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id="toc-Early_period_(late_14th-mid_16th_century)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_period_(late_14th-mid_16th_century)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Early period (late 14th-mid 16th century)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_period_(late_14th-mid_16th_century)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Founding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Founding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Founding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Founding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Strifes_of_princes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strifes_of_princes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Strifes of princes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strifes_of_princes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Consolidation_of_royal_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consolidation_of_royal_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2.1</span> <span>Consolidation of royal power</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consolidation_of_royal_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sejong_the_Great" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sejong_the_Great"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2.2</span> <span>Sejong the Great</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sejong_the_Great-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Six_martyred_ministers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Six_martyred_ministers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2.3</span> <span>Six martyred ministers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Six_martyred_ministers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Institutional_arrangements_and_Prosper_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Institutional_arrangements_and_Prosper_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2.4</span> <span>Institutional arrangements and Prosper culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Institutional_arrangements_and_Prosper_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literati_purges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literati_purges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.3</span> <span>Literati purges</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literati_purges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_period_(mid_16th-mid_17th_century)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_period_(mid_16th-mid_17th_century)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Middle period (mid 16th-mid 17th century)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_period_(mid_16th-mid_17th_century)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Factional_struggle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Factional_struggle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Factional struggle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Factional_struggle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japanese_invasions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japanese_invasions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2</span> <span>Japanese invasions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japanese_invasions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manchu_invasions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manchu_invasions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.3</span> <span>Manchu invasions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Manchu_invasions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_period_(mid_17th-late_19th_century)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_period_(mid_17th-late_19th_century)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Late period (mid 17th-late 19th century)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_period_(mid_17th-late_19th_century)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Emergence_of_Silhak_and_renaissance_of_the_Joseon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emergence_of_Silhak_and_renaissance_of_the_Joseon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Emergence of Silhak and renaissance of the Joseon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emergence_of_Silhak_and_renaissance_of_the_Joseon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.2</span> <span>Architecture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government_by_in-law_families" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government_by_in-law_families"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.3</span> <span>Government by in-law families</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Government_by_in-law_families-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_the_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_the_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.4</span> <span>End of the dynasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_the_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Establishment_of_the_Empire_and_Colonization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Establishment_of_the_Empire_and_Colonization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.5</span> <span>Establishment of the Empire and Colonization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Establishment_of_the_Empire_and_Colonization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Government</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Government-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Government subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-King" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#King"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>King</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-King-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Royal_seals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Royal_seals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Royal seals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Royal_seals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Officials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Officials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Officials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Officials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Central_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Central_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Central government</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Central_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-State_Council" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State_Council"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>State Council</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State_Council-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Six_Ministries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Six_Ministries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Six Ministries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Six_Ministries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Three_Offices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Three_Offices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3</span> <span>Three Offices</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Three_Offices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_offices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_offices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.4</span> <span>Other offices</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_offices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Local_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Local_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Local government</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Local_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Administrative_divisions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Administrative_divisions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Administrative divisions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Administrative_divisions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Military</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Army" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Army"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.1</span> <span>Army</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Army-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Navy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Navy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.2</span> <span>Navy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Navy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Royal_Guard" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Royal_Guard"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.3</span> <span>Royal Guard</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Royal_Guard-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_relations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_relations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Foreign relations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Foreign_relations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Foreign relations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Foreign_relations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sino-Korean_relationship_after_the_Imo_Incident" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sino-Korean_relationship_after_the_Imo_Incident"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Sino-Korean relationship after the Imo Incident</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sino-Korean_relationship_after_the_Imo_Incident-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gyorin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gyorin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Gyorin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gyorin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Japan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Society</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Society subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Seonbis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seonbis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Seonbis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seonbis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Clothing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clothing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Clothing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clothing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Art</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Annals_of_the_Joseon_Dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Annals_of_the_Joseon_Dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.1</span> <span><i>Annals of the Joseon Dynasty</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Annals_of_the_Joseon_Dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uigwe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uigwe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.2</span> <span>Uigwe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Uigwe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion_and_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion_and_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Religion and philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion_and_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Music</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Translation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Translation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6.1</span> <span>Translation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Translation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science_and_technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science_and_technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Science and technology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Science_and_technology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Science and technology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Science_and_technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-15th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#15th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>15th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-15th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-16th–19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#16th–19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>16th–19th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-16th–19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-House_of_Yi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#House_of_Yi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>House of Yi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-House_of_Yi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Joseon</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 77 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-77" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">77 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Joseon" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86" title="مملكة جوسون – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مملكة جوسون" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinast%C3%ADa_Joseon" title="Dinastía Joseon – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Dinastía Joseon" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87oson_krall%C4%B1%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Çoson krallığı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Çoson krallığı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%BA%DB%8C" title="چوسان شاهلیغی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="چوسان شاهلیغی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinasti_Joseon" title="Dinasti Joseon – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Dinasti Joseon" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%C3%A2u-si%C3%A1n_%C3%94ng-ti%C3%A2u" title="Tiâu-sián Ông-tiâu – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tiâu-sián Ông-tiâu" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Чосон – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Чосон" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Чосон – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Чосон" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Чосон улас – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Чосон улас" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Joseon" title="Dinastia Joseon – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Dinastia Joseon" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynastie_%C4%8Coson" title="Dynastie Čoson – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dynastie Čoson" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Joseon" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Joseon" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD_%CE%A4%CE%B6%CE%BF%CF%83%CF%8C%CE%BD" title="Δυναστεία των Τζοσόν – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Δυναστεία των Τζοσόν" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinast%C3%ADa_Joseon" title="Dinastía Joseon – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Dinastía Joseon" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseon-Dinastio" title="Joseon-Dinastio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Joseon-Dinastio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Joseon" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87%DB%8C_%DA%86%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86" title="پادشاهی چوسان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پادشاهی چوسان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A9riode_Joseon" title="Période Joseon – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Période Joseon" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinast%C3%ADa_Joseon" title="Dinastía Joseon – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Dinastía Joseon" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A1%B0%EC%84%A0" title="조선 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="조선" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A5%D5%AE_%D5%89%D5%B8%D5%BD%D5%B8%D5%B6" title="Մեծ Չոսոն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մեծ Չոսոն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Joseon" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Joseon" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Joseon" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Joseon" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%A9%D7%9C%D7%AA_%D7%92%27%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%9F" title="שושלת ג'וסון – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שושלת ג'וסון" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wangsa_Joseon" title="Wangsa Joseon – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Wangsa Joseon" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AF%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="ჯოსონი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჯოსონი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D3%99%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%96" title="Чосон әулеті – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Чосон әулеті" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Чосон – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Чосон" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BB%82%E0%BA%8A%E0%BA%8A%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%99" title="ໂຊຊັອນ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ໂຊຊັອນ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regnum_Chosonense" title="Regnum Chosonense – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Regnum Chosonense" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cosona" title="Čosona – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Čosona" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C5%BEiosonas" title="Džiosonas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Džiosonas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Csoszon" title="Csoszon – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Csoszon" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Чосон – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Чосон" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%8B%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%82" title="ജോസിയോൻ രാജവംശം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജോസിയോൻ രാജവംശം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A8" title="चोसून – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="चोसून" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A9%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="ჩოსონი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ჩოსონი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D9%87_%DA%86%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86" title="مملكه چوسون – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="مملكه چوسون" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86" title="چوسان – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="چوسان" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Joseon" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Di%C3%A8u-si%C4%93ng_u%C3%B2ng-di%C3%A8u" title="Dièu-siēng uòng-dièu – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Dièu-siēng uòng-dièu" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Чосон – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Чосон" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%82%E1%80%BB%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%86%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA" title="ဂျိုဆောန် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဂျိုဆောန်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseondynastie" title="Joseondynastie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Joseondynastie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9D%8E%E6%B0%8F%E6%9C%9D%E9%AE%AE" title="李氏朝鮮 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="李氏朝鮮" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Joseon" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Joseon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choson" title="Choson – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Choson" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%83%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%86%DB%8D" title="چوسون كورنۍ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="چوسون كورنۍ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%85%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9F%8B" title="ចូសន់ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ចូសន់" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Joseon" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Joseon" title="Dinastia Joseon – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Dinastia Joseon" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Joseon" title="Dinastia Joseon – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Dinastia Joseon" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Чосон – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Чосон" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Joseon" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%9C%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%9C%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A" title="ජොසොන් – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ජොසොන්" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Joseon" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%86%D8%B3%DB%86%D9%86" title="جۆسۆن – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="جۆسۆن" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Coson" title="Čoson – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Čoson" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Joseon" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinasti_Joseon" title="Dinasti Joseon – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Dinasti Joseon" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Joseon" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Joseon" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Joseon" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%A8%E0%B9%8C%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%8B%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%99" title="ราชวงศ์โชซ็อน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ราชวงศ์โชซ็อน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseon_Krall%C4%B1%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Joseon Krallığı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Joseon Krallığı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Чосон – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Чосон" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86" title="جوسان – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جوسان" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nh%C3%A0_Tri%E1%BB%81u_Ti%C3%AAn" title="Nhà Triều Tiên – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nhà Triều Tiên" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9C%9D%E9%AE%AE%E7%8E%8B%E5%9C%8B" title="朝鮮王國 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="朝鮮王國" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9C%9D%E9%B2%9C%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D" title="朝鲜王朝 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="朝鲜王朝" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E6%9C%9D%E9%AE%AE%E5%9C%8B" title="大朝鮮國 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="大朝鮮國" data-language-autonym="粵語" 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class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span id="coordinates"><a href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">Coordinates</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Joseon&params=37.58_N_126.98_E_type:country"><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">37°35′N</span> <span class="longitude">126°59′E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">37.58°N 126.98°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">37.58; 126.98</span></span></span></a></span></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1392–1897 Korean dynasty</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Joseon_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Joseon (disambiguation)">Joseon (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Joseon<br />조선</div><div class="ib-country-names"><hr />고려국<br /><span style="font-size: 85%;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><span class="nobold">(1392–1393)</span><br /><span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko">高麗國</span></span></span><hr />조선국<br /><span style="font-size: 85%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" /><span class="nobold">(1393–1894)</span><br /><span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko">朝鮮國</span></span></span><hr />대조선국<br /><span style="font-size: 85%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" /><span class="nobold">(1894–1897)</span><br /><span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko">大朝鮮國</span></span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">1392–1897</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding-left:5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Korea_(1882%E2%80%931910).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of Joseon"><img alt="Flag of Joseon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Flag_of_Korea_%281882%E2%80%931910%29.svg/250px-Flag_of_Korea_%281882%E2%80%931910%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="83" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></div><div style="padding: 2px 0px 3px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_King_of_Korea_(1882%E2%80%931907).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Flag_of_the_King_of_Korea_%281882%E2%80%931907%29.svg/250px-Flag_of_the_King_of_Korea_%281882%E2%80%931907%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="82" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="574" data-file-height="378" /></a></span></div> <div><a href="/wiki/List_of_Korean_flags#National" title="List of Korean flags">Top: Flag (1883–1897)<br />Bottom: Royal standard</a></div> </div> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseon_Korea.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Royal emblem Emblem (c. 1884–1897) of Joseon"><img alt="Royal emblem Emblem (c. 1884–1897) of Joseon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseon_Korea.svg/120px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseon_Korea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseon_Korea.svg/250px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseon_Korea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="280" /></a></span></div> <div>Royal emblem<div style="padding:3px 0;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_Korea_(1884%E2%80%931897).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Seal_of_Korea_%281884%E2%80%931897%29.svg/80px-Seal_of_Korea_%281884%E2%80%931897%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Seal_of_Korea_%281884%E2%80%931897%29.svg/120px-Seal_of_Korea_%281884%E2%80%931897%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Seal_of_Korea_%281884%E2%80%931897%29.svg/160px-Seal_of_Korea_%281884%E2%80%931897%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="375" data-file-height="375" /></a></span></div>Emblem<br />(<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1884–1897</span>)</div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><b><a href="/wiki/Seal_(East_Asia)#Government_authorities" class="mw-redirect" title="Seal (East Asia)">Royal Seal</a></b><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseonwangbo_(Royal_Seal_Treasure_of_the_Joseon_King).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Joseonwangbo_%28Royal_Seal_Treasure_of_the_Joseon_King%29.svg/120px-Joseonwangbo_%28Royal_Seal_Treasure_of_the_Joseon_King%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Joseonwangbo_%28Royal_Seal_Treasure_of_the_Joseon_King%29.svg/250px-Joseonwangbo_%28Royal_Seal_Treasure_of_the_Joseon_King%29.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="281" data-file-height="281" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Korea_(orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Territory of Joseon after King Sejong's conquest of Jurchens in 1433 (with current borders)"><img alt="Territory of Joseon after King Sejong's conquest of Jurchens in 1433 (with current borders)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Korea_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/250px-Korea_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Korea_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/500px-Korea_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption">Territory of Joseon after King Sejong's conquest of Jurchens in 1433 (with current borders)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Status</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Tributary_system_of_China" title="Tributary system of China">Tributary relations</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a><br /><span style="font-size: 85%;">(1401–1895)</span><sup>a</sup><br /><br /><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> intervention<br /><span style="font-size: 85%;">(1882–1894)</span><sup>a</sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELin201469–71_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELin201469–71-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKim2012293_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012293-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a> intervention <br /><span style="font-size: 85%;">(1894–1896)</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><b>Main:</b><br /><a href="/wiki/History_of_Seoul#Joseon_period" title="History of Seoul">Hanseong</a><br /> (now <a href="/wiki/Seoul" title="Seoul">Seoul</a>) <span style="font-size: 85%;">(1394–1399/1405–1897)</span><br /><b>Temporary:</b><br /><a href="/wiki/Kaesong" title="Kaesong">Gaegyeong</a><br /><span style="font-size: 85%;">(1392–1394/1399–1405)</span></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Official languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Korean" title="Middle Korean">Middle Korean</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Early Modern Korean</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Classical Chinese</a><sup id="cite_ref-Met_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Met-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lee_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 243, 329">: 243, 329 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Orchiston-Green-Strom_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Orchiston-Green-Strom-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 74">: 74 </span></sup> <small>(literary Chinese or <i><a href="/wiki/Adoption_of_Chinese_literary_culture#Korea" title="Adoption of Chinese literary culture">Hanmun</a></i> in Korean)</small></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Confucianism</a><br /><span style="font-size: 85%;">(<a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">state ideology</a>)</span></span>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Korean_Buddhism" title="Korean Buddhism">Buddhism</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Korean_shamanism" title="Korean shamanism">Shamanism</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Taoism_in_Korea" title="Taoism in Korea">Taoism</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Korea" title="Christianity in Korea">Christianity</a><br /><span style="font-size: 85%;">(recognized in 1886)</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Koreans" title="Koreans">Korean</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Joseon" title="Politics of Joseon">Government</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/King_of_Joseon" class="mw-redirect" title="King of Joseon">King</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1392–1398 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Taejo_of_Joseon" title="Taejo of Joseon">Taejo</a> (first)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1864–1897 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Gojong_of_Korea" title="Gojong of Korea">Gojong</a> (last)</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Yeonguijeong" title="Yeonguijeong">Chief State Councillor</a><sup id="cite_ref-Yeonguijeong_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yeonguijeong-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1392 </div></th><td class="infobox-data">Bae Geuk-ryeom (first)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1894–1898 </div></th><td class="infobox-data">Kim Byeong-si (last)</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Legislature</th><td class="infobox-data">None (<a href="/wiki/Rule_by_decree" title="Rule by decree">rule by decree</a>) <span style="font-size: 85%;">(until 1894)</span><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jungchuwon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jungchuwon (page does not exist)">Jungchuwon</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8C%80%ED%95%9C%EC%A0%9C%EA%B5%AD_%EC%A4%91%EC%B6%94%EC%9B%90" class="extiw" title="ko:대한제국 중추원">ko</a>]</span> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(from 1894)</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">History</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Coronation of <a href="/wiki/Taejo_of_Joseon" title="Taejo of Joseon">Taejo</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">August 5, 1392</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• change the name of a country from Goryeo to Joseon </div></th><td class="infobox-data">March 28, 1393</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Hunminjeongeum" title="Hunminjeongeum">Promulgation of the Korean alphabet</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">October 9, 1446</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasions_of_Korea_(1592%E2%80%931598)" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)">Japanese invasions</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1592–1598</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_invasion_of_Joseon" title="Later Jin invasion of Joseon">First</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qing_invasion_of_Joseon" title="Qing invasion of Joseon">second Manchu invasions</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1627, 1636–1637</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Korea_Treaty_of_1876" title="Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876">Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">February 26, 1876</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Shimonoseki" title="Treaty of Shimonoseki">Treaty of Shimonoseki</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">April 17, 1895</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Proclamation of the Korean Empire</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">October 13, 1897</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Population</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1519<sup id="cite_ref-한국경제통사_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-한국경제통사-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">3,300,000</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1648<sup id="cite_ref-The_Standard_of_Living_in_the_Chosoˇn_Dynasty_Korea_in_the_17th_to_the_19th_Centuries_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Standard_of_Living_in_the_Chosoˇn_Dynasty_Korea_in_the_17th_to_the_19th_Centuries-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">2,576,000</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1717<sup id="cite_ref-The_Standard_of_Living_in_the_Chosoˇn_Dynasty_Korea_in_the_17th_to_the_19th_Centuries_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Standard_of_Living_in_the_Chosoˇn_Dynasty_Korea_in_the_17th_to_the_19th_Centuries-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">10,056,000</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1777<sup id="cite_ref-The_Standard_of_Living_in_the_Chosoˇn_Dynasty_Korea_in_the_17th_to_the_19th_Centuries_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Standard_of_Living_in_the_Chosoˇn_Dynasty_Korea_in_the_17th_to_the_19th_Centuries-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">9,074,000</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1807<sup id="cite_ref-The_Standard_of_Living_in_the_Chosoˇn_Dynasty_Korea_in_the_17th_to_the_19th_Centuries_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Standard_of_Living_in_the_Chosoˇn_Dynasty_Korea_in_the_17th_to_the_19th_Centuries-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">9,377,000</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Korean_mun" title="Korean mun">Mun</a><br /><span style="font-size: 85%;">(1423–1425, 1625–1892)</span><br /><a href="/wiki/Korean_yang" title="Korean yang">Yang</a><br /><span style="font-size: 85%;">(1892–1897)</span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Royal_flag_of_Goryeo_%28Bong-gi%29.svg/20px-Royal_flag_of_Goryeo_%28Bong-gi%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Royal_flag_of_Goryeo_%28Bong-gi%29.svg/40px-Royal_flag_of_Goryeo_%28Bong-gi%29.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Goryeo" title="Goryeo">Goryeo</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Tamna" title="Tamna">Tamna</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean Empire</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Flag_of_Korea_%281899%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_Korea_%281899%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Flag_of_Korea_%281899%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Korea_%281899%29.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="567" /></span></span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Today part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a><br /><a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div class="ib-country-fn"><ol class="ib-country-fn-alpha"> <li value="1">The diplomatic system of East Asia was hierarchical, lacking in equality.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Joseon Korea enjoyed a high level of independence and sovereignty in domestic and foreign affairs while ritually subordinate to the Ming and Qing dynasties of China.<sup id="cite_ref-Em_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Em-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the Qing dynasty was directly involved in the affairs of Joseon from the <a href="/wiki/Imo_Incident" title="Imo Incident">Imo Incident</a> of 1882 until the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Shimonoseki" title="Treaty of Shimonoseki">Treaty of Shimonoseki</a> of 1895.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELin201469–71_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELin201469–71-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> </ol></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="infobox" style="width: 22em"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size: 125%; color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;"><b>Korean name</b></td></tr><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display: inline; font-size: 1rem;"><span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">조선</span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanja" title="Hanja">Hanja</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display: inline; font-size: 1rem;"><span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hani">朝鮮</span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Revised_Romanization_of_Korean" title="Revised Romanization of Korean">Revised Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Revised Romanization of Korean transliteration"><i lang="ko-Latn">Joseon</i></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/McCune%E2%80%93Reischauer" title="McCune–Reischauer">McCune–Reischauer</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="McCune–Reischauer transliteration"><i lang="ko-Latn">Chosŏn</i></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Korean" title="Help:IPA/Korean">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ko-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Korean" title="Help:IPA/Korean">[tɕo.sʰʌn]</a></span></td></tr><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #b0c4de;"><a href="/wiki/North_Korean_standard_language" title="North Korean standard language">North Korean name</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display: inline; font-size: 1rem;"><span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">조선봉건왕조<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanja" title="Hanja">Hanja</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display: inline; font-size: 1rem;"><span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hani">朝鮮封建王朝</span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Revised_Romanization_of_Korean" title="Revised Romanization of Korean">Revised Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Revised Romanization of Korean transliteration"><i lang="ko-Latn">Joseon Bonggeon Wangjo</i></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/McCune%E2%80%93Reischauer" title="McCune–Reischauer">McCune–Reischauer</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="McCune–Reischauer transliteration"><i lang="ko-Latn">Chosŏn Ponggŏn Wangjo</i></span></td></tr><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #b0c4de;">Official name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display: inline; font-size: 1rem;"><span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">대조선국</span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanja" title="Hanja">Hanja</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display: inline; font-size: 1rem;"><span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hani">大朝鮮國</span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Revised_Romanization_of_Korean" title="Revised Romanization of Korean">Revised Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Revised Romanization of Korean transliteration"><i lang="ko-Latn">Daejoseonguk</i></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/McCune%E2%80%93Reischauer" title="McCune–Reischauer">McCune–Reischauer</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="McCune–Reischauer transliteration"><i lang="ko-Latn">Taejosŏn'guk</i></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Korean" title="Help:IPA/Korean">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">Korean pronunciation:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ko-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Korean" title="Help:IPA/Korean">[tʰɛ.dʑo.sʰʌn.ɡuk̚]</a></span></td></tr><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></tbody></table> <p><b>Joseon<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991" /><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">English: </span><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/tʃ/: 'ch' in 'China'">tʃ</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ʌ/: 'u' in 'cut'">ʌ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">CHOH</span>-sun</i></a>; <a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a>: <span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">조선</span></span>; <a href="/wiki/Hanja" title="Hanja">Hanja</a>: <span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hani">朝鮮</span></span>; <a href="/wiki/McCune%E2%80%93Reischauer" title="McCune–Reischauer">MR</a>: <span title="Korean-language romanization"><i lang="ko-Latn"><b>Chosŏn</b></i></span>; <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ko-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Korean" title="Help:IPA/Korean">[tɕo.sʰʌn]</a></span>, also romanized as <i><b>Chosun</b></i>), officially <b>Great Joseon</b> (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">대조선국</span></span>; <span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hani">大朝鮮國</span></span>; <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ko-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Korean" title="Help:IPA/Korean">[tʰɛ.dʑo.sʰʌn.ɡuk̚]</a></span>),<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a dynastic kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a> that existed for 505 years.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Confucianism_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Confucianism-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was founded by <a href="/wiki/Taejo_of_Joseon" title="Taejo of Joseon">Taejo of Joseon</a> in July 1392 and replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean Empire</a> in October 1897.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The kingdom was founded following the aftermath of the overthrow of <a href="/wiki/Goryeo" title="Goryeo">Goryeo</a> in what is today the city of <a href="/wiki/Kaesong" title="Kaesong">Kaesong</a>. Early on, Korea was retitled and the capital was relocated to modern-day <a href="/wiki/Seoul" title="Seoul">Seoul</a>. The kingdom's northernmost borders were expanded to the natural boundaries at the rivers of <a href="/wiki/Yalu_River" title="Yalu River">Amnok</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tumen_River" title="Tumen River">Tuman</a> through the subjugation of the <a href="/wiki/Jurchen_people" title="Jurchen people">Jurchens</a>. </p><p>During its 500-year duration, Joseon encouraged the entrenchment of <a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Confucian</a> ideals and doctrines in Korean society. <a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a> was installed as the new state's ideology. <a href="/wiki/Korean_Buddhism" title="Korean Buddhism">Buddhism</a> was accordingly discouraged, and occasionally Buddhists faced persecutions. Joseon consolidated its effective rule over the Korean peninsula and saw the height of classical Korean culture, trade, literature, and science and technology. In the 1590s, the kingdom was severely weakened due to the two failed <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasions_of_Korea_(1592%E2%80%931598)" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)">Japanese invasions</a> of 1592 and 1598. Several decades later, Joseon was invaded by the <a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(1616%E2%80%931636)" title="Later Jin (1616–1636)">Later Jin dynasty</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> in <a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_invasion_of_Joseon" title="Later Jin invasion of Joseon">1627</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qing_invasion_of_Joseon" title="Qing invasion of Joseon">1636–1637</a> respectively, leading to an increasingly harsh isolationist policy, for which the country became known as the "<a href="/wiki/Hermit_kingdom" title="Hermit kingdom">hermit kingdom</a>" in <a href="/wiki/Western_literature" title="Western literature">Western literature</a>. After the end of these invasions from <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a>, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace and prosperity, along with cultural and technological development. What power the kingdom recovered during its isolation waned as the 18th century came to a close. Faced with internal strife, power struggles, international pressure, and rebellions at home, the kingdom declined rapidly in the late 19th century. </p><p>The Joseon period has left a substantial legacy to modern Korea; much of modern <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Korea" title="Culture of Korea">Korean culture</a>, etiquette, norms, and societal attitudes toward current issues, along with the modern <a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Korean_dialects" title="Korean dialects">its dialects</a>, derive from the culture and traditions of Joseon. Modern Korean bureaucracy and administrative divisions were also established during the Joseon period. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-4"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Joseon_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Joseon dynasty">History of the Joseon dynasty</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/60px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/120px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Joseon" title="Special:EditPage/Joseon">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_period_(late_14th-mid_16th_century)"><span id="Early_period_.28late_14th-mid_16th_century.29"></span>Early period (late 14th-mid 16th century)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early period (late 14th-mid 16th century)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Korea" title="Category:History of Korea">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korea" title="History of Korea">History of <span class="fn org label">Korea</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gyeongbokgung_Palace.png" class="mw-file-description" title="thum"><img alt="thum" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Gyeongbokgung_Palace.png/250px-Gyeongbokgung_Palace.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Gyeongbokgung_Palace.png/330px-Gyeongbokgung_Palace.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Gyeongbokgung_Palace.png/500px-Gyeongbokgung_Palace.png 2x" data-file-width="871" data-file-height="602" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Korea" title="Prehistoric Korea">Prehistoric period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Palaeolithic_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeolithic period">Palaeolithic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 700,000 BC-8000 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Neolithic period">Neolithic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 8000 BC–1500 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">* <a href="/wiki/Jeulmun_pottery_period" title="Jeulmun pottery period">Jeulmun</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1500 BC–300 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">* <a href="/wiki/Mumun_pottery_period" title="Mumun pottery period">Mumun</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">* <i><a href="/wiki/Liaoning_bronze_dagger_culture" title="Liaoning bronze dagger culture">Liaoning dagger</a></i></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)">Ancient period</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Gojoseon" title="Gojoseon">Gojoseon</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <abbr title="mythological">2333 BC</abbr>–108 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">* <a href="/wiki/Dangun_Joseon" class="mw-redirect" title="Dangun Joseon"><span style="font-size: 85%;">Dangun</span></a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">* <a href="/wiki/Gija_Joseon" title="Gija Joseon"><span style="font-size: 85%;">Gija</span></a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">* <a href="/wiki/Wiman_Joseon" title="Wiman Joseon"><span style="font-size: 85%;">Wiman</span></a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Jin_(Korean_state)" title="Jin (Korean state)">Jin</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 4th–2nd century BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Yemaek" title="Yemaek">Yemaek</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Proto%E2%80%93Three_Kingdoms_period" title="Proto–Three Kingdoms period">Proto–Three Kingdoms period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Takri_Kingdom" title="Takri Kingdom">Takri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Ye" title="Eastern Ye">Dongye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyeo" title="Buyeo">Buyeo</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Buyeo" title="Eastern Buyeo">Eastern</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Galsa_Buyeo" title="Galsa Buyeo">Galsa</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okjeo" title="Okjeo">Okjeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samhan" title="Samhan">Samhan</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Mahan_confederacy" title="Mahan confederacy">Ma</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Byeonhan_confederacy" title="Byeonhan confederacy">Byeon</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Jinhan_confederacy" title="Jinhan confederacy">Jin</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamna" title="Tamna">Tamna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nangnang_Kingdom" title="Nangnang Kingdom">Nakrang</a></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Commanderies_of_Han" title="Four Commanderies of Han">Four Commanderies of Han</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms_of_Korea" title="Three Kingdoms of Korea">Three Kingdoms period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 37 BC–668 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Baekje" title="Baekje">Baekje</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 18 BC–660 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Silla" title="Silla">Silla</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 57 BC–935 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <i><a href="/wiki/Gaya_confederacy" title="Gaya confederacy">Gaya confederacy</a></i></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 42–562</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <i><a href="/wiki/Tamna" title="Tamna">Tamna</a> (Tributary of Baekje)</i></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 498–660</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <i><a href="/wiki/Usan" title="Usan">Usan</a></i></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 512–930</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_States_period" title="Northern and Southern States period">Northern and Southern period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/United_Silla" class="mw-redirect" title="United Silla">United Silla</a> (Unified Silla)</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 668–892</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Balhae" title="Balhae">Balhae</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 698–926</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <i><a href="/wiki/Little_Goguryeo" title="Little Goguryeo">Little Goguryeo</a></i></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 699–820</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <i><a href="/wiki/Tamna" title="Tamna">Tamna</a> (Tributary of Silla)</i></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 662–925</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Later_Three_Kingdoms" title="Later Three Kingdoms">Later Three Kingdoms period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Later_Baekje" title="Later Baekje">Later Baekje</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 892–936</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Taebong" title="Taebong">Taebong</a> (Later Goguryeo)</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 901–918</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/United_Silla" class="mw-redirect" title="United Silla">Unified Silla</a> (Later Silla)</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 892–935</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <i><a href="/wiki/Later_Sabeol" title="Later Sabeol">Later Sabeol</a></i></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 919–927</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <i><a href="/wiki/Dongdan_Kingdom" title="Dongdan Kingdom">Dongdan Kingdom</a></i></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 926–936</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <i><a href="/wiki/Later_Balhae" title="Later Balhae">Later Balhae</a></i></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 927–935</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <i><a href="/wiki/Jeongan" title="Jeongan">Jeongan</a></i></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 938–986</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)">Dynastic period</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Goryeo" title="Goryeo">Goryeo</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 918–1392</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <i><a href="/wiki/Tamna" title="Tamna">Tamna</a> (Vassal of Goryeo)</i></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 938–1105</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <i><a href="/wiki/Xingliao" title="Xingliao">Heungyo</a></i></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1029–1030</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Joseon</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1392–1897</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1897–1910</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)">Colonial period</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Korea_under_Japanese_rule" title="Korea under Japanese rule">Japanese occupation</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1910–1945</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_Korea" title="Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea">Provisional Government</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1919–1948</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)">Modern period</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Korea" title="People's Republic of Korea">People's Republic of Korea</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1945</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea#Post-World_War_II" title="Division of Korea">Military governments</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1945–1948</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">North-South division</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1945–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">* <a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Korea" title="History of North Korea">North</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1948–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">* <a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Korea" title="History of South Korea">South</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1948–present</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)">By topic</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korean_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Korean architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_art#History" title="Korean art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korean_cuisine" title="History of Korean cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_currency" title="Korean currency">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Korea" title="History of education in Korea">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Korea" title="Geography of Korea">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Korea" title="Historiography of Korea">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korean" title="History of Korean">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Korea" title="Military history of Korea">Military</a> (<span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="List of wars involving Korea">List</a></span> · <span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Goguryeo" title="Military history of Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Korea" title="List of monarchs of Korea">Monarchs</a> (<span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Korean_monarchs" title="Family tree of Korean monarchs">Family tree</a></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_Korea" title="Names of Korea">Names</a> (<span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Korean_era_name" title="Korean era name">Era names</a></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_Korea" title="Naval history of Korea">Naval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_newspapers_in_Korea" title="History of newspapers in Korea">Newspapers</a></li> <li>Politics (<span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Joseon_Dynasty_politics" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseon Dynasty politics">Joseon</a></span> · <span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_North_Korea" title="Politics of North Korea">North</a></span> · <span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_South_Korea" title="Politics of South Korea">South</a></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="History of religion in Korea">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korean_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Korean Buddhism"><span style="font-size: 85%;">Buddhism</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_in_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Christianity in Korea"><span style="font-size: 85%;">Christianity</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Islam in Korea"><span style="font-size: 85%;">Islam</span></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Korea" title="History of science and technology in Korea">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_Korea" title="History of women in Korea">Women</a></li> <li>World Heritage Sites (<span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_North_Korea" title="List of World Heritage Sites in North Korea">North</a></span> · <span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_South_Korea" title="List of World Heritage Sites in South Korea">South</a></span>)</li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em; border-top:#aaa 1px solid;"> <b><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Korean_history" title="Timeline of Korean history">Timeline</a></b></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:#aaa 1px solid; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Korea_Map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="map" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Korea_Map.svg/15px-Korea_Map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Korea_Map.svg/23px-Korea_Map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Korea_Map.svg/30px-Korea_Map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Korea" class="mw-disambig" title="Portal:Korea">Korea portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Korea" title="Template:History of Korea"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Korea" title="Template talk:History of Korea"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Korea" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Korea"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:King_Taejo_Yi_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/King_Taejo_Yi_02.jpg/250px-King_Taejo_Yi_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/King_Taejo_Yi_02.jpg/330px-King_Taejo_Yi_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/King_Taejo_Yi_02.jpg/500px-King_Taejo_Yi_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="928" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Taejo_of_Joseon" title="Taejo of Joseon">King Taejo</a>'s portrait</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Founding">Founding</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Founding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the late 14th century, the nearly 500-year-old <a href="/wiki/Goryeo" title="Goryeo">Goryeo</a> established in 918 was tottering, its foundations collapsing from years of war spilled over from the disintegrating <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a>. Following the emergence of the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a>, the royal court in Goryeo split into two conflicting factions, one favouring neutrality and the other wanting to retake the <a href="/wiki/Liaodong_Peninsula" title="Liaodong Peninsula">Liaodong peninsula</a>, which many in Goryeo believed was <a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">theirs</a>. Goryeo remained a neutral third-party observer in the conflict between the Yuan and the Ming and had friendly diplomatic relations with both.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1388, a Ming messenger came to Goryeo to demand that territories of the former <a href="/wiki/Ssangseong_Prefectures" class="mw-redirect" title="Ssangseong Prefectures">Ssangseong Prefectures</a> be handed over to Ming China. The tract of land was taken by Mongol forces during <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Korea" title="Mongol invasions of Korea">the invasion of Korea</a>, but had been reclaimed by Goryeo in 1356 as the Yuan dynasty weakened. The act caused an uproar among the Goryeo court, and General <a href="/wiki/Ch%27oe_Y%C5%8Fng" title="Ch'oe Yŏng">Ch'oe Yŏng</a> seized the chance to argue for an invasion of the Ming-controlled <a href="/wiki/Liaodong_Peninsula" title="Liaodong Peninsula">Liaodong Peninsula</a>. </p><p>General <a href="/wiki/Taejo_of_Joseon" title="Taejo of Joseon">Yi Sŏng-gye</a> was chosen to lead the attack; he revolted, <a href="/wiki/Wihwado_Retreat" title="Wihwado Retreat">swept back to the capital</a> Gaegyeong (now <a href="/wiki/Kaesong" title="Kaesong">Kaesong</a>) and initiated a <a href="/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">coup d'état</a>, overthrowing <a href="/wiki/U_of_Goryeo" title="U of Goryeo">King U of Goryeo</a> in favor of his son, <a href="/wiki/Chang_of_Goryeo" title="Chang of Goryeo">Chang of Goryeo</a> (1388). Neo-Confucian scholars, who were a small and medium-sized power at the time, were able to use this incident as an opportunity to lay a political foundation, and in particular, <a href="/wiki/Jeong_Do-jeon" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeong Do-jeon">Jeong Do-jeon</a>, a friend of Yi Sŏng-gye, wanted to use this incident as an opportunity to reform the corrupt nobles and the Buddhist community. He later killed King U and his son after a failed restoration and forcibly placed a royal named Wang Yo on the throne (he became King <a href="/wiki/Gongyang_of_Goryeo" title="Gongyang of Goryeo">Gongyang of Goryeo</a>). In 1392, Yi eliminated <a href="/wiki/Ch%C5%8Fng_Mong-ju" title="Chŏng Mong-ju">Chŏng Mong-ju</a>, a highly respected leader of a group loyal to Goryeo dynasty, and dethroned King Gongyang, exiling him to <a href="/wiki/Wonju" title="Wonju">Wonju</a>, and he ascended the throne himself. The Goryeo kingdom had come to an end after 474 years of rule. </p><p>In the beginning of his reign, Yi Sŏng-gye, now ruler of Korea, intended to continue to use the name Goryeo for the country he ruled and simply change the royal line of descent to his own, thus maintaining the façade of continuing the 500-year-old Goryeo tradition. After numerous threats of mutiny from the drastically weakened but still influential Gwonmun nobles, who continued to swear allegiance to the remnants of the Goryeo and to the now-demoted <a href="/wiki/Wang_(surname)#Korea" title="Wang (surname)">Wang clan</a>, the consensus in the reformed court was that a new dynastic title was needed to signify the change. In naming the new kingdom, Taejo contemplated two possibilities – "Hwaryeong" (his place of birth) and "Joseon". After much internal deliberation, as well as endorsement by the neighboring Ming dynasty's emperor, Taejo declared the name of the kingdom to be Joseon, a tribute to the ancient Korean state of <a href="/wiki/Gojoseon" title="Gojoseon">Gojoseon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also moved the capital to <a href="/wiki/Capital_of_Korea#During_Joseon" title="Capital of Korea">Hanseong</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Seoul" title="Seoul">Seoul</a>) from <a href="/wiki/Capital_of_Korea#During_Goryeo" title="Capital of Korea">Gaegyeong</a> (modern Kaesong). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Strifes_of_princes">Strifes of princes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Strifes of princes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gyeongbok-gung_palace-01_(xndr).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Gyeongbok-gung_palace-01_%28xndr%29.jpg/250px-Gyeongbok-gung_palace-01_%28xndr%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Gyeongbok-gung_palace-01_%28xndr%29.jpg/330px-Gyeongbok-gung_palace-01_%28xndr%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Gyeongbok-gung_palace-01_%28xndr%29.jpg/500px-Gyeongbok-gung_palace-01_%28xndr%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>The throne room at <a href="/wiki/Gyeongbokgung" title="Gyeongbokgung">Gyeongbokgung</a></figcaption></figure> <p>When the new dynasty was brought into existence, Taejo brought up the issue of which son would be his successor. Although <a href="/wiki/Taejong_of_Joseon" title="Taejong of Joseon">Yi Bang-won</a>, Taejo's fifth son by <a href="/wiki/Queen_Sinui" title="Queen Sinui">Queen Sinui</a>, had contributed the most to assisting his father's rise to power, <a href="/wiki/Yeonguijeong" title="Yeonguijeong">Chief State Councillor</a> <a href="/wiki/Jeong_Do-jeon" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeong Do-jeon">Jeong Do-jeon</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nam_Eun&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nam Eun (page does not exist)">Nam Eun</a> used their influence on the king to name Yi Bang-seok, his eighth son (second son of <a href="/wiki/Queen_Sindeok" title="Queen Sindeok">Queen Sindeok</a>), as crown prince in 1392. This conflict arose largely because Jeong Do-jeon, who shaped and laid down ideological, institutional, and legal foundations of the new kingdom more than anyone else, saw Joseon as a kingdom led by ministers appointed by the king while Yi Bang-won wanted to establish an absolute monarchy ruled directly by the king. With Taejo's support, Jeong Do-jeon kept limiting the royal family's power by prohibiting political involvement of princes and attempting to abolish their private armies. Both sides were well aware of each other's great animosity and were getting ready to strike first. </p><p>After the sudden death of Queen Sindeok, while King Taejo was still in mourning for his second wife, Yi Bang-won struck first by raiding the palace and killed Jeong Do-jeon and his supporters as well as Queen Sindeok's two sons (his half-brothers) including the crown prince in 1398. This incident became known as the "First Strife of Princes". </p><p>Aghast at the fact that his sons were willing to kill each other for the crown, and psychologically exhausted from the death of his second wife, King Taejo abdicated and immediately crowned his second son Yi Bang-gwa as <a href="/wiki/Jeongjong_of_Joseon" title="Jeongjong of Joseon">King Jeongjong</a>. One of King Jeongjong's first acts as monarch was to revert the capital to Gaegyeong, where he is believed to have been considerably more comfortable, away from the toxic power strife. Yet Yi Bang-won retained real power and was soon in conflict with his disgruntled older brother, Yi Bang-gan, who also yearned for power. In 1400, the tensions between Yi Bang-won's faction and Yi Bang-gan's camp escalated into an all-out conflict that came to be known as the "Second Strife of Princes". In the aftermath of the struggle, the defeated Yi Bang-gan was exiled to <a href="/wiki/Tosan_County" title="Tosan County">Dosan</a> while his supporters were executed. Thoroughly intimidated, King Jeongjong immediately invested Yi Bang-won as heir presumptive and voluntarily abdicated. That same year, Yi Bang-won assumed the throne of Joseon as <a href="/wiki/Taejong_of_Joseon" title="Taejong of Joseon">King Taejong</a>, third king of the dynasty. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Consolidation_of_royal_power">Consolidation of royal power</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Consolidation of royal power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the beginning of Taejong's reign, the former King Taejo refused to relinquish the royal seal that signified the legitimacy of any king's rule. Regardless, Taejong initiated policies he believed would prove his qualification to rule. One of his first acts as king was to abolish the privilege enjoyed by the upper echelons of government and the aristocracy to maintain private armies. His revocation of such rights to field independent forces effectively severed their ability to muster large-scale revolts, and drastically increased the number of men employed in the national military. Taejong's next act as king was to revise the existing legislation concerning the taxation of land ownership and the recording of state of subjects. With the discovery of previously hidden land, national income increased twofold. </p><p>In 1399, Taejong had played an influential role in scrapping the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dopyeong_Assembly&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dopyeong Assembly (page does not exist)">Dopyeong Assembly</a>, a council of the old government administration that held a monopoly in court power during the waning years of <a href="/wiki/Goryeo" title="Goryeo">Goryeo</a>, in favor of the <a href="/wiki/State_Council_of_Joseon" title="State Council of Joseon">State Council of Joseon</a>, a new branch of central administration that revolved around the king and his edicts. After passing the subject documentation and taxation legislation, he issued a new decree in which all decisions passed by the State Council could only come into effect with the approval of the king. This ended the custom of court ministers and advisors making decisions through debate and negotiations amongst themselves, and thus brought the royal power to new heights. </p><p>Shortly thereafter, Taejong installed an office, known as the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sinmun_Office&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sinmun Office (page does not exist)">Sinmun Office</a>, to hear cases in which aggrieved subjects felt that they had been exploited or treated unjustly by government officials or <a href="/wiki/Yangban" title="Yangban">aristocrats</a>. He kept Jeong Do-jeon's reforms intact for the most part. In addition, Taejong executed or exiled many of his supporters who had helped him ascend the throne to strengthen his own royal authority. To limit the influence of in-laws, he killed all four of <a href="/wiki/Queen_Wongyeong" title="Queen Wongyeong">his wife</a>'s brothers and <a href="/wiki/Shim_On" class="mw-redirect" title="Shim On">Shim On</a>, the father-in-law of his son <a href="/wiki/Sejong_the_Great" title="Sejong the Great">Sejong</a>. </p><p>Taejong remains a controversial figure who killed many of his rivals and relatives to gain power and yet ruled effectively to improve the populace's lives, strengthen national defense, and lay down a solid foundation for his successor Sejong's rule. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Sejong_the_Great">Sejong the Great</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Sejong the Great"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%EC%98%81%EC%9D%98%EC%A0%95%ED%95%98%EC%97%B0%EB%B6%80%EB%B6%80%EC%98%81%EC%A0%953.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/%EC%98%81%EC%9D%98%EC%A0%95%ED%95%98%EC%97%B0%EB%B6%80%EB%B6%80%EC%98%81%EC%A0%953.jpg/170px-%EC%98%81%EC%9D%98%EC%A0%95%ED%95%98%EC%97%B0%EB%B6%80%EB%B6%80%EC%98%81%EC%A0%953.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/%EC%98%81%EC%9D%98%EC%A0%95%ED%95%98%EC%97%B0%EB%B6%80%EB%B6%80%EC%98%81%EC%A0%953.jpg/255px-%EC%98%81%EC%9D%98%EC%A0%95%ED%95%98%EC%97%B0%EB%B6%80%EB%B6%80%EC%98%81%EC%A0%953.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/%EC%98%81%EC%9D%98%EC%A0%95%ED%95%98%EC%97%B0%EB%B6%80%EB%B6%80%EC%98%81%EC%A0%953.jpg/340px-%EC%98%81%EC%9D%98%EC%A0%95%ED%95%98%EC%97%B0%EB%B6%80%EB%B6%80%EC%98%81%EC%A0%953.jpg 2x" data-file-width="688" data-file-height="1194" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ha_Yeon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ha Yeon (page does not exist)">Ha Yeon</a>, who served as <a href="/wiki/Yeonguijeong" title="Yeonguijeong">Chief State Councillor</a> during <a href="/wiki/Sejong_the_Great" title="Sejong the Great">King Sejong</a>'s reign</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hunmin_jeong-eum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Hunmin_jeong-eum.jpg/250px-Hunmin_jeong-eum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Hunmin_jeong-eum.jpg/330px-Hunmin_jeong-eum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Hunmin_jeong-eum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="425" data-file-height="492" /></a><figcaption>A page from the <i>Hunmin Jeongeum Eonhae</i>, a partial translation of <i><a href="/wiki/Hunminjeongeum" title="Hunminjeongeum">Hunminjeongeum</a></i>, the original promulgation of the <a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Korean alphabet</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In August 1418, following Taejong's abdication two months earlier, <a href="/wiki/Sejong_the_Great" title="Sejong the Great">Sejong the Great</a> ascended the throne. In May 1419, King Sejong, under the advice and guidance of his father Taejong, embarked upon the <a href="/wiki/%C5%8Cei_Invasion" title="Ōei Invasion">Gihae Eastern Expedition</a> to remove the nuisance of <a href="/wiki/Wokou" title="Wokou">waegu</a> (coastal pirates) who had been operating out of <a href="/wiki/Tsushima_Island" title="Tsushima Island">Tsushima Island</a>. </p><p>In September 1419, the <i><a href="/wiki/Daimyo" title="Daimyo">daimyō</a></i> of Tsushima, Sadamori, capitulated to the Joseon court. In 1443, The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Gyehae" title="Treaty of Gyehae">Treaty of Gyehae</a> was signed in which the <i>daimyō</i> of Tsushima was granted rights to conduct trade with Korea using fifty ships per year in exchange for sending tribute to Korea and aiding to stop any Waegu coastal pirate raids on Korean ports.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the northern border, Sejong established four forts and six posts to safeguard his people from the <a href="/wiki/Jurchen_people" title="Jurchen people">Jurchens</a>, who later became the <a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchus</a>, living in Manchuria. In 1433, Sejong sent <a href="/wiki/Kim_Chongs%C5%8F" title="Kim Chongsŏ">Kim Chongsŏ</a>, a government official, north to fend off the Jurchens. Kim's military campaign captured several castles, pushed north, and expanded Korean territory, roughly the current border between North Korea and China.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the rule of Sejong, Korea saw advances in <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine" title="Traditional Chinese medicine">traditional Chinese medicine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a>. Because of such success, Sejong was given the title "Sejong the Great".<sup id="cite_ref-asiasociety_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-asiasociety-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most remembered contribution of King Sejong is the creation of <a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a>, the Korean alphabet, in 1443. Rejected in its time by the scholarly elite, the everyday use of <a href="/wiki/Hanja" title="Hanja">Hanja</a> in writing was eventually surpassed by Hangul in the latter half of the 20th century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Six_martyred_ministers">Six martyred ministers</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Six martyred ministers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After King Sejong's death, his son <a href="/wiki/Munjong_of_Joseon" title="Munjong of Joseon">Munjong</a> continued his father's legacy but soon died of illness in 1452, just two years after his coronation. He was succeeded by his twelve-year-old son, <a href="/wiki/Danjong_of_Joseon" title="Danjong of Joseon">Danjong</a>. In addition to two regents, <a href="/wiki/Princess_Gyeonghye" title="Princess Gyeonghye">Princess Gyeonghye</a> also served as Danjong's guardian and, along with the general Kim Chongsŏ, attempted to strengthen royal authority.<sup id="cite_ref-an_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-an-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Danjong's uncle, <a href="/wiki/Sejo_of_Joseon" title="Sejo of Joseon">Grand Prince Suyang</a>, gained control of the government and eventually deposed his nephew to become the seventh king of Joseon himself in 1455, taking the name Sejo. After <a href="/wiki/Six_martyred_ministers" title="Six martyred ministers">six ministers loyal to Danjong</a> attempted to assassinate Sejo to return Danjong to the throne, Sejo executed the six ministers and also killed Danjong in his place of exile. </p><p>King Sejo enabled the government to determine exact population numbers and to mobilize troops effectively. He also revised the land ordinance to improve the national economy and encouraged the publication of books. Most importantly, he compiled the <a href="/wiki/Gyeongguk_daejeon" class="mw-redirect" title="Gyeongguk daejeon">Grand Code for State Administration</a>, which became the cornerstone of dynastic administration and provided the first form of constitutional law in a written form in Korea. </p><p>Sejo undermined much of the foundation of many existing systems, including the <a href="/wiki/Hall_of_Worthies" title="Hall of Worthies">Jiphyeonjeon</a> which his predecessors, Sejong and Munjong, had carefully laid down. He cut down on everything he deemed unworthy and caused countless complications in the long run. Many of these adjustments were done for his own power, not regarding the consequences and problems that would occur. The favoritism he showed toward the ministers who aided him in taking the throne led to increased corruption in the higher echelon of the political field. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Institutional_arrangements_and_Prosper_culture">Institutional arrangements and Prosper culture</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Institutional arrangements and Prosper culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sejo's weak son <a href="/wiki/Yejong_of_Joseon" title="Yejong of Joseon">Yejong</a> succeeded him as the eighth king, but died two years later in 1469. Yejong's nephew <a href="/wiki/Seongjong_of_Joseon" title="Seongjong of Joseon">Seongjong</a> ascended the throne. His reign was marked by the prosperity and growth of the national economy and the rise of <a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">neo-Confucian</a> scholars called <a href="/wiki/Sarim" title="Sarim">sarim</a> who were encouraged by Seongjong to enter court politics. He established <a href="/wiki/Hongmungwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hongmungwan">Hongmungwan</a>, the royal library and advisory council composed of Confucian scholars, with whom he discussed philosophy and government policies. He ushered in a cultural golden age that rivaled Sejong's reign by publishing numerous books on geography, ethics, and various other fields. </p><p>He also sent several military campaigns against the Jurchens on the northern border in 1491, like many of his predecessors. The campaign, led by General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Heo_Jong&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Heo Jong (page does not exist)">Heo Jong</a>, was successful, and the defeated Jurchens, led by the Udige clan (兀狄哈), retreated to the north of the <a href="/wiki/Yalu_River" title="Yalu River">Yalu River</a>. King Seongjong was succeeded by his son, <a href="/wiki/Yeonsangun_of_Joseon" title="Yeonsangun of Joseon">Yeonsangun</a>, in 1494. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Literati_purges">Literati purges</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Literati purges"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Korean_literati_purges" title="Korean literati purges">Korean literati purges</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cho_Kwang-jo_in_1750.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Cho_Kwang-jo_in_1750.jpg/170px-Cho_Kwang-jo_in_1750.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Cho_Kwang-jo_in_1750.jpg/255px-Cho_Kwang-jo_in_1750.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Cho_Kwang-jo_in_1750.jpg/340px-Cho_Kwang-jo_in_1750.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="746" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of the neo-Confucian scholar, <a href="/wiki/Jo_Gwangjo" class="mw-redirect" title="Jo Gwangjo">Jo Gwang-jo</a> (1482–1519)</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Yeonsangun_of_Joseon" title="Yeonsangun of Joseon">Yeonsangun</a> is often considered the worst tyrant in Joseon's history, whose reign was marked by <a href="/wiki/Korean_literati_purges" title="Korean literati purges">literati purges</a> between 1498 and 1506. His behavior became erratic after he learned that his biological mother was not Queen Junghyeon but the <a href="/wiki/Deposed_Queen_Yun" title="Deposed Queen Yun">deposed Queen Yun</a>, who was forced to drink poison after poisoning one of Seongjong's concubines out of jealousy and leaving a scratch mark on Seongjong's face. When he was shown a piece of clothing that was allegedly stained with his mother's blood vomited after drinking poison, he beat two of Seongjong's concubines, who had accused Queen Yun to death, and pushed his grandmother, <a href="/wiki/Queen_Insu" title="Queen Insu">Grand Queen Dowager Insu</a>, who died afterward. He executed government officials who supported Queen Yun's death along with their families. He also executed <a href="/wiki/Sarim" title="Sarim">sarim</a> scholars for writing phrases critical of Sejo's usurpation of the throne. </p><p>Yeonsangun also seized a thousand women from the provinces to serve as palace entertainers and appropriated the <a href="/wiki/Sungkyunkwan" title="Sungkyunkwan">Sungkyunkwan</a> as a personal pleasure ground. He abolished the Office of Censors, whose function was to criticize inappropriate actions and policies of the king, and Hongmungwan. He banned the use of hangul when the common people used it on posters to criticize the king. After twelve years of misrule, he was finally deposed in a coup which placed his half-brother <a href="/wiki/Jungjong_of_Joseon" title="Jungjong of Joseon">Jungjong</a> on the throne in 1506. </p><p>Jungjong was a fundamentally weak king because of the circumstances that placed him on the throne, but his reign also saw a period of significant reforms led by his minister <a href="/wiki/Jo_Gwangjo" class="mw-redirect" title="Jo Gwangjo">Jo Gwang-jo</a>, the charismatic leader of sarim. He established a local self-government system called <a href="/wiki/Hyangyak" title="Hyangyak">hyangyak</a> to strengthen local autonomy and communal spirit among the people, sought to reduce the gap between the rich and poor with a land reform that would distribute land to farmers more equally and limit the amount of land and number of slaves that one could own, promulgated Confucian writings with vernacular translations widely among the populace, and sought to trim the size of government by reducing the number of bureaucrats. According to the <i><a href="/wiki/Veritable_Records_of_the_Joseon_Dynasty" title="Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty">Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty</a></i>, it was said that no official dared to receive a bribe or exploit the populace during this time because as Inspector General, he applied the law strictly. </p><p>These radical reforms were very popular with the populace but were fiercely opposed by the conservative officials who had helped to put Jungjong on the throne. They plotted to cause Jungjong to doubt Jo's loyalty. Jo Gwang-jo was executed, and most of his reform measures died with him in the resulting <a href="/wiki/Korean_literati_purges#Third_Literati_Purge_of_1519" title="Korean literati purges">third literati purge</a>. For nearly 50 years afterward, the court politics were marred by bloody and chaotic struggles between factions backing rival consorts and princes. In-laws of the royal family wielded great power and contributed to much corruption in that era. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_period_(mid_16th-mid_17th_century)"><span id="Middle_period_.28mid_16th-mid_17th_century.29"></span>Middle period (mid 16th-mid 17th century)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Middle period (mid 16th-mid 17th century)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%EC%A0%95%EC%B2%A0.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/%EC%A0%95%EC%B2%A0.jpg/250px-%EC%A0%95%EC%B2%A0.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/%EC%A0%95%EC%B2%A0.jpg/255px-%EC%A0%95%EC%B2%A0.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/%EC%A0%95%EC%B2%A0.jpg 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="572" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jeong_Cheol" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeong Cheol">Jeong Cheol</a> (1536–1593), head of the <a href="/wiki/Westerners_(Korean_political_faction)" title="Westerners (Korean political faction)">Western faction</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The middle Joseon period was marked by intense and bloody power struggles between political factions that weakened the country, and by large-scale invasions by Japan and Manchu which nearly toppled the kingdom. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Factional_struggle">Factional struggle</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Factional struggle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Political_factions_in_Joseon_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Political factions in Joseon dynasty">Political factions in Joseon dynasty</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Sarim" title="Sarim">Sarim</a> faction had suffered a series of political defeats during the reigns of Yeonsangun, Jungjong, and <a href="/wiki/Myeongjong_of_Joseon" title="Myeongjong of Joseon">Myeongjong</a>, but it gained control of the government during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Seonjo_of_Joseon" title="Seonjo of Joseon">King Seonjo</a>. It soon split into opposing factions known as the <a href="/wiki/Easterners_(Korean_political_faction)" title="Easterners (Korean political faction)">Easterners</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Westerners_(Korean_political_faction)" title="Westerners (Korean political faction)">Westerners</a> by their political or philosophical masters. <a href="/wiki/Easterners_(Korean_political_faction)" title="Easterners (Korean political faction)">Easterners</a> mainly followed the teachings and philosophy of Yi Hwang and Jo Sik while the <a href="/wiki/Westerners_(Korean_political_faction)" title="Westerners (Korean political faction)">Westerners</a> followed the philosophy of Yi I and Song Hon.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within decades the Easterners themselves divided into the <a href="/wiki/Southerners_(Korean_political_faction)" title="Southerners (Korean political faction)">Southerners</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Northerners_(Korean_political_faction)" title="Northerners (Korean political faction)">Northerners</a>; in the seventeenth century the Westerners also permanently split into the <a href="/wiki/Noron_(Korean_political_faction)" title="Noron (Korean political faction)">Noron</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Soron_(Korean_political_faction)" title="Soron (Korean political faction)">Soron</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Factions in the Joseon dynasty were formed based on their different interpretations of Confucian philosophy, which mainly differed according to who their master was and what they believed in.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The alternations in power among these factions were often accompanied by charges of treason and bloody purges, initiating a cycle of revenge with each change of regime. </p><p>One example is the <a href="/wiki/1589_rebellion_of_Jeong_Yeo-rip" title="1589 rebellion of Jeong Yeo-rip">1589 rebellion of Jeong Yeo-rip</a>, one of the bloodiest political purges of Joseon. Jeong Yeo-rip, an Easterner, had formed a society with a group of supporters that also received military training to fight against <a href="/wiki/Wokou" title="Wokou">Waegu</a>. There is still a dispute about the nature and purpose of his group, which reflected the desire for a classless society and spread throughout <a href="/wiki/Honam" title="Honam">Honam</a>. He was subsequently accused of conspiracy to start a rebellion. <a href="/wiki/Jeong_Cheol" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeong Cheol">Jeong Cheol</a>, head of the Western faction, was in charge of investigating the case and used this event to affect the widespread purge of Easterners who had the slightest connection to Jeong Yeo-rip. Eventually 1000 Easterners were killed or exiled in the aftermath. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Japanese_invasions">Japanese invasions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Japanese invasions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasions_of_Korea_(1592%E2%80%931598)" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)">Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Korea-Tongyeong_Port-Turtle_ship_replica-02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Korea-Tongyeong_Port-Turtle_ship_replica-02.jpg/250px-Korea-Tongyeong_Port-Turtle_ship_replica-02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Korea-Tongyeong_Port-Turtle_ship_replica-02.jpg/330px-Korea-Tongyeong_Port-Turtle_ship_replica-02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Korea-Tongyeong_Port-Turtle_ship_replica-02.jpg/500px-Korea-Tongyeong_Port-Turtle_ship_replica-02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3168" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Turtle_ship" title="Turtle ship">The Turtle ship</a> (replica)</figcaption></figure> <p>Throughout Korean history, there was frequent <a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">piracy</a> on sea and brigandage on land. The only purpose for the Joseon navy was to secure the maritime trade against the <a href="/wiki/Wokou" title="Wokou">Waegu</a>. The navy repelled pirates using an advanced form of gunpowder technologies including cannons and <a href="/wiki/Fire_arrow" title="Fire arrow">fire arrows</a> in form of <a href="/wiki/Singijeon" class="mw-redirect" title="Singijeon">singijeon</a> deployed by <a href="/wiki/Hwacha" title="Hwacha">hwacha</a>. </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasions_of_Korea_(1592%E2%80%931598)" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)">Japanese invasions in the 1590s</a>, <a href="/wiki/Toyotomi_Hideyoshi" title="Toyotomi Hideyoshi">Toyotomi Hideyoshi</a>, plotting the conquest of <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming China</a> with <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a> guns, invaded Korea with his <i><a href="/wiki/Daimyo" title="Daimyo">daimyōs</a></i> and their troops, intending to use Korea as a stepping stone. Factional division in the Joseon court, inability to assess Japanese military capability, and failed attempts at diplomacy led to poor preparation on Joseon's part. The use of superior firearms by the Japanese left most of the southern part of the Korean Peninsula occupied within months, with both <a href="/wiki/Seoul" title="Seoul">Hanseong</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Seoul" title="Seoul">Seoul</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Pyongyang" title="Pyongyang">Pyongyang</a> captured. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Korea-Tongyeong_Port-Turtle_ship_replica-Inside-02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Korea-Tongyeong_Port-Turtle_ship_replica-Inside-02.jpg/220px-Korea-Tongyeong_Port-Turtle_ship_replica-Inside-02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Korea-Tongyeong_Port-Turtle_ship_replica-Inside-02.jpg/330px-Korea-Tongyeong_Port-Turtle_ship_replica-Inside-02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Korea-Tongyeong_Port-Turtle_ship_replica-Inside-02.jpg/440px-Korea-Tongyeong_Port-Turtle_ship_replica-Inside-02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3168" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption>The Turtle Ship interior</figcaption></figure> <p>The invasion was slowed when Admiral <a href="/wiki/Yi_Sun-sin" title="Yi Sun-sin">Yi Sun-shin</a> destroyed the Japanese invasion fleet. The guerrilla resistance that eventually formed also helped. Local resistance slowed down the Japanese advance and decisive naval victories by Admiral Yi left control over sea routes in Korean hands, severely hampering Japanese supply lines. Furthermore, Ming China intervened on the side of the Koreans, sending a large force in 1593 which pushed back the Japanese together with the Koreans. </p><p>During the war, Koreans developed powerful firearms and the <a href="/wiki/Turtle_ship" title="Turtle ship">turtle ships</a>. The Joseon and Ming forces defeated the Japanese at a deep price. Following the war, relations between Korea and Japan were completely suspended until 1609. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Manchu_invasions">Manchu invasions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Manchu invasions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/First_Manchu_invasion_of_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="First Manchu invasion of Korea">First Manchu invasion of Korea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Manchu_invasion_of_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Manchu invasion of Korea">Second Manchu invasion of Korea</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jurchen_warriors.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Jurchen_warriors.jpg/220px-Jurchen_warriors.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Jurchen_warriors.jpg/330px-Jurchen_warriors.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Jurchen_warriors.jpg 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="306" /></a><figcaption>A Korean painting depicting two Jurchen warriors and their horses</figcaption></figure> <p>After the Japanese invasions, the Korean Peninsula was devastated. Meanwhile, <a href="/wiki/Nurhaci" title="Nurhaci">Nurhaci</a> (r. 1583–1626), the chieftain of the <a href="/wiki/Jianzhou_Jurchens" title="Jianzhou Jurchens">Jianzhou Jurchens</a>, was unifying the <a href="/wiki/Jurchen_people" title="Jurchen people">Jurchen</a> tribes of <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a> into a strong coalition that his son <a href="/wiki/Hong_Taiji" title="Hong Taiji">Hong Taiji</a> (r. 1626–1643) would eventually rename the "Manchus". After he declared <a href="/wiki/Seven_Grievances" title="Seven Grievances">Seven Grievances</a> against Ming China in 1618, Nurhaci and the Ming engaged in several military conflicts. On such occasions, Nurhaci required help from <a href="/wiki/Gwanghaegun_of_Joseon" title="Gwanghaegun of Joseon">Gwanghaegun of Joseon</a> (r. 1608–1623), putting the Korean state in a difficult position because the Ming court was also requesting assistance.<sup id="cite_ref-Ebrey_349_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ebrey_349-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gwanghaegun tried to maintain neutrality, but most of his officials opposed him for not supporting Ming China, which had saved Joseon during Hideyoshi's invasions.<sup id="cite_ref-Ebrey_349_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ebrey_349-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1623, Gwanghaegun was deposed and replaced by <a href="/wiki/Injo_of_Joseon" title="Injo of Joseon">Injo of Joseon</a> (r. 1623–1649), who banished Gwanghaegun's supporters. Reverting his predecessor's foreign policy, the new king decided to openly support the Ming, but a <a href="/wiki/Yi_Gwal%27s_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Yi Gwal's Rebellion">rebellion</a> led by military commander <a href="/wiki/Yi_Gwal" class="mw-redirect" title="Yi Gwal">Yi Gwal</a> erupted in 1624 and wrecked Joseon's military defenses in the north.<sup id="cite_ref-Ebrey_349_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ebrey_349-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even after the rebellion had been suppressed, King Injo had to devote military forces to ensure the stability of the capital, leaving fewer soldiers to defend the northern borders.<sup id="cite_ref-Ebrey_349_35-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ebrey_349-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1627, a Jurchen army of 30,000 led by Nurhaci's nephew <a href="/wiki/Amin_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Amin (Qing dynasty)">Amin</a> overran Joseon's defenses.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After a quick campaign that was assisted by northern <a href="/wiki/Yangban" title="Yangban">yangban</a> who had supported Gwanghaegun, the Jurchens imposed a treaty that forced Joseon to accept "brotherly relations" with the Jurchen kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-Larsen_2008_36_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Larsen_2008_36-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because Injo persisted in his anti-Manchu policies, <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> emperor Hong Taiji sent a punitive expedition of 120,000 men to Joseon in 1636.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Defeated, King Injo was forced to end his relations with the Ming and recognize the Qing as suzerain instead.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Injo's successor <a href="/wiki/Hyojong_of_Joseon" title="Hyojong of Joseon">Hyojong of Joseon</a> (r. 1649–1659) tried to form an army to keep his enemies away and conquer the Qing for revenge, but could never act on his designs.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite reestablishing economic relations by officially entering the <a href="/wiki/Tributary_system_of_China" title="Tributary system of China">imperial Chinese tributary system</a>, Joseon leaders and intellectuals remained resentful of the Manchus, whom they regarded as barbarians, and<sup id="cite_ref-Larsen_2008_36_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Larsen_2008_36-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> regarded the Ming dynasty as the center of the civilized world.<sup id="cite_ref-google_books1_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google_books1-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Joseon intellectuals, who had political and cultural allegiances to the Ming dynasty,<sup id="cite_ref-MingLoyalismAndForeignLineages_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MingLoyalismAndForeignLineages-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were forced to reexamine their state identity when the Qing overthrew the Ming,<sup id="cite_ref-google_books1_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google_books1-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> leading to an influx of Ming <a href="/wiki/Refugee" title="Refugee">refugees</a> into Joseon.<sup id="cite_ref-MingLoyalismAndForeignLineages_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MingLoyalismAndForeignLineages-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, Joseon created the <a href="/wiki/Little_China_(ideology)" title="Little China (ideology)">Little China ideology</a>, known as sojunghwa.<sup id="cite_ref-google_books1_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google_books1-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Youngmin Kim, " it held that the Joseon embodied Chineseness authentically while other neighboring countries failed to do so in the face of the barbarian domination of the center of the civilized world."<sup id="cite_ref-google_books1_41-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google_books1-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A set of standardized rites and unifying symbols were developed in Late Joseon Korea to maintain that sense of cultural identity.<sup id="cite_ref-google_books1_41-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google_books1-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Long after submitting to the Qing, the Joseon court and many Korean intellectuals kept using Ming <a href="/wiki/Chinese_era_name" title="Chinese era name">reign periods</a>, as when a scholar marked 1861 as "the 234th year of <a href="/wiki/Chongzhen_Emperor" title="Chongzhen Emperor">Chongzhen</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_period_(mid_17th-late_19th_century)"><span id="Late_period_.28mid_17th-late_19th_century.29"></span>Late period (mid 17th-late 19th century)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Late period (mid 17th-late 19th century)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Emergence_of_Silhak_and_renaissance_of_the_Joseon">Emergence of Silhak and renaissance of the Joseon</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Emergence of Silhak and renaissance of the Joseon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kim_Yuk_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Kim_Yuk_02.jpg/170px-Kim_Yuk_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Kim_Yuk_02.jpg/255px-Kim_Yuk_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Kim_Yuk_02.jpg/340px-Kim_Yuk_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="909" data-file-height="1376" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of Kim Yuk 김육 (1570–1658), an early Silhak philosopher of the Joseon period</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hwaseong2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Hwaseong2.jpg/250px-Hwaseong2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Hwaseong2.jpg/330px-Hwaseong2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Hwaseong2.jpg/500px-Hwaseong2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="533" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hwaseong_Fortress" title="Hwaseong Fortress">Hwaseong Fortress</a> in <a href="/wiki/Suwon" title="Suwon">Suwon</a>. Also one of <a href="/wiki/UNESCO_World_Heritage_Sites" class="mw-redirect" title="UNESCO World Heritage Sites">UNESCO World Heritage Sites</a></figcaption></figure> <p>After invasions from Japan and Manchuria, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace. Joseon witnessed the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Silhak" title="Silhak">Silhak</a> (Practical Learning). The early group of Silhak scholars advocated comprehensive reform of civil service examination, taxation, natural sciences and the improvement in agromanagerial and agricultural techniques. It aimed to rebuild Joseon society after it had been devastated by the two invasions. Under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Kim_Yuk" title="Kim Yuk">Kim Yuk</a>, the chief minister of <a href="/wiki/Hyeonjong_of_Joseon" title="Hyeonjong of Joseon">King Hyeonjong</a>, the implementation of reforms proved highly advantageous both to state revenues and to the lot of the peasants. </p><p>The co-existence system between Southerners and Westerners which were established after the Injo coup started to fall.<sup id="cite_ref-yesong_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yesong-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the Yesong debate, factional conflict grew particularly intense under the reigns of the kings <a href="/wiki/Sukjong_of_Joseon" title="Sukjong of Joseon">Sukjong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gyeongjong_of_Joseon" title="Gyeongjong of Joseon">Gyeongjong</a>, with major rapid reversals of the ruling faction, known as hwanguk (換局; literally <i>change in the state of affairs</i>), being commonplace. During the early reign of <a href="/wiki/Sukjong_of_Joseon" title="Sukjong of Joseon">Sukjong</a>, the southerners managed to become a ruling faction and made westerners lose power. But the southerners' rise to power was temporary. <a href="/wiki/Sukjong_of_Joseon" title="Sukjong of Joseon">Sukjong</a>, who believed that political faction would weaken the king's power started rapid reversals of the ruling faction, which resulted in bloody killings between factions. After the three bloody hwanguk, the Southerners lost their influence in the central government, and the ruling Westerners were divided into hard-line Noron who rejected the Southerners and moderate Soron who were friendly to the Southerners. This shift resulted in political radicalism which viewed other factions as the ones that should be eliminated.<sup id="cite_ref-yesong_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yesong-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response, the next kings, <a href="/wiki/Yeongjo_of_Joseon" title="Yeongjo of Joseon">Yeongjo</a> (r. 1724–1776) and <a href="/wiki/Jeongjo_of_Joseon" title="Jeongjo of Joseon">Jeongjo</a> (r. 1776–1800), generally pursued the <i>Tangpyeongchaek</i> – a policy of maintaining balance and equality between the factions.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The two kings led a second renaissance of the Joseon kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yeongjo's grandson, the enlightened King Jeongjo enacted various reforms throughout his reign, notably establishing <a href="/wiki/Kyujanggak" title="Kyujanggak">Kyujanggak</a>, a royal library to improve the cultural and political position of Joseon and to recruit gifted officers to run the nation. King Jeongjo also spearheaded bold social initiatives, opening government positions to those who would previously have been barred because of their social status. King Jeongjo had the support of the many Silhak scholars. King Jeongjo's reign also saw the further growth and development of Joseon's popular culture. At that time, the group of Silhak scholars encouraged the individual to reflect on state traditions and lifestyle, initiating the studies of Korea that addressed its history, geography, <a href="/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">epigraphy</a> and language. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Empress_sin-jung-ik2.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Empress_sin-jung-ik2.PNG/250px-Empress_sin-jung-ik2.PNG" decoding="async" width="170" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Empress_sin-jung-ik2.PNG/330px-Empress_sin-jung-ik2.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Empress_sin-jung-ik2.PNG/500px-Empress_sin-jung-ik2.PNG 2x" data-file-width="573" data-file-height="1079" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Queen_Sinjeong" title="Queen Sinjeong">Sinjeong</a>, Queen Regent of Joseon. She served as nominal regent of Joseon, who selected <a href="/wiki/Gojong_of_Korea" title="Gojong of Korea">Gojong</a> to place upon the throne.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Architecture">Architecture</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the late Joseon period of the 18th and 19th centuries, Joseon started to change its perceptions of the Qing dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-Changing_perceptions_of_the_Qing_Dy_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Changing_perceptions_of_the_Qing_Dy-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The shift in perceptions commenced through the introduction of Qing dynasty culture to Joseon society by Yeonhaengsa, Korean envoys to the Qing dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-Changing_perceptions_of_the_Qing_Dy_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Changing_perceptions_of_the_Qing_Dy-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Progressive-thinking Joseon intellectuals advocated the <a href="/wiki/Bak_Jega" class="mw-redirect" title="Bak Jega">Bukhak theory</a>, which argued that Joseon should adopt Qing and Western culture through the Qing dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-Changing_perceptions_of_the_Qing_Dy_50-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Changing_perceptions_of_the_Qing_Dy-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Joseon scholars became intrigued by the sophisticated architectural technology of China, encompassing construction techniques, wagon utilization, and the <a href="/wiki/Ondol" title="Ondol">ondol</a> heating system.<sup id="cite_ref-Changing_perceptions_of_the_Qing_Dy_50-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Changing_perceptions_of_the_Qing_Dy-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Particularly fascinated by brick, the proponents of Bukhak endeavored to popularize its usage across Joseon, and eventually succeeded.<sup id="cite_ref-Changing_perceptions_of_the_Qing_Dy_50-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Changing_perceptions_of_the_Qing_Dy-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Bak_Jiwon_(born_1737)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bak Jiwon (born 1737)">Bak Jiwon</a> was among the first to construct brick Chinese-style buildings in Anui, Gyeongsang Province, and Gyedong, Seoul, towards the end of the 18th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Changing_perceptions_of_the_Qing_Dy_50-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Changing_perceptions_of_the_Qing_Dy-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the establishment of the Suwon <a href="/wiki/Hwaseong_Fortress" title="Hwaseong Fortress">Hwaseong Fortress</a>, which was influenced by Qing construction technology and techniques, Qing-style architectural style and techniques started to become more widespread in Joseon society.<sup id="cite_ref-Changing_perceptions_of_the_Qing_Dy_50-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Changing_perceptions_of_the_Qing_Dy-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Government_by_in-law_families">Government by in-law families</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Government by in-law families"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the death of King Jeongjo, the Joseon faced difficult external and internal problems. Internally, the foundation of national law and order weakened as a result of "Sedo Politics" (in-law government) by royal in-laws. </p><p>The young <a href="/wiki/Sunjo_of_Joseon" title="Sunjo of Joseon">Sunjo</a> succeeded his father, King Jeongjo, in 1800. With Jeongjo's death the <a href="/wiki/Noron_(Korean_political_faction)" title="Noron (Korean political faction)">Noron</a> seized power with the regency of <a href="/wiki/Queen_Jeongsun" title="Queen Jeongsun">Queen Dowager Jeongsun</a>, whose family had strong ties to the faction, and initiated a <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Persecution_of_1801" title="Catholic Persecution of 1801">persecution of Catholics</a>. However, after the retirement and death of the Queen Dowager, the Norons were gradually ousted, while the <a href="/wiki/Andong_Kim_clan" title="Andong Kim clan">Andong Kim clan</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kim_Jo-sun_(politician)" title="Kim Jo-sun (politician)">Kim Jo-sun</a>, the father of the <a href="/wiki/Queen_Sunwon" title="Queen Sunwon">Queen Sunwon</a>, gained power. Gradually the Andong Kims came to dominate the court.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the domination of the Andong Kims, the era of Sedo Politics began. The formidable in-law lineage monopolized the vital positions in government, holding sway over the political scene, and intervening in the succession of the throne. These kings had no monarchic authority and could not rule over the government. The other aristocratic families, overwhelmed by the power exercised by the royal in-laws, could not speak out. As the power was concentrated in the hands of the royal in-law lineage, there was disorder in the governing process, and corruption became rampant. Large sums were offered in bribes to the powerful lineages to obtain positions with nominally high rank. Even the low-ranking posts were bought and sold. This period, which spanned 60 years, saw the manifestation of both severe poverty among the Korean population and ceaseless rebellions in various parts of the country. </p><p>Externally, Joseon became increasingly <a href="/wiki/Isolationism" title="Isolationism">isolationist</a>. Its rulers sought to limit contact with foreign countries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="End_of_the_dynasty">End of the dynasty</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: End of the dynasty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Korean_headgear-Waryonggwan-01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Korean_headgear-Waryonggwan-01.jpg/170px-Korean_headgear-Waryonggwan-01.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Korean_headgear-Waryonggwan-01.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="182" data-file-height="242" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Heungseon_Daewongun" title="Heungseon Daewongun">Heungseon Daewongun</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1863, <a href="/wiki/Gojong_of_Korea" title="Gojong of Korea">King Gojong</a> took the throne. His father, <a href="/wiki/Heungseon_Daewongun" title="Heungseon Daewongun">Heungseon Daewongun</a>, ruled for him until Gojong reached adulthood. During the mid-1860s the Regent was the main proponent of isolationism and the instrument of the persecution of native and foreign Catholics, a policy that led directly to the <a href="/wiki/French_expedition_to_Korea" title="French expedition to Korea">French Campaign against Korea</a> in 1866. The early years of his rule also witnessed a large effort to restore the dilapidated <a href="/wiki/Gyeongbokgung" title="Gyeongbokgung">Gyeongbokgung</a>, the seat of royal authority. From 1862 to 1864, an insurgency movement driven by <a href="/wiki/Donghak" title="Donghak">Donghak</a> followers and religious leader <a href="/wiki/Choe_Je-u" title="Choe Je-u">Choe Je-u</a> gathered a peasant army to take over southern parts of Korea until Choe was executed in 1864.<sup id="cite_ref-:19_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:19-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During his reign, the power and authority of the in-law families such as the Andong Kims sharply declined. To get rid of the Andong Kim and <a href="/wiki/Pungyang_Jo_clan" class="mw-redirect" title="Pungyang Jo clan">Pungyang Jo</a> clans, he promoted persons without making references to political party or family affiliations, and to reduce the burdens of the people and solidify the basis of the nation's economy, he reformed the tax system. In 1871, <a href="/wiki/United_States_expedition_to_Korea" title="United States expedition to Korea">U.S. and Korean forces clashed</a> in a U.S. attempt at "gunboat diplomacy" following on the <a href="/wiki/General_Sherman_incident" title="General Sherman incident">General Sherman incident</a> of 1866. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%EB%82%A8%EC%82%B0_%EC%A0%95%EC%83%81%EC%97%90%EC%84%9C_%EB%B0%94%EB%9D%BC%EB%B3%B8_%EC%84%9C%EC%9A%B8_%ED%92%8D%EA%B2%BD_(1884).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/%EB%82%A8%EC%82%B0_%EC%A0%95%EC%83%81%EC%97%90%EC%84%9C_%EB%B0%94%EB%9D%BC%EB%B3%B8_%EC%84%9C%EC%9A%B8_%ED%92%8D%EA%B2%BD_%281884%29.jpg/250px-%EB%82%A8%EC%82%B0_%EC%A0%95%EC%83%81%EC%97%90%EC%84%9C_%EB%B0%94%EB%9D%BC%EB%B3%B8_%EC%84%9C%EC%9A%B8_%ED%92%8D%EA%B2%BD_%281884%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/%EB%82%A8%EC%82%B0_%EC%A0%95%EC%83%81%EC%97%90%EC%84%9C_%EB%B0%94%EB%9D%BC%EB%B3%B8_%EC%84%9C%EC%9A%B8_%ED%92%8D%EA%B2%BD_%281884%29.jpg/330px-%EB%82%A8%EC%82%B0_%EC%A0%95%EC%83%81%EC%97%90%EC%84%9C_%EB%B0%94%EB%9D%BC%EB%B3%B8_%EC%84%9C%EC%9A%B8_%ED%92%8D%EA%B2%BD_%281884%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/%EB%82%A8%EC%82%B0_%EC%A0%95%EC%83%81%EC%97%90%EC%84%9C_%EB%B0%94%EB%9D%BC%EB%B3%B8_%EC%84%9C%EC%9A%B8_%ED%92%8D%EA%B2%BD_%281884%29.jpg/500px-%EB%82%A8%EC%82%B0_%EC%A0%95%EC%83%81%EC%97%90%EC%84%9C_%EB%B0%94%EB%9D%BC%EB%B3%B8_%EC%84%9C%EC%9A%B8_%ED%92%8D%EA%B2%BD_%281884%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1753" data-file-height="820" /></a><figcaption>Seoul(1884)-<a href="/wiki/George_Clayton_Foulk" title="George Clayton Foulk">George Clayton Foulk</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1873, King Gojong announced his assumption of royal rule. With the subsequent retirement of Heungseon Daewongun, Queen Min (later called <a href="/wiki/Empress_Myeongseong" title="Empress Myeongseong">Empress Myeongseong</a>) became a power in the court, placing <a href="/wiki/Yeoheung_Min_clan" title="Yeoheung Min clan">her family</a> in high court positions. </p><p>Japan, after the <a href="/wiki/Meiji_Restoration" title="Meiji Restoration">Meiji Restoration</a>, acquired Western military technology, and forced Joseon to sign the <a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Korea_Treaty_of_1876" title="Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876">Treaty of Ganghwa</a> in 1876, opening three ports to trade and granting the Japanese extraterritoriality. <a href="/wiki/Port_Hamilton_incident" title="Port Hamilton incident">Port Hamilton was briefly occupied</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> in 1885.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Gojong_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Portrait_of_Gojong_01.jpg/170px-Portrait_of_Gojong_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="289" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Portrait_of_Gojong_01.jpg/255px-Portrait_of_Gojong_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Portrait_of_Gojong_01.jpg/340px-Portrait_of_Gojong_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="441" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gojong_of_Korea" title="Gojong of Korea">Emperor Gojong</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Many Koreans despised Japanese and foreign influences over their land and the corrupt oppressive rule of the Joseon dynasty. In 1881, the <a href="/wiki/Py%C5%8Flgigun" title="Pyŏlgigun">Byeolgigun</a>, a modern elite military unit, was formed with Japanese trainers. The salaries of the other soldiers were held back, and in 1882 <a href="/wiki/Imo_Incident" title="Imo Incident">rioting soldiers</a> attacked the Japanese officers and even forced the queen to take refuge in the countryside. In 1894, the <a href="/wiki/Donghak_Peasant_Revolution" title="Donghak Peasant Revolution">Donghak Peasant Revolution</a> saw farmers rise up in a mass rebellion, with peasant leader <a href="/wiki/Jeon_Bongjun" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeon Bongjun">Jeon Bong-jun</a> defeating the forces of local ruler Jo Byong-gap at the battle of <a href="/wiki/Jeongeup" title="Jeongeup">Gobu</a> on January 11, 1894; after the battle, Jo's properties were handed out to the peasants. By May, the peasant army had reached <a href="/wiki/Jeonju" title="Jeonju">Jeonju</a>, and the Joseon government asked the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> government for assistance in ending the revolt. The Qing sent 3,000 troops, and the rebels negotiated a truce, but the Japanese considered the Qing presence a threat and sent in 8,000 troops of their own, <a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Gyeongbokgung_Palace" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese occupation of Gyeongbokgung Palace">seizing the Royal Palace</a> in Seoul and installing a pro-Japanese government on June 8, 1894. This soon escalated into <a href="/wiki/First_Sino-Japanese_War" title="First Sino-Japanese War">a war</a> (1894–1895) between Japan and the Qing Empire, fought largely in Korea. (The king made a deal with Japan, partially out of a distrust of the queen's support for open trade policies toward the Western civilizations and China. He ended up preempting a specific disadvantageous, exclusive negotiation with Japan previous to the Queen's decision, which was later used as a political premise for Japan to wage military action. Scholars, particularly during the Joseon era, were touted for expressing allegiance to the king.) </p><p><a href="/wiki/Empress_Myeongseong" title="Empress Myeongseong">Empress Myeongseong</a> (referred to as Queen Min)<sup id="cite_ref-queen_min_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-queen_min-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> had attempted to counter Japanese interference in Korea and was considering turning to the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> and to China for support. In 1895, <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Empress_Myeongseong" title="Assassination of Empress Myeongseong">Empress Myeongseong was assassinated</a> by Japanese agents.<sup id="cite_ref-Dong-a_2002_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dong-a_2002-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Japanese minister to Korea, <a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_general" title="Lieutenant general">Lieutenant-General</a> <a href="/wiki/Miura_Gor%C5%8D" title="Miura Gorō">Viscount Miura</a>, almost certainly orchestrated the plot against her. A group of Japanese agents<sup id="cite_ref-Dong-a_2002_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dong-a_2002-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> entered the palace <a href="/wiki/Gyeongbokgung" title="Gyeongbokgung">Gyeongbokgung</a> in Seoul, which was under Japanese control,<sup id="cite_ref-Dong-a_2002_55-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dong-a_2002-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Queen Min was killed and her body desecrated in the north wing of the palace. </p><p>The Qing acknowledged defeat in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Shimonoseki" title="Treaty of Shimonoseki">Treaty of Shimonoseki</a> (April 17, 1895), which officially guaranteed Korea's independence from China.<sup id="cite_ref-britannica_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannica-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was a step toward Japan gaining regional <a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">hegemony</a> in Korea. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Establishment_of_the_Empire_and_Colonization">Establishment of the Empire and Colonization</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Establishment of the Empire and Colonization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Joseon court, pressured by encroachment from larger powers, felt the need to reinforce national integrity and declared the <a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean Empire</a>, along with the <a href="/wiki/Gwangmu_Reform" title="Gwangmu Reform">Gwangmu Reform</a> in 1897. <a href="/wiki/Gojong_of_Korea" title="Gojong of Korea">King Gojong</a> assumed the title of <a href="/wiki/Korean_imperial_titles" title="Korean imperial titles">Emperor</a> to assert Korea's independence. In addition, other foreign powers were sought for military technology, especially Russia, to fend off the Japanese. Technically, 1897 marks the end of the Joseon period, as the official name of the empire was changed; the Joseon dynasty still reigned, albeit perturbed by Japan and Russia. </p><p>In a complicated series of maneuvers and counter-maneuvers, Japan pushed back the Russian fleet at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Port_Arthur" title="Battle of Port Arthur">Battle of Port Arthur</a> in 1904. With the conclusion of the 1904–1905 <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Portsmouth" title="Treaty of Portsmouth">Treaty of Portsmouth</a>, the way was open for Japan to take control of Korea. After the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Korea_Treaty_of_1905" title="Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905">Protectorate Treaty</a> in 1905, Korea became a <a href="/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate">protectorate</a> of Japan. <a href="/wiki/It%C5%8D_Hirobumi" title="Itō Hirobumi">Prince Itō</a> was the first <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Resident-General_of_Korea" title="Japanese Resident-General of Korea">Resident-General of Korea</a>, although he was assassinated by <a href="/wiki/Korean_independence_movement" title="Korean independence movement">Korean independence activist</a> <a href="/wiki/An_Jung-geun" title="An Jung-geun">An Jung-geun</a> in 1909 at the train station at <a href="/wiki/Harbin" title="Harbin">Harbin</a>. In 1910 the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese Empire</a> finally <a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Korea_Treaty_of_1910" title="Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910">annexed</a> Korea. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government">Government</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Joseon_Dynasty_politics" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseon Dynasty politics">Joseon Dynasty politics</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/60px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/120px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Joseon" title="Special:EditPage/Joseon">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Joseon was a highly centralized monarchy, and neo-Confucian bureaucracy as codified by <a href="/wiki/Gyeongguk_daejeon" class="mw-redirect" title="Gyeongguk daejeon">Gyeongguk daejeon</a>, a sort of Joseon constitution. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="King">King</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: King"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Joseon_monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Joseon monarchs">List of Joseon monarchs</a>, <a href="/wiki/House_of_Yi#House_of_Yi_family_tree" title="House of Yi">Joseon kings family tree</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Styles_and_titles_in_the_Joseon_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Styles and titles in the Joseon dynasty">Royal titles and styles during the Joseon Period</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seoul_Gyeongbokgung_Throne.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Seoul_Gyeongbokgung_Throne.jpg/250px-Seoul_Gyeongbokgung_Throne.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Seoul_Gyeongbokgung_Throne.jpg/330px-Seoul_Gyeongbokgung_Throne.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Seoul_Gyeongbokgung_Throne.jpg/500px-Seoul_Gyeongbokgung_Throne.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2016" data-file-height="1512" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Phoenix_Throne" title="Phoenix Throne">Phoenix Throne</a> of the king of Joseon in <a href="/wiki/Gyeongbokgung" title="Gyeongbokgung">Gyeongbokgung</a> The picture in the background is <a href="/wiki/Irworobongdo" title="Irworobongdo">Irworobongdo</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%EC%A2%85%EB%AC%98_%EC%A0%95%EC%A0%84_%EC%A0%84%EB%A9%B4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/%EC%A2%85%EB%AC%98_%EC%A0%95%EC%A0%84_%EC%A0%84%EB%A9%B4.jpg/220px-%EC%A2%85%EB%AC%98_%EC%A0%95%EC%A0%84_%EC%A0%84%EB%A9%B4.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/%EC%A2%85%EB%AC%98_%EC%A0%95%EC%A0%84_%EC%A0%84%EB%A9%B4.jpg/330px-%EC%A2%85%EB%AC%98_%EC%A0%95%EC%A0%84_%EC%A0%84%EB%A9%B4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/%EC%A2%85%EB%AC%98_%EC%A0%95%EC%A0%84_%EC%A0%84%EB%A9%B4.jpg/440px-%EC%A2%85%EB%AC%98_%EC%A0%95%EC%A0%84_%EC%A0%84%EB%A9%B4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1761" data-file-height="1182" /></a><figcaption>Jeongjeon of <a href="/wiki/Jongmyo_(Seoul)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jongmyo (Seoul)">Jongmyo Shrine</a> – As the dynasty continued, it was expanded horizontally.</figcaption></figure> <p>The king had absolute authority, but his actual power varied with political circumstances. He was bound by tradition, precedents set by earlier kings, <a href="/wiki/Gyeongguk_daejeon" class="mw-redirect" title="Gyeongguk daejeon">Gyeongguk daejeon</a>, and Confucian teachings. The king commanded absolute loyalty from his officials and subjects, but the officials were also expected to persuade the king to the right path if the latter was thought to be mistaken. Natural disasters were thought to be due to the king's failings, and therefore, Joseon kings were very sensitive to their occurrences. When there was severe drought or a series of disasters, the king often formally sought criticism from officials and citizenry. On those occasions, critics were immune from prosecution, regardless of what they said or wrote (although there were a few exceptions). </p><p>Direct communication between the king and the common people was possible through the <i>sangeon</i> (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">상언</span></span>; <span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hani">上言</span></span>) written petition system and the <i>gyeokjaeng</i> (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">격쟁</span></span>; <span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hani">擊錚</span></span>) oral petition system. Through the <i>gyeokjaeng</i> oral petition system, commoners could strike a gong or drum in front of the palace or during the king's public processions to appeal their grievances or petition to the king directly. This allowed even the illiterate members of Joseon society to make a petition to the king. More than 1,300 <i>gyeokjaeng</i>-related accounts are recorded in the <a href="/wiki/Ilseongnok" title="Ilseongnok">Ilseongnok</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Royal_seals">Royal seals</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Royal seals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseonwangbo_(Royal_Seal_Treasure_of_the_Joseon_King).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Seal used from 1392 to 1401."><img alt="Seal used from 1392 to 1401." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Joseonwangbo_%28Royal_Seal_Treasure_of_the_Joseon_King%29.svg/120px-Joseonwangbo_%28Royal_Seal_Treasure_of_the_Joseon_King%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Joseonwangbo_%28Royal_Seal_Treasure_of_the_Joseon_King%29.svg/250px-Joseonwangbo_%28Royal_Seal_Treasure_of_the_Joseon_King%29.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="281" data-file-height="281" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Seal used from 1392 to 1401.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseongukwangjiin_(The_Seal_of_the_King_of_Joseon).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Seal used from 1401 to 1637, for use in Ming-related state documents.[58]"><img alt="Seal used from 1401 to 1637, for use in Ming-related state documents.[58]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Joseongukwangjiin_%28The_Seal_of_the_King_of_Joseon%29.svg/120px-Joseongukwangjiin_%28The_Seal_of_the_King_of_Joseon%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Joseongukwangjiin_%28The_Seal_of_the_King_of_Joseon%29.svg/250px-Joseongukwangjiin_%28The_Seal_of_the_King_of_Joseon%29.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Seal used from 1401 to 1637, for use in Ming-related state documents.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseongukwangjiin_(The_Seal_of_the_King_of_Joseon,_1637-1653).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Seal used between 1637[59] and 1653, for use in Qing-related state documents.[60]"><img alt="Seal used between 1637[59] and 1653, for use in Qing-related state documents.[60]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Joseongukwangjiin_%28The_Seal_of_the_King_of_Joseon%2C_1637-1653%29.svg/120px-Joseongukwangjiin_%28The_Seal_of_the_King_of_Joseon%2C_1637-1653%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Joseongukwangjiin_%28The_Seal_of_the_King_of_Joseon%2C_1637-1653%29.svg/250px-Joseongukwangjiin_%28The_Seal_of_the_King_of_Joseon%2C_1637-1653%29.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Seal used between 1637<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 1653, for use in Qing-related state documents.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseongukwangjiin_(The_Seal_of_the_King_of_Joseon,_1653-1776).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Seal used between 1653 and 1776, for use in Qing-related state documents.[61]"><img alt="Seal used between 1653 and 1776, for use in Qing-related state documents.[61]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Joseongukwangjiin_%28The_Seal_of_the_King_of_Joseon%2C_1653-1776%29.svg/120px-Joseongukwangjiin_%28The_Seal_of_the_King_of_Joseon%2C_1653-1776%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Joseongukwangjiin_%28The_Seal_of_the_King_of_Joseon%2C_1653-1776%29.svg/180px-Joseongukwangjiin_%28The_Seal_of_the_King_of_Joseon%2C_1653-1776%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Joseongukwangjiin_%28The_Seal_of_the_King_of_Joseon%2C_1653-1776%29.svg/240px-Joseongukwangjiin_%28The_Seal_of_the_King_of_Joseon%2C_1653-1776%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Seal used between 1653 and 1776, for use in Qing-related state documents.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseongukwangjiin_(The_Seal_of_the_King_of_Joseon,_1776-1876).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Seal used between 1776 and 1876, for use in Qing-related state documents."><img alt="Seal used between 1776 and 1876, for use in Qing-related state documents." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Joseongukwangjiin_%28The_Seal_of_the_King_of_Joseon%2C_1776-1876%29.svg/120px-Joseongukwangjiin_%28The_Seal_of_the_King_of_Joseon%2C_1776-1876%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Joseongukwangjiin_%28The_Seal_of_the_King_of_Joseon%2C_1776-1876%29.svg/250px-Joseongukwangjiin_%28The_Seal_of_the_King_of_Joseon%2C_1776-1876%29.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Seal used between 1776 and 1876, for use in Qing-related state documents.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Daejoseongukjusangjibo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="The seal was produced on December 15, 1876, for use in Japanese-related state documents."><img alt="The seal was produced on December 15, 1876, for use in Japanese-related state documents." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Daejoseongukjusangjibo.svg/120px-Daejoseongukjusangjibo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Daejoseongukjusangjibo.svg/250px-Daejoseongukjusangjibo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The seal was produced on December 15, 1876, for use in Japanese-related state documents.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Daegunjubo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title=""Daegunju bo" designed to replace the former sergeant "Joseon gukwang jiin", used as the seal of the king for documents such as appointment documents for high-ranking government officials and ordinances proclaimed in Korea, between 1882 and 1897[62]"><img alt=""Daegunju bo" designed to replace the former sergeant "Joseon gukwang jiin", used as the seal of the king for documents such as appointment documents for high-ranking government officials and ordinances proclaimed in Korea, between 1882 and 1897[62]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Daegunjubo.svg/120px-Daegunjubo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Daegunjubo.svg/250px-Daegunjubo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="281" data-file-height="281" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">"Daegunju bo" designed to replace the former sergeant "Joseon gukwang jiin", used as the seal of the king for documents such as appointment documents for high-ranking government officials and ordinances proclaimed in Korea, between 1882 and 1897<sup id="cite_ref-great_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-great-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:DaejoseonDaegunjubo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title=""Daejoseon Daegunju bo" were used as the 'seal of state' for credentials in diplomatic relations with other countries, between 1882[clarification needed][62]"><img alt=""Daejoseon Daegunju bo" were used as the 'seal of state' for credentials in diplomatic relations with other countries, between 1882[clarification needed][62]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/DaejoseonDaegunjubo.svg/120px-DaejoseonDaegunjubo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/DaejoseonDaegunjubo.svg/250px-DaejoseonDaegunjubo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">"Daejoseon Daegunju bo" were used as the 'seal of state' for credentials in diplomatic relations with other countries, between 1882<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (April 2022)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-great_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-great-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Officials">Officials</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Officials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Government officials were ranked in 18 levels, ranging from first senior rank (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">정1품</span></span>; <span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hani">正一品</span></span>) down to ninth junior rank (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">종9품</span></span>; <span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hani">從九品</span></span>). Seniority and promotion was achieved through royal decree, based on examination or recommendation. The officials from 1st senior rank to 3rd senior rank wore red robes. Those from 3rd junior rank to 6th junior rank wore blue. Those below wore green robes.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Here, "government official" means one who occupied an office which gave its holder <a href="/wiki/Yangban" title="Yangban">yangban</a> status – hereditary nobility for three generations. To become such an official, one had to pass a series of <a href="/wiki/Gwageo" title="Gwageo">gwageo</a> examinations. There were three kinds of gwageo exams – literary, military, and miscellaneous. The literary route was the most prestigious. Many key posts, including all <a href="#Three_Offices">Censorate</a> posts, were open only to officials who advanced through literary exam. The literary route involved a series of four tests. To qualify, one had to pass them all. 33 candidates who were chosen in this manner would take the final exam, before the king. The candidate with the highest score was appointed to a position of 6th junior rank (a jump of six ranks). The two candidates with the next highest scores were appointed to a position of 7th junior rank. The seven candidates with next highest scores were assigned to 8th junior rank. The remaining 23 candidates were given 9th junior rank, the lowest of 18 ranks. </p><p>The officials of 1st senior rank, 1st junior rank, and 2nd senior rank were addressed with honorific "daegam" (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">대감</span></span>; <span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hani">大監</span></span>) while those of 2nd junior rank and 3rd senior rank were addressed with honorific "<a href="/wiki/Yeonggam" title="Yeonggam">yeonggam</a>" (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">영감</span></span>; <span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hani">令監</span></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These red-robed officials, collectively called "dangsanggwan" (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">당상관</span></span>; <span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hani">堂上官</span></span>), took part in deciding government policies by attending cabinet meetings. The rest of the ranked officials were called "danghagwan" (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">당하관</span></span>; <span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hani">堂下官</span></span>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Central_government">Central government</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Central government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseon-Portrait_of_Cha_Jegong-Geumgwanjobok.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Joseon-Portrait_of_Cha_Jegong-Geumgwanjobok.jpg/170px-Joseon-Portrait_of_Cha_Jegong-Geumgwanjobok.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="312" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Joseon-Portrait_of_Cha_Jegong-Geumgwanjobok.jpg/255px-Joseon-Portrait_of_Cha_Jegong-Geumgwanjobok.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Joseon-Portrait_of_Cha_Jegong-Geumgwanjobok.jpg 2x" data-file-width="325" data-file-height="596" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Yeonguijeong" title="Yeonguijeong">Chief State Councillor</a> <a href="/wiki/Chae_Je-gong" title="Chae Je-gong">Chae Je-gong</a> (1720–1799)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="State_Council">State Council</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: State Council"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/State_Council_of_Joseon" title="State Council of Joseon">State Council</a> (Uijeongbu, 의정부, 議政府) was the highest deliberative body, whose power declined over the course of the period. The Chief State Councillor (<a href="/wiki/Yeonguijeong" title="Yeonguijeong">Yeonguijeong</a>, 영의정, 領議政), Left State Councillor (<a href="/wiki/Jwauijeong" title="Jwauijeong">Jwauijeong</a>, 좌의정, 左議政), and Right State Councillor (<a href="/wiki/Uuijeong" title="Uuijeong">Uuijeong</a>, 우의정, 右議政) were the highest-ranking officials in the government (all three were of 1st senior rank). They were assisted by Left Minister (Jwachanseong, 좌찬성, 左贊成) and Right Minister (Uichangseong, 우찬성, 右贊成), both of 1st junior rank, and seven lower ranking officials. The power of State Council was inversely proportional to the king's power. There were periods when it directly controlled the <a href="/wiki/Six_Ministries_of_Joseon" title="Six Ministries of Joseon">Six Ministries</a>, the chief executive body of Joseon government, but it primarily served in advisory role under stronger kings. State councillors served in several other positions concurrently. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Six_Ministries">Six Ministries</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Six Ministries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%EC%9D%B4%ED%95%AD%EB%B3%B5_%ED%98%B8%EC%84%B1%EA%B3%B5%EC%8B%A0%EC%83%81_%ED%9B%84%EB%AA%A8%EB%B3%B8.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/%EC%9D%B4%ED%95%AD%EB%B3%B5_%ED%98%B8%EC%84%B1%EA%B3%B5%EC%8B%A0%EC%83%81_%ED%9B%84%EB%AA%A8%EB%B3%B8.jpg/200px-%EC%9D%B4%ED%95%AD%EB%B3%B5_%ED%98%B8%EC%84%B1%EA%B3%B5%EC%8B%A0%EC%83%81_%ED%9B%84%EB%AA%A8%EB%B3%B8.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="371" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/%EC%9D%B4%ED%95%AD%EB%B3%B5_%ED%98%B8%EC%84%B1%EA%B3%B5%EC%8B%A0%EC%83%81_%ED%9B%84%EB%AA%A8%EB%B3%B8.jpg/300px-%EC%9D%B4%ED%95%AD%EB%B3%B5_%ED%98%B8%EC%84%B1%EA%B3%B5%EC%8B%A0%EC%83%81_%ED%9B%84%EB%AA%A8%EB%B3%B8.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/%EC%9D%B4%ED%95%AD%EB%B3%B5_%ED%98%B8%EC%84%B1%EA%B3%B5%EC%8B%A0%EC%83%81_%ED%9B%84%EB%AA%A8%EB%B3%B8.jpg/400px-%EC%9D%B4%ED%95%AD%EB%B3%B5_%ED%98%B8%EC%84%B1%EA%B3%B5%EC%8B%A0%EC%83%81_%ED%9B%84%EB%AA%A8%EB%B3%B8.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1618" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Yi Hang-bok – He was appointed and served as Byeongjo Panseo, Minister of National Defense during the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasions_of_Korea_(1592%E2%80%931598)" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)">Japanese invasions of Korea</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Six_Ministries_of_Joseon" title="Six Ministries of Joseon">Six Ministries</a> (Yukjo, 육조, 六曹) make up the chief executive body. Each minister (Panseo, 판서, 判書) was of 2nd senior rank and was assisted by deputy minister (Champan, 참판, 參判), who was of 2nd junior rank. Ministry of Personnel was the most senior office of six ministries. As the influence of State Council waned over time, Minister of Personnel was often de facto head of ministers. Six ministries are in the order of seniority. </p> <dl><dd><ul><li>Ministry of Personnel (Ijo, 이조, 吏曹) – was primarily concerned with appointment of officials</li> <li>Ministry of Taxation (Hojo, 호조, 戶曹) – taxation, finances, census, agriculture, and land policies</li> <li>Ministry of Rites (Yejo, 예조, 禮曺) – rituals, culture, diplomacy, gwageo exam</li> <li>Ministry of Defence (Byeongjo, 병조, 兵曺) – military affairs <ul><li>Office of Police Bureau (<a href="/wiki/Podocheong" class="mw-redirect" title="Podocheong">Podocheong</a>, 포도청, 捕盜廳) – office for public order</li></ul></li> <li>Ministry of Justice (Hyeongjo, 형조, 刑曺) – administration of law, slavery, punishments</li> <li>Ministry of Commerce (Gongjo, 공조, 工曹) – industry, public works, manufacturing, mining</li></ul></dd> <dd></dd></dl> <p>Government offices of each organization were located where the current <a href="/wiki/Gwanghwamun_Plaza" class="mw-redirect" title="Gwanghwamun Plaza">Gwanghwamun Plaza</a> is located. So it was also called '''Yukjo street''' after the six ministries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Three_Offices">Three Offices</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Three Offices"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%EC%9C%A4%EB%B4%89%EA%B5%AC_%EC%B4%88%EC%83%81.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/%EC%9C%A4%EB%B4%89%EA%B5%AC_%EC%B4%88%EC%83%81.jpg/170px-%EC%9C%A4%EB%B4%89%EA%B5%AC_%EC%B4%88%EC%83%81.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/%EC%9C%A4%EB%B4%89%EA%B5%AC_%EC%B4%88%EC%83%81.jpg/255px-%EC%9C%A4%EB%B4%89%EA%B5%AC_%EC%B4%88%EC%83%81.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/%EC%9C%A4%EB%B4%89%EA%B5%AC_%EC%B4%88%EC%83%81.jpg/340px-%EC%9C%A4%EB%B4%89%EA%B5%AC_%EC%B4%88%EC%83%81.jpg 2x" data-file-width="421" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of the Inspector General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yun_Bonggu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yun Bonggu (page does not exist)">Yun Bonggu</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A4%EB%B4%89%EA%B5%AC" class="extiw" title="ko:윤봉구">ko</a>]</span> (1681–1767)</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Three_offices_of_Joseon" title="Three offices of Joseon">Three Offices</a>, or <i>Samsa</i> (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">삼사</span></span>), is a collective name for three offices that functioned as major organ of press and provided checks and balance on the king and the officials. While modeled after the Chinese system, they played much more prominent roles in the Joseon government than their Chinese counterparts. In their role as organ of press, they did not have actual authority to decide or implement policies, but had influential voice in the ensuing debate. </p><p>The officials who served in these offices tended to be younger and of lower rank compared to other offices but had strong academic reputation and enjoyed special privileges and great prestige (for instance, censors were permitted to drink during working hours because of their function of criticizing the king). To be appointed, they went through more thorough review of character and family background. Three Offices provided the fastest route of promotion to high posts and was almost a requirement to becoming a State Councillor. </p> <dl><dd><ul><li>Office of Inspector General (<a href="/wiki/Saheonbu" class="mw-redirect" title="Saheonbu">Saheonbu</a>, 사헌부) – It monitored government administration and officials at each level in both central and local governments for corruption, malfeasance, or inefficiency. It was also in charge of advancing public morals and Confucian customs and redressing grievances of the populace. It was headed by Inspector General (Daesaheon, 대사헌), a position of 2nd junior rank, who oversaw 30 largely independent officials.</li> <li>Office of Censors (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Saganwon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Saganwon (page does not exist)">Saganwon</a>, 사간원) – Its chief function was to remonstrate with the king if there was wrong or improper action or policy. Important decrees of the king were first reviewed by censors, who could ask for them to be withdraw if they judged them improper. It also issued opinions about the general state of affairs. It was composed of five officials, led by the Chief Censor (Daesagan, 대사간), of 3rd senior rank.</li></ul></dd></dl> <p>While the primary focus for Office of Inspector General is the government officials and Office of Censors is focused on the king, two offices often performed each other's functions, and there was much overlap. Together they were called "Yangsa", (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">양사</span></span>) which literally means "Both Offices", and often worked jointly especially when they sought to reverse the king's decision. </p> <dl><dd><ul><li>Office of Special Advisors (<a href="/wiki/Hongmungwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hongmungwan">Hongmungwan</a>, 홍문관, 弘文館) – It oversaw the royal library and served as research institute to study Confucian philosophy and answer the king's questions. Its officials took part in the daily lessons called <i>gyeongyeon</i> (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">경연</span></span>), in which they discussed history and Confucian philosophy with the king. Since these discussions often led to commentary on current political issues, its officials had significant influence as advisors. It was headed by Chief Scholar (Daejehak, 대제학), a part-time post of 2nd senior rank that served concurrently in another high post (such as in State Council), and Deputy Chief Scholar (Bujehak, 부제학), a full-time post of 3rd senior rank that actually ran the office. There was great prestige attached to being Chief Scholar in this deeply Confucian society. The office was established to replace <a href="/wiki/Hall_of_Worthies" title="Hall of Worthies">Hall of Worthies</a> (Jiphyeonjeon, 집현전) after the latter was abolished by <a href="/wiki/Sejo_of_Joseon" title="Sejo of Joseon">King Sejo</a> in the aftermath of <a href="/wiki/Six_martyred_ministers" title="Six martyred ministers">Six martyred ministers</a>.</li></ul></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_offices">Other offices</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Other offices"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The major offices include the following: </p> <ul><li>Royal Secretariat (Seungjeongwon, 승정원) served as a liaison between the king and Six Ministries. There were six royal secretaries (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">승지</span></span>), one for each ministry, and all were of 3rd senior rank. Their primary role was to pass down royal decree to the ministries and submit petitions from the officials and the populace to the king, but they also advised the king and served in other key positions close to the king. In particular Chief Royal Secretary (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">도승지</span></span>), a liaison to Ministry of Personnel, served the king in the closest proximity of all government official and often enjoyed great power that was derived from the king's favor. <a href="/wiki/Hong_Guk-yeong" title="Hong Guk-yeong">Hong Guk-yeong</a> (during <a href="/wiki/Jeongjo_of_Joseon" title="Jeongjo of Joseon">Jeongjo</a>'s reign) and <a href="/wiki/Han_Myeong-hoe" class="mw-redirect" title="Han Myeong-hoe">Han Myeong-hoe</a> (during <a href="/wiki/Sejo_of_Joseon" title="Sejo of Joseon">Sejo</a>) are some examples of chief royal secretaries who were the most powerful officials of their time.</li> <li>Capital Bureau (Hanseongbu, 한성부) was in charge of running the capital, <i>Hanseong</i> (now Seoul). It was led by <i>Panyoon</i> (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">판윤</span></span>), of 2nd senior second rank equivalent to today's mayor of Seoul.</li> <li>Royal Investigation Bureau (Uigeumbu, 의금부) was an investigative and enforcement organ under direct control of the king. It chiefly dealt with treason and other serious cases that concerned the king and royal family and served to arrest, investigate, imprison, and carry out sentences against the suspected offenders, who were often government officials.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Office of Records (Ch'unch'ugwan, 춘추관) officials wrote, compiled, and maintained the government and historical records. It was headed by State Councillors, and many posts were held by officials serving in other offices concurrently. There were eight historiographers whose sole function was to record the meetings for history.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sungkyunkwan" title="Sungkyunkwan">Sungkyunkwan</a> or Royal Academy (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">성균관</span></span>) prepared future government officials. Those who passed first two stages of <a href="/wiki/Gwageo" title="Gwageo">gwageo</a> examinations (literary exam) were admitted to Sungkyunkwan. The class size was usually 200 students, who lived in the residential hall and followed strict routine and school rules. (Tuition, room and board were provided by the government.) It also served as the state shrine for <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucian</a> sages. The students' opinions on government policies, especially collective statements and demonstrations, could be influential as they represented fresh and uncorrupted consensus of young scholars. The official in charge was Daesaseong (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">대사성</span></span>), of 3rd senior rank, and 36 other officials including those from other offices were involved in running the academy.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Local_government">Local government</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Local government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The officials of high rank were sent from the central government. Sometimes a <a href="/wiki/Secret_royal_inspector" title="Secret royal inspector">secret royal inspector</a> (Amhaengeosa, 암행어사) was appointed by the king to travel incognito and monitor the provincial officials. These undercover inspectors were generally young officials of lower rank but were invested with the royal authority to dismiss corrupt officials. </p> <ul><li>Provinces (Do, 도, 道) – There were eight provinces, each of which was governed by Governor (Gwanchalsa, 관찰사, 觀察使), a position of 2nd junior rank.</li> <li>Bu (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">부</span></span>) – administrative offices in charge of major cities in provinces. Each bu was led by Buyun (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">부윤</span></span>), which was equivalent to Governor in rank.</li> <li>Mok (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">목</span></span>; <span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hani">牧</span></span>) – There were twenty moks, which governed large counties named ju (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">주</span></span>; <span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hani">州</span></span>). They were run by Moksa (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">목사</span></span>; <span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hani">牧使</span></span>), of 3rd senior rank.</li> <li>County (Gun, 군, 郡) – There were eighty counties in Joseon, each governed by Gunsu (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">군수</span></span>; <span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hani">郡守</span></span>), a 4th junior rank.</li> <li>Hyeon (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">현</span></span>; <span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hani">縣</span></span>) – Large hyeons were governed by Hyeonryeong (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">현령</span></span>; <span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hani">縣令</span></span>) of 5th junior rank while smaller hyeons were governed by Hyeongam (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">현감</span></span>; <span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hani">縣監</span></span>) of 6th junior rank.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Administrative_divisions">Administrative divisions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Administrative divisions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Eight_Provinces_of_Korea" title="Eight Provinces of Korea">Eight Provinces of Korea</a></div> <p>During most of the Joseon period, Korea was divided into <a href="/wiki/Eight_Provinces_of_Korea" title="Eight Provinces of Korea">eight provinces</a> (do, 도, 道). The eight provinces' boundaries remained unchanged for almost five centuries from 1413 to 1895, and formed a geographic paradigm that is still reflected today in the Korean Peninsula's administrative divisions, dialects, and regional distinctions. The names of all eight provinces are still preserved today, in one form or another. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%EA%B9%80%ED%9B%84%EC%98%81%EC%A0%95.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/%EA%B9%80%ED%9B%84%EC%98%81%EC%A0%95.jpg/250px-%EA%B9%80%ED%9B%84%EC%98%81%EC%A0%95.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/%EA%B9%80%ED%9B%84%EC%98%81%EC%A0%95.jpg/330px-%EA%B9%80%ED%9B%84%EC%98%81%EC%A0%95.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/%EA%B9%80%ED%9B%84%EC%98%81%EC%A0%95.jpg/500px-%EA%B9%80%ED%9B%84%EC%98%81%EC%A0%95.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2295" data-file-height="3328" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of Kim Hu (1751–1805), a military officer of the Joseon dynasty</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military">Military</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Military"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Korean_armour" title="Korean armour">Korean armour</a>, <a href="/wiki/Korean_cannon" title="Korean cannon">Korean cannon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gakgung" title="Gakgung">Gakgung</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Korean_sword" title="Korean sword">Korean sword</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Army">Army</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Army"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Joseon_Army" title="Joseon Army">Joseon Army</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseon_Army_(late_19th_century)" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseon Army (late 19th century)">Joseon Army (late 19th century)</a></div> <p>The army consists of the central army and the provincial armies. Each is made of peasant soldiers, cavalry, <i>pengbaesu</i> and <i>gabsa</i> elite soldiers, archers, musketeers, and artillery. The king appointed their generals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Navy">Navy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Navy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Joseon_Navy" title="Joseon Navy">Joseon Navy</a></div> <p>The Joseon Navy consists of two types of main warships, the <a href="/wiki/Panokseon" title="Panokseon">panokseon</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Turtle_ship" title="Turtle ship">turtle ship</a>. They also used small vessels and fishing boats for reconnaissance and landings. The king also appoints their admirals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Royal_Guard">Royal Guard</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Royal Guard"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Naegeumwi" title="Naegeumwi">Naegeumwi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wanggung_Sumunjang" title="Wanggung Sumunjang">Wanggung Sumunjang</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Naegeumwi" title="Naegeumwi">Naegeumwi</a> were royal guards defending the king, queen, and ministers. These were soldiers hand-selected by the king. The King's Royal Palace Gatekeepers, the <i><a href="/wiki/Wanggung_Sumunjang" title="Wanggung Sumunjang">Wanggung Sumunjang</a></i> (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">왕궁수문장</span></span>) were a royal guard unit tasked with defending the gates of the five palaces and Hanseong's city gates. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Foreign_relations">Foreign relations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Foreign relations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Joseon_diplomacy" title="Joseon diplomacy">Joseon diplomacy</a></div> <p>Joseon was a tributary state of the <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> that was ritually subordinate to the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> but exercised a high level of independence and sovereignty.<sup id="cite_ref-Em_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Em-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ruling Yi family proclaimed their indigenous legitimacy but institutionalized structures that limited Joseon monarch power, which modern scholars view as producing contradictory statuses from a modern view of sovereignty.<sup id="cite_ref-Em_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Em-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Joseon maintained the highest position among China's tributary states,<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which also included countries such as Japan, Vietnam, <a href="/wiki/Ryukyu_Kingdom" title="Ryukyu Kingdom">Ryukyu</a>, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Brunei,<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the Philippines, among others.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Routledge_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Routledge-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, Joseon received tribute from Jurchens and <a href="/wiki/S%C5%8D_clan" title="Sō clan">Sō clan</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tsushima_Island" title="Tsushima Island">Tsushima</a> until the 17th century,<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and had a small enclave in the Ryukyu Kingdom that engaged in trade with Siam and Java.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China">China</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Joseon_missions_to_Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseon missions to Imperial China">Joseon missions to Imperial China</a></div> <p>In 1392, General <a href="/wiki/Yi_S%C5%8Fng-gye" class="mw-redirect" title="Yi Sŏng-gye">Yi Sŏng-gye</a> led a <a href="/wiki/Wihwado_Retreat" title="Wihwado Retreat">successful coup</a> to take political power in Korea from <a href="/wiki/U_of_Goryeo" title="U of Goryeo">the King</a>. <a href="/wiki/Yi_S%C5%8Fng-gye" class="mw-redirect" title="Yi Sŏng-gye">General Yi</a>'s followers forced him to take the crown as Taejo of Joseon, thus establishing a new dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-Joongang126_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Joongang126-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In search of a justification for its rule given the lack of a royal bloodline, the new regime wanted recognition from other countries such as China. Furthermore, the only way to establish diplomatic relations and trade with China was to accept the tributary system of China. Thus, Joseon joined the <a href="/wiki/Tributary_system_of_China" title="Tributary system of China">Imperial Chinese tributary system</a> in 1401 within the context of the <a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">Mandate of Heaven</a>, in return for recognition.<sup id="cite_ref-Edward7_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edward7-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Edward10-11_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edward10-11-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within this tributary system, China assumed the role of a "big brother", with Korea maintaining the highest position among the <a href="/wiki/List_of_tributaries_of_Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="List of tributaries of Imperial China">tributary states</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeth2010144_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeth2010144-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which also included countries such as the <a href="/wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate" title="Ashikaga shogunate">Ashikaga shogunate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ryukyu_Kingdom" title="Ryukyu Kingdom">Ryukyu Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lan_Xang" title="Lan Xang">Lan Xang</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Đại Việt</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Ayutthaya_Kingdom" title="Ayutthaya Kingdom">Ayutthaya Kingdom</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Routledge_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Routledge-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in return for accepting the subordinate tributary role of a "younger brother".<sup id="cite_ref-Alagappa117_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alagappa117-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-kang49_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kang49-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A series diplomatic ventures illustrate the persistence of Joseon's <i><a href="/wiki/Sadae" title="Sadae">sadae</a></i> (serving the great or serving Ming China)<sup id="cite_ref-jstor.org_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jstor.org-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> diplomacy in dealings with <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Sadae" title="Sadae">Sadae</a></i> construes China as the center of a Confucian moral universe.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalker19713–4_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker19713–4-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and describes a foreign policy characterized by the various ways a weaker nation-state such as Korea acknowledges the strength of a greater power such as China. <i>Sadae</i> is made manifest in the actions of the weaker nation-state as it conveys goodwill and respect through its envoys. <i><a href="/wiki/Sadaejuui" class="mw-redirect" title="Sadaejuui">Sadaejuui</a></i> conflates an attitude of subservience with the political realism which accompanies the prudent recognition of greater power.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a foundation of diplomacy, the Joseon kingdom presumed that the Korean state was positioned within a Sinocentristic milieu.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 1400s, the connection between Ming and Joseon was mainly pragmatic and somewhat contractual.<sup id="cite_ref-jstor.org_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jstor.org-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept of Sadae implied a commitment to serve Ming China, and depending on the international context, the dominant state could be substituted.<sup id="cite_ref-jstor.org_90-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jstor.org-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, by the early 1500s, the relationship between Ming and Joseon was reinforced through a father-son dynamic, as Joseon elites began to regard the Ming emperor not just as a <a href="/wiki/Suzerain" class="mw-redirect" title="Suzerain">suzerain</a> but also as a ritual father figure.<sup id="cite_ref-jstor.org_90-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jstor.org-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This transformation held significant weight because, unlike the changeable loyalty to a ruler, the Confucian principle of filial piety was considered immutable and irrevocable.<sup id="cite_ref-jstor.org_90-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jstor.org-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lasting effect of the Ming-Joseon relationship on the Joseon elites endured well beyond the collapse of the Ming dynasty in the mid-1600s, molding the prevailing political and intellectual developments within Joseon Korea.<sup id="cite_ref-jstor.org_90-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jstor.org-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This influence is evident in the construction of the Taebodan, the Altar of Great Gratitude, and the Mandongmyo, an Eastern Shrine dedicated to Ming emperors, within Korea.<sup id="cite_ref-jstor.org_90-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jstor.org-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These structures, erected in 1704 within a palace courtyard and a local private academy respectively, served as tributes to the memory of selected Ming emperors, to honor the memory of specific Ming emperors.<sup id="cite_ref-jstor.org_90-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jstor.org-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Joseon's perceptions of the Qing dynasty were significantly influenced by Sungmyeongbancheong, which means worship of Ming and disdain for Qing, prior to the middle of the 18th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Changing_perceptions_of_the_Qing_Dy_50-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Changing_perceptions_of_the_Qing_Dy-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Joseon dynasty was characterized by strong anti-Qing sentiments and allegiance to the Ming dynasty. According to the <i><a href="/wiki/Veritable_Records_of_the_Joseon_Dynasty" title="Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty">Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty</a></i>, Joseon regarded the Ming Empire as its ancestral homeland and considered the Qing dynasty barbaric, maintaining loyalty to the Ming even after its collapse.<sup id="cite_ref-Changing_perceptions_of_the_Qing_Dy_50-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Changing_perceptions_of_the_Qing_Dy-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to their adherence to the China-centric perspective called Hwai-gwan, intellectuals in Joseon held profound disdain for the Qing dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-Changing_perceptions_of_the_Qing_Dy_50-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Changing_perceptions_of_the_Qing_Dy-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p> China [Ming Dynasty] is the mother and father of our country; thus, those barbarians [Qing Dynasty] are the enemy of our parents. As a civil servant, how can you abandon your parents and become the brother of your parents' enemy? The work [Ming's help to Joseon] of the Imjinwaeran (Japanese invasion of Joseon, 1592) was thanks to the power of the [Ming] emperor. It is difficult to forget the grace of the emperor as long as our country lives and breathes. ... we [Joseon Dynasty] shall not abandon our loyalty even if our country disappears (<a href="/wiki/Injo_of_Joseon" title="Injo of Joseon">Injo of Joseon</a> Citation 1636).<sup id="cite_ref-Changing_perceptions_of_the_Qing_Dy_50-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Changing_perceptions_of_the_Qing_Dy-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Joseon wanted to dispatch envoys as often as possible for economic and cultural interests as well as diplomatic purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-History_net_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History_net-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> China demanded that Joseon pay tribute only once in a three-year cycle. However, Joseon strongly opposed this measure and demanded that Joseon pay tribute to China three times a year.<sup id="cite_ref-History_net_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History_net-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response, China put pressure on them by banning envoy delegates from entering the country or demanding unreasonable tributes, but in the end Joseon, which had a theoretical advantage, got the privilege of paying tribute at least one or two times a year.<sup id="cite_ref-History_net_95-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History_net-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Joseon enjoyed the most opportunities for tribute trade with China, and the tribute trade with China was considered as a privilege not easily granted in Asia. China had to give a higher value than the tribute it received to maintain face, and Joseon abused it.<sup id="cite_ref-History_net_95-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History_net-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Joseon experienced numerous economic and cultural benefits through gifts from the imperial China. The purpose of the tribute varied depending on the circumstances, but it was usually for economic or diplomatic gain. </p><p>At the time of the 1882 <a href="/wiki/Imo_Incident" title="Imo Incident">Imo Incident</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> had a <i>laissez-faire</i> policy toward Joseon; despite being a tributary state of China, Joseon was independent in its internal and external affairs, and China did not manipulate or interfere in them. After the Imo Incident, China abandoned its <i>laissez-faire</i> policy, signed the <a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93Korea_Treaty_of_1882" title="China–Korea Treaty of 1882">China–Korea Treaty of 1882</a>, and became directly involved in the affairs of Joseon.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELin201469–71_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELin201469–71-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sino-Korean_relationship_after_the_Imo_Incident">Sino-Korean relationship after the Imo Incident</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Sino-Korean relationship after the Imo Incident"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/Imo_Incident" title="Imo Incident">Imo Incident</a> in 1882, early reform efforts in Korea suffered a major setback.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeth2010237_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeth2010237-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the aftermath of the incident, the Chinese reasserted their influence over the peninsula, where they began to interfere in Korean internal affairs directly.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeth2010237_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeth2010237-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After stationing troops at strategic points in the capital Seoul, the Chinese undertook several initiatives to gain significant influence over the Korean government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKim2012293Seth2010237_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012293Seth2010237-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Qing dispatched two special advisers on foreign affairs representing Chinese interests to Korea: the German <a href="/wiki/Paul_Georg_von_M%C3%B6llendorff" title="Paul Georg von Möllendorff">Paul Georg von Möllendorff</a>, a close confidant of <a href="/wiki/Li_Hongzhang" title="Li Hongzhang">Li Hongzhang</a>, and the Chinese diplomat <a href="/wiki/Ma_Jianzhong" title="Ma Jianzhong">Ma Jianzhong</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKim2012293_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012293-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Chinese supervised the creation of a Korean Maritime Customs Service headed by von Möllendorff.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeth2010237_96-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeth2010237-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A staff of Chinese officers also took over the training of the army, providing the Koreans with 1,000 rifles, two cannons, and 10,000 rounds of ammunition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuus199854_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuus199854-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, the <span title="Korean-language text"><i lang="ko-Latn">Chingunyeong</i></span> (Capital Guards Command), a new Korean military formation, was created and trained along Chinese lines by <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKim2012293_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012293-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In October 1882, the two countries signed the <a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93Korea_Treaty_of_1882" title="China–Korea Treaty of 1882">China–Korea Treaty of 1882</a>, and Korea was reduced to a semi-colonial tributary state of China with <a href="/wiki/Gojong_of_Korea" title="Gojong of Korea">King Gojong</a> unable to appoint diplomats without Chinese approval,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKim2012293_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012293-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and with troops stationed in the country to protect Chinese interests.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>nb 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> China's new policy toward Joseon was set by <a href="/wiki/Li_Hongzhang" title="Li Hongzhang">Li Hongzhang</a> and implemented by <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a>. According to Ming-te Lin: "Li's control of Korea from 1885 to 1894 through <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a> as resident official represented an anachronistic policy of intervention toward Korea."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELin201469–71_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELin201469–71-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gyorin">Gyorin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Gyorin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gyorin" title="Gyorin">Gyorin</a></div> <p>This long-term, strategic policy contrasts with the <i><a href="/wiki/Gyorin" title="Gyorin">gyorin</a></i> (<i>kyorin</i>) (neighborly relations) diplomacy in dealings with <a href="/wiki/Jurchen_people" title="Jurchen people">Jurchens</a>, Japan, <a href="/wiki/Ryukyu_Kingdom" title="Ryukyu Kingdom">Ryukyu Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Siam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gyorin was applied to a multi-national foreign policy.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The unique nature of these bilateral diplomatic exchanges evolved from a conceptual framework developed by the Chinese. Gradually, the theoretical models would be modified, mirroring the evolution of a unique relationship.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Japan">Japan</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Japan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Joseon_missions_to_Japan" title="Joseon missions to Japan">Joseon missions to Japan</a></div> <p>As an initial step, a diplomatic mission was dispatched to Japan in 1402. The Joseon envoy sought to bring about the re-establishment of amicable relations between the two countries and he was charged to commemorate the good relations which existed in ancient times. This mission was successful, and <i><a href="/wiki/Shogun" title="Shogun">shōgun</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Ashikaga_Yoshimitsu" title="Ashikaga Yoshimitsu">Ashikaga Yoshimitsu</a> was reported to have been favorably impressed by this initial embassy.<sup id="cite_ref-Titsingh,_p._320_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Titsingh,_p._320-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not less than 70 diplomatic missions were dispatched from the Joseon capital to Japan before the beginning of Japan's <a href="/wiki/Edo_period" title="Edo period">Edo period</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Reciprocal missions were construed as a means of communication between Korean kings and Japanese <i>shōguns</i> of almost equal ranking. The emperors of Japan at the time were figureheads with no actual political or military power,<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the actual political and military rulers of Japan that Joseon communicated with were the shoguns who were represented as <a href="/wiki/Tycoon_of_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Tycoon of Japan">Tycoon of Japan</a> in many foreign communications to avoid the conflict with the <a href="/wiki/Sinocentrism" title="Sinocentrism">Sinocentric system</a> in which the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">emperor of China</a> was the highest authority, and all rulers of tributary states were known as "kings".<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society">Society</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Society"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Society_in_the_Joseon_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Society in the Joseon Dynasty">Society in the Joseon Dynasty</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%9C%9D%E9%B2%9C%E4%BC%A0%E7%BB%9F%E4%B8%A7%E6%9C%8D%E6%96%B9%E7%AC%A0.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/%E6%9C%9D%E9%B2%9C%E4%BC%A0%E7%BB%9F%E4%B8%A7%E6%9C%8D%E6%96%B9%E7%AC%A0.jpg/170px-%E6%9C%9D%E9%B2%9C%E4%BC%A0%E7%BB%9F%E4%B8%A7%E6%9C%8D%E6%96%B9%E7%AC%A0.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="316" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/%E6%9C%9D%E9%B2%9C%E4%BC%A0%E7%BB%9F%E4%B8%A7%E6%9C%8D%E6%96%B9%E7%AC%A0.jpg/255px-%E6%9C%9D%E9%B2%9C%E4%BC%A0%E7%BB%9F%E4%B8%A7%E6%9C%8D%E6%96%B9%E7%AC%A0.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/%E6%9C%9D%E9%B2%9C%E4%BC%A0%E7%BB%9F%E4%B8%A7%E6%9C%8D%E6%96%B9%E7%AC%A0.jpg/340px-%E6%9C%9D%E9%B2%9C%E4%BC%A0%E7%BB%9F%E4%B8%A7%E6%9C%8D%E6%96%B9%E7%AC%A0.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2864" data-file-height="5318" /></a><figcaption>Woman's mourning clothes in Joseon</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%ED%97%88%EC%A0%84%EC%B4%88%EC%83%81.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/%ED%97%88%EC%A0%84%EC%B4%88%EC%83%81.jpg/170px-%ED%97%88%EC%A0%84%EC%B4%88%EC%83%81.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="312" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/%ED%97%88%EC%A0%84%EC%B4%88%EC%83%81.jpg/255px-%ED%97%88%EC%A0%84%EC%B4%88%EC%83%81.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/%ED%97%88%EC%A0%84%EC%B4%88%EC%83%81.jpg/340px-%ED%97%88%EC%A0%84%EC%B4%88%EC%83%81.jpg 2x" data-file-width="747" data-file-height="1369" /></a><figcaption>A portrait of a civil <a href="/wiki/Bureaucrat" title="Bureaucrat">bureaucrat</a> in the Joseon period</figcaption></figure> <p>The exact population figures of Joseon-era Korea are disputed as government records of households are considered unreliable in this period.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1810 and 1850, the population declined approximately 10% and remained stable.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before the <a href="/wiki/Gwangmu_Reform#Health_care_system" title="Gwangmu Reform">introduction of modern medicine</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean Empire</a> government in the early 20th century, the average life expectancy for peasant and commoner Korean males was 24 years and for females 26 years, accounting for infant mortality.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Joseon Korea installed a centralised administrative system controlled by civil <a href="/wiki/Bureaucrat" title="Bureaucrat">bureaucrats</a> and military officers who were collectively called <a href="/wiki/Yangban" title="Yangban">yangban</a>. By the end of the 18th century, the yangban had acquired most of the traits of a hereditary nobility except that the status was based on a unique mixture of family position, <a href="/wiki/Gwageo" title="Gwageo">gwageo</a> examinations for Confucian learning, and a civil service system. The family of a yangban who did not succeed in becoming a government official for the third generation lost their yangban status and became commoners. For most part, the only way to become a government official was to pass a series of gwageo exams (one had to pass the "lesser gwageo" exam (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">소과</span></span>) in both of two stages to qualify for the greater gwageo exam, which again one had to pass in both of two stages to become a government official). The yangban and the king, in an uneasy balance, controlled the central government and military institutions. The proportion of yangban may have reached as high as 30% by 1800, due to the later practices of transaction of yangban status to peasants, although there was considerable local variation.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the government was small, a great many yangban were local gentry of high social status, but not always of high income.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another portion of the population were slaves or <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfs</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Nobi" title="Nobi">nobi</a></i>), "low borns" (<i><a href="/wiki/Cheonmin" title="Cheonmin">cheonmin</a></i>) or <a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">untouchable</a> outcastes (<i><a href="/wiki/Baekjeong" title="Baekjeong">baekjeong</a></i>). <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Korea" title="Slavery in Korea">Slavery in Korea</a> was hereditary, as well as a form of legal punishment. The nobi were socially indistinct from freemen other than the ruling <a href="/wiki/Yangban" title="Yangban">yangban</a> class, and some possessed property rights, legal entities and civil rights. Hence, some scholars argue that it is inappropriate to call them "slaves",<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while some scholars describe them as <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were both government- and privately owned nobi, and the government occasionally gave them to yangban. Privately owned nobi could be inherited as personal property. During poor harvests, many <a href="/wiki/Sangmin" title="Sangmin">sangmin</a> people would voluntarily become nobi to survive.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The nobi population could fluctuate up to about one-third of the population, but on average the nobi made up about 10% of the total population.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Joseon slaves could, and often did, own property.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Private slaves could buy their freedom. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Middle_Class_in_Joseon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Middle_Class_in_Joseon.jpg/250px-Middle_Class_in_Joseon.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Middle_Class_in_Joseon.jpg/330px-Middle_Class_in_Joseon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Middle_Class_in_Joseon.jpg/500px-Middle_Class_in_Joseon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="341" /></a><figcaption>A Joseon painting which represents the Chungin (literally "middle people"), equivalent to the <a href="/wiki/Petite_bourgeoisie" title="Petite bourgeoisie">petite bourgeoisie</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Many of the remaining 40–50% of the population were surely farmers,<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but recent work has raised important issues about the size of other groups: merchants and traders, local government or quasi-governmental clerks (<i><a href="/wiki/Jungin" title="Jungin">Jungin</a></i>), craftsmen and laborers, textile workers, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Given the size of the population, it may be that a typical person had more than one role. Most farming was, at any rate, commercial, not subsistence.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to generating additional income, a certain amount of occupational dexterity may have been required to avoid the worst effects of an often heavy and corrupt tax system.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gender roles tightened during the Joseon period compared to the Goryeo era. The influence of <a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a> contributed to the increasingly male-dominated society of the time. Women were expected to be silent and not socialize with men who were not their relatives. They were required to be chaste to their husbands, and widows were not allowed to remarry. Any doubt of a woman's chastity would bring dishonor to the family. To protect the family's honor, young girls would carry a small knife (<i>paedo</i>), and with this they were expected to take their own lives if they were raped or even rumored to be caught in an affair. Laws were also enacted to prohibit women from riding horses or playing sports.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Late Joseon, the Confucian ideals of propriety and "filial piety" gradually came to be equated with a strict observance to a complex social hierarchy, with many fine gradations. By the early 18th century, the social critic <a href="/wiki/Yi_Chung-hwan" title="Yi Chung-hwan">Yi Chung-hwan</a> (1690–1756) sarcastically complained that "[W]ith so many different ranks and grades separating people from one another, people tend not to have a very large circle of friends."<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But, even as Yi wrote, the informal social distinctions of the Early Joseon were being reinforced by legal discrimination, such as <a href="/wiki/Sumptuary_law" title="Sumptuary law">Sumptuary law</a><sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> regulation of the dress of different social groups, and laws restricting inheritance and property ownership by women.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Precisely because of the tenets of the Confucian <i><a href="/wiki/Classic_of_Filial_Piety" title="Classic of Filial Piety">Classic of Filial Piety</a></i>, the adult male practice of Joseon prescribed to keep both hair and beard, in contrast to the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Tokugawa</a> period. </p><p>Yet, these laws may have been announced precisely because social mobility was increasing, particularly during the prosperous century beginning about 1710.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The original social hierarchy of the Joseon era was developed based on the social hierarchy of the <a href="/wiki/Goryeo" title="Goryeo">Goryeo</a> era. In the 14th–16th centuries, this hierarchy was strict and stable. Since economic opportunities to change status were limited, no law was needed. </p><p>In the late 17th to 19th centuries, new commercial groups emerged, and the old class system was extremely weakened. The situation was most marked in the <a href="/wiki/Daegu" title="Daegu">Daegu</a> region's Yangban class, where they were expected to reach nearly 70% in 1858.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1801, government-owned slaves were all emancipated, and the institution gradually died out over the next century.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1858 the nobi population stood at about 1.5 percent of the total population of Korea.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The institution was completely abolished as part of a social plan in the <a href="/wiki/Gabo_Reform" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabo Reform">Gabo Reform</a> of 1894. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seonbis">Seonbis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Seonbis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Seonbi" title="Seonbi">Seonbi</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Seonbi" title="Seonbi">Seonbis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a>: <span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">선비</span></span>; <a href="/wiki/Hanja" title="Hanja">Hanja</a>: <span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hani"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A3%AB" class="extiw" title="wikt:士">士</a></span></span>) played a major role within <a href="/wiki/Political_factions_during_the_Joseon_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Political factions during the Joseon dynasty">political factions of the Joseon dynasty</a>. Etymologically derived from a native Korean word meaning "someone who is wise and knowledgeable," the word later became synonymous with the Chinese character 士 (shì), which meant "scholar" or "retainer". As the Joseon dynasty encouraged the study of <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>, <i>seonbis</i> were interpreted as "students who study Confucianism" in Joseon-era Korean society. </p><p><i>Seonbis</i> lived under strict, standardized Confucianist guidelines. Although they were encouraged to participate in politics and act as advisors to the King, many <i>seonbis</i> lived quiet lives in secluded regions, unaffiliated with any government office. These <i>seonbis</i> often organized scholarly communities which often imposed a huge influence over local regions. Those who became office-holders acted as aristocrats, boasting influence over Joseon politics.<sup id="cite_ref-seonbi_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-seonbi-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Seonbis</i> consistently used debate as a major decision-making method. Seonbis expressed their views on problems to be solved in front of the king and discussed the wrongdoings of the other faction's argument. These political clashes often led to violence, such as the <a href="/wiki/Korean_literati_purges" title="Korean literati purges">Korean literati purges</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-seonbi_130-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-seonbi-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Seonbis also participated in <a href="/wiki/Righteous_armies" title="Righteous armies">righteous armies</a> during times of war, as archery was taught as a liberal arts subject for <i>seonbis</i>. Seonbis such as <a href="/wiki/Gwak_Jae-woo" class="mw-redirect" title="Gwak Jae-woo">Gwak jae-u</a>, Ko Kyung-myung, and <a href="/wiki/Jo_Heon" title="Jo Heon">Jo Heon</a> led armies in battle. As <i>seonbis</i> also acted as village leaders, they often united local peasants and led armies into war.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/60px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/120px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Joseon" title="Special:EditPage/Joseon">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The Joseon dynasty presided over two periods of great cultural growth, during which Joseon culture created the first <a href="/wiki/Korean_tea_ceremony" title="Korean tea ceremony">Korean tea ceremony</a>, <a href="/wiki/Korean_garden" title="Korean garden">Korean gardens</a>, and extensive historic works. The royal dynasty also built several fortresses and palaces. </p><p>Noble Korean women during this time were suppressed, along with shamans, in the 15th century because of Neo-Confucianist social norms when they previously led some of the least restricted lives out of anyone in <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clothing">Clothing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Clothing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hyewon-Wolha-jeongin-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Hyewon-Wolha-jeongin-2.jpg/250px-Hyewon-Wolha-jeongin-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Hyewon-Wolha-jeongin-2.jpg/330px-Hyewon-Wolha-jeongin-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Hyewon-Wolha-jeongin-2.jpg/500px-Hyewon-Wolha-jeongin-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2180" data-file-height="1868" /></a><figcaption>Men's (right) and women's (left) clothes (<a href="/wiki/Hanbok" title="Hanbok">Hanbok</a>) of Joseon period. A portrait painted by <a href="/wiki/Sin_Yun-bok" title="Sin Yun-bok">Shin Yun-bok</a> (1758–?).</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Korea-Yi_Chegwan-Portrait_of_a_Confucian_scholar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Korea-Yi_Chegwan-Portrait_of_a_Confucian_scholar.jpg/250px-Korea-Yi_Chegwan-Portrait_of_a_Confucian_scholar.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Korea-Yi_Chegwan-Portrait_of_a_Confucian_scholar.jpg/330px-Korea-Yi_Chegwan-Portrait_of_a_Confucian_scholar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Korea-Yi_Chegwan-Portrait_of_a_Confucian_scholar.jpg/340px-Korea-Yi_Chegwan-Portrait_of_a_Confucian_scholar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="429" data-file-height="513" /></a><figcaption>Male dress of a <a href="/wiki/Seonbi" title="Seonbi">Seonbi</a>. A portrait painted by <a href="/wiki/Yi_Jaegwan" title="Yi Jaegwan">Yi Jae-gwan</a> (1783–1837).</figcaption></figure> <p>During the Joseon period, jeogori of women's <a href="/wiki/Hanbok" title="Hanbok">hanbok</a> became gradually tightened and shortened. In the 16th century, jeogori was baggy and reached below the waist, but by the 19th century, jeogori was shortened to the point that it did not cover the breasts, so another piece of cloth (<i>heoritti</i>) was used to cover them. At the end of the 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Heungseon_Daewongun" title="Heungseon Daewongun">Heungseon Daewongun</a> introduced <a href="/wiki/Magoja" title="Magoja">Magoja</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu</a>-style jacket, to Korea, which is often worn with hanbok to this day. </p><p>Chima was full-skirted and jeogori was short and tight in the late Joseon period. Fullness in the skirt was emphasized round the hips. Many undergarments were worn underneath chima such as darisokgot, soksokgot, dansokgot, and gojengi to achieve a desired silhouette. Because jeogori was so short it became natural to expose heoritti or <i>heorimari</i> which functioned like a corset. The white linen cloth exposed under jeogori in the picture is heoritti. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Korea-Seoul-Royal_wedding_ceremony_1366-06a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Korea-Seoul-Royal_wedding_ceremony_1366-06a.jpg/250px-Korea-Seoul-Royal_wedding_ceremony_1366-06a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Korea-Seoul-Royal_wedding_ceremony_1366-06a.jpg/330px-Korea-Seoul-Royal_wedding_ceremony_1366-06a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Korea-Seoul-Royal_wedding_ceremony_1366-06a.jpg/500px-Korea-Seoul-Royal_wedding_ceremony_1366-06a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1248" data-file-height="716" /></a><figcaption>Royal ceremony with Joseon era clothing</figcaption></figure> <p>The upper classes wore hanbok of closely woven <a href="/wiki/Ramie" title="Ramie">ramie</a> cloth or other high-grade lightweight materials in warm weather and of plain and patterned silks the rest of the year. Commoners were restricted by law as well as resources to cotton at best. The upper classes wore a variety of colors, though bright colors were generally worn by children and girls and subdued colors by middle-aged men and women. Commoners were restricted by law to everyday clothes of white, but for special occasions they wore dull shades of pale pink, light green, gray, and charcoal. Formally, when Korean men went outdoors, they were required to wear overcoats known as <i>durumagi</i> which reach the knees. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art">Art</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Art"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Joseon_white_porcelain" title="Joseon white porcelain">Joseon white porcelain</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Korean_painters#Joseon_period" title="List of Korean painters">List of Korean painters § Joseon period</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%EB%B0%B1%EC%9E%90_%EC%B2%AD%ED%99%94%EB%A7%A4%EC%A3%BD%EB%AC%B8_%ED%95%AD%EC%95%84%EB%A6%AC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/%EB%B0%B1%EC%9E%90_%EC%B2%AD%ED%99%94%EB%A7%A4%EC%A3%BD%EB%AC%B8_%ED%95%AD%EC%95%84%EB%A6%AC.jpg/250px-%EB%B0%B1%EC%9E%90_%EC%B2%AD%ED%99%94%EB%A7%A4%EC%A3%BD%EB%AC%B8_%ED%95%AD%EC%95%84%EB%A6%AC.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/%EB%B0%B1%EC%9E%90_%EC%B2%AD%ED%99%94%EB%A7%A4%EC%A3%BD%EB%AC%B8_%ED%95%AD%EC%95%84%EB%A6%AC.jpg/330px-%EB%B0%B1%EC%9E%90_%EC%B2%AD%ED%99%94%EB%A7%A4%EC%A3%BD%EB%AC%B8_%ED%95%AD%EC%95%84%EB%A6%AC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/%EB%B0%B1%EC%9E%90_%EC%B2%AD%ED%99%94%EB%A7%A4%EC%A3%BD%EB%AC%B8_%ED%95%AD%EC%95%84%EB%A6%AC.jpg/500px-%EB%B0%B1%EC%9E%90_%EC%B2%AD%ED%99%94%EB%A7%A4%EC%A3%BD%EB%AC%B8_%ED%95%AD%EC%95%84%EB%A6%AC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2195" data-file-height="2530" /></a><figcaption>15th century. Joseon period, Korea. Blue and white porcelain jar with plum and bamboo design.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%EA%B9%80%ED%99%8D%EB%8F%84_%EA%B8%88%EA%B0%95%EC%82%AC%EA%B5%B0%EC%B2%A9_-_%EC%98%B9%EC%B2%9C.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/%EA%B9%80%ED%99%8D%EB%8F%84_%EA%B8%88%EA%B0%95%EC%82%AC%EA%B5%B0%EC%B2%A9_-_%EC%98%B9%EC%B2%9C.jpg/250px-%EA%B9%80%ED%99%8D%EB%8F%84_%EA%B8%88%EA%B0%95%EC%82%AC%EA%B5%B0%EC%B2%A9_-_%EC%98%B9%EC%B2%9C.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/%EA%B9%80%ED%99%8D%EB%8F%84_%EA%B8%88%EA%B0%95%EC%82%AC%EA%B5%B0%EC%B2%A9_-_%EC%98%B9%EC%B2%9C.jpg/330px-%EA%B9%80%ED%99%8D%EB%8F%84_%EA%B8%88%EA%B0%95%EC%82%AC%EA%B5%B0%EC%B2%A9_-_%EC%98%B9%EC%B2%9C.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/%EA%B9%80%ED%99%8D%EB%8F%84_%EA%B8%88%EA%B0%95%EC%82%AC%EA%B5%B0%EC%B2%A9_-_%EC%98%B9%EC%B2%9C.jpg/500px-%EA%B9%80%ED%99%8D%EB%8F%84_%EA%B8%88%EA%B0%95%EC%82%AC%EA%B5%B0%EC%B2%A9_-_%EC%98%B9%EC%B2%9C.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3340" data-file-height="2298" /></a><figcaption>Landscape of Mt. Geumgang by <a href="/wiki/Gim_Hongdo" class="mw-redirect" title="Gim Hongdo">Kim Hong-do</a> (1745–1806) in 1788</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scholar%27s_books_and_things,_Yi_Eungrok,_Asian_Art_Museum_San_Franscisco_1998.111.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Scholar%27s_books_and_things%2C_Yi_Eungrok%2C_Asian_Art_Museum_San_Franscisco_1998.111.jpg/250px-Scholar%27s_books_and_things%2C_Yi_Eungrok%2C_Asian_Art_Museum_San_Franscisco_1998.111.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Scholar%27s_books_and_things%2C_Yi_Eungrok%2C_Asian_Art_Museum_San_Franscisco_1998.111.jpg/330px-Scholar%27s_books_and_things%2C_Yi_Eungrok%2C_Asian_Art_Museum_San_Franscisco_1998.111.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Scholar%27s_books_and_things%2C_Yi_Eungrok%2C_Asian_Art_Museum_San_Franscisco_1998.111.jpg/500px-Scholar%27s_books_and_things%2C_Yi_Eungrok%2C_Asian_Art_Museum_San_Franscisco_1998.111.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="584" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chaekgeori" title="Chaekgeori">Chaekgeori</a> a type of <a href="/wiki/Minhwa" title="Minhwa">Minhwa</a></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mogyeon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Mogyeon.jpg/250px-Mogyeon.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Mogyeon.jpg/330px-Mogyeon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="527" data-file-height="846" /></a><figcaption>Mogyeon by <a href="/wiki/Yi_Am" title="Yi Am">Yi Am</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Mid-Joseon period painting styles moved toward increased <a href="/wiki/Realism_(arts)" title="Realism (arts)">realism</a>. A national painting style of landscapes called "true view" began – moving from the traditional Chinese style of idealized general landscapes to particular locations exactly rendered. While not photographic, the style was academic enough to become established and supported as a standardized style in Korean painting. At this time China ceased to have pre-eminent influence, Korean art took its own course, and became increasingly distinctive to the traditional Chinese painting.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_art" title="Ceramic art">Ceramics</a> are a form of popular art during the Joseon period. Examples of ceramics include white porcelain or white porcelain decorated with cobalt, copper red <a href="/wiki/Underglaze" title="Underglaze">underglaze</a>, blue underglaze and iron underglaze. Ceramics from the Joseon period differ from other periods because artists felt that each piece of art deserved its own uniquely cultivated personality.<sup id="cite_ref-BMA_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BMA-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Beginning in the 10th century, white porcelain has been crafted in <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a>. Historically overshadowed by the popularity of <a href="/wiki/Celadon" title="Celadon">celadon</a>, it was not until the 15th and 16th centuries that white porcelain, also known as <a href="/wiki/Joseon_white_porcelain" title="Joseon white porcelain">baekje</a>, was recognized for its artistic value. Among the most prized of Korean ceramics are large white jars. Their shape is symbolic of the moon and their color is associated with the ideals of purity and modesty of <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>. During this period, the bureau that oversaw the meals and court banquets of the royal family strictly controlled the production of white porcelain.<sup id="cite_ref-BMA_135-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BMA-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Blue_and_white_pottery" title="Blue and white pottery">Blue and white porcelain</a> artifacts decorating white porcelain with paintings and designs in <a href="/wiki/Underglaze" title="Underglaze">underglaze</a> by using natural <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a> pigment are another example of popular wares of the Joseon period. Many of these items were created by court painters employed by the royal family. During this period, the popular style of landscape paintings is mirrored in the decoration of ceramics.<sup id="cite_ref-BMA_135-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BMA-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially developed by the Chinese at the <a href="/wiki/Jingdezhen_porcelain" title="Jingdezhen porcelain">Jingdezhen kilns</a> in the mid-14th century, Joseon began to produce this type of porcelain from the 15th century under Chinese influence. The first cobalt imported from China was used by Korean artists. In 1463 when sources of cobalt were discovered in <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a>, artists and their buyers found the material was inferior in quality and preferred the more expensive imported cobalt. Korean porcelain with imported cobalt decoration contradict the emphasis of an orderly, frugal and moderate life in <a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BMA_135-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BMA-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Strikingly different from cobalt, porcelain items with a copper-red <a href="/wiki/Underglaze" title="Underglaze">underglaze</a> are the most difficult to successfully craft. During production, these items require great skill and attention or will turn gray during the process of firing. While the birthplace of ceramics with copper red underglaze is widely disputed, these items originated during 12th century in <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a> and became increasingly popular during the second half of the Joseon period. Some experts have pointed to the kilns of Bunwon-ri in <a href="/wiki/Gwangju,_Gyeonggi" title="Gwangju, Gyeonggi">Gwangju</a>, a city that played a significant role in the production of ceramics during the Joseon period, as a possible birthplace.<sup id="cite_ref-BMA_135-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BMA-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Porcelain was also decorated with iron. These items commonly consisted of jars or other utilitarian pieces.<sup id="cite_ref-BMA_135-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BMA-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the Joseon period, the yangban scholars and educated literati studied <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Classics" title="Thirteen Classics">Confucian classics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucian</a> literature.<sup id="cite_ref-Met_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Met-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lee_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 204">: 204 </span></sup> </p><p>The middle and upper classes of Joseon society were proficient in <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Classical Chinese</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 329">: 329 </span></sup> The Joseon official records (such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Veritable_Records_of_the_Joseon_Dynasty" title="Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty">Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Seungjeongwon_ilgi" title="Seungjeongwon ilgi">Seungjeongwon ilgi</a></i>) and the written works of the Yangban literati were written in Classical Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-Met_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Met-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lee_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 243, 329">: 243, 329 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Orchiston-Green-Strom_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Orchiston-Green-Strom-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 74">: 74 </span></sup> </p><p>Newspapers like the <i><a href="/wiki/Hwangsong_Shinmun" class="mw-redirect" title="Hwangsong Shinmun">Hwangsŏng Shinmun</a></i> toward the end of the period were written in the <a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean language</a> using the <a href="/wiki/Korean_mixed_script" title="Korean mixed script">Korean mixed script</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 329">: 329 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Annals_of_the_Joseon_Dynasty"><i>Annals of the Joseon Dynasty</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Annals of the Joseon Dynasty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Veritable_Records_of_the_Joseon_Dynasty" title="Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty">Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty</a></div> <p>The <i>Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty</i> (also known as the <i>Annals of the Joseon Dynasty</i>) are the annual records of the Joseon dynasty, which were kept from 1413 to 1865. The annals, or <i>sillok</i>, consist of 1,893 volumes and are thought to cover the longest continual period of a single dynasty in the world. With the exception of two <i>sillok</i> compiled during the <a href="/wiki/Korea_under_Japanese_rule" title="Korea under Japanese rule">colonial era</a>, the <i>Annals</i> are the 151st <a href="/wiki/National_Treasure_(South_Korea)" title="National Treasure (South Korea)">national treasure of Korea</a> and listed in <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Memory_of_the_World_Programme" title="Memory of the World Programme">Memory of the World</a> registry. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Uigwe">Uigwe</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Uigwe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Uigwe" title="Uigwe">Uigwe</a></div> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Uigwe" title="Uigwe">Uigwe</a></i> is a collection of royal <a href="/wiki/Protocol_(diplomacy)" title="Protocol (diplomacy)">protocols</a> of the Joseon period, which records and prescribes through text and stylized illustration the important ceremonies and rites of the royal family. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Joseon_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Education in the Joseon dynasty">Education in the Joseon dynasty</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion_and_philosophy">Religion and philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Religion and philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-Disputed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-disputed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/System-search.svg/45px-System-search.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/System-search.svg/68px-System-search.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/System-search.svg/90px-System-search.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section's <b>factual accuracy is <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">disputed</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Joseon#Disputed" title="Talk:Joseon">talk page</a>. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources">reliably sourced</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The Joseon kingdom was noted for having <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> as its main philosophy, and also included some <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>. The study of literary exchanges between Confucian scholar officials and Buddhists shows that Buddhism was not cast out. There literary exchanges show a middle ground of both philosophies. "scholar-officials – Some who in public castigated Buddhism as a heresy and deluded tradition, in private visited temples and associated closely with monks."<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> This shows that while in public some scholars shamed Buddhists, their exchanges with Buddhists show that at the very least it was not cast outside of the kingdom. </p><p>One example of this is a famous Joseon scholar official Park Se-dang (박세당, 朴世堂, 1629–1703). He argues against Buddhism with the following, "People say that <a href="/wiki/Han_Yu" title="Han Yu">Han Yu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ouyang_Xiu" title="Ouyang Xiu">Ouyang Xiu</a> have harshly criticized Buddhism and therefore have only discussed what is aberrant and have not fully investigated what is profound. People say, their understanding is lacking and they have not fully examined it [its profoundness]. I, myself, don't think that is the case… The heresies under heaven, they are also rather foul. Among them, Buddhism is the worst. If a person is inclined to Buddhism, then he is of the kind that pursues what is foul. Is it not clear that there is nothing further to discuss? It is like Mencius who [also felt no need to argue in detail when he] criticized Yang Zhu and Mozi.<sup id="cite_ref-Kim_59–82_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kim_59–82-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Surely, he did not argue further than to say <a href="/wiki/Yang_Zhu" title="Yang Zhu">Yang Zhu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a> did not respect their fathers and their emperors."<sup id="cite_ref-Kim_59–82_136-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kim_59–82-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He wrote a poem: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td>久離塵俗萬緣虛 </td> <td>For long, I have left the mundane world whose innumerable conditions are empty; </td></tr> <tr> <td>只愛游方不戀居 </td> <td>I have but travelled here and there, finding no enjoyment in settled life. </td></tr> <tr> <td>明日又浮滄海去 </td> <td>Tomorrow once again I leave for Changhae; </td></tr> <tr> <td>沃州寥落舊精廬 </td> <td>The old, pure and simple hut of Okju province looks lonely. </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Buddhism was a part of the Joseon kingdom. While not supported publicly, privately it was very prevalent in Confucian-scholar officials.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:BALANCE" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:BALANCE"><span title="The material near this tag seems to express a non-neutral point of view. (April 2021)">unbalanced opinion?</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many monarchs and members of the royal court also practiced or tolerated Buddhism among their family and court advisors and commissioned or were patrons of Buddhist art.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XVI" title="Pope Gregory XVI">Pope Gregory XVI</a> established an <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Vicariate" class="mw-redirect" title="Apostolic Vicariate">Apostolic Vicariate</a> for the Kingdom of Korea on September 8, 1831, to provide for the spiritual care of <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholics</a> in the kingdom and separating Korea from the jurisdiction of the <a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Beijing" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishop of Beijing">Bishop of Beijing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Music">Music</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Music"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Traditional_music_of_Korea" title="Traditional music of Korea">Traditional music of Korea</a></div> <p>The <i>Joseon</i> period developed several musical forms. The form with the most extant pieces is <i><a href="/wiki/Sijo" title="Sijo">sijo</a></i> (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">시조</span></span>; <span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hani">時調</span></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Sijo</i> is a poetic form consisting of three lines, each with four feet, traditionally sung very slowly. In Korean verse, a foot is generally a short syntactic unit, such as a noun with an adjective or a verb with an adverb. For example: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <td>어인 <p>Why<sup>COP.ATTR</sup> </p> </td> <td>벌리완대   <p>insect-ceaselessly </p> </td> <td>낙락장송(落落長松) <p>tall and full pine tree </p> </td> <td>다 먹는고 <p>all eat<sup>Q</sup> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>부리 긴 <p>beak long<sup>ATTR</sup> </p> </td> <td>져고리는 <p>woodpecker<sup>TOP</sup> </p> </td> <td>어느 곳에 <p>which place<sup>LOC</sup> </p> </td> <td>가 있는고 <p>go exist<sup>Q</sup> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>空山에 <p>deserted mountain<sup>LOC</sup> </p> </td> <td>落木聲 들릴제 <p>sound of a tree falling audible <sup>FUT.ATTR</sup> </p> </td> <td>내 안 들데 <p>cause <sup>NEG</sup> actively <sup>AUX</sup> experienced </p> </td> <td>업세라 <p>not exist<sup>EMP</sup> </p> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Translation">Translation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Translation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Can tiny insects devour a whole great spreading pine?</i> </p><p><i>Where is the long-billed woodpecker? Why is he not here?</i> </p><p><i>When I hear the sound of falling trees, I cannot contain myself for sorrow.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> </p><p>Here, like other Korean musical forms, each foot can stand on its own. As <i>sijo</i> were sung in Korean, the pioneering of Hangul created the possibility for <i>sijo</i> to be written down without the use of substitutions such as <a href="/wiki/Idu_script" title="Idu script">Idu script</a>. The first copy of <i>sijo</i> is of the 'Twelve Songs of <i>Dosan</i>' by <i>Yi Hwang</i> written in 1565, which were written 100 years after the proclamation of <a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, the first anthology of <i>sijo</i> was compiled by <i>Kim Cheontaek</i> in 1728;<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> before the anthology few <i>sijo</i> were written. </p><p><i>Kim Cheontaek</i>'s anthology represents a change in the authorship of <i>sijo</i>. At first, <i>sijo</i> were primarily composed by the yangban aristocracy and entertainers of the <a href="/wiki/Kisaeng" title="Kisaeng">Kisaeng</a> class. By the mid-seventeenth century, the <a href="/wiki/Jungin" title="Jungin">jungin</a> or "professional class" were composing <i>sijo</i> as well. This also coincided with a new form of <i>sijo</i> called "narrative <i>sijo</i>" (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">사설시조</span></span>; <span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hani">辭說時調</span></span>), in which the first two lines were greatly lengthened.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This expansion is likely a development from the so-called "irregular <i>sijo</i>" (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">엇시조</span></span>; <span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hani">旕時調</span></span>), in which there was a minor lengthening of one of the first two lines.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While there are very few remaining irregular <i>sijo</i>, and the form has not been revived, there is a sizable body of narrative <i>sijo</i> and the form continues to evolve. </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Pansori" title="Pansori">Pansori</a></i> (<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">판소리</span></span>) is another musical form that combines singing and prose to portray a story. Its development likely originates from shaman rituals and the songs within the <a href="/wiki/Jeolla_Province" title="Jeolla Province">Jeolla Province</a>. It became a full-fledged musical form by the middle of the eighteenth century, and not long thereafter the yangban aristocracy also became interested in it. Originally there was a set of twelve stories that were sung, but only five were written down, and hence those five are the only ones sung today. Having been developed by commoners, <i>p'ansori</i> usually reflected their attitudes and aspirations, but by becoming popular with the <i>yangban</i>, <i>p'ansori</i> shifted somewhat toward <i>yangban</i> sensibilities and restrictions. <i>P'ansori</i> had a strong influence of the writing of the time, both because of the <i>p'ansori</i> novel (each based on one of the twelve stories) and by increasing the realism of the classical novel. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Science_and_technology">Science and technology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Science and technology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Korea" title="History of science and technology in Korea">History of science and technology in Korea</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/60px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/120px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Joseon" title="Special:EditPage/Joseon">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Korean_celestial_globe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Korean_celestial_globe.jpg/250px-Korean_celestial_globe.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Korean_celestial_globe.jpg/330px-Korean_celestial_globe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Korean_celestial_globe.jpg/500px-Korean_celestial_globe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Korean <a href="/wiki/Celestial_globe" title="Celestial globe">celestial globe</a> first made by the scientist <a href="/wiki/Jang_Yeong-sil" title="Jang Yeong-sil">Jang Yeong-sil</a> during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Sejong_the_Great" title="Sejong the Great">King Sejong</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BoRuGak_Jagyeongnu.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/BoRuGak_Jagyeongnu.JPG/250px-BoRuGak_Jagyeongnu.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/BoRuGak_Jagyeongnu.JPG/330px-BoRuGak_Jagyeongnu.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/BoRuGak_Jagyeongnu.JPG/500px-BoRuGak_Jagyeongnu.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1848" data-file-height="2464" /></a><figcaption>Surviving portion of the Water Clock (Jagyeongnu)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="15th_century">15th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: 15th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Joseon period under the reign of <a href="/wiki/Sejong_the_Great" title="Sejong the Great">Sejong the Great</a> was Korea's greatest period of scientific advancement. Under Sejong's new policy, <a href="/wiki/Cheonmin" title="Cheonmin">Cheonmin</a> (low-status) people such as <a href="/wiki/Jang_Yeong-sil" title="Jang Yeong-sil">Jang Yeong-sil</a> were allowed to work for the government. At a young age, Jang displayed talent as an inventor and engineer, creating machines to facilitate agricultural work. These included supervising the building of aqueducts and canals. </p><p>Some of his inventions were an automated (self-striking) <a href="/wiki/Water_clock" title="Water clock">water clock</a> (the Jagyeokru) which worked by activating motions of wooden figures to indicate time visually (invented in 1434 by Jang), a subsequent more complicated water-clock with additional astronomical devices, and an improved model of the previous metal movable printing type created in the <a href="/wiki/Goryeo" title="Goryeo">Goryeo</a> period. The new model was of even higher quality and was twice as fast. Other inventions were the <a href="/wiki/Sight_glass" title="Sight glass">sight glass</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Rain_gauge" title="Rain gauge">udometer</a>. </p><p>The highpoint of Korean astronomy was during the Joseon period, where men such as Jang created devices such as celestial globes which indicated the positions of the sun, moon, and the stars.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later celestial globes (Gyupyo, 규표) were attuned to the seasonal variations. </p><p>The apex of astronomical and calendarial advances under <a href="/wiki/Sejong_the_Great" title="Sejong the Great">King Sejong</a> was the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Chiljeongsan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chiljeongsan (page does not exist)">Chiljeongsan</a>, which compiled computations of the courses of the seven heavenly objects (five visible planets, the sun, and moon), developed in 1442. This work made it possible for scientists to calculate and accurately predict all the major heavenly phenomena, such as solar eclipses and other stellar movements.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Honcheonsigye" title="Honcheonsigye">Honcheonsigye</a> is an astronomical clock created by <a href="/wiki/Song_I-yeong" title="Song I-yeong">Song I-yeong</a> in 1669. The clock has an armillary sphere with a diameter of 40 cm. The sphere is activated by a working clock mechanism, showing the position of celestial objects at any given time. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gangnido" title="Gangnido">Gangnido</a>, a Korean-made map of the world was created in 1402 by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kim_Sa-hyeong&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kim Sa-hyeong (page does not exist)">Kim Sa-hyeong</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B9%80%EC%82%AC%ED%98%95" class="extiw" title="ko:김사형">ko</a>]</span>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yi_Mu_(early_Joseon)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yi Mu (early Joseon) (page does not exist)">Yi Mu</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B4%EB%AC%B4" class="extiw" title="ko:이무">ko</a>]</span>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yi_Hoe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yi Hoe (page does not exist)">Yi Hoe</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B4%ED%9A%8C_(%EA%B3%A0%EB%A0%A4)" class="extiw" title="ko:이회 (고려)">ko</a>]</span>. The map was created in the second year of the reign of <a href="/wiki/Taejong_of_Joseon" title="Taejong of Joseon">Taejong of Joseon</a>. The map was made by combining Chinese, Korean and Japanese maps. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="16th–19th_century"><span id="16th.E2.80.9319th_century"></span>16th–19th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: 16th–19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The scientific and technological advance in the late Joseon period progressed slower than the early Joseon period. </p><p>16th-century court physician, <a href="/wiki/Heo_Jun" title="Heo Jun">Heo Jun</a> wrote a number of medical texts, his most significant achievement being <a href="/wiki/Dongui_Bogam" class="mw-redirect" title="Dongui Bogam">Dongui Bogam</a>, which is often noted as the defining text of <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Korean_medicine" title="Traditional Korean medicine">Traditional Korean medicine</a>. The work spread to China and Japan, where it is still regarded as one of the classics of <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Asian_medicine" title="Traditional Asian medicine">Oriental medicine</a> today. </p><p>The first soft <a href="/wiki/Bulletproof_vest" title="Bulletproof vest">ballistic vest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Myunjebaegab" class="mw-redirect" title="Myunjebaegab">myeonjebaegab</a>, was invented in Joseon <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a> in the 1860s shortly after the <a href="/wiki/French_expedition_to_Korea" title="French expedition to Korea">French campaign against Korea</a>. <a href="/wiki/Heungseon_Daewongun" title="Heungseon Daewongun">Heungseon Daewongun</a> ordered development of bulletproof armor because of increasing threats from Western armies. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kim_Gi-du&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kim Gi-du (page does not exist)">Kim Gi-du</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gang_Yun&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gang Yun (page does not exist)">Gang Yun</a> found that <a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a> could protect against bullets if thick enough, and devised bullet-proof vests made of 30 layers of cotton. The vests were used in battle during the <a href="/wiki/United_States_expedition_to_Korea" title="United States expedition to Korea">United States expedition to Korea</a> (1871), when the US Navy attacked <a href="/wiki/Ganghwa_Island" title="Ganghwa Island">Ganghwa Island</a> in 1871. The US Army captured one of the vests and took it to the US, where it was stored at the <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution">Smithsonian Museum</a> until 2007. The vest has since been sent back to Korea and is currently on display to the public. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="House_of_Yi">House of Yi</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: House of Yi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/House_of_Yi" title="House of Yi">House of Yi</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/House_of_Yi#House_of_Yi_family_tree" title="House of Yi">The family tree of Joseon kings</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-Overly_detailed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-overly_detailed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>may contain an excessive amount of intricate <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:DETAIL" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:DETAIL">detail</a> that may interest only a particular audience</b>. <b>Specifically, not clear why this list is exclusive to the end of the dynasty, with some being post-Joseon. Possibly a brief prose description of the dynasty (with no explicit list) is better</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Content_forking#Article_spinoffs:_.22Summary_style.22_meta-articles_and_summary_sections" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Content forking">spinning off</a> or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Handling_trivia#Recommendations_for_handling_trivia" title="Wikipedia:Handling trivia">relocating</a> any relevant information, and removing excessive detail that may be against <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">Wikipedia's inclusion policy</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fuuzokugahou-Myeongseong.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Fuuzokugahou-Myeongseong.gif/250px-Fuuzokugahou-Myeongseong.gif" decoding="async" width="250" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Fuuzokugahou-Myeongseong.gif/500px-Fuuzokugahou-Myeongseong.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Fuuzokugahou-Myeongseong.gif 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="267" /></a><figcaption>Japanese illustration of <a href="/wiki/Gojong_of_Korea" title="Gojong of Korea">King Gojong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Empress_Myeongseong" title="Empress Myeongseong">Queen Min</a> receiving <a href="/wiki/Inoue_Kaoru" title="Inoue Kaoru">Inoue Kaoru</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Choseon_Imperial_family.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Choseon_Imperial_family.jpg/250px-Choseon_Imperial_family.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Choseon_Imperial_family.jpg/500px-Choseon_Imperial_family.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="520" data-file-height="330" /></a><figcaption>This compilation photo, taken about 1915, shows the following royal family members, from left: <a href="/wiki/Yi_Kang" title="Yi Kang">Yi Kang, Prince Imperial Ui</a>, the 6th son of Gojong; <a href="/wiki/Sunjong_of_Korea" title="Sunjong of Korea">Yi Cheok, Emperor Sunjong</a>, the 2nd son and the last monarch of Korea; <a href="/wiki/Yi_Un" title="Yi Un">Yi Un, Prince Imperial Yeong</a>, the 7th son; <a href="/wiki/Gojong_of_Korea" title="Gojong of Korea">Gojong</a>, the Retired Emperor; <a href="/wiki/Empress_Sunjeonghyo" title="Empress Sunjeonghyo">Empress Yun</a>, wife of Sunjong; <a href="/wiki/Kim_Sudeok" class="mw-redirect" title="Kim Sudeok">Lady Kim, Consort Princess Imperial Ui</a>, wife of Prince Imperial Ui; and <a href="/wiki/Yi_Geon" title="Yi Geon">Yi Geon</a>, the eldest son of Prince Ui. The seated child in the front row is <a href="/wiki/Princess_Deokhye" title="Princess Deokhye">Princess Deokhye</a>, Gojong's 5th daughter and youngest (14th) child. (This is a compilation of individual photographs since the Japanese did not allow them to be in the same room at the same time, and some were forced to leave Korea).</figcaption></figure> <p>The following is a simplified relation of Joseon royalty (Korean Imperial Family) during the late period of the dynasty: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gojong_of_Korea" title="Gojong of Korea">Emperor Gojong</a> (1852–1919) – 26th head of the Korean Imperial Household, adoptive heir to <a href="/wiki/Crown_Prince_Hyomyeong" title="Crown Prince Hyomyeong">Crown Prince Hyomyeong</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunjong_of_Korea" title="Sunjong of Korea">Emperor Sunjong</a> (1874–1926) – 27th head of the Korean Imperial Household</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_Kang" title="Yi Kang">Yi Kang</a>, Prince Imperial Ui (1877–1955) – 5th son of Gojong <ul><li>Prince <a href="/wiki/Yi_Geon" title="Yi Geon">Yi Geon</a> (1909–1991) – eldest son of Yi Kang; renounced the Imperial title and heritage by becoming a Japanese citizen in 1947</li> <li>Prince <a href="/wiki/Yi_U" title="Yi U">Yi U</a> (1912–1945) – 2nd son of Yi Kang; adopted as the heir to <a href="/wiki/Yi_Jun-yong" title="Yi Jun-yong">Yi Jun-yong</a>, grandson of <a href="/wiki/Heungseon_Daewongun" title="Heungseon Daewongun">Heungseon Daewongun</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yi_Cheong" title="Yi Cheong">Yi Cheong</a> (1936–)</li> <li>Yi Jong (1940–1966)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_Hae-won" title="Yi Hae-won">Yi Hae-won</a> (1919–2020) – 2nd daughter of Yi Kang; married in 1936 to Yi Seung-gyu from the Yongin Yi clan</li> <li>Yi Gap (1938–2014) – 9th son of Yi Kang <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yi_Won" title="Yi Won">Yi Won</a> (1962–) – eldest son of Yi Gap; adopted by Yi Ku as the 30th head of the Korean Imperial Household <ul><li>1st son (1998–)</li> <li>2nd son (1999–)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_Seok" title="Yi Seok">Yi Seok</a> (1941–) – 10th son of Yi Kang; self-claimed head of the Korean Imperial Household <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yi_Hong" title="Yi Hong">Yi Hong</a> (1976–), first daughter of Yi Seok <ul><li>1st daughter (2001–)</li></ul></li> <li>Yi Jin (1979–), 2nd daughter of Yi Seok</li> <li>Yi Jeong-hun (1980–), son of Yi Seok</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_Un" title="Yi Un">Yi Un</a>, Imperial Crown Prince (1897–1970) – 28th head of the Korean Imperial Household; married in 1920 to <a href="/wiki/Yi_Bangja" title="Yi Bangja">Princess Masako of Nashimoto</a> (Yi Bang-ja), an imperial member of the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a>. <ul><li>Prince Yi Jin (1921–1922)</li> <li>Prince <a href="/wiki/Yi_Ku" title="Yi Ku">Yi Ku</a> (1931–2005) – 29th head of the Korean Imperial Household; son of Yi Un</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Deokhye" title="Princess Deokhye">Princess Deokhye</a> (1912–1989) – married in 1931 to <a href="/wiki/S%C5%8D_Takeyuki" title="Sō Takeyuki">Count Sō Takeyuki</a> <ul><li>Countess Sō Masae (1932–?), disappeared since 1956, thought to have committed suicide<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korea" title="History of Korea">History of Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veritable_Records_of_the_Joseon_Dynasty" title="Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty">Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Joseon_monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Joseon monarchs">List of Joseon monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Yi#House_of_Yi_family_tree" title="House of Yi">Kings family tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Joseon_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics of the Joseon dynasty">Joseon dynasty politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean Empire</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Korean" title="Middle Korean">Middle Korean</a>: 됴ᇢ〯션〮 <b>Dywǒw syén</b> or 됴ᇢ〯션〯 <b>Dywǒw syěn</b></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Yeonguijeong-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Yeonguijeong_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Style: <i>Yeonguijeong</i> (1401–1894); <i>Naegak chongri daesin</i> (1894–96); <i>Uijeong</i> (1896–1905)</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A Korean historian stated that "the Chinese government began to turn its former tributary state into a semi-colony and its policy toward Korea substantially changed to a new imperialistic one where the suzerain state demanded certain privileges in her vassal state".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuus199854_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuus199854-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Citations</b> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELin201469–71-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELin201469–71_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELin201469–71_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELin201469–71_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELin201469–71_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLin2014">Lin 2014</a>, pp. 69–71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012293-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKim2012293_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKim2012293_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKim2012293_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKim2012293_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKim2012">Kim 2012</a>, p. 293.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93South_Korea_Joint_History_Research_Project" title="Japan–South Korea Joint History Research Project">Japan–South Korea Joint History Research Project</a>" <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.jkcf.or.jp/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/3-03j.pdf">https://www.jkcf.or.jp/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/3-03j.pdf</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240508063152/https://www.jkcf.or.jp/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/3-03j.pdf">Archived</a> May 8, 2024, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ifans.go.kr/knda/com/fileupload/FileDownloadView.do?storgeId=c61b04e5-0182-4c75-ad21-828ecacfb855&uploadId=346596669843959&fileSn=1">"Was Korea Ever a Part of China?: A Historical Review"</a>. The Institute of Foreign Affairs and National Security (외교안보연구소).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Was+Korea+Ever+a+Part+of+China%3F%3A+A+Historical+Review&rft.pub=The+Institute+of+Foreign+Affairs+and+National+Security+%28%EC%99%B8%EA%B5%90%EC%95%88%EB%B3%B4%EC%97%B0%EA%B5%AC%EC%86%8C%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ifans.go.kr%2Fknda%2Fcom%2Ffileupload%2FFileDownloadView.do%3FstorgeId%3Dc61b04e5-0182-4c75-ad21-828ecacfb855%26uploadId%3D346596669843959%26fileSn%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Met-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Met_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Met_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Met_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLee2004" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Soyoung_Lee" title="Soyoung Lee">Lee, Soyoung</a> (October 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/yang/hd_yang.htm">"Yangban: The Cultural Life of the Joseon Literati"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211122180613/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/yang/hd_yang.htm">Archived</a> from the original on November 22, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 15,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Yangban%3A+The+Cultural+Life+of+the+Joseon+Literati&rft.pub=Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=2004-10&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Soyoung&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.metmuseum.org%2Ftoah%2Fhd%2Fyang%2Fhd_yang.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lee-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_6-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLee1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lee_Ki-baik" class="mw-redirect" title="Lee Ki-baik">Lee, Ki-baik</a> (1984). <i>A New History of Korea</i>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Willett_Wagner" title="Edward Willett Wagner">Wagner, Edward Willett</a>; Schultz, Edward J. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+New+History+of+Korea&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Ki-baik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Orchiston-Green-Strom-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Orchiston-Green-Strom_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Orchiston-Green-Strom_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOrchistonGreenStrom2014" class="citation book cs1">Orchiston, Wayne; Green, David A.; Strom, Richard (2014). <i>New Insights From Recent Studies in Historical Astronomy: Following in the Footsteps of F. Richard Stephenson</i>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Insights+From+Recent+Studies+in+Historical+Astronomy%3A+Following+in+the+Footsteps+of+F.+Richard+Stephenson&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Orchiston&rft.aufirst=Wayne&rft.au=Green%2C+David+A.&rft.au=Strom%2C+Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChoi2017" class="citation book cs1">Choi, Sang-hun (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vWNNWVwaUpMC&q=joseon+dynasty+absolute+monarchy&pg=PA16"><i>Interior Space and Furniture of Joseon Upper-class Houses</i></a>. Ewha Womans University Press. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8973007202" title="Special:BookSources/978-8973007202"><bdi>978-8973007202</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230407111606/https://books.google.com/books?id=vWNNWVwaUpMC&q=joseon+dynasty+absolute+monarchy&pg=PA16">Archived</a> from the original on April 7, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 1,</span> 2020</span> – via Google Books. <q>Joseon was an absolute monarchy</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Interior+Space+and+Furniture+of+Joseon+Upper-class+Houses&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=Ewha+Womans+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-8973007202&rft.aulast=Choi&rft.aufirst=Sang-hun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvWNNWVwaUpMC%26q%3Djoseon%2Bdynasty%2Babsolute%2Bmonarchy%26pg%3DPA16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-한국경제통사-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-한국경제통사_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSung-Ho_Kang2014" class="citation book cs1">Sung-Ho Kang (2014). <i>Reorienting Reorient: East Asia and 15th–19th Century Joseon</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reorienting+Reorient%3A+East+Asia+and+15th%E2%80%9319th+Century+Joseon&rft.date=2014&rft.au=Sung-Ho+Kang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Standard_of_Living_in_the_Chosoˇn_Dynasty_Korea_in_the_17th_to_the_19th_Centuries-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Standard_of_Living_in_the_Chosoˇn_Dynasty_Korea_in_the_17th_to_the_19th_Centuries_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Standard_of_Living_in_the_Chosoˇn_Dynasty_Korea_in_the_17th_to_the_19th_Centuries_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Standard_of_Living_in_the_Chosoˇn_Dynasty_Korea_in_the_17th_to_the_19th_Centuries_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Standard_of_Living_in_the_Chosoˇn_Dynasty_Korea_in_the_17th_to_the_19th_Centuries_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKi-joo_Park_and_Donghyu_Yang2007" class="citation book cs1">Ki-joo Park and Donghyu Yang (2007). <i>The Standard of Living in the Chosoˇn Dynasty Korea in the 17th to the 19th Centuries</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Standard+of+Living+in+the+Choso%CB%87n+Dynasty+Korea+in+the+17th+to+the+19th+Centuries&rft.date=2007&rft.au=Ki-joo+Park+and+Donghyu+Yang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKang2019" class="citation cs2">Kang, david (2019), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-organization/article/abs/international-order-in-historical-east-asia-tribute-and-hierarchy-beyond-sinocentrism-and-eurocentrism/EE0208E015FFB0F8D433972B17FF26DC">"International Order in Historical East Asia: Tribute and Hierarchy Beyond Sinocentrism and Eurocentrism"</a>, <i>International Organization</i>, <b>74</b>, Cambridge University Press: <span class="nowrap">65–</span>93, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020818319000274">10.1017/S0020818319000274</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Organization&rft.atitle=International+Order+in+Historical+East+Asia%3A+Tribute+and+Hierarchy+Beyond+Sinocentrism+and+Eurocentrism&rft.volume=74&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E65-%3C%2Fspan%3E93&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020818319000274&rft.aulast=Kang&rft.aufirst=david&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Finternational-organization%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Finternational-order-in-historical-east-asia-tribute-and-hierarchy-beyond-sinocentrism-and-eurocentrism%2FEE0208E015FFB0F8D433972B17FF26DC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Em-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Em_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Em_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Em_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEm2013" class="citation book cs1">Em, Henry (March 25, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DxAd2Aw_jP0C"><i>The Great Enterprise: Sovereignty and Historiography in Modern Korea</i></a>. Duke University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">23–</span>30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0822353720" title="Special:BookSources/978-0822353720"><bdi>978-0822353720</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230407111632/https://books.google.com/books?id=DxAd2Aw_jP0C">Archived</a> from the original on April 7, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Enterprise%3A+Sovereignty+and+Historiography+in+Modern+Korea&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E23-%3C%2Fspan%3E30&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2013-03-25&rft.isbn=978-0822353720&rft.aulast=Em&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDxAd2Aw_jP0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAllen1889" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Horace_Newton_Allen" title="Horace Newton Allen">Allen, Horace Newton</a> (1889). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/55539/pg55539-images.html">"Korean Tales"</a>. Washington, D.C. <q>The population, according to the most reliable estimate, is a little more than sixteen millions.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Korean+Tales&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.date=1889&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Horace+Newton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Fcache%2Fepub%2F55539%2Fpg55539-images.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190701053405/http://www.naenara.com.kp/ko/history/period.php"><bdi lang="ko">조선력사 시대구분표</bdi></a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Naenara" title="Naenara">Naenara</a></i> (in Korean). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.naenara.com.kp/ko/history/period.php">the original</a> on July 1, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 1,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Naenara&rft.atitle=%EC%A1%B0%EC%84%A0%EB%A0%A5%EC%82%AC+%EC%8B%9C%EB%8C%80%EA%B5%AC%EB%B6%84%ED%91%9C&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.naenara.com.kp%2Fko%2Fhistory%2Fperiod.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190701053644/http://www.naenara.com.kp/en/history/period.php">"Korean History in Chronological Order"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Naenara" title="Naenara">Naenara</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.naenara.com.kp/en/history/period.php">the original</a> on July 1, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 1,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Naenara&rft.atitle=Korean+History+in+Chronological+Order&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.naenara.com.kp%2Fen%2Fhistory%2Fperiod.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLi,_Jun-gyu_(이준규)2009" class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Li, Jun-gyu (이준규) (July 22, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newstown.co.kr/newsbuilder/service/article/messmail.asp?P_Index=72824"><bdi lang="ko">(세상사는 이야기) 왜색에 물든 우리말-(10)</bdi></a> (in Korean). Newstown. <q>1392년부터 1910년까지 한반도전역을 통치하였던 조선(朝鮮)은 일반적으로 조선왕조(朝鮮王朝)라 칭하였으며, 어보(御寶), 국서(國書)등에도 대조선국(大朝鮮國)이라는 명칭을 사용하였었다. (translation) Joseon which had ruled from 1392 to 1910 was commonly referred to as the "Joseon dynasty" while "Great Joseon" was used in the royal seal, national documents, and others.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=%28%EC%84%B8%EC%83%81%EC%82%AC%EB%8A%94+%EC%9D%B4%EC%95%BC%EA%B8%B0%29+%EC%99%9C%EC%83%89%EC%97%90+%EB%AC%BC%EB%93%A0+%EC%9A%B0%EB%A6%AC%EB%A7%90-%2810%29&rft.date=2009-07-22&rft.au=Li%2C+Jun-gyu+%28%EC%9D%B4%EC%A4%80%EA%B7%9C%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newstown.co.kr%2Fnewsbuilder%2Fservice%2Farticle%2Fmessmail.asp%3FP_Index%3D72824&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged November 2017">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Choson-dynasty">"Chosŏn dynasty | Korean history"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150503173429/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/653164/Choson-dynasty">Archived</a> from the original on May 3, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 10,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Chos%C5%8Fn+dynasty+%7C+Korean+history&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FChoson-dynasty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Confucianism-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Confucianism_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lxGnDwAAQBAJ&q=joseon+longest+confucian+dynasty+korea&pg=PA82"><i>Women Our History</i></a>. D.K. 2019. p. 82. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0241395332" title="Special:BookSources/978-0241395332"><bdi>978-0241395332</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230407111648/https://books.google.com/books?id=lxGnDwAAQBAJ&q=joseon+longest+confucian+dynasty+korea&pg=PA82">Archived</a> from the original on April 7, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 1,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+Our+History&rft.pages=82&rft.pub=D.K.&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0241395332&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlxGnDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Djoseon%2Blongest%2Bconfucian%2Bdynasty%2Bkorea%26pg%3DPA82&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-script"> <bdi lang="ko">조선</bdi>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Korean_Culture" title="Encyclopedia of Korean Culture">Encyclopedia of Korean Culture</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%EC%A1%B0%EC%84%A0&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Korean+Culture&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRobinson2017" class="citation journal cs1">Robinson, David M. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1353/ks.2017.0019">"Rethinking the Late Koryŏ in an International Context"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Korean_Studies_(journal)" title="Korean Studies (journal)">Korean Studies</a></i>. <b>41</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">75–</span>98. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fks.2017.0019">10.1353/ks.2017.0019</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1529-1529">1529-1529</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Korean+Studies&rft.atitle=Rethinking+the+Late+Kory%C5%8F+in+an+International+Context&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E75-%3C%2Fspan%3E98&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fks.2017.0019&rft.issn=1529-1529&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1353%2Fks.2017.0019&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKang2006" class="citation book cs1">Kang, Jae-eun (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XB4UYXNQK1wC&q=ming+taizu+joseon"><i>The Land of Scholars: Two Thousand Years of Korean Confucianism</i></a>. Homa & Sekey Books. p. 177. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1931907309" title="Special:BookSources/978-1931907309"><bdi>978-1931907309</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230407111623/https://books.google.com/books?id=XB4UYXNQK1wC&q=ming+taizu+joseon">Archived</a> from the original on April 7, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 7,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Land+of+Scholars%3A+Two+Thousand+Years+of+Korean+Confucianism&rft.pages=177&rft.pub=Homa+%26+Sekey+Books&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1931907309&rft.aulast=Kang&rft.aufirst=Jae-eun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXB4UYXNQK1wC%26q%3Dming%2Btaizu%2Bjoseon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span> "Yi Sŏng-gye issued a royal edict to proclaim the name of the new kingdom to "Joseon" and issued amnesty to all criminals who opposed the transition. The statement by Taizu about "only the name of Joseon is beautiful and old" naturally refers to Gija Joseon."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRutt1999" class="citation book cs1">Rutt, Richard; et al. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vj8ShHzUxrYC&q=kyehae%20treaty&pg=PA255"><i>Korea</i></a>. Routledge/Curzon. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-0464-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-0464-4"><bdi>978-0-7007-0464-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230407111547/https://books.google.com/books?id=vj8ShHzUxrYC&q=kyehae%20treaty&pg=PA255">Archived</a> from the original on April 7, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 1,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Korea&rft.pub=Routledge%2FCurzon&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-7007-0464-4&rft.aulast=Rutt&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dvj8ShHzUxrYC%26q%3Dkyehae%2520treaty%26pg%3DPA255&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHall1990" class="citation book cs1">Hall, John W.; et al. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lCd4reJRaG8C&q=kyehae%20treaty&pg=PA442"><i>The Cambridge history of Japan</i></a> [<i>Medieval Japan</i>]. Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22354-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22354-6"><bdi>978-0-521-22354-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230407111626/https://books.google.com/books?id=lCd4reJRaG8C&q=kyehae%20treaty&pg=PA442">Archived</a> from the original on April 7, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 1,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+history+of+Japan&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-521-22354-6&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlCd4reJRaG8C%26q%3Dkyehae%2520treaty%26pg%3DPA442&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Korean)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://100.nate.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?s=B&i=112816&v=42">계해약조 癸亥約條</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110610053214/http://100.nate.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?s=B&i=112816&v=42">Archived</a> June 10, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a href="/wiki/Nate_(web_portal)" title="Nate (web portal)">Nate</a> / <a href="/wiki/Britannica" class="mw-redirect" title="Britannica">Britannica</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Korean)</span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://100.nate.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?s=K&i=236670&v=42">계해조약 癸亥約條</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110610053227/http://100.nate.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?s=K&i=236670&v=42">Archived</a> June 10, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a href="/wiki/Nate_(web_portal)" title="Nate (web portal)">Nate</a> / <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Korean_Culture" title="Encyclopedia of Korean Culture">Encyclopedia of Korean Culture</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREF박영규2008" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script">박영규 (2008). <bdi lang="ko">한권으로 읽는 세종대왕실록</bdi>. 웅진, 지식하우스. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-89-01-07754-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-89-01-07754-3"><bdi>978-89-01-07754-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%ED%95%9C%EA%B6%8C%EC%9C%BC%EB%A1%9C+%EC%9D%BD%EB%8A%94+%EC%84%B8%EC%A2%85%EB%8C%80%EC%99%95%EC%8B%A4%EB%A1%9D&rft.pub=%EC%9B%85%EC%A7%84%2C+%EC%A7%80%EC%8B%9D%ED%95%98%EC%9A%B0%EC%8A%A4&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-89-01-07754-3&rft.au=%EB%B0%95%EC%98%81%EA%B7%9C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-asiasociety-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-asiasociety_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.asiasociety.org/countries-history/traditions/king-sejong-great">"King Sejong the Great And The Golden Age Of Korea"</a>. asiasociety.org. August 19, 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110614223619/http://asiasociety.org/countries-history/traditions/king-sejong-great">Archived</a> from the original on June 14, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 27,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=King+Sejong+the+Great+And+The+Golden+Age+Of+Korea&rft.pub=asiasociety.org&rft.date=2008-08-19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.asiasociety.org%2Fcountries-history%2Ftraditions%2Fking-sejong-great&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-an-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-an_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAn2014" class="citation web cs1">An, Seung-jun (April 4, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2016/05/628_153138.html">"Forgotten story of Princess Gyeonghye"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Korea_Times" title="The Korea Times">The Korea Times</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180222225504/http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2016/05/628_153138.html">Archived</a> from the original on February 22, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 22,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Korea+Times&rft.atitle=Forgotten+story+of+Princess+Gyeonghye&rft.date=2014-04-04&rft.aulast=An&rft.aufirst=Seung-jun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.koreatimes.co.kr%2Fwww%2Fnews%2Fnation%2F2016%2F05%2F628_153138.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0028128"><bdi lang="ko">서인-한국민족대백과 사전</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240508063155/https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0028128">Archived</a> from the original on May 8, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 31,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%EC%84%9C%EC%9D%B8-%ED%95%9C%EA%B5%AD%EB%AF%BC%EC%A1%B1%EB%8C%80%EB%B0%B1%EA%B3%BC+%EC%82%AC%EC%A0%84&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencykorea.aks.ac.kr%2FArticle%2FE0028128&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0016736"><bdi lang="ko">동인-한국민족대백과 사전</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%EB%8F%99%EC%9D%B8-%ED%95%9C%EA%B5%AD%EB%AF%BC%EC%A1%B1%EB%8C%80%EB%B0%B1%EA%B3%BC+%EC%82%AC%EC%A0%84&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencykorea.aks.ac.kr%2FArticle%2FE0016736&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEbreyWalthall2013" class="citation book cs1">Ebrey, Patricia; Walthall, Ann (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5pLGIcp4PMgC&q=patriarchs+joseon+faction&pg=PA255"><i>East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Volume II: From 1600</i></a>. Cengage Learning. p. 255. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1133606499" title="Special:BookSources/978-1133606499"><bdi>978-1133606499</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 15,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=East+Asia%3A+A+Cultural%2C+Social%2C+and+Political+History%2C+Volume+II%3A+From+1600&rft.pages=255&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1133606499&rft.aulast=Ebrey&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rft.au=Walthall%2C+Ann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5pLGIcp4PMgC%26q%3Dpatriarchs%2Bjoseon%2Bfaction%26pg%3DPA255&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0025062"><bdi lang="ko">붕당정치-한국민족대백과 사전</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%EB%B6%95%EB%8B%B9%EC%A0%95%EC%B9%98-%ED%95%9C%EA%B5%AD%EB%AF%BC%EC%A1%B1%EB%8C%80%EB%B0%B1%EA%B3%BC+%EC%82%AC%EC%A0%84&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencykorea.aks.ac.kr%2FArticle%2FE0025062&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ebrey_349-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ebrey_349_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ebrey_349_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ebrey_349_35-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ebrey_349_35-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006">Ebrey, Walthall & Palais 2006</a>, p. 349.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKennedy1943">Kennedy 1943</a> (leader of the expedition); <a href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006">Ebrey, Walthall & Palais 2006</a>, p. 350 (number of troops).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Larsen_2008_36-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Larsen_2008_36_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Larsen_2008_36_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLarsen2008">Larsen 2008</a>, p. 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006">Ebrey, Walthall & Palais 2006</a>, p. 350.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLeede_Bary1997">Lee & de Bary 1997</a>, p. 269.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLarsen2008">Larsen 2008</a>, p. 36; <a href="#CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006">Ebrey, Walthall & Palais 2006</a>, p. 350.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-google_books1-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-google_books1_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-google_books1_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-google_books1_41-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-google_books1_41-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-google_books1_41-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKim2018" class="citation book cs1">Kim, Youngmin (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NoFSDwAAQBAJ&dq=little+china+ideology+sojunghwa&pg=PA220"><i>A History of Chinese Political Thought</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. <span class="nowrap">219–</span>223. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1509523160" title="Special:BookSources/978-1509523160"><bdi>978-1509523160</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230407111627/https://books.google.com/books?id=NoFSDwAAQBAJ&dq=little+china+ideology+sojunghwa&pg=PA220">Archived</a> from the original on April 7, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 23,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Chinese+Political+Thought&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E219-%3C%2Fspan%3E223&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1509523160&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Youngmin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNoFSDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dlittle%2Bchina%2Bideology%2Bsojunghwa%26pg%3DPA220&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MingLoyalismAndForeignLineages-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MingLoyalismAndForeignLineages_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MingLoyalismAndForeignLineages_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBohnet2011" class="citation journal cs1">Bohnet, Adam (January 1, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/journals/jemh/15/6/article-p477_1.xml">"Ruling Ideology and Marginal Subjects: Ming Loyalism and Foreign Lineages in Late Chosŏn Korea"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Early_Modern_History" title="Journal of Early Modern History">Journal of Early Modern History</a></i>. <b>15</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">477–</span>505. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F157006511X604013">10.1163/157006511X604013</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211109075544/https://brill.com/view/journals/jemh/15/6/article-p477_1.xml">Archived</a> from the original on November 9, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 24,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Early+Modern+History&rft.atitle=Ruling+Ideology+and+Marginal+Subjects%3A+Ming+Loyalism+and+Foreign+Lineages+in+Late+Chos%C5%8Fn+Korea&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E477-%3C%2Fspan%3E505&rft.date=2011-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F157006511X604013&rft.aulast=Bohnet&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fview%2Fjournals%2Fjemh%2F15%2F6%2Farticle-p477_1.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKim_Haboush2005">Kim Haboush 2005</a>, p. 132.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-yesong-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-yesong_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-yesong_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0037964">"yesong"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Korean_Culture" title="Encyclopedia of Korean Culture">Encyclopedia of Korean Culture</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 2,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=yesong&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Korean+Culture&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencykorea.aks.ac.kr%2FArticle%2FE0037964&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E00318370">"sukjong"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240508063252/https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/">Archived</a> from the original on May 8, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 31,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=sukjong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencykorea.aks.ac.kr%2FArticle%2FE00318370&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-script"> <bdi lang="ko">탕평책</bdi>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Korean_Culture" title="Encyclopedia of Korean Culture">Encyclopedia of Korean Culture</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%ED%83%95%ED%8F%89%EC%B1%85&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Korean+Culture&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREF이2007" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script">이, 성무 (2007). <bdi lang="ko">조선당쟁사 2 탕평과 세도정치: 숙종조~고종조</bdi>. 아름다운날. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8989354833" title="Special:BookSources/978-8989354833"><bdi>978-8989354833</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%EC%A1%B0%EC%84%A0%EB%8B%B9%EC%9F%81%EC%82%AC+2+%ED%83%95%ED%8F%89%EA%B3%BC+%EC%84%B8%EB%8F%84%EC%A0%95%EC%B9%98%3A+%EC%88%99%EC%A2%85%EC%A1%B0~%EA%B3%A0%EC%A2%85%EC%A1%B0&rft.pub=%EC%95%84%EB%A6%84%EB%8B%A4%EC%9A%B4%EB%82%A0&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-8989354833&rft.aulast=%EC%9D%B4&rft.aufirst=%EC%84%B1%EB%AC%B4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o-WlUd3cjh0C&pg=PT98"><i>A Brief History of Korea</i></a>. Ewha Womans University Press. 2005. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8973006199" title="Special:BookSources/978-8973006199"><bdi>978-8973006199</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230124010158/https://books.google.com/books?id=o-WlUd3cjh0C&pg=PT98">Archived</a> from the original on January 24, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 23,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+Korea&rft.pub=Ewha+Womans+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-8973006199&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Do-WlUd3cjh0C%26pg%3DPT98&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBeirne2016" class="citation book cs1">Beirne, Paul (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8OPeCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT38"><i>Su-un and His World of Symbols: The Founder of Korea's First Indigenous Religion</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1317047490" title="Special:BookSources/978-1317047490"><bdi>978-1317047490</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230124010159/https://books.google.com/books?id=8OPeCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT38">Archived</a> from the original on January 24, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 23,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Su-un+and+His+World+of+Symbols%3A+The+Founder+of+Korea%27s+First+Indigenous+Religion&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1317047490&rft.aulast=Beirne&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8OPeCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Changing_perceptions_of_the_Qing_Dy-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Changing_perceptions_of_the_Qing_Dy_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Changing_perceptions_of_the_Qing_Dy_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Changing_perceptions_of_the_Qing_Dy_50-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Changing_perceptions_of_the_Qing_Dy_50-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Changing_perceptions_of_the_Qing_Dy_50-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Changing_perceptions_of_the_Qing_Dy_50-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Changing_perceptions_of_the_Qing_Dy_50-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Changing_perceptions_of_the_Qing_Dy_50-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Changing_perceptions_of_the_Qing_Dy_50-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Changing_perceptions_of_the_Qing_Dy_50-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Changing_perceptions_of_the_Qing_Dy_50-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSeo2022" class="citation journal cs1">Seo, Myengsoo (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13467581.2021.1928504">"Changing perceptions of the Qing Dynasty in the Late Joseon Dynasty and Chinese style architecture that emerged in Joseon in the 18th century"</a>. <i>Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering</i>. <b>21</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">849–</span>864. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13467581.2021.1928504">10.1080/13467581.2021.1928504</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Asian+Architecture+and+Building+Engineering&rft.atitle=Changing+perceptions+of+the+Qing+Dynasty+in+the+Late+Joseon+Dynasty+and+Chinese+style+architecture+that+emerged+in+Joseon+in+the+18th+century&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E849-%3C%2Fspan%3E864&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13467581.2021.1928504&rft.aulast=Seo&rft.aufirst=Myengsoo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F13467581.2021.1928504&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREF오2007" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script">오, 영교 (2007). <bdi lang="ko">세도정권기 조선사회와 대전회통</bdi>. 혜안. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8984943131" title="Special:BookSources/978-8984943131"><bdi>978-8984943131</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%EC%84%B8%EB%8F%84%EC%A0%95%EA%B6%8C%EA%B8%B0+%EC%A1%B0%EC%84%A0%EC%82%AC%ED%9A%8C%EC%99%80+%EB%8C%80%EC%A0%84%ED%9A%8C%ED%86%B5&rft.pub=%ED%98%9C%EC%95%88&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-8984943131&rft.aulast=%EC%98%A4&rft.aufirst=%EC%98%81%EA%B5%90&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:19-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:19_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>A Handbook of Korea</i> (9th ed.). Seoul: <a href="/wiki/Korean_Culture_and_Information_Service" title="Korean Culture and Information Service">Korean Overseas Culture and Information Service</a>. 1993. pp. <span class="nowrap">142–</span>143. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56591-022-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56591-022-5"><bdi>978-1-56591-022-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Handbook+of+Korea&rft.place=Seoul&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E142-%3C%2Fspan%3E143&rft.edition=9th&rft.pub=Korean+Overseas+Culture+and+Information+Service&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-1-56591-022-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJin2019" class="citation journal cs1">Jin, Sangpil (March 4, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07075332.2017.1409791">"The Port Hamilton (Geomundo) Incident (1885–1887): Retracing Another Great Game in Eurasia"</a>. <i>The International History Review</i>. <b>41</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">280–</span>303. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F07075332.2017.1409791">10.1080/07075332.2017.1409791</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0707-5332">0707-5332</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+International+History+Review&rft.atitle=The+Port+Hamilton+%28Geomundo%29+Incident+%281885%E2%80%931887%29%3A+Retracing+Another+Great+Game+in+Eurasia&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E280-%3C%2Fspan%3E303&rft.date=2019-03-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F07075332.2017.1409791&rft.issn=0707-5332&rft.aulast=Jin&rft.aufirst=Sangpil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1080%2F07075332.2017.1409791&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-queen_min-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-queen_min_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1895/11/10/106073098.pdf">Characteristics of Queen of Corea</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210228135115/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1895/11/10/106073098.pdf">Archived</a> February 28, 2021, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i> November 10, 1895</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dong-a_2002-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dong-a_2002_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dong-a_2002_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dong-a_2002_55-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPark_Jong-hyo_(박종효),_former_professor_at_Lomonosov_Moscow_State_University2002" class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Park Jong-hyo (박종효), former professor at <a href="/wiki/Lomonosov_Moscow_State_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Lomonosov Moscow State University">Lomonosov Moscow State University</a> (January 1, 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.donga.com/docs/magazine/shin/2004/11/09/200411090500053/200411090500053_1.html"><bdi lang="ko">일본인 폭도가 가슴을 세 번 짓밟고 일본도로 난자했다</bdi></a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Dong-A_Ilbo" title="The Dong-A Ilbo">The Dong-A Ilbo</a></i> (in Korean). No. 508. pp. <span class="nowrap">472–</span>485. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090314035233/http://www.donga.com/docs/magazine/shin/2004/11/09/200411090500053/200411090500053_1.html">Archived</a> from the original on March 14, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 16,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Dong-A+Ilbo&rft.atitle=%EC%9D%BC%EB%B3%B8%EC%9D%B8+%ED%8F%AD%EB%8F%84%EA%B0%80+%EA%B0%80%EC%8A%B4%EC%9D%84+%EC%84%B8+%EB%B2%88+%EC%A7%93%EB%B0%9F%EA%B3%A0+%EC%9D%BC%EB%B3%B8%EB%8F%84%EB%A1%9C+%EB%82%9C%EC%9E%90%ED%96%88%EB%8B%A4&rft.issue=508&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E472-%3C%2Fspan%3E485&rft.date=2002-01-01&rft.au=Park+Jong-hyo+%28%EB%B0%95%EC%A2%85%ED%9A%A8%29%2C+former+professor+at+Lomonosov+Moscow+State+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.donga.com%2Fdocs%2Fmagazine%2Fshin%2F2004%2F11%2F09%2F200411090500053%2F200411090500053_1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-britannica-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-britannica_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/540685">Joseon</a> at the <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unesco.org/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CI/CI/pdf/mow/nomination_forms/Korea%20Ilseongnok.pdf">"Ilseongnok: Records of Daily Reflections"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Memory of the World Register</i>. UNESCO. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170417001124/http://www.unesco.org/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CI/CI/pdf/mow/nomination_forms/Korea%20Ilseongnok.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on April 17, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 6,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Memory+of+the+World+Register&rft.atitle=Ilseongnok%3A+Records+of+Daily+Reflections&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unesco.org%2Ffileadmin%2FMULTIMEDIA%2FHQ%2FCI%2FCI%2Fpdf%2Fmow%2Fnomination_forms%2FKorea%2520Ilseongnok.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLeeMillerParkYi2014" class="citation book cs1">Lee, Injae; Miller, Owen; Park, Jinhoon; Yi, Hyun-Hae (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=46OTBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA93"><i>Korean History in Maps</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 93. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1107098466" title="Special:BookSources/978-1107098466"><bdi>978-1107098466</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 6,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Korean+History+in+Maps&rft.pages=93&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1107098466&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Injae&rft.au=Miller%2C+Owen&rft.au=Park%2C+Jinhoon&rft.au=Yi%2C+Hyun-Hae&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D46OTBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA93&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.culturecontent.com/content/contentView.do?content_id=cp021002840001"><bdi lang="ko">상언격쟁</bdi></a>. <i>문화콘텐츠닷컴</i>. Korea Creative Content Agency. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171206144858/http://www.culturecontent.com/content/contentView.do?content_id=cp021002840001">Archived</a> from the original on December 6, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 6,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%EB%AC%B8%ED%99%94%EC%BD%98%ED%85%90%EC%B8%A0%EB%8B%B7%EC%BB%B4&rft.atitle=%EC%83%81%EC%96%B8%EA%B2%A9%EC%9F%81&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.culturecontent.com%2Fcontent%2FcontentView.do%3Fcontent_id%3Dcp021002840001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kca_10106012_002">"Veritable Records of Taejong, vol. 1, year of 1401, 6th month, 12nd day"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210602214519/http://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kca_10106012_002">Archived</a> from the original on June 2, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 29,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Veritable+Records+of+Taejong%2C+vol.+1%2C+year+of+1401%2C+6th+month%2C+12nd+day&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsillok.history.go.kr%2Fid%2Fkca_10106012_002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kpa_11511020_001">Veritable Records of Injoo, vol. 35, year of 1637, 11th month, 20nd day</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210602214520/http://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kpa_11511020_001">Archived</a> 2 June 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREF김지남1888" class="citation book cs1">김지남 (1888). "9". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kyudb.snu.ac.kr/book/view.do?book_cd=GK00882_00"><i>Record of Joseon Diplomacy</i></a>. Vol. 3. pp. <span class="nowrap">126–</span>127. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210602212415/https://kyudb.snu.ac.kr/book/view.do?book_cd=GK00882_00">Archived</a> from the original on June 2, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 29,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=9&rft.btitle=Record+of+Joseon+Diplomacy&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E126-%3C%2Fspan%3E127&rft.date=1888&rft.au=%EA%B9%80%EC%A7%80%EB%82%A8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkyudb.snu.ac.kr%2Fbook%2Fview.do%3Fbook_cd%3DGK00882_00&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kva_10008018_001">"Veritable Records of Jeongjo, vol. 2, year of 1776, 8th month, 18nd day"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210602214726/http://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kva_10008018_001">Archived</a> from the original on June 2, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 29,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Veritable+Records+of+Jeongjo%2C+vol.+2%2C+year+of+1776%2C+8th+month%2C+18nd+day&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsillok.history.go.kr%2Fid%2Fkva_10008018_001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-great-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-great_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-great_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kyudb.snu.ac.kr/pf01/rendererImg.do?item_cd=SJW&book_cd=GK12788_00&vol_no=2902&page_no=003a">"Journal of the Royal Secretariat, vol. 2902, year of 1882, 7th month, 1st day"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210602213548/http://kyudb.snu.ac.kr/pf01/rendererImg.do?item_cd=SJW&book_cd=GK12788_00&vol_no=2902&page_no=003a">Archived</a> from the original on June 2, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 29,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Journal+of+the+Royal+Secretariat%2C+vol.+2902%2C+year+of+1882%2C+7th+month%2C+1st+day&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fkyudb.snu.ac.kr%2Fpf01%2FrendererImg.do%3Fitem_cd%3DSJW%26book_cd%3DGK12788_00%26vol_no%3D2902%26page_no%3D003a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Gyeongguk_daejeon" class="mw-redirect" title="Gyeongguk daejeon">Gyeongguk daejeon</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kyujanggak Institute for Korean Studies, "About Rank of Joseon Officials"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.doopedia.co.kr/doopedia/master/master.do?_method=view&MAS_IDX=130510001403866"><bdi lang="ko">한성부</bdi></a> (in Korean). <a href="/wiki/Doosan_Encyclopedia" title="Doosan Encyclopedia">Doosan Encyclopedia</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150923231447/http://www.doopedia.co.kr/doopedia/master/master.do?_method=view&MAS_IDX=130510001403866">Archived</a> from the original on September 23, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 1,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%ED%95%9C%EC%84%B1%EB%B6%80&rft.pub=Doosan+Encyclopedia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.doopedia.co.kr%2Fdoopedia%2Fmaster%2Fmaster.do%3F_method%3Dview%26MAS_IDX%3D130510001403866&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.doopedia.co.kr/doopedia/master/master.do?_method=view&MAS_IDX=101013000868787"><bdi lang="ko">춘추관</bdi></a> (in Korean). <a href="/wiki/Doosan_Encyclopedia" title="Doosan Encyclopedia">Doosan Encyclopedia</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150923230216/http://www.doopedia.co.kr/doopedia/master/master.do?_method=view&MAS_IDX=101013000868787">Archived</a> from the original on September 23, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 1,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%EC%B6%98%EC%B6%94%EA%B4%80&rft.pub=Doosan+Encyclopedia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.doopedia.co.kr%2Fdoopedia%2Fmaster%2Fmaster.do%3F_method%3Dview%26MAS_IDX%3D101013000868787&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLeeLee2016" class="citation book cs1">Lee, Seokwoo; Lee, Hee Eun (May 12, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bCoiDAAAQBAJ"><i>The Making of International Law in Korea: From Colony to Asian Power</i></a>. Brill. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004315754" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004315754"><bdi>978-9004315754</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1006718121">1006718121</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210126050937/https://books.google.com/books?id=bCoiDAAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on January 26, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 28,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+International+Law+in+Korea%3A+From+Colony+to+Asian+Power&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2016-05-12&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1006718121&rft.isbn=978-9004315754&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Seokwoo&rft.au=Lee%2C+Hee+Eun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbCoiDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWang2010" class="citation book cs1">Wang, Yuan-kang (December 15, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gxVfTuKsaJQC&q=seating+arrangement+highest"><i>Harmony and War: Confucian Culture and Chinese Power Politics</i></a>. Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0231522403" title="Special:BookSources/978-0231522403"><bdi>978-0231522403</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/774509438">774509438</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(October 16, 2010). <a href="/wiki/A_History_of_Korea_(2011_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="A History of Korea (2011 book)"><i>A History of Korea: From Antiquity to the Present</i></a>. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 144. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0742567177" title="Special:BookSources/978-0742567177"><bdi>978-0742567177</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/644646716">644646716</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Korea%3A+From+Antiquity+to+the+Present&rft.pages=144&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers&rft.date=2010-10-16&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F644646716&rft.isbn=978-0742567177&rft.aulast=Seth&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGambe2000" class="citation book cs1">Gambe, Annabelle R. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZUfNRG8IR44C"><i>Overseas Chinese Entrepreneurship and Capitalist Development in Southeast Asia</i></a>. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 99. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3825843861" title="Special:BookSources/978-3825843861"><bdi>978-3825843861</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230407111628/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZUfNRG8IR44C">Archived</a> from the original on April 7, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 19,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Overseas+Chinese+Entrepreneurship+and+Capitalist+Development+in+Southeast+Asia&rft.pages=99&rft.pub=LIT+Verlag+M%C3%BCnster&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-3825843861&rft.aulast=Gambe&rft.aufirst=Annabelle+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZUfNRG8IR44C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChinvanno1992" class="citation book cs1">Chinvanno, Anuson (June 18, 1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0vywCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA24"><i>Thailand's Policies towards China, 1949–54</i></a>. Springer. p. 24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1349124305" title="Special:BookSources/978-1349124305"><bdi>978-1349124305</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230407111657/https://books.google.com/books?id=0vywCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA24">Archived</a> from the original on April 7, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 19,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thailand%27s+Policies+towards+China%2C+1949%E2%80%9354&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1992-06-18&rft.isbn=978-1349124305&rft.aulast=Chinvanno&rft.aufirst=Anuson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0vywCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLeonard1984" class="citation book cs1">Leonard, Jane Kate (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wQCm-bequYgC&pg=PA137"><i>Wei Yuan and China's Rediscovery of the Maritime World</i></a>. Harvard Univ Asia Center. pp. <span class="nowrap">137–</span>138. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674948556" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674948556"><bdi>978-0674948556</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230407111553/https://books.google.com/books?id=wQCm-bequYgC&pg=PA137">Archived</a> from the original on April 7, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 19,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wei+Yuan+and+China%27s+Rediscovery+of+the+Maritime+World&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E137-%3C%2Fspan%3E138&rft.pub=Harvard+Univ+Asia+Center&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0674948556&rft.aulast=Leonard&rft.aufirst=Jane+Kate&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwQCm-bequYgC%26pg%3DPA137&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTsai1996" class="citation book cs1">Tsai, Shih-shan Henry (January 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ka6jNJcX_ygC&pg=PA119"><i>The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty</i></a>. SUNY Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">119–</span>120. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0791426876" title="Special:BookSources/978-0791426876"><bdi>978-0791426876</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 20,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Eunuchs+in+the+Ming+Dynasty&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E119-%3C%2Fspan%3E120&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1996-01&rft.isbn=978-0791426876&rft.aulast=Tsai&rft.aufirst=Shih-shan+Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKa6jNJcX_ygC%26pg%3DPA119&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Routledge-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Routledge_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Routledge_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEisemannHeginbothamMitchell2015" class="citation book cs1">Eisemann, Joshua; Heginbotham, Eric; Mitchell, Derek (August 20, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nM5mCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA23"><i>China and the Developing World: Beijing's Strategy for the Twenty-first Century</i></a>. Routledge. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1317282945" title="Special:BookSources/978-1317282945"><bdi>978-1317282945</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 20,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+and+the+Developing+World%3A+Beijing%27s+Strategy+for+the+Twenty-first+Century&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015-08-20&rft.isbn=978-1317282945&rft.aulast=Eisemann&rft.aufirst=Joshua&rft.au=Heginbotham%2C+Eric&rft.au=Mitchell%2C+Derek&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnM5mCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLewis2005" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, James B. (November 2, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z2SQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT139"><i>Frontier Contact Between Choson Korea and Tokugawa Japan</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1135795986" title="Special:BookSources/978-1135795986"><bdi>978-1135795986</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 20,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Frontier+Contact+Between+Choson+Korea+and+Tokugawa+Japan&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005-11-02&rft.isbn=978-1135795986&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=James+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz2SQAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT139&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span> "Tribute trade was the oldest and most important component of the trade structure, not for its volume or content, but for its symbolism. Japanese brought items to "offer" to Korea and received in exchange "gifts" of higher value, since Korea was a greater land receiving supplicants. Koreans viewed tribute trade as a "burden" and a favor extended to needy islanders; the significance was diplomatic not economic."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKang2012" class="citation book cs1">Kang, David C. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Jgk0buCaLJ0C&pg=PT138"><i>East Asia Before the West: Five Centuries of Trade and Tribute</i></a>. Columbia University Press. p. 122. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0231153195" title="Special:BookSources/978-0231153195"><bdi>978-0231153195</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 20,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=East+Asia+Before+the+West%3A+Five+Centuries+of+Trade+and+Tribute&rft.pages=122&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0231153195&rft.aulast=Kang&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJgk0buCaLJ0C%26pg%3DPT138&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKayokoMomokiReid2013" class="citation book cs1">Kayoko, Fujita; Momoki, Shiro; Reid, Anthony (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lcT3AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA198"><i>Offshore Asia: Maritime Interactions in Eastern Asia Before Steamships</i></a>. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 198. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9814311779" title="Special:BookSources/978-9814311779"><bdi>978-9814311779</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 20,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Offshore+Asia%3A+Maritime+Interactions+in+Eastern+Asia+Before+Steamships&rft.pages=198&rft.pub=Institute+of+Southeast+Asian+Studies&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-9814311779&rft.aulast=Kayoko&rft.aufirst=Fujita&rft.au=Momoki%2C+Shiro&rft.au=Reid%2C+Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlcT3AwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA198&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKim2005" class="citation book cs1">Kim, Chun-gil (2005). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofkorea0000kimc"><i>The History of Korea</i></a></span>. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofkorea0000kimc/page/77">77</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313332968" title="Special:BookSources/978-0313332968"><bdi>978-0313332968</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 28,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Korea&rft.pages=77&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0313332968&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Chun-gil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofkorea0000kimc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Joongang126-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Joongang126_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jang, Pyun-soon. pp. 123–132.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Edward7-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Edward7_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rockstein, Edward D., PhD p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Edward10-11-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Edward10-11_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rockstein, Edward D., PhD pp. 10–11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Villiers p. 71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWang2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yuan-kang_Wang&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yuan-kang Wang (page does not exist)">Wang, Yuan-kang</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gxVfTuKsaJQC"><i>Harmony and War: Confucian Culture and Chinese Power Politics</i></a>. Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0231522403" title="Special:BookSources/978-0231522403"><bdi>978-0231522403</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Harmony+and+War%3A+Confucian+Culture+and+Chinese+Power+Politics&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0231522403&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Yuan-kang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgxVfTuKsaJQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeth2010144-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeth2010144_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeth2010">Seth 2010</a>, p. 144.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTsai1996" class="citation book cs1">Tsai, Shih-shan Henry (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ka6jNJcX_ygC&pg=PA119"><i>The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty</i></a>. SUNY Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">119–</span>120. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0791426876" title="Special:BookSources/978-0791426876"><bdi>978-0791426876</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 20,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Eunuchs+in+the+Ming+Dynasty&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E119-%3C%2Fspan%3E120&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0791426876&rft.aulast=Tsai&rft.aufirst=Shih-shan+Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKa6jNJcX_ygC%26pg%3DPA119&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Alagappa117-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Alagappa117_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAlagappa2003" class="citation book cs1">Alagappa, Muthiah (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rnNnOxvm3ZwC&pg=PA117"><i>Asian Security Order: Instrumental and Normative Features</i></a>. Stanford University Press. p. 117. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0804746298" title="Special:BookSources/978-0804746298"><bdi>978-0804746298</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asian+Security+Order%3A+Instrumental+and+Normative+Features&rft.pages=117&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0804746298&rft.aulast=Alagappa&rft.aufirst=Muthiah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrnNnOxvm3ZwC%26pg%3DPA117&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kang49-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kang49_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kang, Etsuko H. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4f0jnNzdRb4C&pg=PA49"><i>Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations: from the Fifteenth to the Eighteenth Century,</i> p. 49.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230407111619/https://books.google.com/books?id=4f0jnNzdRb4C&pg=PA49">Archived</a> April 7, 2023, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jstor.org-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jstor.org_90-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jstor.org_90-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jstor.org_90-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jstor.org_90-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jstor.org_90-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jstor.org_90-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jstor.org_90-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jstor.org_90-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSeung1979" class="citation journal cs1">Seung, B. Kye (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41490257">"Huddling under the Imperial Umbrella: A Korean Approach to Ming China in the Early 1500s"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Korean_Studies" title="The Journal of Korean Studies">The Journal of Korean Studies</a></i>. <b>15</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">41–</span>42. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41490257">41490257</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180922065137/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41490257">Archived</a> from the original on September 22, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 3,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Korean+Studies&rft.atitle=Huddling+under+the+Imperial+Umbrella%3A+A+Korean+Approach+to+Ming+China+in+the+Early+1500s&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E41-%3C%2Fspan%3E42&rft.date=1979&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41490257%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Seung&rft.aufirst=B.+Kye&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41490257&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mansourov, Alexandre Y. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.asiaquarterly.com/content/view/174/43/">"Will Flowers Bloom without Fragrance? Korean-Chinese Relations,"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080108074830/http://www.asiaquarterly.com/content/view/174/43/">Archived</a> January 8, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>Harvard Asia Quarterly</i> (Spring 2009).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker19713–4-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalker19713–4_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWalker1971">Walker 1971</a>, pp. 3–4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Armstrong, Charles K. (2007). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_mh4Qv4lAkQC&pg=PA57"></a></i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_mh4Qv4lAkQC&pg=PA57">The Koreas,<i> p. 57-58.</i></a>, p. 57, at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kang, Etsuko H. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4f0jnNzdRb4C&pg=PA49"><i>Diplomacy and Ideology in Japanese-Korean Relations: from the Fifteenth to the Eighteenth Century,</i> p. 49.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230407111619/https://books.google.com/books?id=4f0jnNzdRb4C&pg=PA49">Archived</a> April 7, 2023, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-History_net-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-History_net_95-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-History_net_95-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-History_net_95-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-History_net_95-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">History net <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://contents.history.go.kr/mobile/nh/view.do?levelId=nh_022_0030_0020_0020_0010"><i> 조공횟수의 문제 (The problem of the frequency of tributes),</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230405113815/http://contents.history.go.kr/mobile/nh/view.do?levelId=nh_022_0030_0020_0020_0010">Archived</a> April 5, 2023, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeth2010237-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeth2010237_96-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeth2010237_96-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeth2010237_96-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeth2010">Seth 2010</a>, p. 237.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012293Seth2010237-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKim2012293Seth2010237_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKim2012">Kim 2012</a>, p. 293; <a href="#CITEREFSeth2010">Seth 2010</a>, p. 237.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDuus199854-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuus199854_98-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDuus199854_98-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDuus1998">Duus 1998</a>, p. 54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chun-gil Kim <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WBZjBPt1H8AC&pg=PA76"><i>The History of Korea,</i> pp. 76–77.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230405113815/https://books.google.com/books?id=WBZjBPt1H8AC&pg=PA76">Archived</a> April 5, 2023, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> 7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://enc.daum.net/dic100/contents.do?query1=b10s4187a"><bdi lang="ko">사대교린 (조선 외교), Britannica online Korea</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%EC%82%AC%EB%8C%80%EA%B5%90%EB%A6%B0+%28%EC%A1%B0%EC%84%A0+%EC%99%B8%EA%B5%90%29%2C+Britannica+online+Korea&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fenc.daum.net%2Fdic100%2Fcontents.do%3Fquery1%3Db10s4187a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Toby, Ronald P. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2hK7tczn2QoC&dq=korean+diplomacy+1711&pg=PA87"><i>State and Diplomacy in Early Modern Japan: Asia in the Development of the Tokugawa Bakufu,</i> p. 87.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230405113816/https://books.google.com/books?id=2hK7tczn2QoC&dq=korean+diplomacy+1711&pg=PA87">Archived</a> April 5, 2023, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Titsingh,_p._320-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Titsingh,_p._320_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Titsingh, p. 320.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lewis, James Bryant. <i>Frontier contact between chosŏn Korea and Tokugawa Japan</i>, p. 269 n. 89, citing <i>Hanguk Chungse tae-il kysōpsa yŏngu</i> (1996) by Na Chongpu.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFShillony2008" class="citation book cs1">Shillony, Ben-Ami (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FwztKKtQ_rAC&pg=PA1"><i>The Emperors of Modern Japan</i></a>. BRILL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004168220" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004168220"><bdi>978-9004168220</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230407111633/https://books.google.com/books?id=FwztKKtQ_rAC&pg=PA1">Archived</a> from the original on April 7, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 1,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Emperors+of+Modern+Japan&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-9004168220&rft.aulast=Shillony&rft.aufirst=Ben-Ami&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFwztKKtQ_rAC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFShillony2012" class="citation book cs1">Shillony, Ben-Ami (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OvzPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA40"><i>Jews & the Japanese: The Successful Outsiders</i></a>. Tuttle. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1462903962" title="Special:BookSources/978-1462903962"><bdi>978-1462903962</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230407111621/https://books.google.com/books?id=OvzPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA40">Archived</a> from the original on April 7, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 1,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jews+%26+the+Japanese%3A+The+Successful+Outsiders&rft.pub=Tuttle&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1462903962&rft.aulast=Shillony&rft.aufirst=Ben-Ami&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOvzPAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA40&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kang, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4f0jnNzdRb4C&pg=PA206"><i>Diplomacy and Ideology</i>, p. 206.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230405113818/https://books.google.com/books?id=4f0jnNzdRb4C&pg=PA206">Archived</a> April 5, 2023, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ch'oe YH, PH Lee & WT de Bary (eds.) (2000), Sources of Korean Tradition: Volume II: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Centuries. <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>, p. 6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jun SH, JB Lewis & H-R Kang (2008), <i>Korean Expansion and Decline from the Seventeenth to the Nineteenth Century: A View Suggested by Adam Smith</i>. J. Econ. Hist. 68: 244–82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"...before the introduction of modern medicine in the early 1900s the average life expectancy for Koreans was just 24 for males and 26 for females." <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLankovKim_EunHaeng2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Lankov" title="Andrei Lankov">Lankov, Andrei</a>; Kim EunHaeng (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201101083035/http://www.ehbook.co.kr/"><i>The Dawn of Modern Korea</i></a>. Seoul, South Korea: EunHaeng Namu. p. 47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-89-5660-214-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-89-5660-214-1"><bdi>978-89-5660-214-1</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ehbook.co.kr/">the original</a> on November 1, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 16,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dawn+of+Modern+Korea&rft.place=Seoul%2C+South+Korea&rft.pages=47&rft.pub=EunHaeng+Namu&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-89-5660-214-1&rft.aulast=Lankov&rft.aufirst=Andrei&rft.au=Kim+EunHaeng&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ehbook.co.kr%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oh SC (2006), <i>Economic growth in P'yongan Province and the development of Pyongyang in the Late Choson Period</i>. Korean Stud. 30: 3–22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Haboush JHK (1988), A Heritage of Kings: One Man's Monarchy in the Confucian World. Columbia University Press, pp. 88–89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRheeYang1999" class="citation web cs1">Rhee, Young-hoon; Yang, Donghyu (December 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ideas.repec.org/p/snu/ioerwp/no26.html">"Korean Nobi in American Mirror: Yi Dynasty Coerced Labor in Comparison to the Slavery in the Antebellum Southern United States"</a>. <i>Working Paper Series</i>. Institute of Economic Research, Seoul National University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181106230507/https://ideas.repec.org/p/snu/ioerwp/no26.html">Archived</a> from the original on November 6, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 13,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Working+Paper+Series&rft.atitle=Korean+Nobi+in+American+Mirror%3A+Yi+Dynasty+Coerced+Labor+in+Comparison+to+the+Slavery+in+the+Antebellum+Southern+United+States&rft.date=1999-12&rft.aulast=Rhee&rft.aufirst=Young-hoon&rft.au=Yang%2C+Donghyu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fideas.repec.org%2Fp%2Fsnu%2Fioerwp%2Fno26.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBok_Rae_Kim2004" class="citation book cs1">Bok Rae Kim (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J0iRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA153">"Nobi: A Korean System of Slavery"</a>. In Gwyn Campbell (ed.). <i>Structure of Slavery in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia</i>. Routledge. pp. <span class="nowrap">153–</span>157. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-75917-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-75917-9"><bdi>978-1-135-75917-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nobi%3A+A+Korean+System+of+Slavery&rft.btitle=Structure+of+Slavery+in+Indian+Ocean+Africa+and+Asia&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E153-%3C%2Fspan%3E157&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-135-75917-9&rft.au=Bok+Rae+Kim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ0iRAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA153&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPalais1998" class="citation book cs1">Palais, James B. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xxi5AAAAIAAJ"><i>Views on Korean social history</i></a>. Institute for Modern Korean Studies, Yonsei University. p. 50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8971414415" title="Special:BookSources/978-8971414415"><bdi>978-8971414415</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 15,</span> 2017</span>. <q>Another target of his critique is the insistence that slaves (nobi) in Korea, especially in Choson dynasty, were closer to serfs (nongno) than true slaves (noye) in Europe and America, enjoying more freedom and independence than what a slave would normally be allowed.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Views+on+Korean+social+history&rft.pages=50&rft.pub=Institute+for+Modern+Korean+Studies%2C+Yonsei+University&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-8971414415&rft.aulast=Palais&rft.aufirst=James+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dxxi5AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRodriguez1997" class="citation book cs1">Rodriguez, Junius P. (1997). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historicalencycl01rodr"><i>The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery</i></a></span>. ABC-CLIO. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historicalencycl01rodr/page/392">392</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0874368857" title="Special:BookSources/978-0874368857"><bdi>978-0874368857</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 14,</span> 2017</span>. <q>10 percent of the total population on average, but it could rise up to one-third of the total.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Historical+Encyclopedia+of+World+Slavery&rft.pages=392&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0874368857&rft.aulast=Rodriguez&rft.aufirst=Junius+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoricalencycl01rodr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Haboush (1988: 88); Ch'oe et al. (2000: 158)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Haboush, 1988: 89</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jun SH & JB Lewis (2004), On double-entry bookkeeping in Eighteenth-century Korea: A consideration of the account books from two clan associations and a private academy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iisg.nl/hpw/korea2.pdf">International Institute of Social History, Amsterdam, Netherlands (080626)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924044149/http://www.iisg.nl/hpw/korea2.pdf">Archived</a> September 24, 2015, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jun et al. (2008).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ch'oe et al. (2000: 73).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSeth2019" class="citation book cs1">Seth, Michael J. (2019). "Chapter 3". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6rYhwAEACAAJ"><i>A Brief History of Korea: Isolation, War, Despotism and Revival : the Fascinating Story of a Resilient But Divided People</i></a>. Tuttle Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8048-5102-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8048-5102-2"><bdi>978-0-8048-5102-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+3&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+Korea%3A+Isolation%2C+War%2C+Despotism+and+Revival+%3A+the+Fascinating+Story+of+a+Resilient+But+Divided+People&rft.pub=Tuttle+Publishing&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-8048-5102-2&rft.aulast=Seth&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6rYhwAEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">이중환, "총론" in 택리지, p. 355, quoted in translation in Choe et al. (2000: 162).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Haboush (1988: 78)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Haboush JHK (2003), <i>Versions and subversions: Patriarchy and polygamy in Korean narratives</i>, in D Ko, JHK Haboush & JR Piggott (eds.), Women and Confucian Cultures in Premodern China, Korea and Japan. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>, pp. 279–304.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Haboush (1988: 88–89); Oh (2006)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREF아틀라스_한국사_편찬위원회2004" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script">아틀라스 한국사 편찬위원회 (2004). <bdi lang="ko">아틀라스한국사</bdi>. 사계절. pp. <span class="nowrap">132–</span>133. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-89-5828-032-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-89-5828-032-3"><bdi>978-89-5828-032-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%EC%95%84%ED%8B%80%EB%9D%BC%EC%8A%A4%ED%95%9C%EA%B5%AD%EC%82%AC&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E132-%3C%2Fspan%3E133&rft.pub=%EC%82%AC%EA%B3%84%EC%A0%88&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-89-5828-032-3&rft.au=%EC%95%84%ED%8B%80%EB%9D%BC%EC%8A%A4+%ED%95%9C%EA%B5%AD%EC%82%AC+%ED%8E%B8%EC%B0%AC%EC%9C%84%EC%9B%90%ED%9A%8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ch'oe et al., 2000:7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCampbell2004" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Gwyn (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J0iRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA163"><i>Structure of Slavery in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 18,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Art+of+the+Korean+Renaissance%2C+1400%E2%80%931600&rft.pub=Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=2010-09&rft.au=Lee%2C+Soyoung&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.metmuseum.org%2Ftoah%2Fhd%2Fkore%2Fhd_kore.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKyunghee,_Ryun" class="citation web cs1">Kyunghee, Ryun. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://smarthistory.org/four-preaching-buddhas-joseon/">"Four Preaching Buddhas"</a>. Smarthistory.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 18,</span> 2023</span>. <q>During the Joseon period, the official government policy was to suppress Buddhism in favor of Neo-Confucianism. Paradoxically, however, queens, consorts, and other members of the royal court frequently commissioned Buddhist dedications and offerings. In the sixteenth century, for example, numerous Buddhist paintings were commissioned by female members of the royal court</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Four+Preaching+Buddhas&rft.pub=Smarthistory.org&rft.au=Kyunghee%2C+Ryun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsmarthistory.org%2Ffour-preaching-buddhas-joseon%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pope Gregory XVI, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vatican.va/content/gregorius-xvi/it/documents/breve-ex-debito-pastoralis-9-settembre-1831.html">Breve Ex debito pastoralis</a>, in Italian, published on September 9, 1831, accessed on August 24, 2024</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKim" class="citation book cs1">Kim, Hyŭnggyu. <i>Understanding Korean Literature</i>. p. 66.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Korean+Literature&rft.pages=66&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Hy%C5%ADnggyu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRutt" class="citation book cs1">Rutt, Richard. <i>The Bamboo Grove: An Introduction to Sijo</i>. pp. No.15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bamboo+Grove%3A+An+Introduction+to+Sijo&rft.pages=No.15&rft.aulast=Rutt&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRutt" class="citation book cs1">Rutt, Richard. <i>The Bamboo Grove: An Introduction to Sijo</i>. p. 157.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bamboo+Grove%3A+An+Introduction+to+Sijo&rft.pages=157&rft.aulast=Rutt&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRutt" class="citation book cs1">Rutt, Richard. <i>The Bamboo Grove: An Introduction to Sijo</i>. p. 158.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bamboo+Grove%3A+An+Introduction+to+Sijo&rft.pages=158&rft.aulast=Rutt&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKim" class="citation book cs1">Kim, Hyŭnggyu. <i>Understanding Korean Literature</i>. p. 71.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Korean+Literature&rft.pages=71&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Hy%C5%ADnggyu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.naver.com/"><bdi lang="ko">네이버</bdi></a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Naver" title="Naver">Naver</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200224051156/https://www.naver.com/">Archived</a> from the original on February 24, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 29,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Naver&rft.atitle=%EB%84%A4%EC%9D%B4%EB%B2%84&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.naver.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREF백석기1987" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script">백석기 (1987). <bdi lang="ko">웅진위인전기 #11 장영실</bdi>. 웅진출판사. p. 56.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%EC%9B%85%EC%A7%84%EC%9C%84%EC%9D%B8%EC%A0%84%EA%B8%B0+%2311+%EC%9E%A5%EC%98%81%EC%8B%A4&rft.pages=56&rft.pub=%EC%9B%85%EC%A7%84%EC%B6%9C%ED%8C%90%EC%82%AC&rft.date=1987&rft.au=%EB%B0%B1%EC%84%9D%EA%B8%B0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.indiana.edu/~easc/resources/korea_slides/science/9-1.htm">"Korea And The Korean People"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070706045214/http://www.indiana.edu/~easc/resources/korea_slides/science/9-1.htm">Archived</a> from the original on July 6, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 14,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Korea+And+The+Korean+People&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.indiana.edu%2F~easc%2Fresources%2Fkorea_slides%2Fscience%2F9-1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/2005/01/23/features/91THIS-WEEK-IN-HISTORY93A-life-of-tears-and-regret-for-last-Korean-princess/2520836.html">Korea Joong-Ang Daily</a> koreajoongangdaily.joins.com accessed November 2, 2023</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDuus1998" class="citation book cs1">Duus, Peter (1998). <i>The Abacus and the Sword: The Japanese Penetration of Korea</i>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92090-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92090-3"><bdi>978-0-520-92090-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Abacus+and+the+Sword%3A+The+Japanese+Penetration+of+Korea&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-520-92090-3&rft.aulast=Duus&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEbreyWalthallPalais2006" class="citation cs2">Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Ann; Palais, James B. (2006), <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/eastasiacultural00ebre_0"><i>East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History</i></a></span>, Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-618-13384-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-618-13384-0"><bdi>978-0-618-13384-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=East+Asia%3A+A+Cultural%2C+Social%2C+and+Political+History&rft.place=Boston+and+New+York&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-618-13384-0&rft.aulast=Ebrey&rft.aufirst=Patricia+Buckley&rft.au=Walthall%2C+Ann&rft.au=Palais%2C+James+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feastasiacultural00ebre_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKennedy1943" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Kennedy, George A. (1943). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period/Amin"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Eminent_Chinese_of_the_Ch%27ing_Period/Amin">"Amin" </a></span>. In <a href="/wiki/Arthur_W._Hummel_Sr." title="Arthur W. Hummel Sr.">Hummel, Arthur W. Sr.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Eminent_Chinese_of_the_Ch%27ing_Period" title="Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period">Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Government_Publishing_Office" title="United States Government Publishing Office">United States Government Printing Office</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">8–</span>9.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Amin&rft.btitle=Eminent+Chinese+of+the+Ch%27ing+Period&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E8-%3C%2Fspan%3E9&rft.pub=United+States+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1943&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=George+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKim_Haboush2005" class="citation cs2">Kim Haboush, JaHyun (2005), "Contesting Chinese Time, Nationalizing Temporal Space: Temporal Inscription in Late Chosŏn Korea", in Lynn A. Struve (ed.), <i>Time, Temporality, and Imperial Transition</i>, Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, pp. <span class="nowrap">115–</span>141, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-2827-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-2827-1"><bdi>978-0-8248-2827-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Contesting+Chinese+Time%2C+Nationalizing+Temporal+Space%3A+Temporal+Inscription+in+Late+Chos%C5%8Fn+Korea&rft.btitle=Time%2C+Temporality%2C+and+Imperial+Transition&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E115-%3C%2Fspan%3E141&rft.pub=University+of+Hawai%27i+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-2827-1&rft.aulast=Kim+Haboush&rft.aufirst=JaHyun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKim2012" class="citation book cs1">Kim, Jinwung (2012). <i>A History of Korea: From "Land of the Morning Calm" to States in Conflict</i>. New York: Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-00024-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-00024-8"><bdi>978-0-253-00024-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Korea%3A+From+%22Land+of+the+Morning+Calm%22+to+States+in+Conflict&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-253-00024-8&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Jinwung&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLarsen2008" class="citation cs2">Larsen, Kirk W. (2008), <i>Tradition, Treaties, and Trade: Qing Imperialism and Chosŏn Korea, 1850–1910</i>, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02807-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02807-4"><bdi>978-0-674-02807-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tradition%2C+Treaties%2C+and+Trade%3A+Qing+Imperialism+and+Chos%C5%8Fn+Korea%2C+1850%E2%80%931910&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Asia+Center&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-674-02807-4&rft.aulast=Larsen&rft.aufirst=Kirk+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWalker1971" class="citation cs2">Walker, Hugh D. (1971), "The Weight of Tradition: Preliminary Observations on Korea's Intellectual Response", in Jo, Yung-hwan (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EQBFAAAAIAAJ"><i>Korea's Response to the West</i></a>, The Korea Research and Publications, Inc., pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>14, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240508063702/https://books.google.com/books?id=EQBFAAAAIAAJ">archived</a> from the original on May 8, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 7,</span> 2024</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Weight+of+Tradition%3A+Preliminary+Observations+on+Korea%27s+Intellectual+Response&rft.btitle=Korea%27s+Response+to+the+West&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E14&rft.pub=The+Korea+Research+and+Publications%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=Hugh+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEQBFAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLeede_Bary1997" class="citation cs2">Lee, Peter H.; de Bary, William Theodore (1997), <i>Sources of Korean Tradition, </i>Volume I:<i> From Early Times Through the Sixteenth Century</i>, New York: Columbia University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-10567-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-10567-5"><bdi>978-0-231-10567-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sources+of+Korean+Tradition%2C+Volume+I%3A+From+Early+Times+Through+the+Sixteenth+Century&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-231-10567-5&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Peter+H.&rft.au=de+Bary%2C+William+Theodore&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLin2014" class="citation cs2">Lin, Ming-te (December 8, 2014), "Li Hung-chang's Suzerain Policy toward Korea, 1882–1894", <i>Chinese Studies in History</i>, <b>24</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">69–</span>96, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2753%2FCSH0009-4633240469">10.2753/CSH0009-4633240469</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chinese+Studies+in+History&rft.atitle=Li+Hung-chang%27s+Suzerain+Policy+toward+Korea%2C+1882%E2%80%931894&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E69-%3C%2Fspan%3E96&rft.date=2014-12-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2753%2FCSH0009-4633240469&rft.aulast=Lin&rft.aufirst=Ming-te&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316" /><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><i>A Cultural History of Modern Korea</i>, Wannae Joe, ed. with intro. by Hongkyu A. Choe, Elizabeth NY, and Seoul Korea: Hollym, 2000. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><i>An Introduction to Korean Culture</i>, ed. Koo & Nahm, Elizabeth NJ, and Seoul Korea: Hollym, 1998. 2nd ed. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><i>Noon Eu Ro Bo Neun Han Gook Yuk Sa #7</i> by Jang Pyung Soon. Copyright 1998 Joong Ang Gyo Yook Yun Goo Won, Ltd, pp. 46–47.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23718933">Alston, Dane. 2008. "Emperor and Emissary: The Hongwu Emperor, Kwŏn Kŭn, and the Poetry of Late Fourteenth Century Diplomacy". Korean Studies 32. University of Hawai'i Press: 104–147.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180922070606/https://www.jstor.org/stable/23718933">Archived</a> September 22, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41490257">Kye, Seung B.. 2010. "Huddling Under the Imperial Umbrella: A Korean Approach to Ming China in the Early 1500s". The Journal of Korean Studies 15 (1). University of Washington Center for Korea Studies: 41–66.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180922065137/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41490257">Archived</a> September 22, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41485331">Robinson, David M.. 2004. "Disturbing Images: Rebellion, Usurpation, and Rulership in Early Sixteenth-century East Asia" – "Korean Writings on Emperor Wuzong". <i>The Journal of Korean Studies</i> 9 (1). University of Washington Center for Korea Studies: 97–127.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180922070641/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41485331">Archived</a> September 22, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23720024">Robinson, Kenneth R.. 1992. "From Raiders to Traders: Border Security and Border Control in Early Chosŏn, 1392–1450". Korean Studies 16. University of Hawai'i Press: 94–115.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180922065059/https://www.jstor.org/stable/23720024">Archived</a> September 22, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Ji-Young Lee. 2020. "The Founding of the Korean Chosŏn Dynasty, 1392." in <i><a href="//doi.org/10.1017/9781108807401" class="extiw" title="doi:10.1017/9781108807401">East Asia in the World: Twelve Events That Shaped the Modern International Order</a></i>. Cambridge University Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHatadaSmithHazard1969" class="citation cs2">Hatada, Takashi; Smith, Warren W. Jr.; Hazard, Benjamin H. (1969), <a href="/wiki/A_History_of_Korea_(Hatada_book)" title="A History of Korea (Hatada book)"><i>A History of Korea</i></a>, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87436-064-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87436-064-6"><bdi>978-0-87436-064-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Korea&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+CA&rft.pub=ABC-Clio&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-87436-064-6&rft.aulast=Hatada&rft.aufirst=Takashi&rft.au=Smith%2C+Warren+W.+Jr.&rft.au=Hazard%2C+Benjamin+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNahm1988" class="citation cs2">Nahm, Andrew C. (1988), <i>Korea: Tradition & Transformation: A History of the Korean People</i>, Elizabeth, NJ: Hollym, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-930878-56-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-930878-56-6"><bdi>978-0-930878-56-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Korea%3A+Tradition+%26+Transformation%3A+A+History+of+the+Korean+People&rft.place=Elizabeth%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Hollym&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-930878-56-6&rft.aulast=Nahm&rft.aufirst=Andrew+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZhao2003" class="citation cs2">Zhao, Quansheng (2003), "China and the Korean peace process", in Tae-Hwan Kwak; Seung-Ho Joo (eds.), <i>The Korean Peace Process and the Four Powers</i>, Hampshire: Ashgate, pp. <span class="nowrap">98–</span>118, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-3653-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-3653-3"><bdi>978-0-7546-3653-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=China+and+the+Korean+peace+process&rft.btitle=The+Korean+Peace+Process+and+the+Four+Powers&rft.place=Hampshire&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E98-%3C%2Fspan%3E118&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-3653-3&rft.aulast=Zhao&rft.aufirst=Quansheng&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Joseon_Dynasty" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Joseon Dynasty">Joseon Dynasty</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/120px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Joseon" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Joseon">Joseon</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="三谷" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%89%E8%B0%B7%E5%8D%9A" class="extiw" title="ja:三谷博">三谷博</a> <span class="cs1-format">[in Japanese]</span> (January 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161225214545/http://www.isr.or.jp/TokeiKen/pdf/gakusai/1_05.pdf"><i>グローバル化への対応－中・日・韓三国の分岐－</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B5%B1%E8%A8%88%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%E4%BC%9A" class="extiw" title="ja:統計研究会">統計研究会</a>『学際』第1号. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.isr.or.jp/TokeiKen/pdf/gakusai/1_05.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on December 25, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 28,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E3%82%B0%E3%83%AD%E3%83%BC%E3%83%90%E3%83%AB%E5%8C%96%E3%81%B8%E3%81%AE%E5%AF%BE%E5%BF%9C%EF%BC%8D%E4%B8%AD%E3%83%BB%E6%97%A5%E3%83%BB%E9%9F%93%E4%B8%89%E5%9B%BD%E3%81%AE%E5%88%86%E5%B2%90%EF%BC%8D&rft.pub=%E7%B5%B1%E8%A8%88%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%E4%BC%9A%E3%80%8E%E5%AD%A6%E9%9A%9B%E3%80%8F%E7%AC%AC1%E5%8F%B7&rft.date=2016-01&rft.au=%E4%B8%89%E8%B0%B7%E5%8D%9A&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.isr.or.jp%2FTokeiKen%2Fpdf%2Fgakusai%2F1_05.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREF原田2005" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E7%94%B0%E7%92%B0" class="extiw" title="ja:原田環">原田環</a> <span class="cs1-format">[in Japanese]</span> (June 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150910140201/http://www.jkcf.or.jp/history_arch/first/3/02-0j_harada_j.pdf"><i>東アジアの国際関係とその近代化－朝鮮と－</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93South_Korea_Joint_History_Research_Project" title="Japan–South Korea Joint History Research Project">Japan–South Korea Joint History Research Project</a>報告書（第1期）. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jkcf.or.jp/history_arch/first/3/02-0j_harada_j.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on September 10, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 28,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E6%9D%B1%E3%82%A2%E3%82%B8%E3%82%A2%E3%81%AE%E5%9B%BD%E9%9A%9B%E9%96%A2%E4%BF%82%E3%81%A8%E3%81%9D%E3%81%AE%E8%BF%91%E4%BB%A3%E5%8C%96%EF%BC%8D%E6%9C%9D%E9%AE%AE%E3%81%A8%EF%BC%8D&rft.pub=Japan%E2%80%93South+Korea+Joint+History+Research+Project%E5%A0%B1%E5%91%8A%E6%9B%B8%EF%BC%88%E7%AC%AC1%E6%9C%9F%EF%BC%89&rft.date=2005-06&rft.au=%E5%8E%9F%E7%94%B0%E7%92%B0&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jkcf.or.jp%2Fhistory_arch%2Ffirst%2F3%2F02-0j_harada_j.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJoseon" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070928110202/http://www.instrok.org/instrok/lesson1/page01.html?thisChar=4">Cultural Values of the Choson Dynasty</a> – from Instrok.org, created by the <a href="/w/index.php?title=East_Rock_Institute&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="East Rock Institute (page does not exist)">East Rock Institute</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150510203519/http://www.sungjinyang.com/history/hermit.html">"Click into the Hermit Kingdom" (Written by Yang Sung-jin and published by Dongbang Media in Seoul, South Korea) – 100 articles in English on the Joseon dynasty</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050207052645/http://royalcity.or.kr/">Korean royal family website</a> – currently available only in Korean.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050313144134/http://myhome.shinbiro.com/~mss1/choson.html">Choson dynasty</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050113191703/http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200501/200501120024.html">"Japanese Document Sheds New Light on Korean Queen's Murder"</a> – Ohmynews.com's uncovered document about murder of Queen Minbi</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060202204421/http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200601/200601270013.html">"E-Annals Bring Chosun History to Everyman"</a>, The Chosun Ilbo, January 27, 2006.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080604062746/http://www.bennettsfineart.com/lee%20dynasty.htm">"Korean Lee (Yi) Dynasty Granite Sculptures"</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Palaces_of_Joseon846" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Palaces_of_Joseon" title="Template:Palaces of Joseon"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Palaces_of_Joseon" title="Template talk:Palaces of Joseon"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Palaces_of_Joseon" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Palaces of Joseon"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Palaces_of_Joseon846" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Palaces of <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Joseon</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Five Grand Palaces<br />(<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">5대궁</span></span>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Changdeokgung" title="Changdeokgung">Changdeokgung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changgyeonggung" title="Changgyeonggung">Changgyeonggung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deoksugung" title="Deoksugung">Deoksugung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyeongbokgung" title="Gyeongbokgung">Gyeongbokgung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyeonghuigung" title="Gyeonghuigung">Gyeonghuigung</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Detatched palaces<br />(<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">별궁</span></span>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Andongby%C5%8Flgung&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Andongbyŏlgung (page does not exist)">Andongbyŏlgung</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%88%EB%8F%99%EB%B3%84%EA%B6%81" class="extiw" title="ko:안동별궁">ko</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ch%27ang%C5%ADigung" title="Ch'angŭigung">Ch'angŭigung</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chasugung&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chasugung (page does not exist)">Chasugung</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%90%EC%88%98%EA%B6%81" class="extiw" title="ko:자수궁">ko</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ch%C5%8Fn%27gyegung&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chŏn'gyegung (page does not exist)">Chŏn'gyegung</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%84%EA%B3%84%EA%B6%81" class="extiw" title="ko:전계궁">ko</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chuktonggung&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chuktonggung (page does not exist)">Chuktonggung</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A3%BD%EB%8F%99%EA%B6%81" class="extiw" title="ko:죽동궁">ko</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gyeongmogung&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gyeongmogung (page does not exist)">Gyeongmogung</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B2%BD%EB%AA%A8%EA%B6%81" class="extiw" title="ko:경모궁">ko</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=H%C5%ADngs%C5%8Fn%27gung&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hŭngsŏn'gung (page does not exist)">Hŭngsŏn'gung</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%9D%A5%EC%84%A0%EA%B6%81" class="extiw" title="ko:흥선궁">ko</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=In%27gy%C5%8Fnggung&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="In'gyŏnggung (page does not exist)">In'gyŏnggung</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B8%EA%B2%BD%EA%B6%81" class="extiw" title="ko:인경궁">ko</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kyedonggung&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kyedonggung (page does not exist)">Kyedonggung</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%84%EB%8F%99%EA%B6%81" class="extiw" title="ko:계동궁">ko</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nudonggung&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nudonggung (page does not exist)">Nudonggung</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%88%84%EB%8F%99%EA%B6%81" class="extiw" title="ko:누동궁">ko</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%C5%8E%C5%ADigung&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ŏŭigung (page does not exist)">Ŏŭigung</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%96%B4%EC%9D%98%EA%B6%81" class="extiw" title="ko:어의궁">ko</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=P%27unggy%C5%8Fnggung&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="P'unggyŏnggung (page does not exist)">P'unggyŏnggung</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%92%8D%EA%B2%BD%EA%B6%81" class="extiw" title="ko:풍경궁">ko</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sadonggung&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sadonggung (page does not exist)">Sadonggung</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%AC%EB%8F%99%EA%B6%81" class="extiw" title="ko:사동궁">ko</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seven_Palaces&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Seven Palaces (page does not exist)">Seven Palaces</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B9%A0%EA%B6%81" class="extiw" title="ko:칠궁">ko</a>]</span> <ul><li>Chŏgyŏnggung</li> <li>Kyŏngugung</li> <li>Sŏnhŭigung</li> <li>Taebin'gung</li> <li>Tŏgan'gung</li> <li>Yŏnhogung</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sunhwagung&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sunhwagung (page does not exist)">Sunhwagung</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%88%9C%ED%99%94%EA%B6%81" class="extiw" title="ko:순화궁">ko</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=T%C5%8Fkh%C5%ADnggung&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tŏkhŭnggung (page does not exist)">Tŏkhŭnggung</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8D%95%ED%9D%A5%EA%B6%81" class="extiw" title="ko:덕흥궁">ko</a>]</span> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yuksanggung&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yuksanggung (page does not exist)">Yuksanggung</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A1%EC%83%81%EA%B6%81" class="extiw" title="ko:육상궁">ko</a>]</span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Royal residences<br />(<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">잠저</span></span>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ch%27ang%C5%ADigung" title="Ch'angŭigung">Ch'angŭigung</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ky%C5%8Fngd%C5%8Fkkung&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kyŏngdŏkkung (page does not exist)">Kyŏngdŏkkung</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B2%BD%EB%8D%95%EA%B6%81" class="extiw" title="ko:경덕궁">ko</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamhung_Royal_Villa" title="Hamhung Royal Villa">Hamhung Royal Villa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%C5%8E%C5%ADigung&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ŏŭigung (page does not exist)">Ŏŭigung</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%96%B4%EC%9D%98%EA%B6%81" class="extiw" title="ko:어의궁">ko</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Toj%C5%8Fnggung&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tojŏnggung (page does not exist)">Tojŏnggung</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8F%84%EC%A0%95%EA%B6%81" class="extiw" title="ko:도정궁">ko</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unhyeongung" title="Unhyeongung">Unhyeongung</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yongheunggung&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yongheunggung (page does not exist)">Yongheunggung</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9A%A9%ED%9D%A5%EA%B6%81" class="extiw" title="ko:용흥궁">ko</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Temporary palaces<br />(<span title="Korean-language text"><span lang="ko-Hang">행궁</span></span>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bukhansanseong_Temporary_Palace&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bukhansanseong Temporary Palace (page does not exist)">Bukhansanseong Temporary Palace</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B6%81%ED%95%9C%EC%82%B0%EC%84%B1_%ED%96%89%EA%B6%81%EC%A7%80" class="extiw" title="ko:북한산성 행궁지">ko</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Namhansanseong_Temporary_Palace&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Namhansanseong Temporary Palace (page does not exist)">Namhansanseong Temporary Palace</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%82%A8%ED%95%9C%EC%82%B0%EC%84%B1_%ED%96%89%EA%B6%81" class="extiw" title="ko:남한산성 행궁">ko</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Joseon191" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Joseon" title="Template:Joseon"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Joseon" title="Template talk:Joseon"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Joseon" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Joseon"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Joseon191" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Joseon</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li>Korean state (1392–1897)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Joseon" title="History of Joseon">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%8Cei_Invasion" title="Ōei Invasion">Tsushima expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imjin_War" title="Imjin War">Imjin War</a></li> <li>Manchu invasions of Korea (<a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_invasion_of_Joseon" title="Later Jin invasion of Joseon">First</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qing_invasion_of_Joseon" title="Qing invasion of Joseon">Second</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/19th-century_peasant_rebellions_in_Korea" title="19th-century peasant rebellions in Korea">Peasant rebellions</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hong_Ky%C5%8Fngnae%27s_Rebellion" title="Hong Kyŏngnae's Rebellion">Hong Kyŏngnae's Rebellion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Donghak_Peasant_Revolution" title="Donghak Peasant Revolution">Donghak Peasant Revolution</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Korea_Treaty_of_1876" title="Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876">Treaty of Ganghwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imo_Incident" title="Imo Incident">Imo Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapsin_Coup" title="Kapsin Coup">Kapsin Coup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabo_Reform" title="Kabo Reform">Kabo Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Empress_Myeongseong" title="Assassination of Empress Myeongseong">Assassination of Empress Myeongseong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseon_Korea.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseon_Korea.svg/120px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseon_Korea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="65" height="65" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseon_Korea.svg/250px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseon_Korea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="280" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Joseon" title="Politics of Joseon">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_factions_of_Joseon" title="Political factions of Joseon">Political factions of Joseon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_literati_purges" title="Korean literati purges">Korean literati purges</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Joseon" title="List of kings of Joseon">List of kings of Joseon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_Council_of_Joseon" title="State Council of Joseon">State Council of Joseon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six_Ministries_of_Joseon" title="Six Ministries of Joseon">Six Ministries of Joseon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_offices_of_Joseon" title="Three offices of Joseon">Three offices of Joseon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_Defense_Council_of_Joseon" title="Border Defense Council of Joseon">Border Defense Council of Joseon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secret_royal_inspector" title="Secret royal inspector">Secret royal inspector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseon_Army" title="Joseon Army">Joseon Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseon_Army_(1881%E2%80%931897)" title="Joseon Army (1881–1897)">late 19th century</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseon_Navy" title="Joseon Navy">Joseon Navy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Society_in_the_Joseon_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Society in the Joseon dynasty">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Styles_and_titles_in_the_Joseon_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Styles and titles in the Joseon dynasty">Styles and titles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Caste system in Korea">Caste system in Korea</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Seonbi" title="Seonbi">Seonbi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kisaeng" title="Kisaeng">Kisaeng</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Joseon" title="Education in Joseon">Education in Joseon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Grand_Palaces" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Grand Palaces">Five Grand Palaces</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hanbok" title="Hanbok">Hanbok</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Buncheong" title="Buncheong">Buncheong</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseon_white_porcelain" title="Joseon white porcelain">Joseon white porcelain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_tea_ceremony" title="Korean tea ceremony">Korean tea ceremony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_garden" title="Korean garden">Korean garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sungkyunkwan" title="Sungkyunkwan">Sungkyunkwan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chaekgeori" title="Chaekgeori">Chaekgeori</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Minhwa" title="Minhwa">Minhwa</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cultural heritages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Changdeokgung" title="Changdeokgung">Changdeokgung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jongmyo" title="Jongmyo">Jongmyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namhansanseong" title="Namhansanseong">Namhansanseong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Tombs_of_the_Joseon_Dynasty" title="Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty">Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty</a></li> <li>Villages of <a href="/wiki/Hahoe_Folk_Village" title="Hahoe Folk Village">Hahoe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yangdong_Folk_Village" title="Yangdong Folk Village">Yangdong</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Veritable_Records_of_the_Joseon_Dynasty" title="Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty">Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hunminjeongeum" title="Hunminjeongeum">Hunminjeongeum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ilseongnok" title="Ilseongnok">Ilseongnok</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nanjung_ilgi" title="Nanjung ilgi">Nanjung ilgi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Seungjeongwon_ilgi" title="Seungjeongwon ilgi">Seungjeongwon ilgi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Uigwe" title="Uigwe">Uigwe</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foreign relations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1883_Korean_special_mission_to_the_United_States" title="1883 Korean special mission to the United States">1883 Korean special mission to the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseon_missions_to_China" title="Joseon missions to China">Joseon missions to China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseon_missions_to_Japan" title="Joseon missions to Japan">Joseon missions to Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseon_Tongsinsa" title="Joseon Tongsinsa">Joseon Tongsinsa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="20px&#124;Flag_of_the_Joseon_king_House_of_Yi_20px&#124;National_seal_of_Joseon1109" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background:#00008B; color:#FFD700;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:House_of_Yi" title="Template:House of Yi"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:#FFD700">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:House_of_Yi" title="Template talk:House of Yi"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:#FFD700">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:House_of_Yi" title="Special:EditPage/Template:House of Yi"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:#FFD700">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="20px&#124;Flag_of_the_Joseon_king_House_of_Yi_20px&#124;National_seal_of_Joseon1109" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="display: inline-block; transform: scaleX(-1);"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_king_of_Joseon.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of the Joseon king"><img alt="Flag of the Joseon king" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_king_of_Joseon.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_king_of_Joseon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_king_of_Joseon.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_king_of_Joseon.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="706" data-file-height="519" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/House_of_Yi" title="House of Yi"><span style="color:#FFD700;">House of Yi</span></a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseon_Korea.png" class="mw-file-description" title="National seal of Joseon"><img alt="National seal of Joseon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseon_Korea.png/20px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseon_Korea.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseon_Korea.png/40px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Joseon_Korea.png 1.5x" data-file-width="293" data-file-height="291" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li>List of Monarchs <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Joseon_monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Joseon monarchs">Kings of Joseon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor of Korea">Emperor of Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:King_Yi_of_Korea" title="Template:King Yi of Korea">King Yi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Yi#House_of_Yi_family_tree" title="House of Yi">Genealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeonju_Yi_clan" title="Jeonju Yi clan">Jeonju Yi clan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeonju_Lee_Royal_Family_Association" title="Jeonju Lee Royal Family Association">Royal Family Association</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:#ccccff;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kingdom of Joseon</a></b> and <b><a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean Empire</a></b> (1392–1910)</li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="12" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gyeongbok-gung_palace-05_(xndr).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Gyeongbokgung, the main palace of Joseon"><img alt="Gyeongbokgung, the main palace of Joseon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Gyeongbok-gung_palace-05_%28xndr%29.jpg/100px-Gyeongbok-gung_palace-05_%28xndr%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Gyeongbok-gung_palace-05_%28xndr%29.jpg/150px-Gyeongbok-gung_palace-05_%28xndr%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Gyeongbok-gung_palace-05_%28xndr%29.jpg/200px-Gyeongbok-gung_palace-05_%28xndr%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Posthumous<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Yi_An-sa" title="Yi An-sa">Mokjo</a></i> (1392)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yi_Haeng-ni" title="Yi Haeng-ni">Ikjo</a></i> (1392)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yi_Ch%27un" title="Yi Ch'un">Dojo</a></i> (1392)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yi_Cha-ch%27un" class="mw-redirect" title="Yi Cha-ch'un">Hwanjo</a></i> (1392)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Prince_Uigyeong" title="Crown Prince Uigyeong">Deokjong</a> (1475)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Jeongwon" title="Prince Jeongwon">Wonjong</a> (1634)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Prince_Hyojang" title="Crown Prince Hyojang">Jinjong</a> (1776)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Prince_Sado" title="Crown Prince Sado">Jangjo</a> (1899)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Prince_Hyomyeong" title="Crown Prince Hyomyeong">Munjo</a> (1834)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">King of Joseon<br />(1392–1897)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taejo_of_Joseon" title="Taejo of Joseon">Taejo</a> (1392–1398)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeongjong_of_Joseon" title="Jeongjong of Joseon">Jeongjong</a> (1398–1400)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taejong_of_Joseon" title="Taejong of Joseon">Taejong</a> (1400–1418)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sejong_the_Great" title="Sejong the Great">Sejong</a> (1418–1450)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munjong_of_Joseon" title="Munjong of Joseon">Munjong</a> (1450–1452)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danjong_of_Joseon" title="Danjong of Joseon">Danjong</a> (1452–1455)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sejo_of_Joseon" title="Sejo of Joseon">Sejo</a> (1455–1468)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yejong_of_Joseon" title="Yejong of Joseon">Yejong</a> (1468–1469)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seongjong_of_Joseon" title="Seongjong of Joseon">Seongjong</a> (1469–1494)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yeonsangun_of_Joseon" title="Yeonsangun of Joseon">Yeonsan</a><sup>#</sup></i> (1494–1506)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jungjong_of_Joseon" title="Jungjong of Joseon">Jungjong</a> (1506–1544)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Injong_of_Joseon" title="Injong of Joseon">Injong</a> (1544–1545)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myeongjong_of_Joseon" title="Myeongjong of Joseon">Myeongjong</a> (1545–1569)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seonjo_of_Joseon" title="Seonjo of Joseon">Seonjo</a> (1569–1608)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gwanghaegun_of_Joseon" title="Gwanghaegun of Joseon">Gwanghae</a><sup>#</sup></i> (1608–1623)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Injo_of_Joseon" title="Injo of Joseon">Injo</a> (1623–1649)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyojong_of_Joseon" title="Hyojong of Joseon">Hyojong</a> (1649–1659)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyeonjong_of_Joseon" title="Hyeonjong of Joseon">Hyeonjong</a> (1659–1674)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sukjong_of_Joseon" title="Sukjong of Joseon">Sukjong</a> (1674–1720)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyeongjong_of_Joseon" title="Gyeongjong of Joseon">Gyeongjong</a> (1720–1724)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeongjo_of_Joseon" title="Yeongjo of Joseon">Yeongjo</a> (1724–1776)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeongjo_of_Joseon" title="Jeongjo of Joseon">Jeongjo</a> (1776–1800)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunjo_of_Joseon" title="Sunjo of Joseon">Sunjo</a> (1800–1834)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heonjong_of_Joseon" title="Heonjong of Joseon">Heonjong</a> (1834–1849)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheoljong_of_Joseon" title="Cheoljong of Joseon">Cheoljong</a> (1849–1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gojong_of_Korea" title="Gojong of Korea">Gojong</a> (1864–1897)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Emperor of Korea<br />(1897–1910)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gojong_of_Korea" title="Gojong of Korea">Gojong</a> (1897–1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunjong_of_Korea" title="Sunjong of Korea">Sunjong</a> (1907–1910)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Crown Prince<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%98%EC%95%88%EB%8C%80%EA%B5%B0_(1382%EB%85%84)" class="extiw" title="ko:의안대군 (1382년)">Yi Bang-seok</a> (1392–1398)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Prince_Yangnyeong" title="Grand Prince Yangnyeong">Grand Prince Yangnyeong</a> (1404–1418)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Prince_Uigyeong" title="Crown Prince Uigyeong">Uigyeong</a> (1455–1457)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deposed_Crown_Prince_Yi_Hwang" title="Deposed Crown Prince Yi Hwang">Yi Hwang</a> (1502–1506)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Prince_Sunhoe" title="Crown Prince Sunhoe">Sunhoe</a> (1557–1563)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deposed_Crown_Prince_Yi_Ji" title="Deposed Crown Prince Yi Ji">Yi Ji</a> (1608–1623)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Prince_Sohyeon" title="Crown Prince Sohyeon">Sohyeon</a> (1625–1645)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Prince_Hyojang" title="Crown Prince Hyojang">Hyojang</a> (1725–1728)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Prince_Sado" title="Crown Prince Sado">Sado</a> (1736–1762)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Prince_Uiso" title="Crown Prince Uiso">Uiso</a> (1751–1752)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Prince_Munhyo" title="Crown Prince Munhyo">Munhyo</a> (1784–1786)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_Prince_Hyomyeong" title="Crown Prince Hyomyeong">Hyomyeong</a> (1812–1830)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yi_Un" title="Yi Un">Uimin</a></i> (1907–1910)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Daewongun<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deokheung_Daewongun" title="Deokheung Daewongun">Deokheung</a> (1569)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeongye_Daewongun" title="Jeongye Daewongun">Jeongye</a> (1849)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heungseon_Daewongun" title="Heungseon Daewongun">Heungseon</a> (1864)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rival king</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Yi_Gwal%27s_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Yi Gwal's Rebellion">Heungan</a></i> (1624)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:#ccccff;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Korea_under_Japanese_rule" title="Korea under Japanese rule">Korea under Japanese rule</a></b> (1910–1945)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">King Yi<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />(1910–1947)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">King Emeritus<br />(<a href="/wiki/Deoksugung" title="Deoksugung">Deoksugung</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gojong_of_Korea" title="Gojong of Korea">Yi Hui</a> (1910–1919)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">King<br />(<a href="/wiki/Changdeokgung" title="Changdeokgung">Changdeokgung</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunjong_of_Korea" title="Sunjong of Korea">Yi Cheok</a> (1910–1926)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_Un" title="Yi Un">Yi Un</a> (1926–1947)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Crown Prince</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yi_Un" title="Yi Un">Yi Un</a> (1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_Ku" title="Yi Ku">Yi Ku</a> (1931)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:#ccccff;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>Post-<a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></b> (1945–present)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Director of the<br /><a href="/wiki/Jeonju_Lee_Royal_Family_Association" title="Jeonju Lee Royal Family Association">Royal Family Association</a><br />(1957–)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In office</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yi_Un" title="Yi Un">Yi Un</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_Ku" title="Yi Ku">Yi Ku</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_Won" title="Yi Won">Yi Won</a> (2007)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Posthumous<br />recognition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Yi_Kang" title="Yi Kang">Yi Kang</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pretenders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yi_Seok" title="Yi Seok">Yi Seok</a> (2005–2021/2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Lee_(entrepreneur)" title="Andrew Lee (entrepreneur)">Andrew Lee (entrepreneur)</a> (2021/2022-present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_Hae-won" title="Yi Hae-won">Yi Hae-won</a> (2006–2020)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="text-align:left;"><div> <ul><li><sup>#</sup> denotes that the king was deposed and never received a <a href="/wiki/Temple_name" title="Temple name">temple name</a>.</li></ul> <div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Those who were listed were not reigning monarchs but posthumously recognized; the year following means the year of recognition.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Only the crown princes that did not become the king were listed; the former year indicates when one officially became the heir and the latter one is that when one died/deposed. Those who ascended to the throne were excluded in the list for simplification.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The title given to the biological father, who never reigned, of the kings who were adopted as the heir to a precedent king.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <i><a href="/wiki/De_jure" title="De jure">de jure</a></i> monarch of Korea during the era was the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_Japan" title="Emperor of Japan">Emperor of Japan</a>, while the former Korean emperors were given nobility title "King Yi" instead.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p><span class="geo-inline-hidden noexcerpt"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Joseon&params=37.58_N_126.98_E_type:country"><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">37°35′N</span> <span class="longitude">126°59′E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">37.58°N 126.98°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">37.58; 126.98</span></span></span></a></span></span> </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link 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href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4745210-9">Germany</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Chosŏn dynasty, 1392-1910"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh2002012472">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Corée -- 1392-1910 (Époque des Li)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11956678x">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Corée -- 1392-1910 (Époque des Li)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11956678x">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00573702">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" 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<script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-7dbbdd594f-fsl76","wgBackendResponseTime":306,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.280","walltime":"2.722","ppvisitednodes":{"value":25051,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":576046,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":40214,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":20,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":77,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":523550,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2279.744 1 -total"," 30.25% 689.597 5 Template:Reflist"," 18.32% 417.682 1 Template:Infobox_country"," 12.51% 285.146 56 Template:Cite_book"," 8.88% 202.377 29 Template:Cite_web"," 8.08% 184.113 69 Template:Lang"," 6.05% 137.854 1 Template:History_of_Korea"," 5.41% 123.265 14 Template:Small"," 5.36% 122.268 5 Template:Navbox"," 5.15% 117.520 38 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= 1,\n [\"CITEREFKennedy1943\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKi-joo_Park_and_Donghyu_Yang2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKim\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFKim2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKim2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKim2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKim2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKim_Haboush2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKorea_Heritage_Service2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKyunghee,_Ryun\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLankovKim_EunHaeng2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLarsen2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee,_Soyoung2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeeLee2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeeMillerParkYi2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeede_Bary1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeonard1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLi,_Jun-gyu_(이준규)2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLin2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNahm1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrchistonGreenStrom2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPalais1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPark_Jong-hyo_(박종효),_former_professor_at_Lomonosov_Moscow_State_University2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRheeYang1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobinson2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRodriguez1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRutt\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFRutt1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeo2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeth2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeth2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeth2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeung1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShillony2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShillony2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSung-Ho_Kang2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSuran,_Yoo\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTsai1996\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFWalker1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWang2010\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFZhao2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREF原田2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREF김지남1888\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREF박영규2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREF백석기1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREF아틀라스_한국사_편찬위원회2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREF오2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREF이2007\"] = 1,\n [\"三谷\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Britannica\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 10,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite ECCP\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 56,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 7,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 29,\n [\"Clarify\"] = 1,\n [\"Clear\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Coord\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Disputed section\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 1,\n [\"Five Grand Palaces (Joseon)\"] = 1,\n [\"Google books\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 9,\n [\"History of Korea\"] = 1,\n [\"House of Yi\"] = 1,\n [\"IPA\"] = 4,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN?\"] = 2,\n [\"Ill\"] = 4,\n [\"In lang\"] = 2,\n [\"Infobox Korean name\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox country\"] = 1,\n [\"Interlanguage link\"] = 1,\n [\"Joseon\"] = 1,\n [\"Korean\"] = 34,\n [\"Lang\"] = 4,\n [\"Main\"] = 19,\n [\"More citations needed section\"] = 4,\n [\"Nobold\"] = 3,\n [\"NoteFoot\"] = 1,\n [\"NoteTag\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Nowrap\"] = 1,\n [\"Other uses\"] = 1,\n [\"Overly detailed\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 2,\n [\"Refn\"] = 1,\n [\"Respell\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 7,\n [\"See also\"] = 7,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 15,\n [\"Sfnm\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Small\"] = 14,\n [\"TOC limit\"] = 1,\n [\"Unbalanced opinion\"] = 1,\n [\"Use mdy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 17,\n [\"Wiktionary\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-7dbbdd594f-srs5p","timestamp":"20250406150202","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Joseon","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Joseon","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q28179","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q28179","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, 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