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id="toc-From_anecdote_to_laboratory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_behavioristic_half-century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_behavioristic_half-century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>The behavioristic half-century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_behavioristic_half-century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_cognitive_revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_cognitive_revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>The cognitive revolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_cognitive_revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_questions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_questions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Research questions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Research_questions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Research questions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Research_questions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Perception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Perception</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Perception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Attention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Attention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Attention</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Attention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Selective_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selective_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Selective learning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Selective_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Divided_attention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Divided_attention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Divided attention</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Divided_attention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Visual_search_and_attentional_priming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Visual_search_and_attentional_priming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>Visual search and attentional priming</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Visual_search_and_attentional_priming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Concepts_and_categories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concepts_and_categories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Concepts and categories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Concepts_and_categories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Methods_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Methods_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Perceptual_categories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perceptual_categories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Perceptual categories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Perceptual_categories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Natural_categories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_categories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.3</span> <span>Natural categories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_categories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Functional_or_associative_categories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Functional_or_associative_categories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.4</span> <span>Functional or associative categories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Functional_or_associative_categories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relational_or_abstract_categories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relational_or_abstract_categories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.5</span> <span>Relational or abstract categories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relational_or_abstract_categories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rule_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rule_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.6</span> <span>Rule learning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rule_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Memory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Memory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Memory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Memory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Methods_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1</span> <span>Methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Methods_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Habituation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Habituation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1.1</span> <span>Habituation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Habituation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Delayed_response" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Delayed_response"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1.2</span> <span>Delayed response</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Delayed_response-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radial_arm_maze" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radial_arm_maze"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1.3</span> <span>Radial arm maze</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radial_arm_maze-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Water_maze" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_maze"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1.4</span> <span>Water maze</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water_maze-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Novel_object_recognition_test" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Novel_object_recognition_test"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1.5</span> <span>Novel object recognition test</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Novel_object_recognition_test-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spatial_cognition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spatial_cognition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Spatial cognition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spatial_cognition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Long-distance_navigation;_homing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Long-distance_navigation;_homing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.1</span> <span>Long-distance navigation; homing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Long-distance_navigation;_homing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Timing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Timing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Time_of_day:_circadian_rhythms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Time_of_day:_circadian_rhythms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6.1</span> <span>Time of day: circadian rhythms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Time_of_day:_circadian_rhythms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interval_timing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interval_timing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6.2</span> <span>Interval timing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interval_timing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tool_and_weapon_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tool_and_weapon_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Tool and weapon use</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tool_and_weapon_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mammals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mammals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7.1</span> <span>Mammals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mammals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Birds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Birds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7.2</span> <span>Birds</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Birds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fish" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fish"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7.3</span> <span>Fish</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fish-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Invertebrates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Invertebrates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7.4</span> <span>Invertebrates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Invertebrates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reasoning_and_problem_solving" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reasoning_and_problem_solving"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Reasoning and problem solving</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reasoning_and_problem_solving-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cognitive_bias" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cognitive_bias"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.9</span> <span>Cognitive bias</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cognitive_bias-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.10</span> <span>Language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Insight" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Insight"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.11</span> <span>Insight</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Insight-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Numeracy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Numeracy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.12</span> <span>Numeracy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Numeracy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sapience" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sapience"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.13</span> <span>Sapience</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sapience-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theory_of_mind" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theory_of_mind"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.14</span> <span>Theory of mind</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theory_of_mind-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consciousness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consciousness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.15</span> <span>Consciousness</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consciousness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biological_constraints" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biological_constraints"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Biological constraints</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biological_constraints-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Experimental_evidence_against_animal_cognition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Experimental_evidence_against_animal_cognition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Experimental evidence against animal cognition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Experimental_evidence_against_animal_cognition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cognitive_faculty_by_species" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cognitive_faculty_by_species"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Cognitive faculty by species</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cognitive_faculty_by_species-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Animal cognition</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 26 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-26" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">26 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B0%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="ذكاء الحيوانات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ذكاء الحيوانات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82_%D0%B6%D1%8B%D0%B2%D1%91%D0%BB" title="Інтэлект жывёл – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Інтэлект жывёл" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognici%C3%B3_animal" title="Cognició animal – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Cognició animal" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognici%C3%B3n_animal" title="Cognición animal – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cognición animal" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animala_kognaro" title="Animala kognaro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Animala kognaro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B4%E2%80%8C%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%AC%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86" title="هوش‌سنجی جانوران – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="هوش‌سنجی جانوران" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_animale" title="Intelligence animale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Intelligence animale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8F%99%EB%AC%BC_%EC%9D%B8%EC%A7%80" title="동물 인지 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="동물 인지" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB_%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%BF" title="Կենդանիների ինտելեկտ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կենդանիների ինտելեկտ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the scientific journal, see <a href="/wiki/Animal_Cognition" title="Animal Cognition"><i>Animal Cognition</i></a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Macaca_fascicularis_aurea_using_a_stone_tool_-_journal.pone.0072872.g002f.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Macaca_fascicularis_aurea_using_a_stone_tool_-_journal.pone.0072872.g002f.png/220px-Macaca_fascicularis_aurea_using_a_stone_tool_-_journal.pone.0072872.g002f.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Macaca_fascicularis_aurea_using_a_stone_tool_-_journal.pone.0072872.g002f.png/330px-Macaca_fascicularis_aurea_using_a_stone_tool_-_journal.pone.0072872.g002f.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Macaca_fascicularis_aurea_using_a_stone_tool_-_journal.pone.0072872.g002f.png/440px-Macaca_fascicularis_aurea_using_a_stone_tool_-_journal.pone.0072872.g002f.png 2x" data-file-width="481" data-file-height="494" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Crab-eating_macaque" title="Crab-eating macaque">crab-eating macaque</a> using a stone tool to crack open a nut</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Bajan-Birds-Pull-Strings-Two-Wild-Antillean-Species-Enter-the-Select-Club-of-String-Pullers-pone.0156112.s005.ogv/220px--Bajan-Birds-Pull-Strings-Two-Wild-Antillean-Species-Enter-the-Select-Club-of-String-Pullers-pone.0156112.s005.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="176" data-durationhint="16" data-mwtitle="Bajan-Birds-Pull-Strings-Two-Wild-Antillean-Species-Enter-the-Select-Club-of-String-Pullers-pone.0156112.s005.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Bajan-Birds-Pull-Strings-Two-Wild-Antillean-Species-Enter-the-Select-Club-of-String-Pullers-pone.0156112.s005.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/31/Bajan-Birds-Pull-Strings-Two-Wild-Antillean-Species-Enter-the-Select-Club-of-String-Pullers-pone.0156112.s005.ogv/Bajan-Birds-Pull-Strings-Two-Wild-Antillean-Species-Enter-the-Select-Club-of-String-Pullers-pone.0156112.s005.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="600" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Bajan-Birds-Pull-Strings-Two-Wild-Antillean-Species-Enter-the-Select-Club-of-String-Pullers-pone.0156112.s005.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="720" data-height="576" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/31/Bajan-Birds-Pull-Strings-Two-Wild-Antillean-Species-Enter-the-Select-Club-of-String-Pullers-pone.0156112.s005.ogv/Bajan-Birds-Pull-Strings-Two-Wild-Antillean-Species-Enter-the-Select-Club-of-String-Pullers-pone.0156112.s005.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="180" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/31/Bajan-Birds-Pull-Strings-Two-Wild-Antillean-Species-Enter-the-Select-Club-of-String-Pullers-pone.0156112.s005.ogv/Bajan-Birds-Pull-Strings-Two-Wild-Antillean-Species-Enter-the-Select-Club-of-String-Pullers-pone.0156112.s005.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="300" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/31/Bajan-Birds-Pull-Strings-Two-Wild-Antillean-Species-Enter-the-Select-Club-of-String-Pullers-pone.0156112.s005.ogv/Bajan-Birds-Pull-Strings-Two-Wild-Antillean-Species-Enter-the-Select-Club-of-String-Pullers-pone.0156112.s005.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="450" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/31/Bajan-Birds-Pull-Strings-Two-Wild-Antillean-Species-Enter-the-Select-Club-of-String-Pullers-pone.0156112.s005.ogv/Bajan-Birds-Pull-Strings-Two-Wild-Antillean-Species-Enter-the-Select-Club-of-String-Pullers-pone.0156112.s005.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="450" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Experiments like the string-pulling task performed here by a <a href="/wiki/Carib_grackle" title="Carib grackle">Carib grackle</a> provide insights into animal cognition.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Animal cognition</b> encompasses the mental capacities of <a href="/wiki/Non-human" title="Non-human">non-human</a> <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Insect_cognition" title="Insect cognition">insect cognition</a>. The study of animal conditioning and learning used in this field was developed from <a href="/wiki/Comparative_psychology" title="Comparative psychology">comparative psychology</a>. It has also been strongly influenced by research in <a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">ethology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_ecology" title="Behavioral ecology">behavioral ecology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">evolutionary psychology</a>; the alternative name <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_ethology" title="Cognitive ethology">cognitive ethology</a> is sometimes used. Many behaviors associated with the term <i>animal intelligence</i> are also subsumed within animal cognition.<sup id="cite_ref-Shettleworth_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shettleworth-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Researchers have examined animal <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognition</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mammals" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammals">mammals</a> (especially <a href="/wiki/Primate_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Primate intelligence">primates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cetacean_intelligence" title="Cetacean intelligence">cetaceans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elephant_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Elephant intelligence">elephants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bear" title="Bear">bears</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dog_intelligence" title="Dog intelligence">dogs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cat_intelligence" title="Cat intelligence">cats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pig_intelligence" title="Pig intelligence">pigs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Horse" title="Horse">horses</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Krueger_heinze_2008_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krueger_heinze_2008-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Krueger_farmer_heinze_2008_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krueger_farmer_heinze_2008-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Schuetz_Farmer_Krueger_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schuetz_Farmer_Krueger-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cattle" title="Cattle">cattle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Raccoons" class="mw-redirect" title="Raccoons">raccoons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rodents" class="mw-redirect" title="Rodents">rodents</a>), <a href="/wiki/Bird_intelligence" title="Bird intelligence">birds</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Parrots#Intelligence_and_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Parrots">parrots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fowl" title="Fowl">fowl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corvidae#Intelligence" title="Corvidae">corvids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pigeon_intelligence" title="Pigeon intelligence">pigeons</a>), <a href="/wiki/Reptiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Reptiles">reptiles</a> (<a href="/wiki/Monitor_lizard#Intelligence" title="Monitor lizard">lizards</a>, <a href="/wiki/Snakes" class="mw-redirect" title="Snakes">snakes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Turtle" title="Turtle">turtles</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Invertebrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Invertebrates">invertebrates</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Cephalopod_intelligence" title="Cephalopod intelligence">cephalopods</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pain_in_invertebrates#Cognitive_abilities" title="Pain in invertebrates">spiders</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pain_in_invertebrates#Cognitive_abilities" title="Pain in invertebrates">insects</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Shettleworth2_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shettleworth2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_background">Historical background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Historical background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Earliest_inferences">Earliest inferences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Earliest inferences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Drinking_frooti_standing_at_edge.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Drinking_frooti_standing_at_edge.jpg/220px-Drinking_frooti_standing_at_edge.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="335" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Drinking_frooti_standing_at_edge.jpg/330px-Drinking_frooti_standing_at_edge.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Drinking_frooti_standing_at_edge.jpg/440px-Drinking_frooti_standing_at_edge.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1662" data-file-height="2529" /></a><figcaption>A monkey drinking <a href="/wiki/Frooti" title="Frooti">Frooti</a> from a juice box using its hands</figcaption></figure> <p>The mind and behavior of non-human animals has captivated the human imagination for centuries. Many writers, such as <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a>, have speculated about the presence or absence of the animal mind.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These speculations led to many observations of animal behavior before modern science and testing were available. This ultimately resulted in the creation of multiple hypotheses about animal intelligence. </p><p>One of <a href="/wiki/Aesop%27s_Fables" title="Aesop's Fables">Aesop's Fables</a> was <i><a href="/wiki/The_Crow_and_the_Pitcher" title="The Crow and the Pitcher">The Crow and the Pitcher</a></i>, in which a crow drops pebbles into a vessel of water until he is able to drink. This was a relatively accurate reflection of the capability of <a href="/wiki/Corvidae" title="Corvidae">corvids</a> to understand water displacement.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Roman naturalist <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> was the earliest to attest that said story reflects the behavior of real-life corvids.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_biology" title="Aristotle's biology">his biology</a>, hypothesized a <a href="/wiki/Causal_chain" class="mw-redirect" title="Causal chain">causal chain</a> where an animal's sense organs transmitted information to an organ capable of making decisions, and then to a motor organ. Despite Aristotle's <a href="/wiki/Cardiocentrism" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiocentrism">cardiocentrism</a> (mistaken belief that cognition occurred in the heart), this approached some modern understandings of <a href="/wiki/Information_processing_(psychology)" title="Information processing (psychology)">information processing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early inferences were not necessarily precise or accurate. Nonetheless, interest in animal mental abilities, and comparisons to humans, increased with early <a href="/wiki/Myrmecology" title="Myrmecology">myrmecology</a>, the study of ant behavior, as well as the classification of humans as primates beginning with <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Morgan's_Canon"><span id="Morgan.27s_Canon"></span>Morgan's Canon</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Morgan's Canon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Morgan%27s_Canon" title="Morgan's Canon">Morgan's Canon</a></div> <p>Coined by 19th-century British psychologist <a href="/wiki/C._Lloyd_Morgan" title="C. Lloyd Morgan">C. Lloyd Morgan</a>, Morgan's Canon remains a fundamental precept of <a href="/wiki/Comparative_psychology" title="Comparative psychology">comparative (animal) psychology</a>. In its developed form, it states that:<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>In no case is an animal activity to be interpreted in terms of higher psychological processes if it can be fairly interpreted in terms of processes which stand lower in the scale of psychological evolution and development.</p></blockquote> <p>In other words, Morgan believed that <a href="/wiki/Anthropomorphism" title="Anthropomorphism">anthropomorphic</a> approaches to animal behavior were fallacious, and that people should only consider behaviour as, for example, rational, purposive or affectionate, if there is no other explanation in terms of the behaviours of more primitive life-forms to which we do not attribute those faculties. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="From_anecdote_to_laboratory">From anecdote to laboratory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: From anecdote to laboratory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Comparative_psychology" title="Comparative psychology">Comparative psychology</a></div> <p>Speculation about animal intelligence gradually yielded to scientific study after <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin</a> placed humans and animals on a continuum, although Darwin's largely anecdotal approach to the cognition topic would not pass scientific muster later on.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This method would be expanded by his protégé <a href="/wiki/George_Romanes" title="George Romanes">George J. Romanes</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who played a key role in the defense of <a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a> and its refinement over the years. Still, Romanes is most famous for two major flaws in his work: his focus on anecdotal observations and entrenched <a href="/wiki/Anthropomorphism" title="Anthropomorphism">anthropomorphism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dewsbury,_D._1978_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dewsbury,_D._1978-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unsatisfied with the previous approach, <a href="/wiki/E._L._Thorndike" class="mw-redirect" title="E. L. Thorndike">E. L. Thorndike</a> brought animal behavior into the laboratory for objective scrutiny. Thorndike's careful observations of the escape of cats, dogs, and chicks from puzzle boxes led him to conclude that what appears to the naive human observer to be intelligent behavior may be strictly attributable to simple associations. According to Thorndike, using Morgan's Canon, the inference of animal reason, insight, or consciousness is unnecessary and misleading.<sup id="cite_ref-cats_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cats-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At about the same time, <a href="/wiki/I._P._Pavlov" class="mw-redirect" title="I. P. Pavlov">I. P. Pavlov</a> began his seminal studies of conditioned reflexes in dogs. Pavlov quickly abandoned attempts to infer canine mental processes; such attempts, he said, led only to disagreement and confusion. He was, however, willing to propose unseen physiological processes that might explain his observations.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_behavioristic_half-century">The behavioristic half-century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The behavioristic half-century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The work of Thorndike, Pavlov and a little later of the outspoken behaviorist <a href="/wiki/John_B._Watson" title="John B. Watson">John B. Watson</a><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> set the direction of much research on animal behavior for more than half a century. During this time there was considerable progress in understanding simple associations; notably, around 1930 the differences between Thorndike's <a href="/wiki/Operant_conditioning" title="Operant conditioning">instrumental (or operant) conditioning</a> and Pavlov's <a href="/wiki/Classical_conditioning" title="Classical conditioning">classical (or Pavlovian) conditioning</a> were clarified, first by Miller and Kanorski, and then by <a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">B. F. Skinner</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many experiments on conditioning followed; they generated some complex theories,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but they made little or no reference to intervening mental processes. Probably the most explicit dismissal of the idea that mental processes control behavior was the <a href="/wiki/Radical_behaviorism" title="Radical behaviorism">radical behaviorism</a> of Skinner. This view seeks to explain behavior, including "private events" like mental images, solely by reference to the environmental contingencies impinging on the human or animal.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite the predominantly behaviorist orientation of research before 1960, the rejection of mental processes in animals was not universal during those years. Influential exceptions included, for example, <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_K%C3%B6hler" title="Wolfgang Köhler">Wolfgang Köhler</a> and his insightful chimpanzees<sup id="cite_ref-Köhler_1917_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Köhler_1917-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Tolman" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Tolman">Edward Tolman</a> whose proposed <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_map" title="Cognitive map">cognitive map</a> was a significant contribution to subsequent cognitive research in both humans and animals.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_cognitive_revolution">The cognitive revolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The cognitive revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_revolution" title="Cognitive revolution">Cognitive revolution</a></div> <p>Beginning around 1960, a "cognitive revolution" in research on humans<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> gradually spurred a similar transformation of research with animals. Inference to processes not directly observable became acceptable and then commonplace. An important proponent of this shift in thinking was <a href="/wiki/Donald_O._Hebb" title="Donald O. Hebb">Donald O. Hebb</a>, who argued that "mind" is simply a name for processes in the head that control complex behavior, and that it is both necessary and possible to infer those processes from behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Animals came to be seen as "goal seeking agents that acquire, store, retrieve, and internally process information at many levels of cognitive complexity".<sup id="cite_ref-Menzel_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Menzel-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods">Methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The acceleration of research on animal cognition in the last 50 years or so has led to a rapid expansion in the variety of species studied and methods employed. The remarkable behavior of large-brained animals such as <a href="/wiki/Primates" class="mw-redirect" title="Primates">primates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cetacea" title="Cetacea">cetacea</a> have claimed special attention, but all sorts of animals large and small (birds, fish, ants, bees, and others) have been brought into the laboratory or observed in carefully controlled field studies. In the laboratory, animals push levers, pull strings, dig for food, swim in water mazes, or respond to images on computer screens to get information for discrimination, <a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">attention</a>, <a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">memory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Categorization" class="mw-redirect" title="Categorization">categorization</a> experiments.<sup id="cite_ref-Wass_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wass-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Careful field studies explore memory for food caches, navigation by stars,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> communication, tool use, identification of <a href="/wiki/Conspecificity" class="mw-redirect" title="Conspecificity">conspecifics</a>, and many other matters. Studies often focus on the behavior of animals in their natural environments and discuss the putative function of the behavior for the propagation and survival of the species. These developments reflect an increased cross-fertilization from related fields such as <a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">ethology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_ecology" title="Behavioral ecology">behavioral ecology</a>. Contributions from <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">behavioral neuroscience</a> are beginning to clarify the physiological substrate of some inferred mental process. </p><p>Some researchers have made effective use of a <a href="/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Piagetian</a> methodology, taking tasks which human children are known to master at different stages of development and investigating which of them can be performed by particular species. Others have been inspired by concerns for <a href="/wiki/Animal_welfare" title="Animal welfare">animal welfare</a> and the management of domestic species; for example, <a href="/wiki/Temple_Grandin" title="Temple Grandin">Temple Grandin</a> has harnessed her unique expertise in animal welfare and the ethical treatment of farm livestock to highlight underlying similarities between humans and other animals.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From a methodological point of view, one of the main risks in this sort of work is <a href="/wiki/Anthropomorphism" title="Anthropomorphism">anthropomorphism</a>, the tendency to interpret an animal's behavior in terms of human <a href="/wiki/Feeling" title="Feeling">feelings</a>, thoughts, and motivations.<sup id="cite_ref-Shettleworth_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shettleworth-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_questions">Research questions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Research questions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chimpanzee_and_stick.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Chimpanzee_and_stick.jpg/250px-Chimpanzee_and_stick.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Chimpanzee_and_stick.jpg/375px-Chimpanzee_and_stick.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Chimpanzee_and_stick.jpg/500px-Chimpanzee_and_stick.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>The common chimpanzee can use tools. This individual is using a stick to get food.</figcaption></figure> <p>Human and non-human animal cognition have much in common, and this is reflected in the research summarized below; most of the headings found here might also appear in an article on human cognition. Of course, research in the two also differs in important respects. Notably, much research with humans either studies or involves language, and much research with animals is related directly or indirectly to behaviors important to survival in natural settings. Following are summaries of some of the major areas of research in animal cognition. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Perception">Perception</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Perception"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Animals process information from eyes, ears, and other sensory organs to perceive the environment. Perceptual processes have been studied in many species, with results that are often similar to those in humans. Equally interesting are those perceptual processes that differ from, or go beyond those found in humans, such as <a href="/wiki/Animal_echolocation" title="Animal echolocation">echolocation</a> in bats and dolphins, motion detection by <a href="/wiki/Lateral_line" title="Lateral line">skin receptors</a> in fish, and extraordinary visual acuity, motion sensitivity and ability to see ultraviolet light in some <a href="/wiki/Bird_vision" title="Bird vision">birds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Attention">Attention</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Attention"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Much of what is happening in the world at any moment is irrelevant to current behavior. <a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">Attention</a> refers to mental processes that select relevant information, inhibit irrelevant information, and switch among these as the situation demands.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Often the selective process is tuned before relevant information appears; such expectation makes for rapid selection of key stimuli when they become available. A large body of research has explored the way attention and expectation affect the behavior of non-human animals, and much of this work suggests that attention operates in birds, mammals and reptiles in much the same way that it does in humans.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Selective_learning">Selective learning</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Selective learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Animals trained to discriminate between two stimuli, say black versus white, can be said to attend to the "brightness dimension", but this says little about whether this dimension is selected in preference to others. More enlightenment comes from experiments that allow the animal to choose from several alternatives. For example, several studies have shown that performance is better on, for example, a color discrimination (e.g. blue vs green) after the animal has learned another color discrimination (e.g. red vs orange) than it is after training on a different dimension such as an X shape versus an O shape. The reverse effect happens after training on forms. Thus, the earlier learning appears to affect which dimension, color or form, the animal will attend to.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other experiments have shown that after animals have learned to respond to one aspect of the environment responsiveness to other aspects is suppressed. In "blocking", for example, an animal is conditioned to respond to one stimulus ("A") by pairing that stimulus with reward or punishment. After the animal responds consistently to A, a second stimulus ("B") accompanies A on additional training trials. Later tests with the B stimulus alone elicit little response, suggesting that learning about B has been blocked by prior learning about A.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This result supports the hypothesis that stimuli are neglected if they fail to provide new information. Thus, in the experiment just cited, the animal failed to attend to B because B added no information to that supplied by A. If true, this interpretation is an important insight into attentional processing, but this conclusion remains uncertain because blocking and several related phenomena can be explained by models of conditioning that do not invoke attention.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Divided_attention">Divided attention</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Divided attention"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Attention is a limited resource and is not a none-or-all response: the more attention devoted to one aspect of the environment, the less is available for others.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A number of experiments have studied this in animals. In one experiment, a tone and a light are presented simultaneously to pigeons. The pigeons gain a reward only by choosing the correct combination of the two stimuli (e.g. a high frequency tone together with a yellow light). The birds perform well at this task, presumably by dividing attention between the two stimuli. When only one of the stimuli varies and the other is presented at its rewarded value, discrimination improves on the variable stimulus but discrimination on the alternative stimulus worsens.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These outcomes are consistent with the notion that attention is a limited resource that can be more or less focused among incoming stimuli. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Visual_search_and_attentional_priming">Visual search and attentional priming</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Visual search and attentional priming"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As noted above, the function of attention is to select information that is of special use to the animal. Visual search typically calls for this sort of selection, and search tasks have been used extensively in both humans and animals to determine the characteristics of attentional selection and the factors that control it. </p><p>Experimental research on visual search in animals was initially prompted by field observations published by Luc Tinbergen (1960).<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tinbergen observed that birds are selective when foraging for insects. For example, he found that birds tended to catch the same type of insect repeatedly even though several types were available. Tinbergen suggested that this prey selection was caused by an attentional bias that improved detection of one type of insect while suppressing detection of others. This "attentional priming" is commonly said to result from a pretrial activation of a mental representation of the attended object, which Tinbergen called a "searching image". </p><p>Tinbergen's field observations on priming have been supported by a number of experiments. For example, Pietrewicz and Kamil (1977, 1979)<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> presented blue jays with pictures of tree trunks upon which rested either a moth of species A, a moth of species B, or no moth at all. The birds were rewarded for pecks at a picture showing a moth. Crucially, the probability with which a particular species of moth was detected was higher after repeated trials with that species (e.g. A, A, A,...) than it was after a mixture of trials (e.g. A, B, B, A, B, A, A...). These results suggest again that sequential encounters with an object can establish an attentional predisposition to see the object. </p><p>Another way to produce attentional priming in search is to provide an advance signal that is associated with the target. For example, if a person hears a song sparrow he or she may be predisposed to detect a song sparrow in a shrub, or among other birds. A number of experiments have reproduced this effect in animal subjects.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Still other experiments have explored nature of stimulus factors that affect the speed and accuracy of visual search. For example, the time taken to find a single target increases as the number of items in the visual field increases. This rise in reaction time is steep if the distracters are similar to the target, less steep if they are dissimilar, and may not occur if the distracters are very different from the target in form or color.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Concepts_and_categories">Concepts and categories</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Concepts and categories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fundamental but difficult to define, the <a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">concept</a> of "concept" was discussed for hundreds of years by philosophers before it became a focus of psychological study. Concepts enable humans and animals to organize the world into functional groups; the groups may be composed of perceptually similar objects or events, diverse things that have a common function, relationships such as same versus different, or relations among relations such as analogies.<sup id="cite_ref-Cats_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cats-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Extensive discussions on these matters together with many references may be found in Shettleworth (2010)<sup id="cite_ref-Shettleworth_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shettleworth-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wasserman and Zentall (2006)<sup id="cite_ref-Wass_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wass-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in Zentall <i>et al.</i> (2008). The latter is freely available online.<sup id="cite_ref-Zentall_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zentall-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Methods_2">Methods</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most work on animal concepts has been done with visual stimuli, which can easily be constructed and presented in great variety, but auditory and other stimuli have been used as well.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pigeons have been widely used, for they have excellent vision and are readily conditioned to respond to visual targets; other birds and a number of other animals have been studied as well.<sup id="cite_ref-Shettleworth_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shettleworth-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a typical experiment, a bird or other animal confronts a computer monitor on which a large number of pictures appear one by one, and the subject gets a reward for pecking or touching a picture of a category item and no reward for non-category items. Alternatively, a subject may be offered a choice between two or more pictures. Many experiments end with the presentation of items never seen before; successful sorting of these items shows that the animal has not simply learned many specific stimulus-response associations. A related method, sometimes used to study relational concepts, is matching-to-sample. In this task an animal sees one stimulus and then chooses between two or more alternatives, one of which is the same as the first; the animal is then rewarded for choosing the matching stimulus.<sup id="cite_ref-Shettleworth_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shettleworth-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wass_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wass-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zentall_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zentall-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Perceptual_categories">Perceptual categories</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Perceptual categories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Perceptual categorization is said to occur when a person or animal responds in a similar way to a range of stimuli that share common features. For example, a squirrel climbs a tree when it sees Rex, Shep, or Trixie, which suggests that it categorizes all three as something to avoid. This sorting of instances into groups is crucial to survival. Among other things, an animal must categorize if it is to apply learning about one object (e.g. Rex bit me) to new instances of that category (dogs may bite).<sup id="cite_ref-Shettleworth_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shettleworth-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wass_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wass-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zentall_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zentall-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Natural_categories">Natural categories</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Natural categories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many animals readily classify objects by perceived differences in form or color. For example, bees or pigeons quickly learn to choose any red object and reject any green object if red leads to reward and green does not. Seemingly much more difficult is an animal's ability to categorize natural objects that vary a great deal in color and form even while belonging to the same group. In a classic study, <a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Herrnstein" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard J. Herrnstein">Richard J. Herrnstein</a> trained pigeons to respond to the presence or absence of human beings in photographs.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The birds readily learned to peck photos that contained partial or full views of humans and to avoid pecking photos with no human, despite great differences in the form, size, and color of both the humans displayed and in the non-human pictures. In follow-up studies, pigeons categorized other natural objects (e.g. trees) and after training they were able without reward to sort photos they had not seen before .<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar work has been done with natural auditory categories, for example, bird songs.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Honeybees (<i><a href="/wiki/Apis_mellifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Apis mellifera">Apis mellifera</a></i>) are able to form concepts of "up" and "down".<sup id="cite_ref-Avargues-Weber_et_al.,_2011_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Avargues-Weber_et_al.,_2011-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Functional_or_associative_categories">Functional or associative categories</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Functional or associative categories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Perceptually unrelated stimuli may come to be responded to as members of a class if they have a common use or lead to common consequences. An oft-cited study by Vaughan (1988) provides an example.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vaughan divided a large set of unrelated pictures into two arbitrary sets, A and B. Pigeons got food for pecking at pictures in set A but not for pecks at pictures in set B. After they had learned this task fairly well, the outcome was reversed: items in set B led to food and items in set A did not. Then the outcome was reversed again, and then again, and so on. Vaughan found that after 20 or more reversals, associating a reward with a few pictures in one set caused the birds to respond to the other pictures in that set without further reward as if they were thinking "if these pictures in set A bring food, the others in set A must also bring food." That is, the birds now categorized the pictures in each set as functionally equivalent. Several other procedures have yielded similar results.<sup id="cite_ref-Shettleworth_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shettleworth-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zentall_45-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zentall-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Relational_or_abstract_categories">Relational or abstract categories</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Relational or abstract categories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When tested in a simple stimulus matching-to-sample task (described above) many animals readily learn specific item combinations, such as "touch red if the sample is red, touch green if the sample is green." But this does not demonstrate that they distinguish between "same" and "different" as general concepts. Better evidence is provided if, after training, an animal successfully makes a choice that matches a novel sample that it has never seen before. Monkeys and chimpanzees do learn to do this, as do pigeons if they are given a great deal of practice with many different stimuli. However, because the sample is presented first, successful matching might mean that the animal is simply choosing the most recently seen "familiar" item rather than the conceptually "same" item. A number of studies have attempted to distinguish these possibilities, with mixed results.<sup id="cite_ref-Shettleworth_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shettleworth-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zentall_45-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zentall-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rule_learning">Rule learning</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Rule learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The use of rules has sometimes been considered an ability restricted to humans, but a number of experiments have shown evidence of simple rule learning in primates<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and also in other animals. Much of the evidence has come from studies of <a href="/wiki/Sequence_learning" title="Sequence learning">sequence learning</a> in which the "rule" consists of the order in which a series of events occurs. Rule use is shown if the animal learns to discriminate different orders of events and transfers this discrimination to new events arranged in the same order. For example, Murphy <i>et al.</i> (2008)<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> trained rats to discriminate between visual sequences. For one group ABA and BAB were rewarded, where A="bright light" and B="dim light". Other stimulus triplets were not rewarded. The rats learned the visual sequence, although both bright and dim lights were equally associated with reward. More importantly, in a second experiment with auditory stimuli, rats responded correctly to sequences of novel stimuli that were arranged in the same order as those previously learned. Similar sequence learning has been demonstrated in birds and other animals as well.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Memory">Memory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Memory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The categories that have been developed to analyze <a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">human memory</a> (<a href="/wiki/Short_term_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Short term memory">short term memory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Long_term_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Long term memory">long term memory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Working_memory" title="Working memory">working memory</a>) have been applied to the study of animal memory, and some of the phenomena characteristic of human short term memory (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Serial_position_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Serial position effect">serial position effect</a>) have been detected in animals, particularly <a href="/wiki/Monkey" title="Monkey">monkeys</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However most progress has been made in the analysis of <a href="/wiki/Spatial_memory" title="Spatial memory">spatial memory</a>; some of this work has sought to clarify the physiological basis of spatial memory and the role of the <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampus</a>; other work has explored the spatial memory of <a href="/wiki/Scatter-hoarder" class="mw-redirect" title="Scatter-hoarder">scatter-hoarder</a> animals such as <a href="/wiki/Clark%27s_nutcracker" title="Clark's nutcracker">Clark's nutcracker</a>, certain <a href="/wiki/Jay" title="Jay">jays</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tit_(bird)" title="Tit (bird)">tits</a> and certain <a href="/wiki/Squirrel" title="Squirrel">squirrels</a>, whose ecological niches require them to remember the locations of thousands of caches,<sup id="cite_ref-Shettleworth_1-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shettleworth-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> often following radical changes in the environment. </p><p>Memory has been widely investigated in foraging honeybees, <i>Apis mellifera</i>, which use both transient short-term working memory that is non-feeder specific and a feeder specific long-term reference memory.<sup id="cite_ref-Greggers_and_Menzel,_(1993)_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Greggers_and_Menzel,_(1993)-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Menzel,_(1993)_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Menzel,_(1993)-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wustenberg_et_al.,_(1998)_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wustenberg_et_al.,_(1998)-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Memory induced in a free-flying honeybee by a single learning trial lasts for days and, by three learning trials, for a lifetime.<sup id="cite_ref-Hammer_and_Menzel,_(1995)_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hammer_and_Menzel,_(1995)-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Bombus_terrestris" title="Bombus terrestris">Bombus terrestris</a> audax</i> workers vary in their effort investment towards memorising flower locations, with smaller workers less <i>able</i> to be selective and thus less <i>interested</i> in which flowers are richer sugar sources.<sup id="cite_ref-Frasnelli-et-al-2020-Exeter-Physorg_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frasnelli-et-al-2020-Exeter-Physorg-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Frasnelli-et-al-2020_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frasnelli-et-al-2020-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, bigger <i>B. t. audax</i> workers have more carrying capacity and thus more reason to memorise that information, and so they do.<sup id="cite_ref-Frasnelli-et-al-2020-Exeter-Physorg_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frasnelli-et-al-2020-Exeter-Physorg-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Frasnelli-et-al-2020_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frasnelli-et-al-2020-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slugs, <i>Limax flavus</i>, have a short-term memory of approximately 1 min and long-term memory of 1 month.<sup id="cite_ref-Yamada_et_al.,_(1992)_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yamada_et_al.,_(1992)-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Methods_3">Methods</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As in humans, research with animals distinguishes between "working" or "short-term" memory from "reference" or long-term memory. Tests of working memory evaluate memory for events that happened in the recent past, usually within the last few seconds or minutes. Tests of reference memory evaluate memory for regularities such as "pressing a lever brings food" or "children give me peanuts". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Habituation">Habituation</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Habituation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Habituation" title="Habituation">Habituation</a></div> <p>This is one of the simplest tests for memory spanning a short time interval. The test compares an animal's response to a stimulus or event on one occasion to its response on a previous occasion. If the second response differs consistently from the first, the animal must have remembered something about the first, unless some other factor such as motivation, sensory sensitivity, or the test stimulus has changed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Delayed_response">Delayed response</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Delayed response"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Delayed response tasks are often used to study short-term memory in animals. Introduced by Hunter (1913), a typical delayed response task presents an animal with a stimulus such as colored light, and after a short time interval the animal chooses among alternatives that match the stimulus, or are related to the stimulus in some other way. In Hunter's studies, for example, a light appeared briefly in one of three goal boxes and then later the animal chose among the boxes, finding food behind the one that had been lighted.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most research has been done with some variation of the "delayed matching-to-sample" task. For example, in the initial study with this task, a pigeon was presented with a flickering or steady light. Then, a few seconds later, two pecking keys were illuminated, one with a steady light and one with a flickering light. The bird got food if it pecked the key that matched the original stimulus.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A commonly-used variation of the matching-to-sample task requires the animal to use the initial stimulus to control a later choice between different stimuli. For example, if the initial stimulus is a black circle, the animal learns to choose "red" after the delay; if it is a black square, the correct choice is "green". Ingenious variations of this method have been used to explore many aspects of memory, including forgetting due to interference and memory for multiple items.<sup id="cite_ref-Shettleworth_1-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shettleworth-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Radial_arm_maze">Radial arm maze</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Radial arm maze"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Radial_arm_maze" title="Radial arm maze">Radial arm maze</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Radial_arm_maze" title="Radial arm maze">radial arm maze</a> is used to test memory for spatial location and to determine the mental processes by which location is determined. In a radial maze test, an animal is placed on a small platform from which paths lead in various directions to goal boxes; the animal finds food in one or more goal boxes. Having found food in a box, the animal must return to the central platform. The maze may be used to test both reference and working memory. Suppose, for example, that over a number of sessions the same 4 arms of an 8-arm maze always lead to food. If in a later test session the animal goes to a box that has never been baited, this indicates a failure of reference memory. On the other hand, if the animal goes to a box that it has already emptied during the same test session, this indicates a failure of working memory. Various confounding factors, such as odor <a href="/wiki/Sensory_cue" title="Sensory cue">cues</a>, are carefully controlled in such experiments.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Water_maze">Water maze</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Water maze"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Morris_water_navigation_task" title="Morris water navigation task">Morris water navigation task</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Water_maze_(neuroscience)" title="Water maze (neuroscience)">water maze</a> is used to test an animal's memory for spatial location and to discover how an animal is able to determine locations. Typically the maze is a circular tank filled with water that has been made milky so that it is opaque. Located somewhere in the maze is a small platform placed just below the surface of the water. When placed in the tank, the animal swims around until it finds and climbs up on the platform. With practice, the animal finds the platform more and more quickly. Reference memory is assessed by removing the platform and observing the relative amount of time the animal spends swimming in the area where the platform had been located. Visual and other cues in and around the tank may be varied to assess the animal's reliance on landmarks and the geometric relations among them.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Novel_object_recognition_test">Novel object recognition test</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Novel object recognition test"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The novel object recognition (NOR) test is an animal behavior test that is primarily used to assess memory alterations in rodents. It is a simple behavioral test that is based on a rodents innate exploratory behavior. The test is divided into three phases: habituation, training/adaptation and test phase. During the habituation phase the animal is placed in an empty test arena. This is followed by the adaptation phase, where the animal is placed in the arena with two identical objects. In the third phase, the test phase, the animal is placed in the arena with one of the familiar objects from the previous phase and with one novel object. Based on the rodents innate curiosity, the animals that remember the familiar object will spend more time on investigating the novel object.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spatial_cognition">Spatial cognition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Spatial cognition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Whether an animal ranges over a territory measured in square kilometers or square meters, its survival typically depends on its ability to do such things as find a food source and then return to its nest. Sometimes such a task can be performed rather simply, for example by following a chemical trail. Typically, however, the animal must somehow acquire and use information about locations, directions, and distances. The following paragraphs outline some of the ways that animals do this.<sup id="cite_ref-Shettleworth_1-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shettleworth-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pigeon.psy.tufts.edu_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pigeon.psy.tufts.edu-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><b>Beacons</b> Animals often learn what their nest or other goal looks like, and if it is within sight they may simply move toward it; it is said to serve as a "beacon".</li> <li><b>Landmarks</b> When an animal is unable to see its goal, it may learn the appearance of nearby objects and use these landmarks as guides. Researchers working with birds and bees have demonstrated this by moving prominent objects in the vicinity of nest sites, causing returning foragers to hunt for their nest in a new location.<sup id="cite_ref-Shettleworth_1-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shettleworth-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Dead_reckoning" title="Dead reckoning">Dead reckoning</a></b>, also known as "path integration", is the process of computing one's position by starting from a known location and keeping track of the distances and directions subsequently traveled. Classic experiments have shown that the <a href="/wiki/Desert_ant" class="mw-redirect" title="Desert ant">desert ant</a> keeps track of its position in this way as it wanders for many meters searching for food. Though it travels in a randomly twisted path, it heads straight home when it finds food. However, if the ant is picked up and released some meters to the east, for example, it heads for a location displaced by the same amount to the east of its home nest.</li> <li><b>Cognitive maps</b> Some animals appear to construct a <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_map" title="Cognitive map">cognitive map</a> of their surroundings, meaning that they acquire and use information that enables them to compute how far and in what direction to go to get from one location to another. Such a map-like representation is thought to be used, for example, when an animal goes directly from one food source to another even though its previous experience has involved only travel between each source and home.<sup id="cite_ref-Shettleworth_1-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shettleworth-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research in this area<sup id="cite_ref-pigeon.psy.tufts.edu_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pigeon.psy.tufts.edu-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has also explored such topics as the use of geometric properties of the environment by rats and pigeons, and the ability of <a href="/wiki/Rat" title="Rat">rats</a> to represent a spatial pattern in either <a href="/wiki/Radial_arm_maze" title="Radial arm maze">radial arm mazes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Morris_water_navigation_task" title="Morris water navigation task">water mazes</a>. Spatial cognition is used in <a href="/wiki/Visual_search" title="Visual search">visual search</a> when an animal or human searches their environment for specific objects to focus on among other objects in the environment.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Detour behaviour</b> Some animals appear to have an advanced understanding of their spatial environment and will not take the most direct route if this confers an advantage to them. Some jumping spiders take an indirect route to prey rather than the most direct route, thereby indicating flexibility in behaviour and route planning, and possibly insight learning.<sup id="cite_ref-Sherwin,_2001_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sherwin,_2001-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Long-distance_navigation;_homing"><span id="Long-distance_navigation.3B_homing"></span>Long-distance navigation; homing</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Long-distance navigation; homing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Animal_navigation" title="Animal navigation">Animal navigation</a></div> <p>Many animals travel hundreds or thousands of miles in seasonal migrations or returns to breeding grounds. They may be guided by the Sun, the stars, the polarization of light, magnetic cues, olfactory cues, winds, or a combination of these.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It has been hypothesized that animals such as apes and wolves are good at spatial cognition because this skill is necessary for survival. Some researchers argue that this ability may have diminished somewhat in dogs because humans have provided necessities such as food and shelter during some 15,000 years of domestication.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Timing">Timing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Timing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Time_perception" title="Time perception">Time perception</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Time_of_day:_circadian_rhythms">Time of day: circadian rhythms</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Time of day: circadian rhythms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Circadian_rhythms" class="mw-redirect" title="Circadian rhythms">Circadian rhythms</a></div> <p>The behavior of most animals is synchronized with the earth's daily light-dark cycle. Thus, many animals are active during the day, others are active at night, still others near dawn and dusk. Though one might think that these "circadian rhythms" are controlled simply by the presence or absence of light, nearly every animal that has been studied has been shown to have a "biological clock" that yields cycles of activity even when the animal is in constant illumination or darkness.<sup id="cite_ref-Shettleworth_1-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shettleworth-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Circadian rhythms are so automatic and fundamental to living things – they occur even in plants<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – that they are usually discussed separately from cognitive processes, and the reader is referred to the main article (<a href="/wiki/Circadian_rhythms" class="mw-redirect" title="Circadian rhythms">Circadian rhythms</a>) for further information.<sup id="cite_ref-ComparativeTime_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ComparativeTime-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Interval_timing">Interval timing</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Interval timing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Survival often depends on an animal's ability to time intervals. For example, rufous hummingbirds feed on the nectar of flowers, and they often return to the same flower, but only after the flower has had enough time to replenish its supply of nectar. In one experiment hummingbirds fed on artificial flowers that quickly emptied of nectar but were refilled at some fixed time (e.g. twenty minutes) later. The birds learned to come back to the flowers at about the right time, learning the refill rates of up to eight separate flowers and remembering how long ago they had visited each one.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The details of interval timing have been studied in a number of species. One of the most common methods is the "peak procedure". In a typical experiment, a rat in an <a href="/wiki/Operant_chamber" class="mw-redirect" title="Operant chamber">operant chamber</a> presses a lever for food. A light comes on, a lever-press brings a food pellet at a fixed later time, say 10 seconds, and then the light goes off. Timing is measured during occasional test trials on which no food is presented and the light stays on. On these test trials, the rat presses the lever more and more until about 10 sec and then, when no food comes, gradually stops pressing. The time at which the rat presses most on these test trials is taken to be its estimate of the payoff time. </p><p>Experiments using the peak procedure and other methods have shown that animals can time short intervals quite exactly, can time more than one event at once, and can integrate time with spatial and other cues. Such tests have also been used for quantitative tests of theories of animal timing, such as Gibbon's <a href="/wiki/Scalar_expectancy" title="Scalar expectancy">Scalar Expectancy Theory</a> ("SET"),<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Killeen's Behavioral Theory of Timing,<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Machado's Learning to Time model.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No one theory has yet gained unanimous agreement.<sup id="cite_ref-Shettleworth_1-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shettleworth-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tool_and_weapon_use">Tool and weapon use</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Tool and weapon use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tool_use_by_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Tool use by animals">Tool use by animals</a></div> <p>Although tool use was long assumed to be a uniquely human trait, there is now much evidence that many animals use tools, including mammals, birds, fish, cephalopods and insects. Discussions of tool use often involve a debate about what constitutes a "tool", and they often consider the relation of tool use to the animal's intelligence and brain size. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mammals">Mammals</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Mammals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Series of photographs showing a bonobo fishing for termites</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:BonoboFishing01.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/BonoboFishing01.jpeg/200px-BonoboFishing01.jpeg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/BonoboFishing01.jpeg/300px-BonoboFishing01.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/BonoboFishing01.jpeg/400px-BonoboFishing01.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2608" data-file-height="1952" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">A bonobo inserting a stick into a termite mound</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:BonoboFishing04.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/BonoboFishing04.jpeg/200px-BonoboFishing04.jpeg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/BonoboFishing04.jpeg/300px-BonoboFishing04.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/BonoboFishing04.jpeg/400px-BonoboFishing04.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2608" data-file-height="1952" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The bonobo starts "fishing" for the termites.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:BonoboFishing02.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/BonoboFishing02.jpeg/200px-BonoboFishing02.jpeg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/BonoboFishing02.jpeg/300px-BonoboFishing02.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/BonoboFishing02.jpeg/400px-BonoboFishing02.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2608" data-file-height="1952" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The bonobo withdraws the stick and begins eating the termites.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_Bonobo_at_the_San_Diego_Zoo_%22fishing%22_for_termites.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/A_Bonobo_at_the_San_Diego_Zoo_%22fishing%22_for_termites.jpg/200px-A_Bonobo_at_the_San_Diego_Zoo_%22fishing%22_for_termites.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/A_Bonobo_at_the_San_Diego_Zoo_%22fishing%22_for_termites.jpg/300px-A_Bonobo_at_the_San_Diego_Zoo_%22fishing%22_for_termites.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/A_Bonobo_at_the_San_Diego_Zoo_%22fishing%22_for_termites.jpg/400px-A_Bonobo_at_the_San_Diego_Zoo_%22fishing%22_for_termites.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2608" data-file-height="1952" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The bonobo eats the termites extracted with the tool.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Tool use has been reported many times in both wild and captive <a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">primates</a>, particularly the great apes. The use of tools by primates is varied and includes hunting (mammals, invertebrates, fish), collecting honey, processing food (nuts, fruits, vegetables and seeds), collecting water, weapons and shelter. Research in 2007 shows that chimpanzees in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fongoli&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fongoli (page does not exist)">Fongoli</a> <a href="/wiki/Savannah" class="mw-redirect" title="Savannah">savannah</a> sharpen sticks to use as <a href="/wiki/Spear" title="Spear">spears</a> when hunting, considered the first evidence of systematic use of weapons in a species other than humans.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other mammals that spontaneously use tools in the wild or in captivity include <a href="/wiki/Elephant" title="Elephant">elephants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bear" title="Bear">bears</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cetacean" class="mw-redirect" title="Cetacean">cetaceans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sea_otter" title="Sea otter">sea otters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mongoose" title="Mongoose">mongooses</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Birds">Birds</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Birds"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bird_intelligence" title="Bird intelligence">Bird intelligence</a></div> <p>Several species of birds have been observed to use tools in the wild, including warblers, parrots, Egyptian vultures, brown-headed nuthatches, gulls and owls. Some species, such as the <a href="/wiki/Woodpecker_finch" title="Woodpecker finch">woodpecker finch</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Galapagos_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Galapagos Islands">Galapagos Islands</a>, use particular tools as an essential part of their <a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">foraging</a> behavior. However, these behaviors are often quite inflexible and cannot be applied effectively in new situations. A great many species of birds build nests with a wide range of complexities, but although nest-building behaviour fulfills the criteria of some definitions of "tool-use", this is not the case with other definitions. </p><p>Several species of <a href="/wiki/Corvid" class="mw-redirect" title="Corvid">corvids</a> have been trained to use tools in controlled experiments. One species examined extensively under laboratory conditions is the <a href="/wiki/New_Caledonian_crow" title="New Caledonian crow">New Caledonian crow</a>. One individual called "Betty" spontaneously made a wire tool to solve a novel problem. She was being tested to see whether she would select a wire hook rather than a straight wire to pull a little bucket of meat out of a well. Betty tried poking the straight wire at the meat. After a series of failures with this direct approach, she withdrew the wire and began directing it at the bottom of the well, which was secured to its base with duct tape. The wire soon became stuck, whereupon Betty pulled it sideways, bending it and unsticking it. She then inserted the hook into the well and extracted the meat. In all but one of 10 subsequent trials with only straight wire provided, she also made and used a hook in the same manner, but not before trying the straight wire first.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-psycnet_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-psycnet-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another bird that is highly studied for its intelligence is the African Gray Parrot. American animal behaviorist and psychologist Irene Pepperberg vindicated that African Grays possess cognitive abilities. Pepperberg used a bird named "Alex" in her trials and was able to prove that parrots could associate sound and meaning, demolishing long-held theories that birds were only capable of mimicking human voices. Studies by other researchers have determined that African Grays can use deductive reasoning to correctly choose between pairs of boxes containing food and boxes that are empty.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Until Pepperberg began this research in the 1970s, few scientists had studied intelligence in parrots, and few do today. Most inquiries have instead focused on monkeys, chimpanzees, gorillas, and dolphins, all of which are much more difficult to raise, feed, and handle.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the late 1980s, Alex had learned the names of more than 50 different objects, five shapes, and seven colors. He'd also learned what "same" and "different" mean—a step crucial in human intellectual development<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fish">Fish</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Fish"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fish_intelligence" title="Fish intelligence">Fish intelligence</a></div> <p>Several species of <a href="/wiki/Wrasses" class="mw-redirect" title="Wrasses">wrasses</a> have been observed using rocks as anvils to crack <a href="/wiki/Bivalve" class="mw-redirect" title="Bivalve">bivalve</a> (scallops, urchins and clams) shells. This behavior was first filmed<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in an orange-dotted tuskfish (<i>Choerodon anchorago</i>) in 2009 by Giacomo Bernardi. The fish fans sand to unearth the bivalve, takes it into its mouth, swims several meters to a rock, which it then uses as an anvil by smashing the mollusc apart with sideward thrashes of the head. This behaviour has also been recorded in a <a href="/wiki/Blackspot_tuskfish" title="Blackspot tuskfish">blackspot tuskfish</a> (<i>Choerodon schoenleinii</i>) on Australia's Great Barrier Reef, yellowhead wrasse (<i><a href="/wiki/Halichoeres_garnoti" class="mw-redirect" title="Halichoeres garnoti">Halichoeres garnoti</a></i>) in Florida and a six-bar wrasse (<i><a href="/wiki/Thalassoma_hardwicke" class="mw-redirect" title="Thalassoma hardwicke">Thalassoma hardwicke</a></i>) in an aquarium setting. These species are at opposite ends of the phylogenetic tree in this <a href="/wiki/Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">family</a>, so this behaviour may be a deep-seated trait in all wrasses.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Invertebrates">Invertebrates</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Invertebrates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cephalopod_intelligence" title="Cephalopod intelligence">Cephalopod intelligence</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Octopus_shell.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Octopus_shell.jpg/220px-Octopus_shell.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Octopus_shell.jpg/330px-Octopus_shell.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Octopus_shell.jpg/440px-Octopus_shell.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Octopus" title="Octopus">octopus</a> traveling with shells collected for protection. Despite evolving independently from humans for over 600 million years, octopuses demonstrate <a href="/wiki/Problem_solving" title="Problem solving">problem-solving</a> abilities, adaptive learning, and likely <a href="/wiki/Sentience" title="Sentience">sentience</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Cephalopod" title="Cephalopod">Cephalopods</a> are capable of complex tasks, thus earning them the reputation of being among the smartest of invertebrates. For example, octopuses can open jars to get the contents inside and have remarkable ability to learn new skills from the moment they are born.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some cephalopods are known to use <a href="/wiki/Coconut" title="Coconut">coconut</a> shells for protection or <a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">camouflage</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Defensive_tool_use_in_a_coconut-car_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Defensive_tool_use_in_a_coconut-car-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cephalopod cognitive evolution is hypothesized to have been shaped primarily by predatory and foraging pressures, but a challenging mating context may also have played a role.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ants of the species <i><a href="/wiki/Conomyrma_bicolor" class="mw-redirect" title="Conomyrma bicolor">Conomyrma bicolor</a></i> pick up stones and other small objects with their mandibles and drop them down the vertical entrances of rival colonies, allowing workers to forage for food without competition.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reasoning_and_problem_solving">Reasoning and problem solving</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Reasoning and problem solving"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It is clear that animals of quite a range of species are capable of solving problems that appear to require abstract reasoning;<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wolfgang Köhler's (1917) work with chimpanzees is a famous early example. He observed that chimpanzees did not use trial and error to solve problems such as retrieving bananas hung out of reach. Instead, they behaved in a manner that was "unwaveringly purposeful", spontaneously placing boxes so that they could climb to reach the fruit.<sup id="cite_ref-Köhler_1917_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Köhler_1917-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern research has identified similar behavior in animals usually thought of as much less intelligent, if appropriate pre-training is given.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Causal_Reasoning_(Psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Causal Reasoning (Psychology)">Causal reasoning</a> has also been observed in rooks and New Caledonian crows.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It has been shown that <a href="/wiki/Barbados_bullfinch" title="Barbados bullfinch">Barbados bullfinches</a> (<i>Loxigilla barbadensis</i>) from urbanized areas are better at innovative problem-solving tasks than bullfinches from rural environments, but that they did not differ in colour discrimination learning.<sup id="cite_ref-Audet_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Audet-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cognitive_bias">Cognitive bias</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Cognitive bias"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">Cognitive bias</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Glass-of-water.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Glass-of-water.jpg/150px-Glass-of-water.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Glass-of-water.jpg/225px-Glass-of-water.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Glass-of-water.jpg/300px-Glass-of-water.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1573" data-file-height="2302" /></a><figcaption>Is the glass half empty or half full?</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>cognitive bias</b> refers to a systematic pattern of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment, whereby inferences about other individuals or situations may be drawn in an illogical fashion. </p><p>Cognitive bias is sometimes illustrated by using answers to the question "<a href="/wiki/Is_the_glass_half_empty_or_half_full%3F" title="Is the glass half empty or half full?">Is the glass half empty or half full?</a>". Choosing "half empty" is supposed to indicate pessimism whereas choosing "half full" indicates optimism. To test this in animals, an individual is trained to anticipate that stimulus A, e.g. a 100 Hz tone, precedes a positive event, e.g. highly desired food is delivered when a lever is pressed by the animal. The same individual is trained to anticipate that stimulus B, e.g. a 900 Hz tone, precedes a negative event, e.g. bland food is delivered when the animal presses a lever. The animal is then tested by being given an intermediate stimulus C, e.g. a 500 Hz tone, and observing whether the animal presses the lever associated with the positive or negative reward. This has been suggested to indicate whether the animal is in a positive or negative mood.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a study that used this approach, rats that were playfully tickled responded differently than rats that were simply handled. The rats that had been tickled were more optimistic than the handled rats.<sup id="cite_ref-Rygula_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rygula-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The authors suggested that they had demonstrated "...for the first time a link between the directly measured positive affective state and decision making under uncertainty in an animal model". </p><p>There is some evidence for cognitive bias in a number of species, including rats, dogs, rhesus macaques, sheep, chicks, starlings and honeybees.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language">Language</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Animal_language" title="Animal language">Animal language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human-animal_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Human-animal communication">Human-animal communication</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Talking_animal" title="Talking animal">Talking animal</a></div> <p>The modeling of human language in animals is known as <a href="/wiki/Animal_language" title="Animal language">animal language</a> research. In addition to the ape-language experiments mentioned above, there have also been more or less successful attempts to teach language or language-like behavior to some non-primate species, including <a href="/wiki/Parrots" class="mw-redirect" title="Parrots">parrots</a> and <a href="/wiki/Great_spotted_woodpecker" title="Great spotted woodpecker">great spotted woodpeckers</a>. Arguing from his own results with the animal <a href="/wiki/Nim_Chimpsky" title="Nim Chimpsky">Nim Chimpsky</a> and his analysis of others results, Herbert Terrace criticized the idea that chimps can produce new sentences.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid504995_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid504995-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shortly thereafter <a href="/wiki/Louis_Herman" title="Louis Herman">Louis Herman</a> published research on artificial language comprehension in the bottlenose dolphin.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though this sort of research has been controversial, especially among <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_linguistics" title="Cognitive linguistics">cognitive linguists</a>, many researchers agree that many animals can understand the meaning of individual words, and that some may understand simple sentences and syntactic variations, but there is little evidence that any animal can produce new strings of symbols that correspond to new sentences.<sup id="cite_ref-Shettleworth_1-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shettleworth-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Insight">Insight</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Insight"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_K%C3%B6hler" title="Wolfgang Köhler">Wolfgang Köhler</a> is usually credited with introducing the concept of insight into experimental psychology.<sup id="cite_ref-psycnet_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-psycnet-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Working with chimpanzees, Köhler came to dispute <a href="/wiki/Edward_Thorndike" title="Edward Thorndike">Edward Thorndike</a>'s theory that animals must solve problems gradually, by trial and error. He said that Thorndike's animals could only use trial and error because the situation precluded other forms of problem solving. He provided chimps with a relatively unstructured situation, and he observed <a href="/wiki/Eureka_effect" title="Eureka effect">sudden "ah-ha!"</a> insightful changes of behavior, as, for example, when a chimp suddenly moved a box into position so that it could retrieve a banana.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recently, Asian elephants (<i>Elephas maximus</i>) were shown to exhibit similar insightful problem solving. A male was observed moving a box to a position where it could be stood upon to reach food that had been deliberately hung out of reach.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Numeracy">Numeracy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Numeracy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Number_sense_in_animals" title="Number sense in animals">Number sense in animals</a></div> <p>A variety of studies indicates that animals are able to use and communicate quantitative information, and that some can count in a rudimentary way. Some examples of this research follow. </p><p>In one study, rhesus monkeys viewed visual displays containing, for example, 1, 2, 3, or 4 items of different sorts. They were trained to respond to them in several ways involving numerical ordering, for example touching "1" first, "2" second and so on. When tested with displays containing items they had never seen before, they continued to respond to them in order. The authors conclude that monkeys can represent the numerosities 1 to 9 at least on an ordinal scale.<sup id="cite_ref-Brannon_2000_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brannon_2000-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ants" class="mw-redirect" title="Ants">Ants</a> are able to use quantitative values and transmit this information.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, ants of several species are able to estimate quite precisely numbers of encounters with members of other colonies on their feeding territories.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, ants of some species can count up to 20 and add and subtract numbers within 5.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has been demonstrated using carefully crafted experiments based on measuring the time it takes for a scouting ant to pass the information to its team about the branch of an experimental maze on which food can be found. </p><p>Numeracy has been described in the yellow mealworm beetle (<i><a href="/wiki/Tenebrio_molitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenebrio molitor">Tenebrio molitor</a></i>)<sup id="cite_ref-Carazo_et_al.,_2009_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carazo_et_al.,_2009-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the honeybee.<sup id="cite_ref-Dacke_and_Srinivasan,_2008_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dacke_and_Srinivasan,_2008-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Western_lowland_gorilla" title="Western lowland gorilla">Western lowland gorillas</a> given the choice between two food trays demonstrated the ability to choose the tray with more food items at a rate higher than chance after training.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a similar task, <a href="/wiki/Common_chimpanzee" class="mw-redirect" title="Common chimpanzee">chimpanzees</a> chose the option with the larger amount of food.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Salamander" title="Salamander">Salamanders</a> given a choice between two displays with differing amounts of fruit flies, used as a food reward, reliably choose the display with more flies, as shown in a particular experiment.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other experiments have been conducted that show animals' abilities to differentiate between non-food quantities. <a href="/wiki/American_black_bear" title="American black bear">American black bears</a> demonstrated quantity differentiation abilities in a task with a computer screen. The bears were trained to touch a computer monitor with a paw or nose to choose a quantity of dots in one of two boxes on the screen. Each bear was trained with <a href="/wiki/Reinforcement" title="Reinforcement">reinforcement</a> to pick a larger or smaller amount. During training, the bears were rewarded with food for a correct response. All bears performed better than what random error predicted on the trials with static, non-moving dots, indicating that they could differentiate between the two quantities. The bears choosing correctly in congruent (number of dots coincided with area of the dots) and incongruent (number of dots did not coincide with area of the dots) trials suggests that they were indeed choosing between quantities that appeared on the screen, not just a larger or smaller <a href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">retinal image</a>, which would indicate they are only judging size.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bottlenose_dolphin" title="Bottlenose dolphin">Bottlenose dolphins</a> have shown the ability to choose an array with fewer dots compared to one with more dots. Experimenters set up two boards showing various numbers of dots in a poolside setup. The dolphins were initially trained to choose the board with the fewer number of dots. This was done by rewarding the dolphin when it chose the board with the fewer number of dots. In the experimental trials, two boards were set up, and the dolphin would emerge from the water and point to one board. The dolphins chose the arrays with fewer dots at a rate much larger than chance, indicating they can differentiate between quantities.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A particular <a href="/wiki/Grey_parrot" title="Grey parrot">grey parrot</a>, after training, has shown the ability to differentiate between the numbers zero through six using <a href="/wiki/Talking_bird" title="Talking bird">vocalizations</a>. After number and vocalization training, this was done by asking the parrot how many objects there were in a display. The parrot was able to identify the correct amount at a rate higher than chance.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pterophyllum" title="Pterophyllum">Angelfish</a>, when put in an unfamiliar environment will group together with conspecifics, an action named <a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling" title="Shoaling and schooling">shoaling</a>. Given the choice between two groups of differing size, the angelfish will choose the larger of the two groups. This can be seen with a discrimination ratio of 2:1 or greater, such that, as long as one group has at least twice the fish as another group, it will join the larger one.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Monitor_lizard" title="Monitor lizard">Monitor lizards</a> have been shown to be capable of numeracy, and some species can distinguish among numbers up to six.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sapience">Sapience</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Sapience"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/G_factor_in_non-humans" title="G factor in non-humans">g factor in non-humans</a></div> <p>As the <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_ability" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive ability">cognitive ability</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a> in non-human animals cannot be measured with verbal scales, it has been measured using a variety of methods that involve such things as <a href="/wiki/Habit" title="Habit">habit</a> reversal, <a href="/wiki/Social_learning_theory" title="Social learning theory">social learning</a>, and responses to <a href="/wiki/Novelty" title="Novelty">novelty</a>. <a href="/wiki/Principal_component_analysis" title="Principal component analysis">Principal component analysis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Factor_analysis" title="Factor analysis">factor analytic</a> studies have shown that a single factor of intelligence is responsible for 47% of the individual variance in cognitive ability measures in <a href="/wiki/Primates" class="mw-redirect" title="Primates">primates</a><sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and between 55% and 60% of the variance in <a href="/wiki/Mus_musculus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mus musculus">mice</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These values are similar to the accepted variance in <a href="/wiki/IQ" class="mw-redirect" title="IQ">IQ</a> explained by a similar single factor known as the <a href="/wiki/G_factor_(psychometrics)" title="G factor (psychometrics)">general factor of intelligence</a> in humans (40-50%).<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, results from a recent meta-analysis suggest that the average correlation between performance scores on various cognitive tasks is only 0.18.<sup id="cite_ref-Dovid_Y_2020_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dovid_Y_2020-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Results from this study suggest that current evidence for general intelligence is weak in non-human animals.<sup id="cite_ref-Dovid_Y_2020_129-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dovid_Y_2020-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The general factor of intelligence, or <a href="/wiki/G_factor_(psychometrics)" title="G factor (psychometrics)"><i>g</i> factor</a>, is a <a href="/wiki/Psychometric" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychometric">psychometric</a> construct that summarizes the correlations observed between an individual's scores on various measures of <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_abilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive abilities">cognitive abilities</a>. It has been suggested that <i>g</i> is related to evolutionary <a href="/wiki/Life_history_theory" title="Life history theory">life histories</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of intelligence">evolution of intelligence</a><sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as to <a href="/wiki/Social_learning_theory" title="Social learning theory">social learning</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_intelligence" title="Cultural intelligence">cultural intelligence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Non-human <a href="/wiki/Conceptual_model" title="Conceptual model">models</a> of <i>g</i> have been used in <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetic</a><sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Neurological" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurological">neurological</a><sup id="cite_ref-Anderson_2000_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anderson_2000-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> research on intelligence to help understand the mechanisms behind variation in <i>g</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theory_of_mind">Theory of mind</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Theory of mind"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_mind_in_animals" title="Theory of mind in animals">Theory of mind in animals</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_mind" title="Theory of mind">Theory of mind</a> is the ability to attribute mental states, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Intention" title="Intention">intents</a>, <a href="/wiki/Desire_(emotion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Desire (emotion)">desires</a>, <a href="/wiki/Role-playing" title="Role-playing">pretending</a>, <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>, to oneself and others and to understand that others have desires, intentions, and perspectives that are different from one's own.<sup id="cite_ref-Premack1978_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Premack1978-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some research with <a href="/wiki/Raven" title="Raven">ravens</a> provides an example of evidence for theory of mind in a non-human species. Ravens are members of the family <a href="/wiki/Corvidae" title="Corvidae">Corvidae</a>, which is widely regarded as having high cognitive abilities. These birds have been observed to hide their food when dominant ravens are visible and audible at the same time. Based on this observation, ravens were tested for their understanding of "seeing" as a mental state. In a first step, the birds protected their <a href="/wiki/Hoarding_(animal_behavior)" title="Hoarding (animal behavior)">cache</a> when dominants were visible but not when they could only be heard from an adjacent room. In the next step, they had access to a small peephole which allowed them to see into the adjacent room. With the peephole open, the ravens guarded their caches against discovery when they could hear dominants in the adjacent room, even when the dominant's sounds were playbacks of recordings.<sup id="cite_ref-Bugnyar_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bugnyar-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consciousness">Consciousness</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Consciousness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Animal_consciousness" title="Animal consciousness">Animal consciousness</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mirror_test_with_a_Baboon.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Mirror_test_with_a_Baboon.JPG/220px-Mirror_test_with_a_Baboon.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Mirror_test_with_a_Baboon.JPG/330px-Mirror_test_with_a_Baboon.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Mirror_test_with_a_Baboon.JPG/440px-Mirror_test_with_a_Baboon.JPG 2x" data-file-width="742" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Mirror test with a baboon</figcaption></figure> <p>The sense in which animals can be said to have self-<a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Self-concept" title="Self-concept">self-concept</a> has been hotly debated. The best known research technique in this area is the <a href="/wiki/Mirror_test" title="Mirror test">mirror test</a> devised by <a href="/wiki/Gordon_G._Gallup" title="Gordon G. Gallup">Gordon G. Gallup</a>, in which an animal's skin is marked in some way while it is asleep or sedated, and it is then allowed to see its reflection in a mirror; if the animal spontaneously directs grooming behavior towards the mark, that is taken as an indication that it is aware of itself.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Magpie_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Magpie-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Self-awareness, by this criterion, has been reported for chimpanzees<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and also for other great apes,<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/European_magpie" class="mw-redirect" title="European magpie">European magpie</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> some <a href="/wiki/Cetaceans" class="mw-redirect" title="Cetaceans">cetaceans</a><sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Reiss_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reiss-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Delfour_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Delfour-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and an <a href="/wiki/Asian_elephant" title="Asian elephant">Asian elephant</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Plotnik2006_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Plotnik2006-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but not for monkeys. The mirror test has been criticized by researchers because it is entirely focused on vision, the primary sense in humans, while other species rely more heavily on other senses such as the <a href="/wiki/Olfactory" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfactory">sense of smell</a> in dogs.<sup id="cite_ref-Lea_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lea-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It has been suggested that <a href="/wiki/Metacognition" title="Metacognition">metacognition</a> in some animals provides some evidence for cognitive self-awareness.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The great apes, dolphins, and <a href="/wiki/Rhesus_monkeys" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhesus monkeys">rhesus monkeys</a> have demonstrated the ability to monitor their own mental states and use an "I don't know" response to avoid answering difficult questions. Unlike the mirror test, which reveals awareness of the condition of one's own body, this uncertainty monitoring is thought to reveal awareness of one's internal mental state. A 2007 study has provided some evidence for metacognition in <a href="/wiki/Rat" title="Rat">rats</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although this interpretation has been questioned.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These species might also be aware of the strength of their memories. </p><p>Some researchers propose that animal calls and other vocal behaviors provide evidence of consciousness. This idea arose from research on children's <a href="/wiki/Crib_talk" title="Crib talk">crib talk</a> by Weir (1962) and in investigations of early speech in children by Greenfield and others (1976). Some such research has been done with a macaw (see <a href="/wiki/Talking_Birds#Arielle" class="mw-redirect" title="Talking Birds">Arielle</a>). </p><p>In July, 2012 during the "Consciousness in Human and Nonhuman Animals" conference in Cambridge a group of scientists announced and signed a declaration with the following conclusions: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Convergent evidence indicates that non-human animals have the neuroanatomical, neurochemical, and neurophysiological substrates of conscious states along with the capacity to exhibit intentional behaviors. Consequently, the weight of evidence indicates that humans are not unique in possessing the neurological substrates that generate consciousness. Non-human animals, including all mammals and birds, and many other creatures, including octopuses, also possess these neurological substrates.<sup id="cite_ref-cdeclaration_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cdeclaration-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biological_constraints">Biological constraints</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Biological constraints"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Instinctive_drift" title="Instinctive drift">Instinctive drift</a> can influence the interpretation of cognitive research. Instinctive drift is the tendency of an animal to revert to <a href="/wiki/Instinctive_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Instinctive behavior">instinctive behaviors</a> that can interfere with learned responses. The concept originated with <a href="/wiki/Keller_Breland" class="mw-redirect" title="Keller Breland">Keller</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marian_Breland" class="mw-redirect" title="Marian Breland">Marian</a> Breland when they taught a <a href="/wiki/Raccoon" title="Raccoon">raccoon</a> to put coins into a box. The raccoon drifted to its instinctive behavior of rubbing the coins with its paws, as it would do when foraging for food.<sup id="cite_ref-Breland_and_Breland,_(1961)_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Breland_and_Breland,_(1961)-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Animal ability to process and respond to stimuli is correlated with brain size. Small-brain animals tend to show simple behaviors that are less dependent on learning than those of large-brained animals. Vertebrates, particularly mammals, have larger brains and complex behavior that changes with experience. A formula called the <a href="/wiki/Encephalization_quotient" title="Encephalization quotient">encephalization quotient</a> (EQ) expresses a relationship between brain and body size; it was developed by H.J. Jerison in the late 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-Dinosaur_Paleoneurology_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dinosaur_Paleoneurology-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the encephalization quotient is plotted as a curve, an animal with an EQ above the curve is expected to show more cognitive ability than the average animal of its size, whereas an animal with an EQ below the curve is expected to have less. Various formulas been suggested, but the equation <i><b>Ew(brain) = 0.12w(body)<sup>2/3</sup></b></i> has been found to fit data from a sample of mammals.<sup id="cite_ref-Moore_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moore-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The formula is suggestive at best, and should only be applied to non-mammals with extreme caution. For some of the other <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate</a> classes, the power of 3/4 rather than 2/3 is sometimes used, and for many groups of <a href="/wiki/Invertebrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Invertebrates">invertebrates</a>, the formula may not give meaningful results. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Experimental_evidence_against_animal_cognition">Experimental evidence against animal cognition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Experimental evidence against animal cognition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several experiments cannot be readily reconciled with the belief that some animal species are intelligent, insightful, or possess a theory of mind. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Jean-Henri_Fabre" title="Jean-Henri Fabre">Jean-Henri Fabre</a><sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (1823–1915), setting the stage for all subsequent experiments of this kind, argued that insects "obey their compelling instinct, without realizing what they do". For instance, to understand that she can grab her paralyzed prey by a leg instead of an antenna is utterly beyond the powers of a sand wasp. "Her actions are like a series of echoes each awakening the next in a settled order, which allows none to sound until the previous one has sounded." Fabre's numerous experiments led him, in turn, to the view that scientists often try to "exalt animals" instead of objectively studying them. </p><p><a href="/wiki/C._Lloyd_Morgan" title="C. Lloyd Morgan">C. Lloyd Morgan</a>'s<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (1852–1936) observations suggested to him that prima facie intelligent behavior in animals is often the result of either instincts or trial and error. For instance, most visitors watching Morgan's dog smoothly lifting a latch with the back of its head (and thereby opening a garden gate and escaping) were convinced that the dog's actions involved thinking. Morgan, however, carefully observed the dog's prior, random, purposeless actions and argued that they involved "continued trial and failure, until a happy effect is reached", rather than "methodical planning". </p><p><a href="/wiki/Edward_Thorndike" title="Edward Thorndike">E. L. Thorndike</a><sup id="cite_ref-cats_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cats-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (1874–1949) placed hungry cats and dogs in enclosures "from which they could escape by some simple act, such as pulling at a loop of cord". Their behavior suggested to him that they did not "possess the power of rationality". Most books about animal behavior, Thorndike wrote, "do not give us a psychology, but rather a eulogy of animals". </p><p>Although <a href="/wiki/The_Mentality_of_Apes" title="The Mentality of Apes">Wolfgang Köhler's</a><sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> experiments are often cited as providing support for the animal cognition hypothesis, his book is replete with counterexamples. For instance, he placed chimpanzees in a situation where they could only get bananas by removing a box. The chimpanzee, Köhler observed, "has special difficulty in solving such problems; he often draws into a situation the strangest and most distant tools, and adopts the most peculiar methods, rather than remove a simple obstacle which could be displaced with perfect ease". </p><p>Daniel J. Povinelli and Timothy Eddy<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the University of Louisiana showed that young chimpanzees, when given a choice between two food providers, were just as likely to beg food from a person who could see the begging gesture as from a person who could not, thereby raising the possibility that young chimpanzees do not understand that people see. </p><p>Moty Nissani<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of Wayne State University trained Burmese logging elephants to lift a lid in order to retrieve food from a bucket. The lid was then placed on the ground alongside the bucket (where it no longer obstructed access to the food) while the treat was simultaneously placed inside the bucket. All elephants continued to toss the lid before retrieving the reward, thus suggesting that elephants do not grasp simple causal relationships. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cognitive_faculty_by_species">Cognitive faculty by species</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Cognitive faculty by species"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A traditionally common image is the <i><a href="/wiki/Great_chain_of_being" title="Great chain of being">scala naturae</a></i>, the ladder of nature on which animals of different species occupy successively higher rungs, with humans typically at the top.<sup id="cite_ref-campbell1991snr_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-campbell1991snr-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there is some disagreement with the use of such a hierarchy, with some critics saying it may be necessary to understand specific cognitive capacities as adaptations to differing ecological niches.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some biologists argue that humans are not, in fact, the smartest animal, and that no animal can be characterized as the smartest, given that some animals have superior cognitive skills in certain areas.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This contrasts with evolutionary psychologists such as <a href="/wiki/John_Tooby" title="John Tooby">John Tooby</a>, who assess, based on the large list of related unique characteristics that humans do possess, that humans evolved to fill a unique "cognitive niche" and can fairly be characterized as the smartest animal.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Whether fairly or not, the performance of animals is often compared to that of humans on cognitive tasks. Our closest biological relatives, the <a href="/wiki/Great_ape" class="mw-redirect" title="Great ape">great apes</a>, tend to perform most like humans. Among the birds, <a href="/wiki/Corvid" class="mw-redirect" title="Corvid">corvids</a> and parrots have typically been found to perform well on human-like tasks.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some <a href="/wiki/Octopod" class="mw-redirect" title="Octopod">octopodes</a> have also been shown to exhibit a number of higher-level skills such as tool use,<sup id="cite_ref-Defensive_tool_use_in_a_coconut-car_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Defensive_tool_use_in_a_coconut-car-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the amount of research on <a href="/wiki/Cephalopod_intelligence" title="Cephalopod intelligence">cephalopod intelligence</a> is still limited.<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Baboon" title="Baboon">Baboons</a> have been shown to be capable of recognizing words.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The average bird or mammal, both usually <a href="/wiki/Endotherm" title="Endotherm">endotherms</a>, have average <a href="/wiki/Brain%E2%80%93body_mass_ratio" title="Brain–body mass ratio">brain-to-body ratios</a> ten times larger than a typical <a href="/wiki/Ectotherm" title="Ectotherm">ectotherm</a> vertebrate. This has contributed to a common perception amongst researchers that mammals and birds share similar "advanced" cognitive characteristics as humans, while other vertebrates such as <a href="/wiki/Teleost" title="Teleost">teleost fishes</a> are more "primitive", which has led to them being understudied. Despite this, increasing evidence indicates that fish possess not just capabilities that cannot be explained through <a href="/wiki/Classical_conditioning" title="Classical conditioning">Pavlovian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Operant_conditioning" title="Operant conditioning">operant</a> conditioning alone, such as reversal learning, novel obstacle avoidance, and passing simultaneous two-choice tasks, but also even more complex capabilities such as navigational <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_map" title="Cognitive map">cognitive mapping</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Inhibitory_control" title="Inhibitory control">inhibitory</a> <a href="/wiki/Motor_control" title="Motor control">motor control</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and empathy enabled by <a href="/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin">oxytocin</a> to sense fear in other fish.<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly in <a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">reptiles</a>, a 2019 review of evidence indicates they can experience numerous emotions, such as pleasure and anxiety.<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <p>In general </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropomorphism" title="Anthropomorphism">Anthropomorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deception_in_animals" title="Deception in animals">Deception in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embodied_cognition" title="Embodied cognition">Embodied cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cognition" title="Evolution of cognition">Evolution of cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93animal_communication" title="Human–animal communication">Human–animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Number_sense_in_animals" title="Number sense in animals">Number sense in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_invertebrates#Cognitive_abilities" title="Pain in invertebrates">Pain in invertebrates § Cognitive abilities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tool_use_by_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Tool use by animals">Tool use by animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uplift_(science_fiction)" title="Uplift (science fiction)">Uplift (science fiction)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoopharmacognosy" title="Zoopharmacognosy">Zoopharmacognosy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoosemiotics" title="Zoosemiotics">Zoosemiotics</a></li></ul> <p>By group </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bird_intelligence" title="Bird intelligence">Bird intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cetacean_intelligence" title="Cetacean intelligence">Cetacean intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_intelligence" title="Dog intelligence">Dog intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_intelligence" title="Fish intelligence">Fish intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insect_cognition" title="Insect cognition">Insect cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_cognition" title="Plant cognition">Plant cognition</a></li></ul> </div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Shettleworth-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shettleworth_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shettleworth_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shettleworth_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shettleworth_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shettleworth_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shettleworth_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shettleworth_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shettleworth_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shettleworth_1-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shettleworth_1-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shettleworth_1-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shettleworth_1-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shettleworth_1-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shettleworth_1-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shettleworth_1-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shettleworth_1-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output 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class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMöglichAlpert1979" class="citation journal cs1">Möglich MH, Alpert GD (1979). 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Carder, Gemma; D'Cruze, Neil (October 17, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6827095">"Given the Cold Shoulder: A Review of the Scientific Literature for Evidence of Reptile Sentience"</a>. <i>Animals</i>. <b>9</b> (10): 821. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fani9100821">10.3390/ani9100821</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2076-2615">2076-2615</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6827095">6827095</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31627409">31627409</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Animals&rft.atitle=Given+the+Cold+Shoulder%3A+A+Review+of+the+Scientific+Literature+for+Evidence+of+Reptile+Sentience&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=821&rft.date=2019-10-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6827095%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=2076-2615&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31627409&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fani9100821&rft.aulast=Lambert&rft.aufirst=Helen&rft.au=Carder%2C+Gemma&rft.au=D%27Cruze%2C+Neil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6827095&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+cognition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBateson2017" class="citation book cs1">Bateson P (2017). <i>Behaviour, Development and Evolution</i>. Cambridge: Open Book Publishers. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.11647%2FOBP.0097">10.11647/OBP.0097</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78374-248-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78374-248-6"><bdi>978-1-78374-248-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Behaviour%2C+Development+and+Evolution&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Open+Book+Publishers&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.11647%2FOBP.0097&rft.isbn=978-1-78374-248-6&rft.aulast=Bateson&rft.aufirst=P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+cognition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrownCook2006" class="citation book cs1">Brown MF, Cook RG, eds. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220302152409/http://www.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu/asc/"><i>Animal Spatial Cognition: Comparative, Neural, and Computational Approaches. [On-line]</i></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu/asc/">the original</a> on 2022-03-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-09-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Animal+Spatial+Cognition%3A+Comparative%2C+Neural%2C+and+Computational+Approaches.+%5BOn-line%5D.&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu%2Fasc%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+cognition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodall1991" class="citation book cs1">Goodall J (1991). <i>Through a window</i>. London: Penguin.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Through+a+window&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Goodall&rft.aufirst=J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+cognition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffin2001" class="citation book cs1">Griffin, Donald R. (2001). <i>Animal minds : beyond cognition to consciousness</i>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226308654" title="Special:BookSources/9780226308654"><bdi>9780226308654</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Animal+minds+%3A+beyond+cognition+to+consciousness&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780226308654&rft.aulast=Griffin&rft.aufirst=Donald+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+cognition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHilgard1958" class="citation book cs1">Hilgard ER (1958). <i>Theories of learning</i> (2nd ed.). London: Methuen.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theories+of+learning&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Methuen&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Hilgard&rft.aufirst=ER&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+cognition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLurz2009" class="citation book cs1">Lurz RW (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/Mindreading-animals.php"><i>Mindreading Animals: The Debate over What Animals Know about Other Minds</i></a>. The MIT Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mindreading+Animals%3A+The+Debate+over+What+Animals+Know+about+Other+Minds&rft.pub=The+MIT+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Lurz&rft.aufirst=RW&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.themontrealreview.com%2F2009%2FMindreading-animals.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+cognition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNarby2005" class="citation book cs1">Narby, Jeremy (2005). <i>Intelligence in nature : an inquiry into knowledge</i>. New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1585424617" title="Special:BookSources/1585424617"><bdi>1585424617</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intelligence+in+nature+%3A+an+inquiry+into+knowledge&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Jeremy+P.+Tarcher%2FPenguin&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1585424617&rft.aulast=Narby&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+cognition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeisser1967" class="citation book cs1">Neisser U (1967). <i>Cognitive psychology</i>. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cognitive+psychology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Appleton-Century-Crofts&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Neisser&rft.aufirst=U&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+cognition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRomanes1886" class="citation book cs1">Romanes GJ (1886). <i>Animal intelligence</i> (4th ed.). London: Kegan Paul, Trench.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Animal+intelligence&rft.place=London&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Kegan+Paul%2C+Trench&rft.date=1886&rft.aulast=Romanes&rft.aufirst=GJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+cognition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShettleworth2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sara_Shettleworth" title="Sara Shettleworth">Shettleworth, Sara J.</a> (2010). <i>Cognition, evolution, and behavior</i> (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195319842" title="Special:BookSources/9780195319842"><bdi>9780195319842</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cognition%2C+evolution%2C+and+behavior&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780195319842&rft.aulast=Shettleworth&rft.aufirst=Sara+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+cognition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkinner1969" class="citation book cs1">Skinner BF (1969). <i>Contingencies of reinforcement: a theoretical analysis</i>. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contingencies+of+reinforcement%3A+a+theoretical+analysis&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Appleton-Century-Crofts&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Skinner&rft.aufirst=BF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+cognition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Waal2016" class="citation book cs1">de Waal F (2016). <i>Are We Smart Enough to Know How Smart Animals Are?</i>. W. W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0393246186" title="Special:BookSources/978-0393246186"><bdi>978-0393246186</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Are+We+Smart+Enough+to+Know+How+Smart+Animals+Are%3F&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0393246186&rft.aulast=de+Waal&rft.aufirst=Frans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+cognition" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Animal_cognition" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Animal cognition">Animal cognition</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Animal_cognition" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Animal cognition">Animal cognition</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Allen C. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consciousness-animal/">"Animal Consciousness"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta EN</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Animal+Consciousness&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Colin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fconsciousness-animal%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+cognition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrews" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Andrews K. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cognition-animal/">"Animal Cognition"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta EN</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Animal+Cognition&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Andrews&rft.aufirst=Kristin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fcognition-animal%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+cognition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFox2011" class="citation journal cs1">Fox D (14 June 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=the-limits-of-intelligence">"The limits of intelligence"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i>. <b>305</b> (1): 36–43. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011SciAm.305f..36F">2011SciAm.305f..36F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0711-36">10.1038/scientificamerican0711-36</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21717956">21717956</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=The+limits+of+intelligence&rft.volume=305&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=36-43&rft.date=2011-06-14&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21717956&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0711-36&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011SciAm.305f..36F&rft.aulast=Fox&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle.cfm%3Fid%3Dthe-limits-of-intelligence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+cognition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamilBond" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Kamil" title="Alan Kamil">Kamil A</a>, Bond A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/biosciaviancog/">"Center for Avian Cognition"</a>. University of Nebraska.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Center+for+Avian+Cognition&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska&rft.aulast=Kamil&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Bond%2C+A&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.unl.edu%2Fbiosciaviancog%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+cognition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080509193310/http://www.animalcognition.net/home.html">"Animal Cognition Network"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.animalcognition.net">the original</a> on 2008-05-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Animal+Cognition+Network&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.animalcognition.net&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnimal+cognition" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/ani-mind">"Animal Minds"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span 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cognition"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Animal_cognition" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Animal cognition</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cognition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_communication" title="Animal communication">Animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_consciousness" title="Animal consciousness">Animal consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_language" title="Animal language">Animal language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias_in_animals" title="Cognitive bias in animals">Cognitive bias in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_ethology" title="Cognitive ethology">Cognitive ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_cognition" title="Comparative cognition">Comparative cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_in_animals" title="Emotion in animals">Emotion in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insect_cognition" title="Insect cognition">Insect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirror_test" title="Mirror test">Mirror test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroethology" title="Neuroethology">Neuroethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observational_learning" title="Observational learning">Observational learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primate_archaeology" title="Primate archaeology">Primate archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tool_use_by_non-humans" title="Tool use by non-humans">Tool use by non-humans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tool_use_by_sea_otters" title="Tool use by sea otters">sea otters</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vocal_learning" title="Vocal learning">Vocal learning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Intelligence</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bird_intelligence" title="Bird intelligence">Bird</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pigeon_intelligence" title="Pigeon intelligence">Pigeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talking_bird" title="Talking bird">talking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_intelligence" title="Cat intelligence">Cat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cephalopod_intelligence" title="Cephalopod intelligence">Cephalopod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cetacean_intelligence" title="Cetacean intelligence">Cetacean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_intelligence" title="Dog intelligence">Dog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elephant_cognition" title="Elephant cognition">Elephant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_intelligence" title="Fish intelligence">Fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primate_cognition" title="Primate cognition">Primate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Hominid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarm_intelligence" title="Swarm intelligence">Swarm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_amphibians" title="Pain in amphibians">Pain in amphibians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_animals" title="Pain in animals">Pain in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_cephalopods" title="Pain in cephalopods">Pain in cephalopods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_crustaceans" title="Pain in crustaceans">Pain in crustaceans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_fish" title="Pain in fish">Pain in fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_invertebrates" title="Pain in invertebrates">Pain in invertebrates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Relation to brain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brain_size" title="Brain size">Brain size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain-to-body_mass_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain-to-body mass ratio">Brain-to-body mass ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encephalization_quotient" title="Encephalization quotient">Encephalization quotient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_and_intelligence" title="Neuroscience and intelligence">Neuroscience and intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_animals_by_number_of_neurons" title="List of animals by number of neurons">Number of neurons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Animal_cognition" title="Category:Animal cognition">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Animal_communication" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Animal_communication" title="Template:Animal communication"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Animal_communication" title="Template talk:Animal communication"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Animal_communication" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Animal communication"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Animal_communication" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Animal_communication" title="Animal communication">Animal communication</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_training" title="Animal training">Animal training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_language" title="Animal language">Animal language</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Animal cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anecdotal_cognitivism" title="Anecdotal cognitivism">Anecdotal cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioacoustics" title="Bioacoustics">Bioacoustics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deception_in_animals" title="Deception in animals">Deception in animals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_deception_in_animals" title="Tactical deception in animals">Tactical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">Evolutionary linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FOXP2" title="FOXP2">FOXP2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FOXP2_and_human_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="FOXP2 and human evolution">FOXP2 and human evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93animal_communication" title="Human–animal communication">Human–animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_call" title="Mating call">Mating call</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismic_communication" title="Seismic communication">Seismic communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-anointing_in_animals" title="Self-anointing in animals">Self-anointing in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talking_animal" title="Talking animal">Talking animals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Animal-specific</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communication_in_aquatic_animals" title="Communication in aquatic animals">Aquatic animals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Whale_vocalization" title="Whale vocalization">Whale vocalization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bee_learning_and_communication" title="Bee learning and communication">Bees</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bumblebee_communication" title="Bumblebee communication">Bumblebees</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_vocalization" title="Bird vocalization">Birds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Talking_bird" title="Talking bird">Talking birds</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_communication" title="Cat communication">Cats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_communication" title="Dog communication">Dogs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elephant_communication" title="Elephant communication">Elephants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frog_hearing_and_communication" title="Frog hearing and communication">Frogs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_ape_language" title="Great ape language">Great ape language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yerkish" title="Yerkish">Yerkish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_communication_in_insects" title="Chemical communication in insects">Insects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lizard_communication" title="Lizard communication">Lizards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf_communication" title="Wolf communication">Wolves</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roar_(vocalization)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roar (vocalization)">Roar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Talking_birds" title="Category:Talking birds">Category:Talking birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Individual_apes_involved_in_language_studies" title="Category:Individual apes involved in language studies">Category:Individual apes involved in language studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Animal_rights" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Animal_rights" title="Template:Animal rights"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Animal_rights" title="Template talk:Animal rights"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Animal_rights" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Animal rights"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Animal_rights" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Animal_rights" title="Animal rights">Animal rights</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics_(overviews,_concepts,_issues,_cases)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics (overviews, concepts, issues, cases)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_rights_movement" title="Animal rights movement">Animal rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_rights_by_country_or_territory" title="Animal rights by country or territory">Animal rights by country or territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_and_animal_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarchism and animal rights">Anarchism and animal rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_rights_and_punk_subculture" title="Animal rights and punk subculture">Animal rights and punk subculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_cruelty_and_the_Holocaust_analogy" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal cruelty and the Holocaust analogy">Animal cruelty–Holocaust analogies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_rights_in_Indian_religions" title="Animal rights in Indian religions">Animal rights in Indian religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_animal_rights" title="Christianity and animal rights">Christianity and animal rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_animal_rights" title="History of animal rights">History of animal rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_animal_welfare_conventions" title="List of international animal welfare conventions">List of international animal welfare conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_status_of_animals_in_the_ancient_world" title="Moral status of animals in the ancient world">Moral status of animals in the ancient world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_animal_welfare_and_rights" title="Timeline of animal welfare and rights">Timeline of animal welfare and rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_liberation" title="Total liberation">Total liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_on_Animal_Welfare" title="Universal Declaration on Animal Welfare">Universal Declaration on Animal Welfare</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_(animal_rights)" title="Abolitionism (animal rights)">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Animal cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_consciousness" title="Animal consciousness">Animal consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_ethics" title="Animal ethics">Animal ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal%E2%80%93industrial_complex" title="Animal–industrial complex">Animal–industrial complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_law" title="Animal law">Animal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_protectionism" title="Animal protectionism">Animal protectionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_welfare" title="Animal welfare">Animal welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal-free_agriculture" title="Animal-free agriculture">Animal-free agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_marginal_cases" title="Argument from marginal cases">Argument from marginal cases</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Declaration_on_Consciousness" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness">Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnism" title="Carnism">Carnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_consideration_of_interests" title="Equal consideration of interests">Equal consideration of interests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_in_animals" title="Emotion in animals">Emotion in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_eating_meat" title="Ethics of eating meat">Ethics of eating meat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_uncertain_sentience" title="Ethics of uncertain sentience">Ethics of uncertain sentience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insects_in_ethics" title="Insects in ethics">Insects in ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meat_paradox" class="mw-redirect" title="Meat paradox">Meat paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_rescue" title="Open rescue">Open rescue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_hunting" title="Opposition to hunting">Opposition to hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personism" title="Personism">Personism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Replaceability_argument" title="Replaceability argument">Replaceability argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentiocentrism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sentiocentrism">Sentiocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Speciesism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veganism" title="Veganism">Veganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegaphobia" title="Vegaphobia">Vegaphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetarianism" title="Vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Animal_agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal agriculture">Animal agriculture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_product" title="Animal product">Animal product</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battery_cage" title="Battery cage">Battery cage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bile_bear" title="Bile bear">Bile bear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chick_culling" title="Chick culling">Chick culling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentrated_animal_feeding_operation" title="Concentrated animal feeding operation">Concentrated animal feeding operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_farming" title="Fish farming">Fish farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fur_farming" title="Fur farming">Fur farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fur_trade" title="Fur trade">Fur trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insect_farming" title="Insect farming">Insect farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_animal_farming" title="Intensive animal farming">Intensive animal farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_pig_farming" title="Intensive pig farming">Intensive pig farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">Livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poultry_farming" title="Poultry farming">Poultry farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slaughterhouse" title="Slaughterhouse">Slaughterhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_farming" title="Wildlife farming">Wildlife farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_animal" title="Working animal">Working animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feedback_(pork_industry)" title="Feedback (pork industry)">Feedback (pork industry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foam_depopulation" title="Foam depopulation">Foam depopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventilation_shutdown" title="Ventilation shutdown">Ventilation shutdown</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Animal_testing" title="Animal testing">Animal testing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternatives_to_animal_testing" title="Alternatives to animal testing">Alternatives to animal testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_testing_on_non-human_primates" title="Animal testing on non-human primates">Animal testing on non-human primates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_testing_regulations" title="Animal testing regulations">Animal testing regulations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_ape_research_ban" class="mw-redirect" title="Great ape research ban">Great ape research ban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Scare" title="Green Scare">Green Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huntingdon_Life_Sciences" title="Huntingdon Life Sciences">Huntingdon Life Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_organism" title="Model organism">Model organism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nafovanny" title="Nafovanny">Nafovanny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Backfire_(FBI)" title="Operation Backfire (FBI)">Operation Backfire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivisection" title="Vivisection">Vivisection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Animal_welfare" title="Animal welfare">Animal welfare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_euthanasia" title="Animal euthanasia">Animal euthanasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cruelty_to_animals" title="Cruelty to animals">Cruelty to animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_animals" title="Pain in animals">Pain in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_amphibians" title="Pain in amphibians">Pain in amphibians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_cephalopods" title="Pain in cephalopods">Pain in cephalopods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_crustaceans" title="Pain in crustaceans">Pain in crustaceans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_fish" title="Pain in fish">Pain in fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_invertebrates" title="Pain in invertebrates">Pain in invertebrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_and_suffering_in_laboratory_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Pain and suffering in laboratory animals">Pain and suffering in laboratory animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_of_farmed_insects" title="Welfare of farmed insects">Welfare of farmed insects</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fishing" title="Fishing">Fishing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_fishing" title="Commercial fishing">Commercial fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_bait" title="Fishing bait">Fishing bait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreational_fishing" title="Recreational fishing">Recreational fishing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wild_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Wild animals">Wild animals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culling_wildlife" class="mw-redirect" title="Culling wildlife">Culling wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hare_coursing" title="Hare coursing">Hare coursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_primate_trade" title="International primate trade">International primate trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivory_trade" title="Ivory trade">Ivory trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predation_problem" title="Predation problem">Predation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seal_hunting" title="Seal hunting">Seal hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_animal_suffering" title="Wild animal suffering">Wild animal suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_management" title="Wildlife management">Wildlife management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abandoned_pets" title="Abandoned pets">Abandoned pets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_sacrifice" title="Animal sacrifice">Animal sacrifice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_slaughter" title="Animal slaughter">Animal slaughter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_trial" title="Animal trial">Animal trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_sport" title="Animals in sport">Animals in sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Live_food" title="Live food">Live food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Live_export" title="Live export">Live export</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brown_Dog_affair" title="Brown Dog affair">Brown Dog affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_primates" title="Cambridge University primates">Cambridge University primates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McLibel_case" title="McLibel case">McLibel case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monkey_selfie_copyright_dispute" title="Monkey selfie copyright dispute">Monkey selfie copyright dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pit_of_despair" title="Pit of despair">Pit of despair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_Huntingdon_Animal_Cruelty" title="Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty">SHAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver_Spring_monkeys" title="Silver Spring monkeys">Silver Spring monkeys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Riverside_1985_laboratory_raid" title="University of California, Riverside 1985 laboratory raid">University of California, Riverside 1985 laboratory raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unnecessary_Fuss" title="Unnecessary Fuss">Unnecessary Fuss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_currents" title="War of the currents">War of the currents</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Methodologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Direct_Action_Everywhere" title="Direct Action Everywhere">Direct Action Everywhere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunt_sabotage" title="Hunt sabotage">Hunt sabotage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Observances</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Animal_Day" title="World Animal Day">World Animal Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Day_for_the_End_of_Speciesism" title="World Day for the End of Speciesism">World Day for the End of Speciesism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Day_for_Laboratory_Animals" title="World Day for Laboratory Animals">World Day for Laboratory Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Day_for_the_End_of_Fishing" title="World Day for the End of Fishing">World Day for the End of Fishing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Advocates_(academics,_writers,_activists)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_animal_rights_advocates" title="List of animal rights advocates">Advocates</a> (academics, writers, activists)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics<br />and writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carol_J._Adams" title="Carol J. Adams">Carol J. Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aysha_Akhtar" title="Aysha Akhtar">Aysha Akhtar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kristin_Andrews" title="Kristin Andrews">Kristin Andrews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Beauchamp" title="Tom Beauchamp">Tom Beauchamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Bekoff" title="Marc Bekoff">Marc Bekoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Best" title="Steven Best">Steven Best</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paola_Cavalieri" title="Paola Cavalieri">Paola Cavalieri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_R._L._Clark" title="Stephen R. L. Clark">Stephen R. L. Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_Cochrane" title="Alasdair Cochrane">Alasdair Cochrane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._M._Coetzee" title="J. M. Coetzee">J. M. Coetzee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Crary" title="Alice Crary">Alice Crary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_DeGrazia" title="David DeGrazia">David DeGrazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dombrowski" title="Daniel Dombrowski">Daniel Dombrowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sue_Donaldson" title="Sue Donaldson">Sue Donaldson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephine_Donovan" title="Josephine Donovan">Josephine Donovan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Dunayer" title="Joan Dunayer">Joan Dunayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mylan_Engel" title="Mylan Engel">Mylan Engel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catia_Faria" title="Catia Faria">Catia Faria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Finsen" title="Lawrence Finsen">Lawrence Finsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_L._Francione" title="Gary L. Francione">Gary L. Francione</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Garner" title="Robert Garner">Robert Garner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val%C3%A9ry_Giroux" title="Valéry Giroux">Valéry Giroux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lori_Gruen" title="Lori Gruen">Lori Gruen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hadley_(philosopher)" title="John Hadley (philosopher)">John Hadley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Horta" title="Oscar Horta">Oscar Horta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dale_Jamieson" title="Dale Jamieson">Dale Jamieson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyle_Johannsen" title="Kyle Johannsen">Kyle Johannsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanie_Joy" title="Melanie Joy">Melanie Joy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilda_Kean" title="Hilda Kean">Hilda Kean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_Kymlicka" title="Will Kymlicka">Will Kymlicka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renan_Larue" title="Renan Larue">Renan Larue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Lepeltier" title="Thomas Lepeltier">Thomas Lepeltier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Linzey" title="Andrew Linzey">Andrew Linzey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clair_Linzey" title="Clair Linzey">Clair Linzey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Lyons" title="Dan Lyons">Dan Lyons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Nibert" title="David Nibert">David Nibert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Martha Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clare_Palmer" title="Clare Palmer">Clare Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Patterson_(author)" title="Charles Patterson (author)">Charles Patterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Pearce_(philosopher)" title="David Pearce (philosopher)">David Pearce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jessica_Pierce" title="Jessica Pierce">Jessica Pierce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evelyn_Pluhar" title="Evelyn Pluhar">Evelyn Pluhar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Rowlands" title="Mark Rowlands">Mark Rowlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_D._Ryder" title="Richard D. Ryder">Richard D. Ryder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_F._Sapontzis" title="Steve F. Sapontzis">Steve F. Sapontzis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeff_Sebo" title="Jeff Sebo">Jeff Sebo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_Segal" title="Jérôme Segal">Jérôme Segal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Steiner" title="Gary Steiner">Gary Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cass_Sunstein" title="Cass Sunstein">Cass Sunstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Sztybel" title="David Sztybel">David Sztybel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Tye_(philosopher)" title="Michael Tye (philosopher)">Michael Tye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatjana_Vi%C5%A1ak" title="Tatjana Višak">Tatjana Višak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Waldau" title="Paul Waldau">Paul Waldau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corey_Lee_Wrenn" title="Corey Lee Wrenn">Corey Lee Wrenn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Renaud_Boullier" title="David Renaud Boullier">David Renaud Boullier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_St._C._Bostock" title="Stephen St. C. Bostock">Stephen St. C. Bostock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigid_Brophy" title="Brigid Brophy">Brigid Brophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Buchan" title="Peter Buchan">Peter Buchan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mona_Caird" title="Mona Caird">Mona Caird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscilla_Cohn" title="Priscilla Cohn">Priscilla Cohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Crowe_(vicar)" title="Henry Crowe (vicar)">Henry Crowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herman_Daggett" title="Herman Daggett">Herman Daggett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dean_(curate)" title="Richard Dean (curate)">Richard Dean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Dietler" title="Wilhelm Dietler">Wilhelm Dietler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Hamilton_Drummond" title="William Hamilton Drummond">William Hamilton Drummond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Payson_Evans" title="Edward Payson Evans">Edward Payson Evans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._Forster" title="T. Forster">T. Forster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Galsworthy" title="John Galsworthy">John Galsworthy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_G._Gentry" title="Thomas G. Gentry">Thomas G. Gentry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Helps" title="Arthur Helps">Arthur Helps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hildrop" title="John Hildrop">John Hildrop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Zephaniah_Holwell" title="John Zephaniah Holwell">John Zephaniah Holwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soame_Jenyns" title="Soame Jenyns">Soame Jenyns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Christian_Friedrich_Krause" title="Karl Christian Friedrich Krause">Karl Christian Friedrich Krause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lawrence_(writer)" title="John Lawrence (writer)">John Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_R._Magel" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles R. Magel">Charles R. Magel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Meslier" title="Jean Meslier">Jean Meslier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Midgley" title="Mary Midgley">Mary Midgley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Howard_Moore" title="J. Howard Moore">J. Howard Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ferrater_Mora" title="José Ferrater Mora">José Ferrater Mora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Nelson" title="Leonard Nelson">Leonard Nelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Nicholson_(librarian)" title="Edward Nicholson (librarian)">Edward Nicholson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siobhan_O%27Sullivan" title="Siobhan O'Sullivan">Siobhan O'Sullivan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rod_Preece" title="Rod Preece">Rod Preece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humphrey_Primatt" title="Humphrey Primatt">Humphrey Primatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Rachels" title="James Rachels">James Rachels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Regan" title="Tom Regan">Tom Regan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Peabody_Rogers" title="Nathaniel Peabody Rogers">Nathaniel Peabody Rogers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Rollin" title="Bernard Rollin">Bernard Rollin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Stephens_Salt" title="Henry Stephens Salt">Henry Stephens Salt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurids_Smith" title="Laurids Smith">Laurids Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Styles" title="John Styles">John Styles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Tryon" title="Thomas Tryon">Thomas Tryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Varner" title="Gary Varner">Gary Varner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Ludwig_Volckmann" title="Johann Friedrich Ludwig Volckmann">Johann Friedrich Ludwig Volckmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Anne_Warren" title="Mary Anne Warren">Mary Anne Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Gottlieb_Weigen" title="Adam Gottlieb Weigen">Adam Gottlieb Weigen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Winckler" title="Johann Heinrich Winckler">Johann Heinrich Winckler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_M._Wise" title="Steven M. Wise">Steven M. Wise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jon_Wynne-Tyson" title="Jon Wynne-Tyson">Jon Wynne-Tyson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Activists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Aspey" title="James Aspey">James Aspey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greg_Avery" title="Greg Avery">Greg Avery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matt_Ball" title="Matt Ball">Matt Ball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Balluch" title="Martin Balluch">Martin Balluch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carole_Baskin" title="Carole Baskin">Carole Baskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbi_Twins" title="Barbi Twins">Barbi Twins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigitte_Bardot" title="Brigitte Bardot">Brigitte Bardot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_Baur" title="Gene Baur">Gene Baur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yves_Bonnardel" title="Yves Bonnardel">Yves Bonnardel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joey_Carbstrong" title="Joey Carbstrong">Joey Carbstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aymeric_Caron" title="Aymeric Caron">Aymeric Caron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jake_Conroy" title="Jake Conroy">Jake Conroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rod_Coronado" title="Rod Coronado">Rod Coronado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karen_Dawn" title="Karen Dawn">Karen Dawn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_DeRose" title="Chris DeRose">Chris DeRose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Feldmann" title="John Feldmann">John Feldmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Friedrich" title="Bruce Friedrich">Bruce Friedrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juliet_Gellatley" title="Juliet Gellatley">Juliet Gellatley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tal_Gilboa" title="Tal Gilboa">Tal Gilboa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Goetschel" title="Antoine Goetschel">Antoine Goetschel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Gold_(activist)" title="Mark Gold (activist)">Mark Gold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigitte_Gothi%C3%A8re" title="Brigitte Gothière">Brigitte Gothière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wayne_Hsiung" title="Wayne Hsiung">Wayne Hsiung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Laws" title="Charlotte Laws">Charlotte Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronnie_Lee" title="Ronnie Lee">Ronnie Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Lyman" title="Howard Lyman">Howard Lyman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evanna_Lynch" title="Evanna Lynch">Evanna Lynch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Maher" title="Bill Maher">Bill Maher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_Mann" title="Keith Mann">Keith Mann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Mason_(activist)" title="Jim Mason (activist)">Jim Mason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Mathews" title="Dan Mathews">Dan Mathews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo-Anne_McArthur" title="Jo-Anne McArthur">Jo-Anne McArthur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lu%C3%ADsa_Mell" class="mw-redirect" title="Luísa Mell">Luísa Mell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_McKenna" title="Virginia McKenna">Virginia McKenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morrissey" title="Morrissey">Morrissey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingrid_Newkirk" title="Ingrid Newkirk">Ingrid Newkirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heather_Nicholson" title="Heather Nicholson">Heather Nicholson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Norris_(activist)" title="Jack Norris (activist)">Jack Norris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ric_O%27Barry" title="Ric O'Barry">Ric O'Barry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Olivier" title="David Olivier">David Olivier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alex_Pacheco_(activist)" title="Alex Pacheco (activist)">Alex Pacheco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craig_Rosebraugh" title="Craig Rosebraugh">Craig Rosebraugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jasmin_Singer" title="Jasmin Singer">Jasmin Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kim_Stallwood" title="Kim Stallwood">Kim Stallwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynda_Stoner" title="Lynda Stoner">Lynda Stoner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marianne_Thieme" title="Marianne Thieme">Marianne Thieme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darren_Thurston" title="Darren Thurston">Darren Thurston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Townend" title="Christine Townend">Christine Townend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendy_Turner-Webster" title="Wendy Turner-Webster">Wendy Turner-Webster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Vlasak" title="Jerry Vlasak">Jerry Vlasak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louise_Wallis" title="Louise Wallis">Louise Wallis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Yourofsky" title="Gary Yourofsky">Gary Yourofsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/That_Vegan_Teacher" title="That Vegan Teacher">That Vegan Teacher</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Amory" title="Cleveland Amory">Cleveland Amory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_B._Amos" title="Henry B. Amos">Henry B. Amos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Barker" title="Bob Barker">Bob Barker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Bell_(animal_rights_activist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ernest Bell (animal rights activist)">Ernest Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Carrington" title="Edith Carrington">Edith Carrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Power_Cobbe" title="Frances Power Cobbe">Frances Power Cobbe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Court" title="Joan Court">Joan Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karen_Davis_(activist)" title="Karen Davis (activist)">Karen Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Dixon" title="Royal Dixon">Royal Dixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muriel_Dowding,_Baroness_Dowding" title="Muriel Dowding, Baroness Dowding">Muriel Dowding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Farians" title="Elizabeth Farians">Elizabeth Farians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emarel_Freshel" title="Emarel Freshel">Emarel Freshel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_G%C3%A9raud" title="André Géraud">André Géraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Gompertz" title="Lewis Gompertz">Lewis Gompertz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Granger" title="James Granger">James Granger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barry_Horne_(activist)" title="Barry Horne (activist)">Barry Horne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Huot" title="Marie Huot">Marie Huot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lizzy_Lind_af_Hageby" title="Lizzy Lind af Hageby">Lizzy Lind af Hageby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jessie_Mackay" title="Jessie Mackay">Jessie Mackay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norm_Phelps" title="Norm Phelps">Norm Phelps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Jill_Phipps" title="Death of Jill Phipps">Jill Phipps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maud_Ingersoll_Probasco" title="Maud Ingersoll Probasco">Maud Ingersoll Probasco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Ruesch" title="Hans Ruesch">Hans Ruesch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nell_Shipman" title="Nell Shipman">Nell Shipman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Spira" title="Henry Spira">Henry Spira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Tyler" title="Andrew Tyler">Andrew Tyler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gretchen_Wyler" title="Gretchen Wyler">Gretchen Wyler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Movement_(groups,_parties)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Animal_rights_movement" title="Animal rights movement">Movement</a> (groups, parties)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Anti-Vivisection_Society" title="American Anti-Vivisection Society">American Anti-Vivisection Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Aid" title="Animal Aid">Animal Aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Ethics_(organization)" title="Animal Ethics (organization)">Animal Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Justice_(organization)" title="Animal Justice (organization)">Animal Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Justice_Project" title="Animal Justice Project">Animal Justice Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Legal_Defense_Fund" title="Animal Legal Defense Fund">Animal Legal Defense Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Liberation_(organisation)" title="Animal Liberation (organisation)">Animal Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Liberation_Front" title="Animal Liberation Front">Animal Liberation Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Rising" title="Animal Rising">Animal Rising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AnimaNaturalis" title="AnimaNaturalis">AnimaNaturalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Vivisection_Coalition" title="Anti-Vivisection Coalition">Anti-Vivisection Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anonymous_for_the_Voiceless" title="Anonymous for the Voiceless">Anonymous for the Voiceless</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beauty_Without_Cruelty" title="Beauty Without Cruelty">Beauty Without Cruelty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Born_Free_Foundation" title="Born Free Foundation">Born Free Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centre_for_Animals_and_Social_Justice" title="Centre for Animals and Social Justice">Centre for Animals and Social Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Animal_Protection_Network" title="Chinese Animal Protection Network">Chinese Animal Protection Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cruelty_Free_International" title="Cruelty Free International">Cruelty Free International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_Action_Everywhere" title="Direct Action Everywhere">Direct Action Everywhere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctors_Against_Animal_Experiments" title="Doctors Against Animal Experiments">Doctors Against Animal Experiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equanimal" title="Equanimal">Equanimal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Every_Animal" title="Every Animal">Every Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farm_Animal_Rights_Movement" title="Farm Animal Rights Movement">Farm Animal Rights Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faunalytics" title="Faunalytics">Faunalytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Ape_Project" title="Great Ape Project">Great Ape Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunt_Saboteurs_Association" title="Hunt Saboteurs Association">Hunt Saboteurs Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_Defense_of_Animals" title="In Defense of Animals">In Defense of Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korea_Animal_Rights_Advocates" title="Korea Animal Rights Advocates">Korea Animal Rights Advocates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L214" title="L214">L214</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_Chance_for_Animals" title="Last Chance for Animals">Last Chance for Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Animal_Rights_Coalition" title="Massachusetts Animal Rights Coalition">Massachusetts Animal Rights Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercy_for_Animals" title="Mercy for Animals">Mercy for Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Centre_for_Animal_Ethics" title="Oxford Centre for Animal Ethics">Oxford Centre for Animal Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_for_the_Ethical_Treatment_of_Animals" title="People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals">People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_for_Animals" title="Rise for Animals">Rise for Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentience_Politics" title="Sentience Politics">Sentience Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncaged_Campaigns" title="Uncaged Campaigns">Uncaged Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Activists_for_Animal_Rights" title="United Activists for Animal Rights">United Activists for Animal Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Poultry_Concerns" title="United Poultry Concerns">United Poultry Concerns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UPF-Centre_for_Animal_Ethics" title="UPF-Centre for Animal Ethics">UPF-Centre for Animal Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viva!_(organisation)" title="Viva! (organisation)">Viva!</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_for_Animals_Humane_Society" title="Voice for Animals Humane Society">Voice for Animals Humane Society</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Anti-Vivisection_Society" title="Canadian Anti-Vivisection Society">Canadian Anti-Vivisection Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanitarian_League" title="Humanitarian League">Humanitarian League</a> (1891–1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millennium_Guild" class="mw-redirect" title="Millennium Guild">Millennium Guild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Group_(animal_rights)" title="Oxford Group (animal rights)">Oxford Group</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Parties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Justice_Party" title="Animal Justice Party">Animal Justice Party</a> (Australia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Politics_EU" title="Animal Politics EU">Animal Politics EU</a> (Europe)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Protection_Party_of_Canada" title="Animal Protection Party of Canada">Animal Protection Party of Canada</a> (Canada)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Justice_Party_of_Finland" title="Animal Justice Party of Finland">Animal Justice Party of Finland</a> (Finland)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animals%27_Party" title="Animals' Party">Animals' Party</a> (Sweden)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animalist_Movement" title="Animalist Movement">Animalist Movement</a> (Italy)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animalist_Party_with_the_Environment" title="Animalist Party with the Environment">Animalist Party with the Environment</a> (Spain)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/DierAnimal" title="DierAnimal">DierAnimal</a> (Belgium)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Environment_Animal_Protection_Party" title="Human Environment Animal Protection Party">Human Environment Animal Protection Party</a> (Germany)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Animalist_Party" title="Italian Animalist Party">Italian Animalist Party</a> (Italy)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_for_the_Animals" title="Party for the Animals">Party for the Animals</a> (Netherlands)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_Animals_Nature" title="People Animals Nature">People Animals Nature</a> (Portugal)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/V-Partei3" title="V-Partei3">V-Partei³</a> (Germany)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Activism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Rights_National_Conference" title="Animal Rights National Conference">Animal Rights National Conference</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Media_(books,_films,_periodicals,_albums)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Media (books, films, periodicals, albums)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Abstinence_from_Eating_Animals" title="On Abstinence from Eating Animals">On Abstinence from Eating Animals</a></i> (3rd century)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Moral_Inquiries_on_the_Situation_of_Man_and_of_Brutes" title="Moral Inquiries on the Situation of Man and of Brutes">Moral Inquiries on the Situation of Man and of Brutes</a></i> (1824)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Rights_of_Animals" class="mw-redirect" title="The Rights of Animals">The Rights of Animals</a></i> (1838)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Ethics_of_Diet" title="The Ethics of Diet">The Ethics of Diet</a></i> (1883)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Animals%27_Rights" title="Animals' Rights">Animals' Rights</a></i> (1892)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Evolutional_Ethics_and_Animal_Psychology" title="Evolutional Ethics and Animal Psychology">Evolutional Ethics and Animal Psychology</a></i> (1897)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Better-World_Philosophy" title="Better-World Philosophy">Better-World Philosophy</a></i> (1899)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Universal_Kinship" title="The Universal Kinship">The Universal Kinship</a></i> (1906)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Ethics" title="The New Ethics">The New Ethics</a></i> (1907)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Animals,_Men_and_Morals" title="Animals, Men and Morals">Animals, Men and Morals</a></i> (1971)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Liberation_(book)" title="Animal Liberation (book)">Animal Liberation</a></i> (1975)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Case_for_Animal_Rights" title="The Case for Animal Rights">The Case for Animal Rights</a></i> (1983)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Morals,_Reason,_and_Animals" title="Morals, Reason, and Animals">Morals, Reason, and Animals</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zoos_and_Animal_Rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoos and Animal Rights">Zoos and Animal Rights</a></i> (1993)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Animals,_Property,_and_the_Law" title="Animals, Property, and the Law">Animals, Property, and the Law</a></i> (1995)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Lives_of_Animals" title="The Lives of Animals">The Lives of Animals</a></i> (1999)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eternal_Treblinka" title="Eternal Treblinka">Eternal Treblinka</a></i> (2001)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Do_Animals_Have_Rights%3F_(book)" title="Do Animals Have Rights? (book)">Do Animals Have Rights?</a></i> (2005)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Striking_at_the_Roots" title="Striking at the Roots">Striking at the Roots</a></i> (2008)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/An_American_Trilogy_(book)" title="An American Trilogy (book)">An American Trilogy</a></i> (2009)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Introduction_to_Animals_and_Political_Theory" title="An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory">An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory</a></i> (2010)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Rights_Without_Liberation" title="Animal Rights Without Liberation">Animal Rights Without Liberation</a></i> (2012)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Political_Animals_and_Animal_Politics" title="Political Animals and Animal Politics">Political Animals and Animal Politics</a></i> (2014)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_(De)liberation" title="Animal (De)liberation">Animal (De)liberation</a></i> (2016)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sentientist_Politics" title="Sentientist Politics">Sentientist Politics</a></i> (2018)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wild_Animal_Ethics" title="Wild Animal Ethics">Wild Animal Ethics</a></i> (2020)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Ethics_in_the_Wild" title="Animal Ethics in the Wild">Animal Ethics in the Wild</a></i> (2022)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Making_a_Stand_for_Animals" title="Making a Stand for Animals">Making a Stand for Animals</a></i> (2022)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Films</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Animals_Film" title="The Animals Film">The Animals Film</a></i> (1981)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Cow_at_My_Table" title="A Cow at My Table">A Cow at My Table</a></i> (1998)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shores_of_Silence" title="Shores of Silence">Shores of Silence</a></i> (2000)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Witness_(2000_film)" title="The Witness (2000 film)">The Witness</a></i> (2000)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Meet_Your_Meat" title="Meet Your Meat">Meet Your Meat</a></i> (2002)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Legally_Blonde_2:_Red,_White_%26_Blonde" title="Legally Blonde 2: Red, White & Blonde">Legally Blonde 2</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Meatrix" title="The Meatrix">The Meatrix</a></i> (2003)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Peaceable_Kingdom_(film)" title="Peaceable Kingdom (film)">Peaceable Kingdom</a></i> (2004)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Earthlings_(film)" title="Earthlings (film)">Earthlings</a></i> (2005)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Behind_the_Mask_(2006_film)" title="Behind the Mask (2006 film)">Behind the Mask</a></i> (2006)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Your_Mommy_Kills_Animals" title="Your Mommy Kills Animals">Your Mommy Kills Animals</a></i> (2007)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Cove_(film)" title="The Cove (film)">The Cove</a></i> (2009)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Peaceable_Kingdom:_The_Journey_Home" title="Peaceable Kingdom: The Journey Home">Peaceable Kingdom: The Journey Home</a></i> (2009)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Forks_Over_Knives" title="Forks Over Knives">Forks Over Knives</a></i> (2011)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vegucated" title="Vegucated">Vegucated</a></i> (2011)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Apology_to_Elephants" title="An Apology to Elephants">An Apology to Elephants</a></i> (2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Speciesism:_The_Movie" title="Speciesism: The Movie">Speciesism: The Movie</a></i> (2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Ghosts_in_Our_Machine" title="The Ghosts in Our Machine">The Ghosts in Our Machine</a></i> (2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Unlocking_the_Cage" title="Unlocking the Cage">Unlocking the Cage</a></i> (2016)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dominion_(2018_film)" title="Dominion (2018 film)">Dominion</a></i> (2018)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Seaspiracy" title="Seaspiracy">Seaspiracy</a></i> (2021)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Periodicals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Sentience_(journal)" title="Animal Sentience (journal)">Animal Sentience</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Between_the_Species" title="Between the Species">Between the Species</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cahiers_antisp%C3%A9cistes" title="Cahiers antispécistes">Cahiers antispécistes</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Etica_%26_Animali" title="Etica & Animali">Etica & Animali</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Animal_Ethics" title="Journal of Animal Ethics">Journal of Animal Ethics</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Relations._Beyond_Anthropocentrism" title="Relations. Beyond Anthropocentrism">Relations. Beyond Anthropocentrism</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Animals%27_Defender" class="mw-redirect" title="The Animals' Defender">The Animals' Defender</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Magazines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Arkangel_(magazine)" title="Arkangel (magazine)">Arkangel</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bite_Back" title="Bite Back">Bite Back</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Muutoksen_kev%C3%A4t" title="Muutoksen kevät">Muutoksen kevät</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/No_Compromise_(magazine)" title="No Compromise (magazine)">No Compromise</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Satya_(magazine)" title="Satya (magazine)">Satya</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_songs_about_animal_rights" title="List of songs about animal rights">Albums</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Liberation_(album)" title="Animal Liberation (album)">Animal Liberation</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tame_Yourself" title="Tame Yourself">Tame Yourself</a></i> (1991)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Manifesto_(Deadlock_album)" title="Manifesto (Deadlock album)">Manifesto</a></i> (2008)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Salvation_of_Innocents" title="Salvation of Innocents">Salvation of Innocents</a></i> (2014)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Onward_to_Freedom" title="Onward to Freedom">Onward to Freedom</a></i> (2014)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fairs and exhibitions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_on_your_Plate" title="Holocaust on your Plate">Holocaust on your Plate</a></i> (2003)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Animal_rights" title="Category:Animal rights">Category</a> <small style="">( 139 )</small></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ethology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ethology" title="Template:Ethology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ethology" title="Template talk:Ethology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ethology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ethology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ethology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Animal cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_communication" title="Animal communication">Animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_consciousness" title="Animal consciousness">Animal consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_culture" title="Animal culture">Animal culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_sexual_behaviour" title="Animal sexual behaviour">Animal sexual behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_welfare_science" title="Animal welfare science">Animal welfare science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bee_learning_and_communication" title="Bee learning and communication">Bee learning and communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_ecology" title="Behavioral ecology">Behavioural ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_endocrinology" title="Behavioral endocrinology">Behavioral endocrinology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioural genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breed" title="Breed">Breed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_ethology" title="Cognitive ethology">Cognitive ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comfort_behaviour_in_animals" title="Comfort behaviour in animals">Comfort behaviour</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Personal_grooming" title="Personal grooming">Grooming</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_psychology" title="Comparative psychology">Comparative psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_in_animals" title="Emotion in animals">Emotion in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethogram" title="Ethogram">Ethogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">Evolutionary neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feeding_behaviours" title="List of feeding behaviours">Feeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hover_(behaviour)" title="Hover (behaviour)">Hover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_ethology" title="Human ethology">Human ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instinct" title="Instinct">Instinct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">Learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroethology" title="Neuroethology">Neuroethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_in_animals" title="Pain in animals">Pain in animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_ethology" title="Philosophical ethology">Philosophical ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypy_(non-human)" title="Stereotypy (non-human)">Stereotypy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structures_built_by_animals" title="Structures built by animals">Structures</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beehive" title="Beehive">Hive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honeycomb_structure" title="Honeycomb structure">Honeycomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nest" title="Nest">Nest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nesting_instinct" title="Nesting instinct">Instinct</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarm_behaviour" title="Swarm behaviour">Swarm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tool_use_by_non-humans" title="Tool use by non-humans">Tool use by non-humans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoosemiotics" title="Zoosemiotics">Zoosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoomusicology" title="Zoomusicology">Zoomusicology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ethologists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Bateson" title="Patrick Bateson">Patrick Bateson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Bekoff" title="Marc Bekoff">Marc Bekoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Broom" title="Donald Broom">Donald Broom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_B._Calhoun" title="John B. Calhoun">John B. Calhoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marian_Dawkins" title="Marian Dawkins">Marian Dawkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iren%C3%A4us_Eibl-Eibesfeldt" title="Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt">Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dian_Fossey" title="Dian Fossey">Dian Fossey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Frisch" title="Karl von Frisch">Karl von Frisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Goodall" title="Jane Goodall">Jane Goodall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heini_Hediger" title="Heini Hediger">Heini Hediger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Huxley" title="Julian Huxley">Julian Huxley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Lorenz" title="Konrad Lorenz">Konrad Lorenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desmond_Morris" title="Desmond Morris">Desmond Morris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sebeok" title="Thomas Sebeok">Thomas Sebeok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Homan_Thorpe" title="William Homan Thorpe">William Homan Thorpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolaas_Tinbergen" title="Nikolaas Tinbergen">Nikolaas Tinbergen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakob_von_Uexk%C3%BCll" class="mw-redirect" title="Jakob von Uexküll">Jakob von Uexküll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Wickler" title="Wolfgang Wickler">Wolfgang Wickler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._O._Wilson" title="E. O. Wilson">E. O. Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solly_Zuckerman" class="mw-redirect" title="Solly Zuckerman">Solly Zuckerman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Societies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_Animal_Behaviour" title="Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour">Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Society_for_Applied_Ethology" title="International Society for Applied Ethology">International Society for Applied Ethology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Behaviour_(journal)" title="Animal Behaviour (journal)">Animal Behaviour</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Cognition" title="Animal Cognition">Animal Cognition</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Animal_Welfare_(journal)" title="Animal Welfare (journal)">Animal Welfare</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_Ecology_(journal)" title="Behavioral Ecology (journal)">Behavioral Ecology</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Behaviour_(journal)" title="Behaviour (journal)">Behaviour</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Ethology" title="Category:Ethology">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Great_ape_language" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Great_ape_language" title="Template:Great ape language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Great_ape_language" title="Template talk:Great ape language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Great_ape_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Great ape language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Great_ape_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Great_ape_language" title="Great ape language">Great ape language</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Languages taught<br />to non-human apes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yerkish" title="Yerkish">Yerkish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-human apes<br />taught<br />simple languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bonobo" title="Bonobo">Bonobos</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kanzi" title="Kanzi">Kanzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyota_(bonobo)" title="Nyota (bonobo)">Nyota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panbanisha" title="Panbanisha">Panbanisha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee" title="Chimpanzee">Chimpanzees</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lana_(chimpanzee)" title="Lana (chimpanzee)">Lana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loulis" title="Loulis">Loulis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucy_(chimpanzee)" title="Lucy (chimpanzee)">Lucy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nim_Chimpsky" title="Nim Chimpsky">Nim Chimpsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_(chimpanzee)" title="Sarah (chimpanzee)">Sarah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viki_(chimpanzee)" title="Viki (chimpanzee)">Viki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washoe_(chimpanzee)" title="Washoe (chimpanzee)">Washoe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gorilla" title="Gorilla">Gorillas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Koko_(gorilla)" title="Koko (gorilla)">Koko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_(gorilla)" title="Michael (gorilla)">Michael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ndume" title="Ndume">Ndume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Orangutan" title="Orangutan">Orangutans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azy_(orangutan)" title="Azy (orangutan)">Azy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantek" title="Chantek">Chantek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Researchers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francine_Patterson" title="Francine Patterson">Francine Patterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sue_Savage-Rumbaugh" title="Sue Savage-Rumbaugh">Sue Savage-Rumbaugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_K._Temerlin" title="Maurice K. Temerlin">Maurice K. Temerlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Fouts" title="Roger Fouts">Roger Fouts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetsuro_Matsuzawa" title="Tetsuro Matsuzawa">Tetsuro Matsuzawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_M._Fields" title="William M. Fields">William M. Fields</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research centers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee_and_Human_Communication_Institute" title="Chimpanzee and Human Communication Institute">Chimpanzee and Human Communication Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elgin_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Elgin Center">Elgin Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iowa_Primate_Learning_Sanctuary" class="mw-redirect" title="Iowa Primate Learning Sanctuary">Iowa Primate Learning Sanctuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Gorilla_Foundation" title="The Gorilla Foundation">The Gorilla Foundation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Koko:_A_Talking_Gorilla" title="Koko: A Talking Gorilla">Koko: A Talking Gorilla</a></i> (1978 film)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Mind_of_an_Ape" title="The Mind of an Ape">The Mind of an Ape</a></i> (1983 book)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Next_of_Kin_(Fouts_book)" title="Next of Kin (Fouts book)">Next of Kin</a></i> (1997 book)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Project_Nim_(film)" title="Project Nim (film)">Project Nim</a></i> (2011 film)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_language" title="Animal language">Animal language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_communication" title="Animal communication">Animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primate_cognition" title="Primate cognition">Primate cognition</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Animal cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93animal_communication" title="Human–animal communication">Human–animal communication</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&oldid=1255883359">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animal_cognition&oldid=1255883359</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Animal_cognition" title="Category:Animal cognition">Animal cognition</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Animal_intelligence" title="Category:Animal intelligence">Animal intelligence</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Animal_rights" title="Category:Animal rights">Animal rights</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Animal_welfare" title="Category:Animal welfare">Animal welfare</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Human%E2%80%93animal_communication" title="Category:Human–animal communication">Human–animal communication</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Zoology" title="Category:Zoology">Zoology</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link from Wikidata">Commons category link from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy_links" title="Category:Articles with Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy links">Articles with Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy links</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 7 November 2024, at 03:50<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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