiki/Onomatopoeia" title="Onomatopoeia">onomatopoeic</a> words, generally when pronunciation would be wrong without it, such as <a href="/wiki/Apr%C3%A8s-ski" class="mw-redirect" title="Après-ski">après-ski</a>, barrière (barrier), bèta, caissière (female cashier), carrière (career) and hè? ("What?"), blèren (to yell). Officially, appel is always written without an accent, but sometimes an accent is used to distinguish between appel ("apple") and appèl ("appeal", "roll call", and others).<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Besides being used to mark stress, <a href="/wiki/Acute_accent" title="Acute accent">acute accents</a> are also used in many loanwords (mainly from French) such as logé (overnight guest), coupé (train compartment), oké (okay) and café. The name of the Dutch town <a href="/wiki/Enschede" title="Enschede">Enschede</a>, pronounced [ˈɛnsxəˌde] was once upon a time written Enschedé, but later the acute accent fell off without changing the pronunciation, which has not become *[ɛnˈsxedə]. Similarly, a <a href="/wiki/Circumflex_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="Circumflex accent">circumflex accent</a> is also used in some French loanwords, including enquête (survey), and fêteren (to treat). For gênant (embarrassing) it is indecisive, the official spelling has the accent, but the Genootschap Onze also allows the spelling without the accent since it makes no difference to the pronunciation.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> The circumflex accent is also used the <a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_language" title="West Frisian language">West Frisian language</a> and so in general Dutch as well if there is no translation. Skûtsjesilen is the most common example, where silen is West Frisian for zeilen (to sail) and a skûtsje is a specific type of sailboat. Fryslân, the official (and Frisian) name of the province <a href="/wiki/Friesland" title="Friesland">Friesland</a>, is also well known, at least in the Netherlands. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Apostrophe">Apostrophe</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_orthography&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Apostrophe">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Dutch_orthography" title="Special:EditPage/Dutch orthography">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (March 2020) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table>As in English, an apostrophe is used to mark omission of a part of word or several words: <table> <tbody><tr> <td>'n</td> <td>(een)</td> <td>a, an </td></tr> <tr> <td>'t</td> <td>(het)</td> <td>it/the </td></tr> <tr> <td>'k</td> <td>(ik)</td> <td>I </td></tr> <tr> <td>'r</td> <td>(haar)</td> <td>her </td></tr> <tr> <td>m'n</td> <td>(mijn)</td> <td>my </td></tr> <tr> <td>z'n</td> <td>(zijn)</td> <td>his </td></tr> <tr> <td>zo'n</td> <td>(zo een)</td> <td>such a(n) </td></tr> <tr> <td>'s ochtends</td> <td>(des ochtends (archaic))</td> <td>in the morning </td></tr> <tr> <td>'s middags</td> <td>(des middags (archaic))</td> <td>in the afternoon </td></tr> <tr> <td>'s avonds</td> <td>•(des avonds (archaic))</td> <td>in the evening </td></tr> <tr> <td>'s nachts</td> <td>(des nachts (archaic))</td> <td>in the night </td></tr> <tr> <td>'s zomers</td> <td>(des zomers (archaic))</td> <td>in the summer </td></tr> <tr> <td>'s winters</td> <td>(des winters (archaic))</td> <td>in the winter </td></tr> <tr> <td>'s-Gravenhage (formal)</td> <td>(des Graven hage (archaic))</td> <td><a href="/wiki/The_Hague" title="The Hague">Den Haag</a> (The Hague) </td></tr> <tr> <td>'s-Hertogenbosch</td> <td>(des Hertogen bosch (archaic))</td> <td><a href="/wiki/%E2%80%99s-Hertogenbosch" class="mw-redirect" title="’s-Hertogenbosch">’s-Hertogenbosch</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>A'dam (informal)</td> <td>((Amsterdam)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>R'dam (informal)</td> <td>((Rotterdam)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Rotterdam" title="Rotterdam">Rotterdam</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> Contrary to the city of Den Haag, 's-Hertogenbosch (also known colloquially as (Den Bosch) has decided to retain the more formal orthography of its name for common communication like road signing. Except in <a href="/wiki/All_caps" title="All caps">all caps</a>, the letter immediately following a word-initial apostrophe is not capitalised. If necessary, the second word is capitalised instead: <dl><dd>'s Avonds is zij nooit thuis. (In the evening, she is never at home.).</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_orthography&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_braille" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch braille">Dutch braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Dutch_orthography" title="History of Dutch orthography">History of Dutch orthography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IJ_(digraph)" title="IJ (digraph)">IJ (digraph)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthijs_Siegenbeek" title="Matthijs Siegenbeek">Matthijs Siegenbeek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nederlandse_Taalunie" class="mw-redirect" title="Nederlandse Taalunie">Nederlandse Taalunie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Dictation_of_the_Dutch_Language" title="Grand Dictation of the Dutch Language">Grand Dictation of the Dutch Language</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_orthography&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Notes and references">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKoninkrijksrelaties" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Koninkrijksrelaties, Ministerie van Binnenlandse Zaken en. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0018784/2010-10-10">"Spellingwet"</a>. wetten.overheid.nl (in Dutch). Retrieved 2022-11-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=wetten.overheid.nl&rft.atitle=Spellingwet&rft.aulast=Koninkrijksrelaties&rft.aufirst=Ministerie+van+Binnenlandse+Zaken+en&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwetten.overheid.nl%2FBWBR0018784%2F2010-10-10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+orthography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoninkrijksrelaties" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Koninkrijksrelaties, Ministerie van Binnenlandse Zaken en. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0002027/1997-02-21">"Wet voorschriften schrijfwijze Nederlandsche taal"</a>. wetten.overheid.nl (in Dutch). Retrieved 2022-11-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=wetten.overheid.nl&rft.atitle=Wet+voorschriften+schrijfwijze+Nederlandsche+taal&rft.aulast=Koninkrijksrelaties&rft.aufirst=Ministerie+van+Binnenlandse+Zaken+en&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwetten.overheid.nl%2FBWBR0002027%2F1997-02-21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+orthography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoninkrijksrelaties" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Koninkrijksrelaties, Ministerie van Binnenlandse Zaken en. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0019422/2006-05-01">"Besluit bekendmaking spellingvoorschriften 2005"</a>. wetten.overheid.nl (in Dutch). Retrieved 2022-11-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=wetten.overheid.nl&rft.atitle=Besluit+bekendmaking+spellingvoorschriften+2005&rft.aulast=Koninkrijksrelaties&rft.aufirst=Ministerie+van+Binnenlandse+Zaken+en&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwetten.overheid.nl%2FBWBR0019422%2F2006-05-01&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+orthography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoninkrijksrelaties" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Koninkrijksrelaties, Ministerie van Binnenlandse Zaken en. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0008116/1996-08-01">"Spellingbesluit"</a>. wetten.overheid.nl (in Dutch). Retrieved 2022-11-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=wetten.overheid.nl&rft.atitle=Spellingbesluit&rft.aulast=Koninkrijksrelaties&rft.aufirst=Ministerie+van+Binnenlandse+Zaken+en&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwetten.overheid.nl%2FBWBR0008116%2F1996-08-01&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+orthography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ejustice.just.fgov.be/eli/besluit/2006/06/30/2009036011/staatsblad">"Moniteur Belge - Belgisch Staatsblad"</a>. www.ejustice.just.fgov.be. Retrieved 2022-11-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ejustice.just.fgov.be&rft.atitle=Moniteur+Belge+-+Belgisch+Staatsblad&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ejustice.just.fgov.be%2Feli%2Fbesluit%2F2006%2F06%2F30%2F2009036011%2Fstaatsblad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+orthography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/NATO_phonetic_alphabet" title="NATO phonetic alphabet">NATO phonetic alphabet</a> is also used, and sometimes the two are even mixed. </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/paar001abnu01_01/paar001abnu01_01_0016.htm">Standard Dutch pronunciation guide by P.C. Paardekooper</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-loan-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-loan_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-loan_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-loan_8-2">c</a> ⟨q⟩, ⟨x⟩, and ⟨y⟩ occur mostly in <a href="/wiki/Loanwords" class="mw-redirect" title="Loanwords">loanwords</a>, but they may also appear in words and names that reflect older spelling conventions. ⟨q⟩ is almost always followed by ⟨u⟩ (that is, ⟨qu⟩) because nearly every word with a ⟨qu⟩ is borrowed from <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> or <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/IJ_(digraph)" title="IJ (digraph)">digraph IJ</a> behaves like a separate letter for capitalisation. In alphabetical order, ⟨ij⟩ may not be distinguished from ⟨y⟩ (usual for telephone directories), or it may come between ⟨ii⟩ and ⟨ik⟩ (which is common in dictionaries). In Dutch <a href="/wiki/Primary_education" title="Primary education">primary education</a> the (more common) digraph ⟨ij⟩ often replaces the (less common) ⟨y⟩ as the 25th letter of the alphabet. </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Normally, ⟨y⟩ is generally called /ɛɪ/. However, when it is used in common speech and/or the need arises to distinguish the letter from ⟨<a href="/wiki/IJ_(digraph)" title="IJ (digraph)">ij</a>⟩, it is most often referred to as Griekse ij (sometimes written ⟨Griekse Y⟩ <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.meertens.knaw.nl/nfd/component.php?act=detail&naam=ij-y">[1]</a>)('Greek Y'); i-grec, a <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> word having a similar meaning; or <a href="/wiki/Ypsilon" class="mw-redirect" title="Ypsilon">ypsilon</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-sch-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sch_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sch_11-1">b</a> Used only in the suffix -isch(e) /is(ə)/. </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> In words like thans, thee, thuis. </li> <li id="cite_note-unstressed-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-unstressed_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-unstressed_13-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-unstressed_13-2">c</a> ⟨e⟩ and ⟨i⟩, when unstressed, are sometimes pronounced /ə/. </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> ⟨ij⟩ is normally /ɛi̯/. It is exceptionally /i(ː)/ in the word bijzonder and /ə/ in the suffix -lijk. </li> <li id="cite_note-c-15"><a href="#cite_ref-c_15-0">^</a> ⟨c⟩ before ⟨e⟩, ⟨i⟩, ⟨y⟩, is pronounced /s/ (or /tʃ/ in some loanwords from Italian) and /k/ otherwise. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Cedilla" title="Cedilla">cedilla</a> is used to indicate pronunciation as /s/ when ⟨c⟩ is followed by ⟨a⟩, ⟨o⟩ or ⟨u⟩. </li> <li id="cite_note-ch-17"><a href="#cite_ref-ch_17-0">^</a> ⟨ch⟩ is pronounced /k/ in Italian loanwords, /ʃ/, /tʃ/ in loanwords from other sources. </li> <li id="cite_note-g-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-g_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-g_18-1">b</a> ⟨g⟩ may be pronounced /ʒ/ or /dʒ/ before ⟨e⟩ ⟨i⟩ or ⟨y⟩ in words of Romance or English origin. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> ⟨(i)ll⟩ is found in words from French or occasionally Spanish. </li> <li id="cite_note-j-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-j_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-j_20-1">b</a> ⟨j⟩ is pronounced /x/ in Spanish loanwords, as a postalveolar in loanwords from other sources. </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> ⟨ñ⟩ occurs only in a few Spanish loanwords. </li> <li id="cite_note-ph-22"><a href="#cite_ref-ph_22-0">^</a> Used only in some proper names like <a href="/wiki/Zutphen" title="Zutphen">Zutphen</a>. Words of Greek origin are written with ⟨f⟩ but formerly with ⟨ph⟩. </li> <li id="cite_note-q-23"><a href="#cite_ref-q_23-0">^</a> In the rare cases when ⟨q⟩ is not followed by ⟨u⟩, it is pronounced /k/. In those cases, ⟨q⟩ is most likely a result of <a href="/wiki/Transliteration" title="Transliteration">transliteration</a> from languages such as <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-qu-24"><a href="#cite_ref-qu_24-0">^</a> ⟨qu⟩ is normally pronounced /kʋ/ but as /k/ before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩ in loanwords from French or Spanish. </li> <li id="cite_note-s-25"><a href="#cite_ref-s_25-0">^</a> ⟨s⟩ may be pronounced /z/ before a vowel in words of foreign origin. </li> <li id="cite_note-sch2-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sch2_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sch2_26-1">b</a> /ʃ/ is used mostly in words of German origin. It is also /s/ finally in older Dutch spellings, which are now spelled with just ⟨s⟩ </li> <li id="cite_note-(t)sj-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-(t)sj_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-(t)sj_27-1">b</a> /ʃ/ and /tʃ/ occur as independent phonemes only in words of foreign origin. The sounds are approximated using the "native" spellings ⟨sj⟩ and ⟨tsj⟩ respectively. </li> <li id="cite_note-sz-28"><a href="#cite_ref-sz_28-0">^</a> Used in some proper names such as <a href="/wiki/Lambert_Jacobsz" title="Lambert Jacobsz">Jacobsz</a>, as a contraction of -s zoon (...'s son). </li> <li id="cite_note-ti-29"><a href="#cite_ref-ti_29-0">^</a> ⟨ti⟩ followed by a vowel is pronounced /(t)si/ in loanwords of Latin origin. </li> <li id="cite_note-th-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-th_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-th_30-1">b</a> ⟨th⟩ is /t/ in words of Greek origin. In English loanwords, it is most often approximated with /t/ or /d/ according to the English pronunciation, or speakers may attempt to pronounce dental fricatives, as in English. </li> <li id="cite_note-x-31"><a href="#cite_ref-x_31-0">^</a> ⟨x⟩ is sometimes pronounced /ɡz/ between vowels, usually in southern dialects. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> ⟨z⟩ is /ts/ in words of German or Italian origin. In Italian words, it may also be /dz/ between vowels. </li> <li id="cite_note-ij-y-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ij-y_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ij-y_33-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ij-y_33-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ij-y_33-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ij-y_33-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ij-y_33-5">f</a> In diphthongs, ⟨ij⟩ and ⟨y⟩ are obsolete spellings for ⟨i⟩. They are found mostly in names. </li> <li id="cite_note-ae-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ae_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ae_34-1">b</a> ⟨ae⟩ is an obsolete spelling for ⟨aa⟩. In Latin words, it is treated identical to ⟨ee⟩. </li> <li id="cite_note-au-35"><a href="#cite_ref-au_35-0">^</a> In words of French origin. </li> <li id="cite_note-eu-36"><a href="#cite_ref-eu_36-0">^</a> ⟨eu⟩ is pronounced as /œy̯/ by some speakers in words of Greek origin. </li> <li id="cite_note-oi-37"><a href="#cite_ref-oi_37-0">^</a> ⟨oi⟩ is pronounced /ʋɑ/ or /ʋaː/ in French loanwords. In archaic Dutch spellings, mostly proper nouns, it may also be /oː/ (for example, <a href="/wiki/Oisterwijk" title="Oisterwijk">Oisterwijk</a> or <a href="/wiki/Helvoirt" title="Helvoirt">Helvoirt</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> ⟨oo⟩ is generally /u(ː)/ in English loanwords. </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> ⟨ou⟩ is generally /u(ː)/ in loanwords from French or Greek. </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> ⟨ui⟩ is pronounced /ʋi(ː)/ in loanwords from French. In English loanwords, such as cruise, it is /uː/. </li> <li id="cite_note-y-41"><a href="#cite_ref-y_41-0">^</a> ⟨y⟩ is usually pronounced as ⟨i⟩ or ⟨ie⟩. It is also an obsolete spelling variant of ⟨ij⟩. </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.onzetaal.nl/taaladvies/advies/accenten-op-hoofdletters">Onze Taal: Accenten op hoofdletters (in Dutch)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-klemtoon-43">^ <a href="#cite_ref-klemtoon_43-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-klemtoon_43-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://taaladvies.net/klemtoonteken-algemeen/">"Klemtoonteken (algemeen) - Taaladvies.net"</a>. taaladvies.net. 12 May 2021. Retrieved 2022-11-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=taaladvies.net&rft.atitle=Klemtoonteken+%28algemeen%29+-+Taaladvies.net&rft.date=2021-05-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftaaladvies.net%2Fklemtoonteken-algemeen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+orthography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://taaladvies.net/accenttekens-en-andere-diakritische-tekens-op-hoofdletters/">"Accenttekens en andere diakritische tekens op hoofdletters - Taaladvies.net"</a>. taaladvies.net. 12 May 2021. Retrieved 2022-11-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=taaladvies.net&rft.atitle=Accenttekens+en+andere+diakritische+tekens+op+hoofdletters+-+Taaladvies.net&rft.date=2021-05-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftaaladvies.net%2Faccenttekens-en-andere-diakritische-tekens-op-hoofdletters%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+orthography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onzetaal.nl/taalloket/accenten-op-hoofdletters">"Accenten op hoofdletters"</a>. Onze Taal (in Dutch). Retrieved 2022-11-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Onze+Taal&rft.atitle=Accenten+op+hoofdletters&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonzetaal.nl%2Ftaalloket%2Faccenten-op-hoofdletters&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADutch+orthography" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.onzetaal.nl/taaladvies/advies/appel-appl">Onze Taal: appel / appèl</a> (in Dutch) </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onzetaal.nl/taaladvies/accent-circonflexe/">Onze Taal: genant / gênant</a> (in Dutch) </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_orthography&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Vincent van Heuven, Spelling en Lezen. Hoe Tragisch Zijn de Werkwoordsvormen?, Assen: Van Gorcum, 1978.</li> <li>Rob Naborn, De Spelling-Siegenbeek (1804), Doctoraalscriptie, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, 1985.</li> <li>Marijke van der Wal, Geschiedenis van het Nederlands, Utrecht: Het Spectrum, 1994.</li> <li>Nicoline van der Sijs, Taal als mensenwerk. Het ontstaan van het ABN, Den Haag: Sdu Uitgevers, 2004.</li> <li>Anneke Nunn, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lotpublications.nl/dutch-orthography">Dutch Orthography: A Systematic Investigation of the Spelling of Dutch Words</a>, Katholieke Universiteit Nijmegen, Doctoral dissertation, 1998.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dutch_orthography&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061008191650/http://www.dbnl.nl/tekst/wink003gron01/">De grondbeginselen der Nederlandsche spelling. Ontwerp der spelling voor het aanstaande Nederlandsch Woordenboek</a> (1863) by L.A. te Winkel</li> <li><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/27335" class="extiw" title="gutenberg:27335">De grondbeginselen der Nederlandsche spelling. Regeling der spelling voor het woordenboek der Nederlandsche taal</a> (1873) by L.A. te Winkel and M. de Vries</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://woordenlijst.org/">Woordenlijst Nederlandse taal online</a> (<a href="/wiki/Word_list_of_the_Dutch_language" title="Word list of the Dutch language">Word list of the Dutch language</a>, 2015) by the Dutch Language Union (Taalunie)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060822005752/http://www.dewittespelling.nl/">De witte spelling</a> (2006) by the Society "Onze Taal"</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://stevenroyedwards.com/nieuwespelling.html">"New Spelling" of the Dutch language</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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orthography">Yiddish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breton_language#Orthography" title="Breton language">Breton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_language#Orthography" title="Cornish language">Cornish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kernewek_Kemmyn" title="Kernewek Kemmyn">Kernewek Kemmyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Written_Form" title="Standard Written Form">Standard Written Form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kernowek_Standard" title="Kernowek Standard">Kernowek Standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Cornish" title="Modern Cornish">Modern Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_Cornish" title="Unified Cornish">Unified Cornish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_orthography" title="Irish orthography">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_language#Orthography" title="Manx language">Manx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_orthography" title="Scottish Gaelic orthography">Scottish Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_orthography" title="Welsh orthography">Welsh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aromanian_alphabet" title="Aromanian alphabet">Aromanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_orthography" title="Catalan orthography">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_orthography" title="French orthography">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istro-Romanian_alphabet" title="Istro-Romanian alphabet">Istro-Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_orthography" title="Italian orthography">Italian</a></li> <li>Latin <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_phonology_and_orthography" title="Latin phonology and orthography">Phonology & ortography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">alphabet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_orthography" title="Portuguese orthography">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_alphabet" title="Romanian alphabet">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_orthography" title="Sicilian orthography">Sicilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_orthography" title="Spanish orthography">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walloon_orthography" title="Walloon orthography">Walloon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Baltic_languages" title="Baltic languages">Baltic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_orthography" title="Latvian orthography">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_orthography" title="Lithuanian orthography">Lithuanian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_alphabet" title="Belarusian alphabet">Belarusian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_alphabet" title="Belarusian alphabet">Cyrillic alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_Latin_alphabet" title="Belarusian Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tara%C5%A1kievica" title="Taraškievica">Classical orthography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_alphabet" title="Bulgarian alphabet">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_orthography" title="Czech orthography">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_alphabet" title="Macedonian alphabet">Macedonian</a></li> <li>Polish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polish_alphabet" title="Polish alphabet">alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_orthography" title="Polish orthography">orthography</a></li></ul></li> <li>Russian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_alphabet" title="Russian alphabet">alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_orthography" title="Russian orthography">orthography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_orthography" title="Silesian orthography">Silesian</a></li> <li>Serbo-Croatian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Cyrillic_alphabet" title="Serbian Cyrillic alphabet">Cyrillic alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaj%27s_Latin_alphabet" title="Gaj's Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montenegrin_alphabet" title="Montenegrin alphabet">Montenegrin alphabet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_orthography" title="Slovak orthography">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_alphabet" title="Slovene alphabet">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorbian_alphabet" title="Sorbian alphabet">Sorbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_orthography" title="Ukrainian orthography">Ukrainian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_alphabet" title="Ukrainian alphabet">Cyrillic alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Latin_alphabet" title="Ukrainian Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avestan_alphabet" title="Avestan alphabet">Avestan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_alphabets" title="Kurdish alphabets">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashto_alphabet" title="Pashto alphabet">Pashto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_alphabet" title="Persian alphabet">Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajik_alphabet" title="Tajik alphabet">Tajik</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_alphabet" title="Bengali alphabet">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chakma_script" title="Chakma script">Chakma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_script" title="Gujarati script">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurmukhi" title="Gurmukhi">Gurmukhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindustani_orthography" title="Hindustani orthography">Hindustani</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urdu_alphabet" title="Urdu alphabet">Urdu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldivian_writing_systems" title="Maldivian writing systems">Maldivian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thaana" title="Thaana">Thaana</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balbodh" title="Balbodh">Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odia_script" title="Odia script">Odia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_alphabets" title="Romani alphabets">Romani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_alphabet" title="Albanian alphabet">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_alphabet" title="Armenian alphabet">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_orthography" title="Greek orthography">Greek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_orthography" title="Estonian orthography">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_orthography" title="Finnish orthography">Finnish</a></li> <li>Hungarian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_alphabet" title="Hungarian alphabet">alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_orthography" title="Hungarian orthography">orthography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karelian_alphabet" title="Karelian alphabet">Karelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Komi_alphabets" title="Komi alphabets">Komi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livonian_language" title="Livonian language">Livonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansi_alphabets" title="Mansi alphabets">Mansi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mordvinic_alphabets" title="Mordvinic alphabets">Mordvinic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moksha_language" title="Moksha language">Moksha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erzya_language" title="Erzya language">Erzyan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1mi_orthography" title="Sámi orthography">Sámi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kildin_S%C3%A1mi_orthography" title="Kildin Sámi orthography">Kildin Sámi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurt_alphabets" title="Udmurt alphabets">Udmurt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_alphabet" title="Azerbaijani alphabet">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashkir_alphabet" title="Bashkir alphabet">Bashkir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatar_alphabet" title="Crimean Tatar alphabet">Crimean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gagauz_alphabet" title="Gagauz alphabet">Gagauz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_alphabets" title="Kazakh alphabets">Kazakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khakas_alphabets" title="Khakas alphabets">Khakas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_alphabets" title="Kyrgyz alphabets">Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nogai_alphabets" title="Nogai alphabets">Nogai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatar_alphabet" title="Tatar alphabet">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_alphabet" title="Turkish alphabet">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkmen_alphabet" title="Turkmen alphabet">Turkmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_alphabets" title="Uyghur alphabets">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_alphabet" title="Uzbek alphabet">Uzbek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakut_scripts" title="Yakut scripts">Yakut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tungusic_languages" title="Tungusic languages">Tungus—Manchu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Even_alphabets" title="Even alphabets">Even</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evenki_orthography" title="Evenki orthography">Evenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_alphabet" title="Manchu alphabet">Manchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udege_alphabets" title="Udege alphabets">Udege</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">other <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_alphabet" title="Abkhaz alphabet">Abkhaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_alphabet" title="Basque alphabet">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dargin_writing" title="Dargin writing">Dargwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_scripts" title="Georgian scripts">Georgian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic</a></li> <li>Aramaic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic_alphabet" title="Aramaic alphabet">Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet" title="Syriac alphabet">Syriac</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez_script" title="Geʽez script">Ethiopian Semitic languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_spelling" title="Hebrew spelling">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew_orthography" title="Biblical Hebrew orthography">Biblical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_alphabet" title="Maltese alphabet">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_alphabets" title="Somali alphabets">Somali</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Niger–Congo languages">Niger–Congo</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fula_alphabets" title="Fula alphabets">Fula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sesotho_orthography" title="Sesotho orthography">Sotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vai_syllabary" title="Vai syllabary">Vai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_script" title="Tamil script">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_script" title="Telugu script">Telugu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kannada_script" title="Kannada script">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_script" title="Malayalam script">Malayalam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Japonic_languages" title="Japonic languages">Japonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_writing_system" title="Japanese writing system">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okinawan_scripts" title="Okinawan scripts">Okinawan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">other <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Written_Chinese" title="Written Chinese">Chinese</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dungan_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Dungan alphabet">Dungan</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_writing_systems" title="Mongolian writing systems">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_script" title="Thai script">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_alphabet" title="Vietnamese alphabet">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nivkh_alphabets" title="Nivkh alphabets">Nivkh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Filipino_orthography" title="Filipino orthography">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_alphabet" title="Hawaiian alphabet">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malay_orthography" title="Malay orthography">Malay</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Algic_languages" title="Algic languages">Algic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Massachusett_writing_systems" title="Massachusett writing systems">Massachusett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_writing_systems" title="Ojibwe writing systems">Ojibwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">other <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Native American</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_syllabary" title="Cherokee syllabary">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuktitut_syllabics" title="Inuktitut syllabics">Inuktitut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nahuatl_orthography" title="Nahuatl orthography">Nahuatl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osage_script" title="Osage script">Osage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">Creole</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Creole_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Haitian Creole alphabet">Haitian Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papiamento_orthography" title="Papiamento orthography">Papiamento</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Constructed_language" title="Constructed language">Constructed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Esperanto_orthography" title="Esperanto orthography">Esperanto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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