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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Religious significance</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Religious_significance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Religious significance subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Religious_significance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ayn_al-ka'ba_and_jihat_al-ka'ba" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ayn_al-ka'ba_and_jihat_al-ka'ba"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span><i><span><i>Ayn al-ka'ba</i></span></i> and <i><span><i>jihat al-ka'ba</i></span></i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ayn_al-ka'ba_and_jihat_al-ka'ba-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Determination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Determination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Determination</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Determination-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Determination subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Determination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Theoretical_basis:_the_great_circle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theoretical_basis:_the_great_circle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Theoretical basis: the great circle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theoretical_basis:_the_great_circle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Calculations_with_spherical_trigonometry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Calculations_with_spherical_trigonometry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Calculations with spherical trigonometry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Calculations_with_spherical_trigonometry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shadow_observation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shadow_observation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Shadow observation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shadow_observation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-On_the_world_map" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#On_the_world_map"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>On the world map</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-On_the_world_map-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Traditional_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Traditional_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Traditional methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Traditional_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development_of_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_of_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Development of methods</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Development_of_methods-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Development of methods subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Development_of_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pre-astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Pre-astronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-With_astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#With_astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>With astronomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-With_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Instruments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Instruments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Instruments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Instruments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diversity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diversity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Diversity</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Diversity-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Diversity subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Diversity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_Islamic_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Islamic_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Early Islamic world</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Islamic_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indonesia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indonesia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Indonesia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indonesia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>North America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Space_and_ISS" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Space_and_ISS"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Space and ISS</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Space_and_ISS-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Qibla</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 73 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-73" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">73 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiebla" title="Kiebla – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kiebla" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%A9" title="قبلة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قبلة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alquibla" title="Alquibla – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Alquibla" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qibl%C9%99" title="Qiblə – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qiblə" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE" title="ক্বিবলা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ক্বিবলা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiblat" title="Kiblat – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Kiblat" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Banjar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%A0%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Ҡибла – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ҡибла" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%96%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Кібла – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Кібла" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%96%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Кібла – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Кібла" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Кибла – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Кибла" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kibla" title="Kibla – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Kibla" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alquibla" title="Alquibla – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Alquibla" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kibla" title="Kibla – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kibla" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qibla" title="Qibla – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Qibla" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qibla" title="Qibla – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Qibla" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qiblah" title="Qiblah – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Qiblah" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alquibla" title="Alquibla – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Alquibla" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiblo" title="Kiblo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kiblo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkibla" title="Alkibla – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Alkibla" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A8%D9%84%D9%87" title="قبله – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="قبله" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qibla" title="Qibla – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Qibla" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qibla" title="Qibla – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Qibla" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quibla" title="Quibla – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Quibla" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%82%A4%EB%B8%94%EB%9D%BC" title="키블라 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="키블라" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al%C6%99ibila" title="Alƙibila – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Alƙibila" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9" title="क़िबलाह – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="क़िबलाह" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiblat" title="Kiblat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kiblat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kibla" title="Kibla – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Kibla" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qibla" title="Qibla – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Qibla" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%91%D7%9C%D7%94" title="קיבלה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קיבלה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A9blat" title="Kéblat – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Kéblat" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A5%E1%83%98%E1%83%91%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90" title="ქიბლა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ქიბლა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D9%94%D8%A8%D9%84%DB%81%D9%95" title="قٔبلہٕ – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="قٔبلہٕ" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%9A%D2%B1%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Құбыла – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Құбыла" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kibla" title="Kibla – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kibla" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qible" title="Qible – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Qible" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kibla" title="Kibla – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kibla" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kibla" title="Kibla – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kibla" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kibla" title="Kibla – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kibla" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0_(%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC)" title="Кибла (ислам) – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Кибла (ислам)" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%96%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%B4%B2" title="ഖിബ്‌ല – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഖിബ്‌ല" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiblat" title="Kiblat – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kiblat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kibla" title="Kibla – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kibla" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AD%E3%83%96%E3%83%A9" title="キブラ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="キブラ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qibla" title="Qibla – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Qibla" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qibla" title="Qibla – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Qibla" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qibla" title="Qibla – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Qibla" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A8%D9%84%DB%81" title="قبلہ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="قبلہ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A8%D9%84%D9%87" title="قبله – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="قبله" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kibla" title="Kibla – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kibla" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quibla" title="Quibla – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Quibla" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qibla" title="Qibla – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Qibla" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Кибла – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Кибла" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qibla" title="Qibla – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Qibla" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kibla" title="Kibla – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Kibla" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qibla" title="Qibla – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Qibla" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A8%D9%84%D9%88" title="قبلو – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="قبلو" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kibla_(islam)" title="Kibla (islam) – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kibla (islam)" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%DB%8C%D8%A8%D9%84%DB%95" title="قیبلە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="قیبلە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kibla_(islam)" title="Kibla (islam) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Kibla (islam)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kibla" title="Kibla – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kibla" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiblat" title="Kiblat – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Kiblat" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qibla" title="Qibla – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Qibla" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qibla" title="Qibla – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Qibla" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%96%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AC%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%BE" title="ఖిబ్లా – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఖిబ్లా" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95" title="กิบลัต – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="กิบลัต" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%B1ble" title="Kıble – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kıble" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kybla" title="Kybla – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Kybla" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%96%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Кібла – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Кібла" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A8%D9%84%DB%81" title="قبلہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="قبلہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D9%89%D8%A8%D9%84%DB%95" title="قىبلە – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="قىبلە" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%8D%9C%E6%8B%89" title="基卜拉 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="基卜拉" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%8D%9C%E6%8B%89" title="基卜拉 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="基卜拉" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q175047#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li 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In Islam, the Kaaba is believed to be a sacred site built by prophets <a href="/wiki/Abraham_in_Islam" title="Abraham in Islam">Abraham</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ishmael_in_Islam" title="Ishmael in Islam">Ishmael</a>, and that its use as the qibla was ordained by God in several verses of the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> revealed to <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> in the second <a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Hijri year</a>. Prior to this revelation, Muhammad and his followers in <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a> faced <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> for prayers. Most <a href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">mosques</a> contain a <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Mihrab" title="Mihrab">mihrab</a></i></span> (a wall niche) that indicates the direction of the qibla. </p><p>The qibla is also the direction for entering the <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Ihram" title="Ihram">ihram</a></i></span> (sacred state for the <a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">hajj</a> pilgrimage); the direction to which animals are turned during <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Dhabihah" title="Dhabihah">dhabihah</a></i></span> (Islamic slaughter); the recommended direction to make <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Du%27a" class="mw-redirect" title="Du'a">du'a</a></i></span> (supplications); the direction to avoid when relieving oneself or spitting; and the direction to which the deceased are aligned when <a href="/wiki/Islamic_burial" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic burial">buried</a>. The qibla may be observed facing the Kaaba accurately (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">ayn al-ka'ba</i></span>) or facing in the general direction (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">jihat al-ka'ba</i></span>). Most Islamic scholars consider that <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">jihat al-ka'ba</i></span> is acceptable if the more precise <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">ayn al-ka'ba</i></span> cannot be ascertained. </p><p>The most common technical definition used by Muslim astronomers for a location is the direction on the <a href="/wiki/Great_circle" title="Great circle">great circle</a>—in the <a href="/wiki/Spherical_Earth" title="Spherical Earth">Earth's Sphere</a>—passing through the location and the Kaaba. This is the direction of the shortest possible path from a place to the Kaaba, and allows the exact calculation (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">hisab</i></span>) of the qibla using a <a href="/wiki/Spherical_trigonometry" title="Spherical trigonometry">spherical trigonometric</a> formula that takes the coordinates of a location and of the Kaaba as inputs (<a href="#formula">see formula below</a>). The method is applied to develop <a href="/wiki/Mobile_app" title="Mobile app">mobile applications</a> and websites for Muslims, and to compile qibla tables used in instruments such as the <a href="/wiki/Qibla_compass" title="Qibla compass">qibla compass</a>. The qibla can also be determined at a location by <a href="/wiki/Qibla_observation_by_shadows" title="Qibla observation by shadows">observing the shadow of a vertical rod</a> on the twice-yearly occasions when the Sun is directly overhead in Mecca—on 27 and 28 May at 12:18 <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia_Standard_Time" title="Saudi Arabia Standard Time">Saudi Arabia Standard Time</a> (09:18 UTC), and on 15 and 16 July at 12:27 SAST (09:27 UTC). </p><p>Before the development of astronomy in the Islamic world, Muslims used traditional methods to determine the qibla. These methods included facing the direction that the <a href="/wiki/Companions_of_the_Prophet" title="Companions of the Prophet">companions of Muhammad</a> had used when in the same place; using the setting and rising points of celestial objects; using the direction of the wind; or using due south, which was Muhammad's qibla in Medina. Early <a href="/wiki/Islamic_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic astronomy">Islamic astronomy</a> was built on its <a href="/wiki/Indian_astronomy" title="Indian astronomy">Indian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic astronomy">Greek</a> counterparts, especially the works of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>, and soon Muslim astronomers developed methods to calculate the approximate directions of the qibla, starting from the mid-9th century. In the late 9th and 10th centuries, Muslim astronomers developed methods to find the <a href="/wiki/Compass_rose" title="Compass rose">exact direction</a> of the qibla which are equivalent to the modern formula. Initially, this "qibla of the astronomers" was used alongside various traditionally determined qiblas, resulting in much diversity in medieval Muslim cities. In addition, the accurate geographic data necessary for the astronomical methods to yield an accurate result was not available before the 18th and 19th centuries, resulting in further diversity of the qibla. Historical mosques with differing qiblas still stand today throughout the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Islamic world</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Spaceflight" title="Spaceflight">spaceflight</a> of a devout Muslim, <a href="/wiki/Sheikh_Muszaphar_Shukor" title="Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor">Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor</a>, to the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> (ISS) in 2007 generated a discussion with regard to the qibla direction from <a href="/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit" title="Low Earth orbit">low Earth orbit</a>, prompting the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_authority" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic authority">Islamic authority</a> of his home country, <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>, to recommend determining the qibla "based on what is possible" for the astronaut. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Location">Location</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qibla&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Location"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Kaaba" title="Kaaba">Kaaba</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sacred_Mosque" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred Mosque">Sacred Mosque</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238443738">.mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#fff!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:white!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}</style><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:242px"><div style="position:relative;width:240px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Middle_East_location_map2.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of the Middle East"><img alt="Map of the Middle East" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Middle_East_location_map2.svg/240px-Middle_East_location_map2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Middle_East_location_map2.svg/360px-Middle_East_location_map2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Middle_East_location_map2.svg/480px-Middle_East_location_map2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="201" data-file-height="169" /></a></span><div class="od notheme" style="top:69.516%;left:47.386%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Mecca"><img alt="Mecca" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:61.462%;left:46.909%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Medina"><img alt="Medina" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a></div></div></div><div class="od notheme" style="top:42.127%;left:37.186%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Jerusalem"><img alt="Jerusalem" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/8px-Red_pog.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/12px-Red_pog.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/16px-Red_pog.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></span></span></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div><a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a></div></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Middle_East_location_map2.svg" title="File:Middle East location map2.svg">class=notpageimage| </a></div><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> and the early Muslims in <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a> initially prayed towards <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, and changed the qibla to face the Kaaba in <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a> in 623 CE.</div></div></div> <p>The qibla is the direction of the <a href="/wiki/Kaaba" title="Kaaba">Kaaba</a>, a cube-like building at the centre of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_Mecca" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Mosque of Mecca">Sacred Mosque</a> (<i><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-Masjid al-Haram</i></span></i>) in <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Hijaz" class="mw-redirect" title="Hijaz">Hijaz</a> region of Saudi Arabia. Other than its role as qibla, it is also the <a href="/wiki/Holiest_sites_in_Islam" title="Holiest sites in Islam">holiest site</a> for Muslims, also known as the House of God (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Bayt Allah</i></span>) and where the <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Tawaf" class="mw-redirect" title="Tawaf">tawaf</a></i></span> (the <a href="/wiki/Circumambulation" title="Circumambulation">circumambulation</a> ritual) is performed during the <a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">Hajj</a> and <a href="/wiki/Umrah" title="Umrah">umrah</a> pilgrimages. The Kaaba has an approximately rectangular ground plan with its four corners pointing close to the four <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_direction" title="Cardinal direction">cardinal directions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWensinck1978317_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWensinck1978317-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a>, it was built by <a href="/wiki/Abraham_in_Islam" title="Abraham in Islam">Abraham</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ishmael_in_Islam" title="Ishmael in Islam">Ishmael</a>, both of whom are prophets in Islam.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWensinck1978318_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWensinck1978318-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Few historical records remain detailing the history of the Kaaba before the rise of Islam, but in the generations prior to Muhammad, the Kaaba had been used as a shrine of the <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">pre-Islamic Arabic religion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWensinck1978318_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWensinck1978318-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The qibla status of the Kaaba (or the Sacred Mosque in which it is located) is based on the verses 144, 149, and 150 of the <a href="/wiki/Surat_al-Baqara" class="mw-redirect" title="Surat al-Baqara">al-Baqarah</a> chapter of the Quran, each of which contains a command to "turn your face toward the Sacred Mosque" (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">fawalli wajhaka shatr al-Masjid il-Haram</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori201597–98_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori201597–98-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Islamic traditions, these verses were revealed in the month of <a href="/wiki/Rajab" title="Rajab">Rajab</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sha%27ban" title="Sha'ban">Sha'ban</a> in the second <a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Hijri year</a> (623 CE), or about 15 or 16 months after Muhammad's <a href="/wiki/Hegira" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegira">migration to Medina</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori2015104_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori2015104-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWensinck198682_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWensinck198682-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prior to these revelations, Muhammad and the Muslims in <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a> had prayed towards <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> as the qibla, the same direction as the prayer direction—the <span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Mizrah" title="Mizrah">mizrah</a></i></span>—used by the <a href="/wiki/Jews_of_Medina" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews of Medina">Jews of Medina</a>. Islamic tradition says that these verses were revealed during a prayer congregation; Muhammad and his followers immediately changed their direction from Jerusalem to Mecca in the middle of the prayer ritual. The location of this event became the <a href="/wiki/Masjid_al-Qiblatayn" title="Masjid al-Qiblatayn">Masjid al-Qiblatayn</a> ("The Mosque of the Two Qiblas").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWensinck198682_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWensinck198682-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are different reports of the qibla direction when Muhammad was in Mecca (before his migration to Medina). According to a report cited by historian <a href="/wiki/Al-Tabari" title="Al-Tabari">al-Tabari</a> and exegete (textual interpreter) <a href="/wiki/Al-Baydawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Baydawi">al-Baydawi</a>, Muhammad prayed towards the Kaaba. Another report, cited by <a href="/wiki/Al-Baladhuri" title="Al-Baladhuri">al-Baladhuri</a> and also by al-Tabari, says that Muhammad prayed towards Jerusalem while in Mecca. Another report, mentioned in <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hisham" title="Ibn Hisham">Ibn Hisham</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Prophetic_biography" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophetic biography">biography of Muhammad</a>, says that Muhammad prayed in such a way as to face the Kaaba and Jerusalem simultaneously.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWensinck198682_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWensinck198682-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today Muslims of all branches, including the <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a>, all pray towards the Kaaba. Historically, one major exception was the <a href="/wiki/Qarmatians" title="Qarmatians">Qarmatians</a>, a now-defunct syncretic Shia sect which rejected the Kaaba as the qibla; in 930, they <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Mecca" title="Sack of Mecca">sacked Mecca</a> and for a time took the Kaaba's <a href="/wiki/Black_Stone" title="Black Stone">Black Stone</a> to their centre of power in <a href="/wiki/Al-Ahsa_Oasis" title="Al-Ahsa Oasis">al-Ahsa</a>, with the intention of starting a new era in Islam.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWensinck1978321_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWensinck1978321-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaftary2007149_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaftary2007149-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religious_significance">Religious significance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qibla&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Religious significance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Samarcanda,_Shah-i-Zinda_28_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Several women pray inside a building. There is a niche on the wall in whose direction they pray." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Samarcanda%2C_Shah-i-Zinda_28_%28cropped%29.jpg/290px-Samarcanda%2C_Shah-i-Zinda_28_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Samarcanda%2C_Shah-i-Zinda_28_%28cropped%29.jpg/435px-Samarcanda%2C_Shah-i-Zinda_28_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Samarcanda%2C_Shah-i-Zinda_28_%28cropped%29.jpg/580px-Samarcanda%2C_Shah-i-Zinda_28_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3540" data-file-height="2261" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Mihrab" title="Mihrab">Mihrab</a> in one of the walls of a mosque indicates the qibla direction to be used for prayers. Picture from the <a href="/wiki/Shah-i-Zinda" title="Shah-i-Zinda">Shah-i-Zinda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a>, Uzbekistan.</figcaption></figure> <p>Etymologically, the Arabic word <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">qibla</i></span> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">قبلة</span></span>) means "direction". In Islamic ritual and law, it refers to a special direction faced by Muslims during prayers and other religious contexts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWensinck198682_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWensinck198682-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">Islamic religious scholars</a> agree that facing the qibla is a necessary condition for the validity of <a href="/wiki/Salah" title="Salah">salah</a>—the Islamic ritual prayer—in normal conditions;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori2015103_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori2015103-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> exceptions include prayers during a state of fear or war, as well as non-obligatory prayers during travel.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori201591_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori201591-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">hadith</a> (Muhammad's tradition) also prescribes that Muslims face the qibla when entering the <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Ihram" title="Ihram">ihram</a></i></span> (sacred state for hajj), after the middle <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Stoning_of_the_Devil" title="Stoning of the Devil">jamrah</a></i></span> (stone-throwing ritual) during the pilgrimage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWensinck198682_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWensinck198682-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Adab_(Islam)" title="Adab (Islam)">Islamic etiquette</a> (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">adab</i></span>) calls for Muslims to turn the head of an animal when it is <a href="/wiki/Dhabihah" title="Dhabihah">slaughtered</a>, and the faces of the dead when they are buried, toward the qibla.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWensinck198682_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWensinck198682-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The qibla is the preferred direction when making a <a href="/wiki/Dua" title="Dua">supplication</a> and is to be avoided when defecating, urinating, and spitting.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWensinck198682_5-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWensinck198682-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Inside a mosque, the qibla is usually indicated by a <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Mihrab" title="Mihrab">mihrab</a></i></span>, a <a href="/wiki/Niche_(architecture)" title="Niche (architecture)">niche</a> in its qibla-facing wall. In a congregational prayer, the <a href="/wiki/Imam" title="Imam">imam</a> stands in it or close to it, in front of the rest of the congregation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuban19743_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuban19743-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">mihrab</i></span> became a part of the mosque during the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_caliphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad caliphate">Umayyad period</a> and its form was standardised during the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_caliphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid caliphate">Abbasid period</a>; before that, the qibla of a mosque was known from the orientation of one of its walls, called the qibla wall. The term <i><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">mihrab</i></span></i> itself is attested only once in the Quran, but it refers to a place of prayer of the <a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a> rather than a part of a mosque.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuban19743_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuban19743-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Amr_ibn_al-As_Mosque" title="Amr ibn al-As Mosque">Amr ibn al-As Mosque</a> in <a href="/wiki/Fustat" title="Fustat">Fustat</a>, Egypt, one of the oldest mosques, is known to have been built originally without a <i><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">mihrab</i></span></i>, though one has since been added.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuban19744_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuban19744-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ayn_al-ka'ba_and_jihat_al-ka'ba"><span id="Ayn_al-ka.27ba_and_jihat_al-ka.27ba"></span><i><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ayn al-ka'ba</i></span></i> and <i><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">jihat al-ka'ba</i></span></i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qibla&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ayn al-ka'ba and jihat al-ka'ba"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ayn al-ka'ba</i></span> ("standing so as to face the Kaaba head-on") is a position facing the qibla so that an imaginary line extending from the person's line of sight would pass through the Kaaba.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996134_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996134-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This manner of observing the qibla is easily done inside the Great Mosque of Mecca and its surroundings, but given that the Kaaba is less than 20 metres (66 ft) wide, this is virtually impossible from distant locations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori2015104–105_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori2015104–105-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, from Medina, with a 338-kilometre (210 mi) straight-line distance from the Kaaba, a one-<a href="/wiki/Degree_(angle)" title="Degree (angle)">degree</a> deviation from the precise imaginary line—an error hardly noticeable when setting one's prayer mat or assuming one's posture—results in a 5.9-kilometre (3.7 mi) shift from the site of the Kaaba.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaksonoFulazzakySari2018137_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaksonoFulazzakySari2018137-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This effect is amplified when further than Mecca:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaksonoFulazzakySari2018134_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaksonoFulazzakySari2018134-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from <a href="/wiki/Jakarta" title="Jakarta">Jakarta</a>, Indonesia—some 7,900 km (4,900 mi) away, a one-degree deviation causes more than a 100-kilometre (62 mi) shift, and even an <a href="/wiki/Arc_second" class="mw-redirect" title="Arc second">arc second</a>'s deviation—<span class="nowrap">(<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">3600</span></span> of a degree)</span>—causes a more than 100-metre (330 ft) shift from the location of the Kaaba.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaksonoFulazzakySari2018136_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaksonoFulazzakySari2018136-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In comparison, the construction process of a mosque can easily introduce an error of up to five degrees from the calculated qibla, and the installation of prayer rugs inside the mosque as indicators for worshipers can add another deviation of five degrees from the mosque's orientation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaksonoFulazzakySari2018136_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaksonoFulazzakySari2018136-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A minority of Islamic religious scholars—for example <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Arabi" title="Ibn Arabi">Ibn Arabi</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="died">d.</abbr> 1240</span>)—consider <i><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">ayn al-ka'ba</i></span></i> to be obligatory during the ritual prayer, while others consider it obligatory only when one is able. For locations further than Mecca, scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Abu_Hanifa" title="Abu Hanifa">Abu Hanifa</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="died">d.</abbr> 699</span>) and <a href="/wiki/Al-Qurtubi" title="Al-Qurtubi">Al-Qurtubi</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="died">d.</abbr> 1214</span>) argue that it is permissible to assume <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">jihat al-ka'ba</i></span>, facing only the general direction of the Kaaba.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori201592,_95_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori201592,_95-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others argue that the ritual condition of facing the qibla is already fulfilled when the imaginary line to the Kaaba is within one's field of vision.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996134_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996134-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, there are legal opinions that accept the entire southeastern quadrant in <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a> (Islamic <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a>), and the southwestern quadrant in Central Asia, to be valid qibla.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996134–135_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996134–135-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arguments for the validity of <i><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">jihat al-ka'ba</i></span></i> include the wording of the Quran, which commands Muslims only to "turn [one's] face" toward the Great Mosque, and to avoid imposing requirements that would be impossible to fulfill if <i><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">ayn al-ka'ba</i></span></i> were to be obligatory in all places.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori201595_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori201595-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Shafi%27i_school" title="Shafi'i school">Shafi'i school</a> of Islamic law, as codified in <a href="/wiki/Abu_Ishaq_al-Shirazi" title="Abu Ishaq al-Shirazi">Abu Ishaq al-Shirazi</a>'s 11th-century <i><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Kitab al-Tanbih fi'l-Fiqh</i></span></i>, argues that one must follow the qibla indicated by the local mosque when one is not near Mecca or, when not near a mosque, to ask a trustworthy person. When this is not possible, one is to make one's own determination—to exercise <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad">ijtihad</a></i></span>—by the means at one's disposal.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWensinck198683_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWensinck198683-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori201594_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori201594-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Determination">Determination</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qibla&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Determination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theoretical_basis:_the_great_circle">Theoretical basis: the great circle</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qibla&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Theoretical basis: the great circle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Great_circle_passing_through_two_points.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A sphere with two points, marked A and B, and a path that connects them" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Great_circle_passing_through_two_points.svg/200px-Great_circle_passing_through_two_points.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Great_circle_passing_through_two_points.svg/300px-Great_circle_passing_through_two_points.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Great_circle_passing_through_two_points.svg/400px-Great_circle_passing_through_two_points.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1839" data-file-height="1846" /></a><figcaption>The great circle passing through two points (A and B) indicates the shortest path (<b>bold</b>) between them.</figcaption></figure> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Great_circle" title="Great circle">great circle</a>, also called the orthodrome, is any circle on a sphere whose centre is identical to the centre of the sphere. For example, all lines of <a href="/wiki/Longitude" title="Longitude">longitude</a> are great circles of the Earth, while the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equator</a> is the only line of <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a> that is also a great circle (other lines of latitude are centered north or south of the centre of the Earth).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaltham201398_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaltham201398-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The great circle is the theoretical basis in most models that seek to mathematically determine the direction of the qibla from a locality. In such models, the qibla is defined as the direction of the great circle passing through the locality and the Kaaba.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Justo2007_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Justo2007-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2004166_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2004166-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the properties of a great circle is that it indicates the shortest path connecting any pair of points along the circle—this is the basis of its use to determine the qibla. The great circle is similarly used to find the shortest flight path connecting the two locations—therefore the qibla calculated using the great circle method is generally close to the direction of the locality to Mecca.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlmakkySnyder199631_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlmakkySnyder199631-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the <a href="/wiki/Earth_ellipsoid" title="Earth ellipsoid">ellipsoid</a> is a more accurate <a href="/wiki/Figure_of_the_Earth" title="Figure of the Earth">figure of the Earth</a> than a perfect sphere, modern researchers have looked into using ellipsoidal models to calculate the qibla, replacing the great circle by the <a href="/wiki/Geodesics_on_an_ellipsoid" title="Geodesics on an ellipsoid">geodesics on an ellipsoid</a>. This results in more complicated calculations, while the improvement in accuracy falls well within the typical precision of the setting out of a mosque or the placement of a mat.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaksonoFulazzakySari2018132–134_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaksonoFulazzakySari2018132–134-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, calculations using the <a href="/wiki/Geodetic_Reference_System_1980" title="Geodetic Reference System 1980">GRS 80</a> ellipsoidal model yields the qibla of 18°47′06″ for a location in <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco" title="San Francisco">San Francisco</a>, while the great circle method yields 18°51′05″.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlmakkySnyder199635_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlmakkySnyder199635-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Calculations_with_spherical_trigonometry">Calculations with spherical trigonometry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qibla&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Calculations with spherical trigonometry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The great circle model is applied to calculate the qibla using <a href="/wiki/Spherical_trigonometry" title="Spherical trigonometry">spherical trigonometry</a>—a branch of <a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a> that deals with the mathematical relations between the sides and angles of triangles formed by three great circles of a sphere (as opposed to the conventional <a href="/wiki/Trigonometry" title="Trigonometry">trigonometry</a> which deals with those of a two-dimensional triangle). </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qibla_from_Yogyakarta_on_globe,_English_labels_paths.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A globe, with a spherical triangle connecting Mecca, the North Pole, and Yogyakarta" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Qibla_from_Yogyakarta_on_globe%2C_English_labels_paths.svg/290px-Qibla_from_Yogyakarta_on_globe%2C_English_labels_paths.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="289" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Qibla_from_Yogyakarta_on_globe%2C_English_labels_paths.svg/435px-Qibla_from_Yogyakarta_on_globe%2C_English_labels_paths.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Qibla_from_Yogyakarta_on_globe%2C_English_labels_paths.svg/580px-Qibla_from_Yogyakarta_on_globe%2C_English_labels_paths.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="797" data-file-height="795" /></a><figcaption> For example, the qibla from the city of <a href="/wiki/Yogyakarta" title="Yogyakarta">Yogyakarta</a>, Indonesia, can be calculated as follows. The city's coordinates, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \phi }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ϕ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \phi }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/72b1f30316670aee6270a28334bdf4f5072cdde4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.385ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \phi }"></span>, are 7.801389°S, 110.364444°E, while the Kaaba's coordinates, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \phi _{Q}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>ϕ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>Q</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \phi _{Q}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/755b6d1f139bb372a36aa2ded83a6b679918b2f8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.918ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \phi _{Q}}"></span>, are 21.422478°N, 39.825183°E. The longitude difference <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Delta L}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>L</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Delta L}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/01b9412860b0d582ac37e99b2643fdd25395b849" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.519ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Delta L}"></span> is (110.364444 minus 39.825183) 70.539261. Substituting the values into the (<b><a href="#math_3">3</a></b>) obtains an answer of approximately 295°, or 25° north of west.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori2015123_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori2015123-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>If a location <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle O}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>O</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle O}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9d70e1d0d87e2ef1092ea1ffe2923d9933ff18fc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.773ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle O}"></span>, the Kaaba <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Q}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>Q</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Q}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8752c7023b4b3286800fe3238271bbca681219ed" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.838ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Q}"></span>, and the north pole <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle N}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>N</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle N}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f5e3890c981ae85503089652feb48b191b57aae3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.064ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle N}"></span> form a triangle on the sphere of the Earth, then the qibla is indicated by <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle OQ}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>O</mi> <mi>Q</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle OQ}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a25bd4f737a68245bc6c983ccd2cbaedac7638d8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.612ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle OQ}"></span>, which is the direction of the great circle passing through both <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle O}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>O</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle O}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9d70e1d0d87e2ef1092ea1ffe2923d9933ff18fc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.773ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle O}"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Q}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>Q</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Q}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8752c7023b4b3286800fe3238271bbca681219ed" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.838ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Q}"></span>. The qibla can also be expressed as an angle, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \angle NOQ}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">∠</mi> <mi>N</mi> <mi>O</mi> <mi>Q</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \angle NOQ}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1770c11a11152cef02f2ff235efc8eab008bfbf4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:7.353ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \angle NOQ}"></span> (or <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \angle q}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">∠</mi> <mi>q</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \angle q}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/af707ce6f40e5f7f45f219569e6ec1b91bfcc2a6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.748ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \angle q}"></span>), of the qibla with respect to the north, also called the <i>inhiraf al-qibla</i>. This angle can be calculated as a mathematical function of the local latitude <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \phi }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>ϕ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \phi }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/72b1f30316670aee6270a28334bdf4f5072cdde4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.385ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \phi }"></span>, the latitude of the Kaaba <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \phi _{Q}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>ϕ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>Q</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \phi _{Q}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/755b6d1f139bb372a36aa2ded83a6b679918b2f8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.918ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \phi _{Q}}"></span>, and the longitude difference between the locality and the Kaaba <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Delta L}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>L</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Delta L}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/01b9412860b0d582ac37e99b2643fdd25395b849" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.519ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Delta L}"></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing198683_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing198683-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This function is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Cotangent_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Cotangent rule">cotangent rule</a> which applies to any spherical triangle with angles <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>A</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7daff47fa58cdfd29dc333def748ff5fa4c923e3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.743ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle B}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>B</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle B}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/47136aad860d145f75f3eed3022df827cee94d7a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.764ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle B}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>C</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4fc55753007cd3c18576f7933f6f089196732029" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.766ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C}"></span> and sides <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>a</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ffd2487510aa438433a2579450ab2b3d557e5edc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.23ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle b}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>b</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle b}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f11423fbb2e967f986e36804a8ae4271734917c3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.998ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle b}"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle c}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>c</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle c}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/86a67b81c2de995bd608d5b2df50cd8cd7d92455" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.007ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle c}"></span>: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266403038">.mw-parser-output table.numblk{border-collapse:collapse;border:none;margin-top:0;margin-right:0;margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output table.numblk>tbody>tr>td{vertical-align:middle;padding:0}.mw-parser-output table.numblk>tbody>tr>td:nth-child(2){width:99%}.mw-parser-output table.numblk>tbody>tr>td:nth-child(2)>table{border-collapse:collapse;margin:0;border:none;width:100%}.mw-parser-output table.numblk>tbody>tr>td:nth-child(2)>table>tbody>tr:first-child>td:first-child,.mw-parser-output table.numblk>tbody>tr>td:nth-child(2)>table>tbody>tr:first-child>td:last-child{padding:0 0.4ex}.mw-parser-output table.numblk>tbody>tr>td:nth-child(2)>table>tbody>tr:first-child>td:nth-child(2){width:100%;padding:0}.mw-parser-output table.numblk>tbody>tr>td:nth-child(2)>table>tbody>tr:last-child>td{padding:0}.mw-parser-output table.numblk>tbody>tr>td:last-child{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output table.numblk.numblk-raw-n>tbody>tr>td:last-child{font-weight:unset}.mw-parser-output table.numblk>tbody>tr>td:last-child::before{content:"("}.mw-parser-output table.numblk>tbody>tr>td:last-child::after{content:")"}.mw-parser-output table.numblk.numblk-raw-n>tbody>tr>td:last-child::before,.mw-parser-output table.numblk.numblk-raw-n>tbody>tr>td:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output table.numblk>tbody>tr>td{border:none}.mw-parser-output table.numblk.numblk-border>tbody>tr>td{border:thin solid}.mw-parser-output table.numblk>tbody>tr>td:nth-child(2)>table>tbody>tr:first-child>td{border:none}.mw-parser-output table.numblk.numblk-border>tbody>tr>td:nth-child(2)>table>tbody>tr:first-child>td{border:thin solid}.mw-parser-output table.numblk>tbody>tr>td:nth-child(2)>table>tbody>tr:last-child>td{border-left:none;border-right:none;border-bottom:none}.mw-parser-output table.numblk.numblk-border>tbody>tr>td:nth-child(2)>table>tbody>tr:last-child>td{border-left:thin solid;border-right:thin solid;border-bottom:thin solid}.mw-parser-output table.numblk:target{color:var(--color-base,#202122);background-color:#cfe8fd}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table.numblk:target{color:var(--color-base,#eaecf0);background-color:#301702}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table.numblk:target{color:var(--color-base,#eaecf0);background-color:#301702}}</style><table role="presentation" class="numblk" style="margin-left: 1.6em;"><tbody><tr><td class="nowrap"><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \cos a\,\cos C=\cot b\,\sin a-\cot B\,\sin C}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>cos</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi>a</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>cos</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi>C</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>cot</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi>b</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>sin</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi>a</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mi>cot</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi>B</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>sin</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi>C</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \cos a\,\cos C=\cot b\,\sin a-\cot B\,\sin C}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d0993771e30e2ef840d253e3a21621146aa0d788" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:37.47ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \cos a\,\cos C=\cot b\,\sin a-\cot B\,\sin C}"></span><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori2015119_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori2015119-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td></td> <td class="nowrap"><span id="math_1" class="reference nourlexpansion" style="font-weight:bold;">1</span></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><span class="anchor" id="formula"></span> Applying this formula in the spherical triangle <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \triangle NOQ}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">△</mi> <mi>N</mi> <mi>O</mi> <mi>Q</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \triangle NOQ}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e8979b8a2ac3b7f94f32fa4f926e9c44238212ea" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:7.741ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \triangle NOQ}"></span> (substituting <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle B=\angle q=\angle NOQ}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>B</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">∠</mi> <mi>q</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">∠</mi> <mi>N</mi> <mi>O</mi> <mi>Q</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle B=\angle q=\angle NOQ}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8ff06fa788334744167cab5ce49a3a476b38c870" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:18.062ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle B=\angle q=\angle NOQ}"></span>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori2015119_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori2015119-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and applying <a href="/wiki/List_of_trigonometric_identities" title="List of trigonometric identities">trigonometric identities</a> obtain: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1266403038"><table role="presentation" class="numblk" style="margin-left: 1.6em;"><tbody><tr><td class="nowrap"><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \tan q={\frac {\sin \phi \cos \Delta L-\cos \phi \tan \phi _{Q}}{\sin \Delta L}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>tan</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi>q</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>sin</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi>ϕ</mi> <mi>cos</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>L</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mi>cos</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi>ϕ</mi> <mi>tan</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <msub> <mi>ϕ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>Q</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>sin</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>L</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \tan q={\frac {\sin \phi \cos \Delta L-\cos \phi \tan \phi _{Q}}{\sin \Delta L}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6a6a307218bf1ace5d913d48555e88571d625564" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:35.558ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \tan q={\frac {\sin \phi \cos \Delta L-\cos \phi \tan \phi _{Q}}{\sin \Delta L}}}"></span>, or</td> <td></td> <td class="nowrap"><span id="math_2" class="reference nourlexpansion" style="font-weight:bold;">2</span></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1266403038"><table role="presentation" class="numblk" style="margin-left: 1.6em;"><tbody><tr><td class="nowrap"><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle q=\arctan \left({\frac {\sin \phi \cos \Delta L-\cos \phi \tan \phi _{Q}}{\sin \Delta L}}\right)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>q</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>arctan</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>sin</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi>ϕ</mi> <mi>cos</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>L</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mi>cos</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi>ϕ</mi> <mi>tan</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <msub> <mi>ϕ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>Q</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>sin</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>L</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle q=\arctan \left({\frac {\sin \phi \cos \Delta L-\cos \phi \tan \phi _{Q}}{\sin \Delta L}}\right)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/277b1b70baaf043ad99704f3a2348e1a497c4c2b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:41.699ex; height:6.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle q=\arctan \left({\frac {\sin \phi \cos \Delta L-\cos \phi \tan \phi _{Q}}{\sin \Delta L}}\right)}"></span><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing198683_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing198683-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td></td> <td class="nowrap"><span id="math_3" class="reference nourlexpansion" style="font-weight:bold;">3</span></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>This formula was derived by modern scholars, but equivalent methods have been known to Muslim astronomers since the 9th century (3rd century <abbr title="Hijri year">AH</abbr>), developed by various scholars, including <a href="/wiki/Habash_al-Hasib" title="Habash al-Hasib">Habash al-Hasib</a> (active in <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 850</span>), <a href="/wiki/Al-Nayrizi" title="Al-Nayrizi">Al-Nayrizi</a> (Baghdad, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 900</span>),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing198685–86_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing198685–86-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Yunus" title="Ibn Yunus">Ibn Yunus</a> (10th–11th century),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing198685_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing198685-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a> (11th century),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing198685_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing198685-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Al-Biruni" title="Al-Biruni">Al-Biruni</a> (11th century).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing198686_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing198686-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today spherical trigonometry also underlies nearly all applications or websites which calculate the qibla.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Justo2007_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Justo2007-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the qibla angle with respect to the north, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \angle q}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">∠</mi> <mi>q</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \angle q}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/af707ce6f40e5f7f45f219569e6ec1b91bfcc2a6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.748ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \angle q}"></span>, is known, <a href="/wiki/True_north" title="True north">true north</a> needs to be known to find the qibla in practice. Common practical methods to find it include the observation of the shadow at the <a href="/wiki/Culmination" title="Culmination">culmination</a> of the sun—when the sun crosses exactly the <a href="/wiki/Local_meridian" class="mw-redirect" title="Local meridian">local meridian</a>. At this point, any vertical object would cast a shadow oriented in the north–south direction. The result of this observation is very accurate, but it requires an accurate determination of the local time of culmination as well as making the correct observation at that exact moment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIlyas1984171–172_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIlyas1984171–172-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another common method is using the compass, which is more practical because it can be done at any time; the disadvantage is that the north indicated by a magnetic compass differs from true north.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaksonoFulazzakySari2018136_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaksonoFulazzakySari2018136-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIlyas1984172_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIlyas1984172-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_declination" title="Magnetic declination">magnetic declination</a> can measure up to 20°, which can vary in different places on Earth and <a href="/wiki/Polar_wandering" class="mw-redirect" title="Polar wandering">changes over time</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaksonoFulazzakySari2018136_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaksonoFulazzakySari2018136-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shadow_observation">Shadow observation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qibla&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Shadow observation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Qibla_observation_by_shadows" title="Qibla observation by shadows">Qibla observation by shadows</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Direction_of_qibla_using_shadow.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Illustration of the Sun overhead of the Kaaba, and shadow cast by a vertical object in another position" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Direction_of_qibla_using_shadow.svg/220px-Direction_of_qibla_using_shadow.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Direction_of_qibla_using_shadow.svg/330px-Direction_of_qibla_using_shadow.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Direction_of_qibla_using_shadow.svg/440px-Direction_of_qibla_using_shadow.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="216" data-file-height="160" /></a><figcaption>Twice a year, the Sun passes directly above the Kaaba, allowing the observation of its direction from the shadow of a vertical object.</figcaption></figure> <p>As observed from Earth, the Sun appears to "<a href="/wiki/Sun_path" title="Sun path">shift</a>" between the <a href="/wiki/Tropic_of_Cancer" title="Tropic of Cancer">Northern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tropic_of_Capricorn" title="Tropic of Capricorn">Southern</a> Tropics seasonally; additionally, it <a href="/wiki/Diurnal_motion" title="Diurnal motion">appears to move</a> from east to west daily as a consequence of the Earth's rotation. The combination of these two apparent motions means that every day the Sun crosses the meridian once, usually not precisely overhead but to the north or to the south of the observer. In locations between the two tropics—latitudes lower than 23.5° north or south—at certain moments of the year (usually twice a year) the Sun passes almost directly overhead. This happens when the Sun crosses the meridian while being at the local latitude at the same time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERahartoSurya201125_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERahartoSurya201125-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The city of Mecca is among the places where this occurs, due to its location at 21°25′ N. It occurs twice a year, firstly on 27/28 May at about 12:18 <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia_Standard_Time" title="Saudi Arabia Standard Time">Saudi Arabia Standard Time</a> (SAST) or 09:18 UTC, and secondly on 15/16 July at 12:27 SAST (09:27 UTC).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERahartoSurya201125_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERahartoSurya201125-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori2015125_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori2015125-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the sun reaches the <a href="/wiki/Zenith" title="Zenith">zenith</a> of the Kaaba, any vertical object on earth that receives sunlight cast a shadow that indicates the qibla (<i>see picture</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERahartoSurya201125_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERahartoSurya201125-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This method of finding the qibla is called <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">rasd al-qiblat</i></span> ("observing the qibla").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERahartoSurya201124_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERahartoSurya201124-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori2015123_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori2015123-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since night falls on the hemisphere opposite of the Kaaba, half the locations on Earth (including Australia as well as most of the Americas and the Pacific Ocean) cannot observe this directly.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori2015125–126_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori2015125–126-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead, such places observe the opposite phenomenon when the Sun passes above the <a href="/wiki/Antipodal_point" title="Antipodal point">antipodal point</a> of the Kaaba (in other words, the Sun passes directly underneath the Kaaba), causing shadows in the opposite direction from those observed during <i><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">rasd al-qiblat</i></span></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERahartoSurya201125_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERahartoSurya201125-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori2015126–127_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori2015126–127-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This occurs twice a year, on 14 January 00:30 SAST (21:30 UTC the previous day) and 29 November 00:09 SAST (21:09 UTC the previous day).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori2015127_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori2015127-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Observations made within five minutes of the <i><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">rasd al-qiblat</i></span></i> moments or its antipodal counterparts, or at the same time of the day two days before or after each event, still show accurate directions with negligible difference.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERahartoSurya201125_37-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERahartoSurya201125-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori2015125_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori2015125-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="On_the_world_map">On the world map</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qibla&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: On the world map"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Craig_projection_SW.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Craig_projection_SW.jpg/290px-Craig_projection_SW.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Craig_projection_SW.jpg/435px-Craig_projection_SW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Craig_projection_SW.jpg/580px-Craig_projection_SW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2059" data-file-height="1169" /></a><figcaption>A map generated using the <a href="/wiki/Craig_retroazimuthal_projection" title="Craig retroazimuthal projection">Craig retroazimuthal projection</a> centered on Mecca. Unlike most map projections, it preserves the direction from any other point on the map to the center.</figcaption></figure> <p>Spherical trigonometry provides the shortest path from any point on Earth to the Kaaba, even though the indicated direction might seem counterintuitive when imagined on a flat <a href="/wiki/World_map" title="World map">world map</a>. For example, the qibla from <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a> obtained through spherical trigonometry is almost due north.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Justo2007_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Justo2007-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This apparent counter-intuitiveness is caused by <a href="/wiki/Map_projections" class="mw-redirect" title="Map projections">projections</a> used by world maps, which by necessity distort the surface of the Earth. A straight line shown by the world map in using the <a href="/wiki/Mercator_projection" title="Mercator projection">Mercator projection</a> is called the <a href="/wiki/Rhumb_line" title="Rhumb line">rhumb line</a> or the loxodrome, which is used to indicate the qibla by a minority of Muslims.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlmakkySnyder199631–32_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlmakkySnyder199631–32-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It can result in a dramatic difference in some places; for example, in some parts of North America the flat map shows Mecca in the southeast while the great circle calculation shows it to the northeast.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Justo2007_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Justo2007-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Japan the map shows it to the southwest, while the great circle shows it to the northwest.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori2015110_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori2015110-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The majority of Muslims, however, follow the great circle method.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Justo2007_24-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Justo2007-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Retroazimuthal_projection" class="mw-redirect" title="Retroazimuthal projection">retroazimuthal projection</a> is any map projection which preserves the angular direction (the <a href="/wiki/Azimuth" title="Azimuth">azimuth</a>) of the great circle path from any point of the map to a point selected as the center of the map. The initial purpose of its development was to help finding the qibla, by choosing the Kaaba as the center point.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETobler200217–18_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETobler200217–18-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest surviving works using this projection were two astrolabe-shaped brass instruments created in 18th-century Iran.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETobler200218_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETobler200218-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They contain grids covering locations between Spain and China, label the locations of major cities along with their names, but do not show any coastline.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETobler200218_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETobler200218-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996150_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996150-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first of the two was discovered in 1989; its diameter is 22.5 centimetres (8.9 in) and it has a ruler with which one can read the direction of Mecca from the markings on the instrument's circumference, and the distance to Mecca from the markings on the ruler.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996150_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996150-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only the second one is signed by its creator, Muhammad Husayn.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996151_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996151-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first formal design of a retroazimuthal projection in the Western literature is the <a href="/wiki/Craig_retroazimuthal_projection" title="Craig retroazimuthal projection">Craig projection</a> or the Mecca projection, created by the Scottish mathematician <a href="/wiki/James_Ireland_Craig" title="James Ireland Craig">James Ireland Craig</a>, who worked at the Survey Department of Egypt, in 1910.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder1997227–228_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder1997227–228-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His map is centered in Mecca and its range is limited to show the predominantly Muslim lands.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder1997227–228_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder1997227–228-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Extending the map further than 90° in longitude from the center will result in crowding and overlaps.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder1997228_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder1997228-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETobler200219_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETobler200219-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Traditional_methods">Traditional methods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qibla&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Traditional methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historical records and surviving old mosques show that throughout history the qibla was often determined by simple methods based on tradition or "folk science" not based on mathematical astronomy. Some early Muslims used due south everywhere as the qibla, literally following Muhammad's instruction to face south while he was in Medina (Mecca is due south of Medina). Some mosques as far away as al-Andalus to the west and Central Asia to the east face south, even though Mecca is nowhere near that direction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996130_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996130-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In various places, there are also the "qiblas of the companions" (<span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">qiblat al-sahaba</i></span>), those which were used there by the <a href="/wiki/Companions_of_the_Prophet" title="Companions of the Prophet">Companions of the Prophet</a>—the first generation of Muslims, who are considered role models in Islam. Such directions were used by some Muslims in the following centuries, side by side with other directions, even after Muslim astronomers used calculations to find more accurate directions to Mecca. Among the directions described as the qiblas of the companions are due south in Syria and Palestine,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996130–131_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996130–131-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the direction of the winter sunrise in Egypt, and the direction of the winter sunset in Iraq.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996132_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996132-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The direction of the winter sunrise and sunset are also traditionally favoured because they are parallel to the walls of the Kaaba.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996132,_also_figure_4.2_in_p._131_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996132,_also_figure_4.2_in_p._131-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development_of_methods">Development of methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qibla&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Development of methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-astronomy">Pre-astronomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qibla&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Pre-astronomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The determination of qibla has been an important problem for Muslim communities throughout history. Muslims are required to know the qibla to perform their daily prayers, and it is also needed to determine the orientation of mosques.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996128_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996128-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Muhammad lived among the Muslims in Medina (which, like Mecca, is also in the Hejaz region), he prayed due south, according to the known direction of Mecca. Within the few generations after Muhammad's death in 632, Muslims had reached places far away from Mecca, presenting the problem of determining the qibla in new locations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996130–132_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996130–132-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mathematical methods based on astronomy would develop only at the end of the 8th century or the beginning of the 9th, and even then they were not initially popular. Therefore, early Muslims relied on non-astronomical methods.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996128–129_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996128–129-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There was a wide range of traditional methods in determining the qibla during the early Islamic period, resulting in different directions even from the same place. In addition to due south and the qiblas of the companions, the Arabs also knew a form of "folk" astronomy—called so by the historian of astronomy <a href="/wiki/David_A._King_(historian)" title="David A. King (historian)">David A. King</a> to distinguish it from conventional astronomy, which is an exact science—originating from pre-Islamic traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996132_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996132-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It used natural phenomenon, including the observation of the Sun, the Moon, the stars, and wind, without any basis in mathematics. These methods yield specific directions in individual localities, often using the fixed setting and rising points of a specific star, the sunrise or sunset at the <a href="/wiki/Equinoxes" class="mw-redirect" title="Equinoxes">equinoxes</a>, or at the <a href="/wiki/Summer_solstice" title="Summer solstice">summer</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Winter_solstice" title="Winter solstice">winter solstices</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996133_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996133-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historical sources record several such qiblas, for example: sunrise at the equinoxes (due east) in <a href="/wiki/The_Maghreb" class="mw-redirect" title="The Maghreb">the Maghreb</a>, sunset at the equinoxes (due west) in India, the origin of the <a href="/wiki/North_wind" title="North wind">north wind</a> or the fixed location of the <a href="/wiki/North_Star" class="mw-redirect" title="North Star">North Star</a> in Yemen, the rising point of the star <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Suhayl</i></span> (<a href="/wiki/Canopus" title="Canopus">Canopus</a>) in Syria, and the midwinter sunset in Iraq.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996133_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996133-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such directions appear in texts of <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">fiqh</a></i></span> (Islamic jurisprudence) and texts of folk astronomy. Astronomers (aside from folk astronomers) typically do not comment on these methods, but they were not opposed by Islamic legal scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996132–133_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996132–133-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The traditional directions were still in use when methods were developed to calculate the qibla more accurately, and they still appear in some surviving medieval mosques today.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996130–131_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996130–131-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="With_astronomy">With astronomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qibla&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: With astronomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Al-Khalili_qibla_table,_Damascus_copy_15th-16th_century.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A table written in Arabic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Al-Khalili_qibla_table%2C_Damascus_copy_15th-16th_century.jpg/350px-Al-Khalili_qibla_table%2C_Damascus_copy_15th-16th_century.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Al-Khalili_qibla_table%2C_Damascus_copy_15th-16th_century.jpg/525px-Al-Khalili_qibla_table%2C_Damascus_copy_15th-16th_century.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Al-Khalili_qibla_table%2C_Damascus_copy_15th-16th_century.jpg 2x" data-file-width="695" data-file-height="430" /></a><figcaption>A portion of the qibla table compiled by astronomer and <i><a href="/wiki/Muwaqqit" title="Muwaqqit">muwaqqit</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Shams_al-Din_al-Khalili" class="mw-redirect" title="Shams al-Din al-Khalili">Shams al-Din al-Khalili</a> of <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> in the 14th century. The qibla directions are listed in the Arabic <a href="/wiki/Sexagesimal" title="Sexagesimal">sexagesimal</a> notation.</figcaption></figure> <p>The study of astronomy—known as <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">ilm al-falak</i></span> ("science of the celestial orbs") in the Islamic intellectual tradition—began to appear in the Islamic World in the second half of the 8th century, centred in Baghdad, the principal city of the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a>. Initially, the science was introduced through the works of Indian authors, but after the 9th century the works of Greek astronomers such as <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> were translated into Arabic and became the main references in the field.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorelon1996b20–21_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorelon1996b20–21-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Muslim astronomers preferred Greek astronomy because they considered it to be better supported by theoretical explanations and therefore it could be developed as an exact science; however, the influence of Indian astronomy survives especially in the compilation of astronomical tables.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorelon1996b21_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorelon1996b21-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This new science was applied to develop new methods of determining the qibla, making use of the concept of latitude and longitude taken from Ptolemy's <i><a href="/wiki/Geography_(Ptolemy)" title="Geography (Ptolemy)">Geography</a></i> as well as trigonometric formulae developed by Muslim scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996141_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996141-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most textbooks of astronomy written in the medieval Islamic World contain a chapter on the determination of the qibla, considered one of the many things connecting astronomy with <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Islamic law</a> (sharia).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing198683_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing198683-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorelon1996a15_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorelon1996a15-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to David A. King, various medieval solutions for the determination of the qibla "bear witness to the development of mathematical methods from the 3rd/9th to the 8th/14th centuries and to the level of sophistication in trigonometry and computational techniques attained by these scholars".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing198683_30-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing198683-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first mathematical methods developed in the early 9th century were approximate solutions to the mathematical problem, usually using a flat map or two-dimensional geometry. Since in reality the Earth is spherical, the directions found were inexact, but they were sufficient for locations relatively close to Mecca (including as far away as Egypt and Iran) because the errors were less than 2°.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996142–143_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996142–143-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Exact solutions, based on three-dimensional geometry and spherical trigonometry, began to appear in the mid-9th century. <a href="/wiki/Habash_al-Hasib_al-Marwazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi">Habash al-Hasib</a> wrote an early example, using an <a href="/wiki/Orthographic_projection" title="Orthographic projection">orthographic projection</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996144–145_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996144–145-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another group of solutions uses trigonometric formulas, for example <a href="/wiki/Al-Nayrizi" title="Al-Nayrizi">Al-Nayrizi</a>'s four-step application of <a href="/wiki/Menelaus%27s_theorem" title="Menelaus's theorem">Menelaus's theorem</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996145–146_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996145–146-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>f<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subsequent scholars, including Ibn Yunus, Abu al-Wafa, Ibn al-Haitham and Al-Biruni, proposed other methods which are confirmed to be accurate from the viewpoint of modern astronomy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996147_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996147-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Muslim astronomers subsequently used these methods to compile tables showing the qibla from a list of locations, grouped by their latitude and longitude differences from Mecca. The oldest known example, from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 9th-century</span> Baghdad, contained entries for each degree and <a href="/wiki/Arc_minute" class="mw-redirect" title="Arc minute">arc minute</a> up to 20°.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2004170_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2004170-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 14th century, <a href="/wiki/Shams_al-Din_al-Khalili" class="mw-redirect" title="Shams al-Din al-Khalili">Shams al-Din al-Khalili</a>, an astronomer who served as a <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Muwaqqit" title="Muwaqqit">muwaqqit</a></i></span> (timekeeper) in the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Mosque" title="Umayyad Mosque">Umayyad Mosque</a> of Damascus, compiled a qibla table for 2,880 coordinates with longitude differences of up to 60° from Mecca, and with latitudes ranging from 10° to 50°.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996147_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996147-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2004170_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2004170-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> King opines that among the medieval qibla tables, al-Khalili's work is "the most impressive from the view of its scope and its accuracy".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2004170_74-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2004170-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The accuracy of applying these methods to actual locations depend on the accuracy of its input parameters—the local latitude and the latitude of Mecca, and the longitude difference. At the time of the development of these methods, the latitude of a location could be determined to several arc minutes' accuracy, but there was no accurate method to determine a location's longitude.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996153_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996153-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Common methods used to estimate the longitude difference included comparing the local timing of a <a href="/wiki/Lunar_eclipse" title="Lunar eclipse">lunar eclipse</a> versus the timing in Mecca, or measuring the distance of caravan routes;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996147_73-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996147-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing198686_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing198686-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Central Asian scholar Al-Biruni made his estimate by averaging various approximate methods.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996147_73-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996147-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of longitudinal inaccuracy, medieval qibla calculations (including those using mathematically accurate methods) differ from the modern values. For example, while the <a href="/wiki/Al-Azhar_Mosque" title="Al-Azhar Mosque">Al-Azhar Mosque</a> in Cairo was built using the "qibla of the astronomers", but the mosque's qibla (127°) differs somewhat from the results of modern calculations (135°) because the longitude difference used was off by three degrees.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996153–154_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996153–154-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Accurate longitude values in the Islamic world were available only after the application of <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartographic</a> <a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">surveys</a> in the 18th and 19th centuries. Modern coordinates, along with new technologies such as <a href="/wiki/GPS_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS satellite">GPS satellites</a> and electronic instruments, resulted in the development of practical instruments to calculate the qibla.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2004177_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2004177-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The qibla found using modern instruments might differ from the direction of mosques, because a mosque might be built before the advent of modern data, and orientation inaccuracies might have been introduced during the building process of modern mosques.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2004177_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2004177-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWensinck198683_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWensinck198683-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When this is known, sometimes the direction of the mosque's <i>mihrab</i> is still observed, and sometimes a marker is added (such as lines drawn in the mosque) that can be followed instead of the <i>mihrab</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWensinck198683_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWensinck198683-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Instruments">Instruments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qibla&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Instruments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:200px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:QiblaMat.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A prayer mat with a compass" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/QiblaMat.jpg/150px-QiblaMat.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/QiblaMat.jpg/225px-QiblaMat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/QiblaMat.jpg/300px-QiblaMat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:136px;max-width:136px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:200px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Turkish_and_Islamic_Museum_0951.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A historical compass decorated with illustrations and tables." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Turkish_and_Islamic_Museum_0951.jpg/134px-Turkish_and_Islamic_Museum_0951.jpg" decoding="async" width="134" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Turkish_and_Islamic_Museum_0951.jpg/201px-Turkish_and_Islamic_Museum_0951.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Turkish_and_Islamic_Museum_0951.jpg/268px-Turkish_and_Islamic_Museum_0951.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1065" data-file-height="1600" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">A <a href="/wiki/Prayer_mat" class="mw-redirect" title="Prayer mat">prayer mat</a> with a modern <a href="/wiki/Qibla_compass" title="Qibla compass">qibla compass</a> (<i>left</i>); an <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman-era</a> qibla compass dated 1738 (<i>right</i>)</div></div></div></div> <p>Muslims use various instruments to find the qibla direction when not near a mosque. The <a href="/wiki/Qibla_compass" title="Qibla compass">qibla compass</a> is a magnetic compass which includes a table or a list of qibla angles from major settlements. Some electronic versions use satellite coordinates to calculate and indicate the qibla automatically.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2004177_77-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2004177-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Qibla compasses have existed since around 1300, supplemented by the list of qibla angles often written on the instruments themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2004171_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2004171-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hotel rooms with Muslim guests may use a sticker showing the qibla on the ceiling or a drawer.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaksonoFulazzakySari2018136_17-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaksonoFulazzakySari2018136-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the advent of computing, various <a href="/wiki/Mobile_app" title="Mobile app">mobile apps</a> and websites use formulae to calculate the qibla for their users.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Justo2007_24-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Justo2007-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacGregor2018130_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacGregor2018130-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diversity">Diversity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qibla&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Diversity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Islamic_world">Early Islamic world</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qibla&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Early Islamic world"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mosques_in_Cairo_showing_different_direction.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Mosques_in_Cairo_showing_different_direction.png/170px-Mosques_in_Cairo_showing_different_direction.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Mosques_in_Cairo_showing_different_direction.png/255px-Mosques_in_Cairo_showing_different_direction.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Mosques_in_Cairo_showing_different_direction.png/340px-Mosques_in_Cairo_showing_different_direction.png 2x" data-file-width="739" data-file-height="786" /></a><figcaption>A map of an area in modern <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>. The mosques have slightly different orientations.</figcaption></figure> <p>Because varying methods have been used to determine the qibla, mosques were built throughout history in different directions, including some that still stand today.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlmakkySnyder199629_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlmakkySnyder199629-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Methods based on astronomy and mathematics were not always used,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2004175_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2004175-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the same determination method could yield different qiblas due to differences in the accuracy of data and calculations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlmakkySnyder199632_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlmakkySnyder199632-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Egyptian historian <a href="/wiki/Al-Maqrizi" title="Al-Maqrizi">Al-Maqrizi</a> (d. 1442) recorded various qibla angles used in Cairo at the time: 90° (due east), 117° (winter sunrise, the "qibla of the sahaba"), 127° (calculated by astronomers, such as Ibn Yunus), 141° (<a href="/wiki/Mosque_of_Ibn_Tulun" title="Mosque of Ibn Tulun">Mosque of Ibn Tulun</a>), 156° (the rising point of Suhayl/Canopus), 180° (due south, emulating the qibla of Muhammad in Medina), and 204° (the setting point of Canopus). The modern qibla for Cairo is 135°, which was not known at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2004175–176_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2004175–176-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This diversity also results in the non-uniform layout in Cairo's districts, because the streets are often oriented according to the varying orientation of the mosques. Historical records also indicate the diversity of qiblas in other major cities, including <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain" title="Córdoba, Spain">Córdoba</a> (113°, 120°, 135°, 150°, and 180° were recorded in the 12th century) and <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a> (180°, 225°, 230°, 240°, and 270° were recorded in the 11th century).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2004175–176_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2004175–176-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the doctrine of <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">jihat al-ka'ba</i></span>, the diverse directions of qiblas are still valid as long as they are still in the same broad direction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996134–135_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996134–135-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1990, the scholar of geography Michael E. Bonine conducted a survey of the main mosques of all major cities in present-day Morocco—constructed from the <a href="/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty" title="Idrisid dynasty">Idrisid period</a> (8th–10th centuries) up to the <a href="/wiki/Alawi_Sultanate" title="Alawi Sultanate">Alawi period</a> (17th century to present). While modern calculations yield the qiblas of between 91° (almost due east) in Marrakesh and 97° in Tangier,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonine2008151_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonine2008151-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> only mosques constructed in the Alaouite period are constructed with qiblas relatively close to this range.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonine199052_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonine199052-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The qibla of older mosques vary considerably, with concentrations occurring between 155°–160° (slightly east of south) as well as 120°–130° (almost southeast).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonine2008151–152_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonine2008151–152-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2008, Bonine also published a survey of the main city mosques of Tunisia, in which he found that most were aligned close to 147°.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonine2008154_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonine2008154-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is the direction of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan" title="Great Mosque of Kairouan">Great Mosque of Kairouan</a>, originally built in 670 and last rebuilt by the <a href="/wiki/Aghlabid_dynasty" title="Aghlabid dynasty">Aghlabids</a> in 862, which is often credited as the model used by the other mosques.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonine2008153–155_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonine2008153–155-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the mosques surveyed, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_Sousse" title="Great Mosque of Sousse">Great Mosque of Sousse</a> was the only one with a significant difference, facing further south at 163°.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonine2008154_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonine2008154-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The actual direction to Mecca as calculated using the great circle method ranges from 110° to 113° throughout the country.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonine2008156_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonine2008156-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indonesia">Indonesia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qibla&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Indonesia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Variations of the qibla also occur in Indonesia, the country with the world's largest Muslim population. The astronomically calculated qibla ranges from 291°—295° (21°—25° north of west) depending on the exact location in the archipelago.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori201459–60_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori201459–60-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the qibla is often known traditionally simply as "the west", resulting in mosques built oriented due west or to the direction of sunset—which varies slightly throughout the year. Different opinions exist among Indonesian Islamic astronomers: Tono Saksono <i>et al.</i> argues in 2018 that facing the qibla during prayers is more of a "spiritual prerequisite" than a precise physical one, and that an exact direction to the Kaaba itself from thousands of kilometres away requires an extreme precision impossible to achieve when building a mosque or when standing for prayers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaksonoFulazzakySari2018136_17-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaksonoFulazzakySari2018136-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, Muhammad Hadi Bashori in 2014 opines that "correcting the qibla is indeed a very urgent thing", and can be guided by simple methods such as observing the shadow.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori201460–61_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori201460–61-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the history of the region, disputes about the qibla had also occurred in the then-<a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a> in the 1890s. When the Indonesian scholar and future founder of <a href="/wiki/Muhammadiyah" title="Muhammadiyah">Muhammadiyah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Dahlan" title="Ahmad Dahlan">Ahmad Dahlan</a>, returned from his Islamic and astronomy studies in Mecca, he found that mosques in the royal capital of Yogyakarta had inaccurate qiblas, including the <a href="/wiki/Kauman_Great_Mosque" title="Kauman Great Mosque">Kauman Great Mosque</a>, which faced due west. His efforts in adjusting the qibla were opposed by the traditional <i>ulama</i> of the <a href="/wiki/Yogyakarta_Sultanate" title="Yogyakarta Sultanate">Yogyakarta Sultanate</a>, and a new mosque built by Dahlan using his calculations was demolished by a mob. Dahlan rebuilt his mosque in the 1900s, and later the Kauman Great Mosque would also be reoriented using the astronomically calculated qibla.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKersten2017130_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKersten2017130-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENashir201577_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENashir201577-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_America">North America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qibla&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: North America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:01_05_Street_WDC_8jul05.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="An urban building located in a traffic intersection" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/01_05_Street_WDC_8jul05.jpg/220px-01_05_Street_WDC_8jul05.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/01_05_Street_WDC_8jul05.jpg/330px-01_05_Street_WDC_8jul05.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/01_05_Street_WDC_8jul05.jpg/440px-01_05_Street_WDC_8jul05.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1183" data-file-height="770" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Center_of_Washington" title="Islamic Center of Washington">Islamic Center of Washington</a> (founded 1953), one of the early mosques in the United States. Its qibla faces the northeast in line with astronomical calculations. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMay1953367_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay1953367-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>For locations outside of historic Muslim communities, determination of the qibla can be a matter of debate.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBilici201254_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBilici201254-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Center_of_Washington" title="Islamic Center of Washington">Islamic Center of Washington, D.C.</a> was built in 1953 facing slightly north of east and initially puzzled some observers, including Muslims, because <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>'s latitude is 17°30′ north of Mecca. Even though a line drawn on world maps—such as those using the Mercator projection—would suggest a southeastern direction to Mecca, the astronomical calculation using the great circle method does yield a north-of-east direction (56°33′).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMay1953367_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay1953367-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, most early mosques in the United States face east or southeast, following the apparent direction on world maps.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBilici201254_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBilici201254-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1978, an American Muslim scientist, S. Kamal Abdali, wrote a book arguing that the correct qibla from North America was north or northeast as calculated by the great circle method which identifies the shortest path to Mecca.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>g<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBilici201254–55_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBilici201254–55-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Justo2007_24-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Justo2007-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This conclusion was widely circulated and then accepted by the Muslim community, and mosques were subsequently reoriented as a result.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBilici201254_95-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBilici201254-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1993, two religious scholars, Riad Nachef and Samir Kadi, published a book arguing for a southeastern qibla, writing that the north/northeast qibla was invalid and resulted from a lack of religious knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>h<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBilici201255–56_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBilici201255–56-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlmakkySnyder199631_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlmakkySnyder199631-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In reaction, Abdali published a response to their arguments and criticism in an article entitled "The Correct Qibla" online in 1997.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>i<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two opinions resulted in a period of debate about the correct qibla.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBilici201255–56_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBilici201255–56-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eventually most North American Muslims accepted the north/northeast qibla with a minority following the east/southeast qibla.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Justo2007_24-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Justo2007-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBilici201257_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBilici201257-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Space_and_ISS">Space and ISS</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qibla&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Space and ISS"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Muslim_astronauts" title="List of Muslim astronauts">List of Muslim astronauts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_space#Islam" title="Religion in space">Religion in space § Islam</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ISS_Aug2005.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A satellite appears over the Earth" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/ISS_Aug2005.jpg/220px-ISS_Aug2005.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/ISS_Aug2005.jpg/330px-ISS_Aug2005.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/ISS_Aug2005.jpg/440px-ISS_Aug2005.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2932" data-file-height="1980" /></a><figcaption>The issue of the qibla in outer space arose publicly in 2007, with <a href="/wiki/Sheikh_Muszaphar_Shukor" title="Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor">Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor</a>'s spaceflight to the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis2013114_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis2013114-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> (ISS) orbits the Earth at high speed—the direction from it to Mecca changes significantly within a few seconds.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Justo2007_24-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Justo2007-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before his flight to the ISS, <a href="/wiki/Sheikh_Muszaphar_Shukor" title="Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor">Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor</a> requested, and the Malaysian National Fatwa Council provided, guidelines which have been translated into multiple languages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis2013114_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis2013114-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The council wrote that the qibla determination should be "based on what is possible" and recommended four options, saying that one should pray toward the first option if possible and, if not, fall back successively on the later ones:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Justo2007_24-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Justo2007-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>the Kaaba itself</li> <li>the position directly above the Kaaba at the altitude of the astronaut's orbit</li> <li>the Earth in general</li> <li>"wherever"</li></ol> <p>In line with the fatwa council, other Muslim scholars argue for the importance of flexibility and adapting the qibla requirement to what an astronaut is capable of fulfilling. Khaleel Muhammad of <a href="/wiki/San_Diego_State_University" title="San Diego State University">San Diego State University</a> opined "God does not take a person to task for that which is beyond his/her ability to work with." Kamal Abdali argued that concentration during a prayer is more important than the exact orientation, and he suggested keeping the qibla direction at the start of a prayer instead of "worrying about possible changes in position".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Justo2007_24-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Justo2007-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before Sheikh Muszaphar's mission, at least eight Muslims had flown to space, but none of them publicly discussed issues relating to worship in space.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis2013109_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis2013109-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qibla&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Direction_of_prayer" title="Direction of prayer">Direction of prayer</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Mizrah" title="Mizrah">Mizrah</a></i>, the direction of prayer in the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_faith" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish faith">Jewish faith</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ad_orientem" title="Ad orientem">Ad orientem</a></i>, comparable concept in traditional <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Qiblih" title="Qiblih">Qiblih</a></i>, the <a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="Baháʼí">Baháʼí</a> direction of prayer</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orientation_of_churches" title="Orientation of churches">Orientation of churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_deixis" class="mw-redirect" title="Spatial deixis">Spatial deixis</a>, spatial orientation relevant to an utterance</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qibla&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This reference occurs in Quran <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quran.com/19?startingVerse=11">19:11</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The dates slightly vary from year-to-year because the <a href="/wiki/Calendar_year" title="Calendar year">calendar year</a> is not synchronized with the <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_year" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronomical year">astronomical year</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Leap_year" title="Leap year">leap year</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori2015125_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori2015125-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For an example of the loxodrome used to find qibla, see <a href="#North_America">#North America</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing1996">King 1996</a>, p. 150 has a picture of one of the instruments</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The details of this method and its proof are provided in <a href="#CITEREFKing1996">King 1996</a>, pp. 144–145</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The details of this method and its proof are provided in <a href="#CITEREFKing1996">King 1996</a>, pp. 145–146</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This book is <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAbdali1978" class="citation book cs1">Abdali, S. Kamal (1978). <i>Prayers schedule for North America</i>. Indianapolis: American Trust Publications. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/27738892">27738892</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prayers+schedule+for+North+America&rft.place=Indianapolis&rft.pub=American+Trust+Publications&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F27738892&rft.aulast=Abdali&rft.aufirst=S.+Kamal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQibla" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This book is <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNachefKadi1993" class="citation book cs1">Nachef, Riad; Kadi, Samir (1993). <i>The Substantiation of the People of Truth that the Direction of al-Qibla in the United States and Canada is to the Southeast</i>. Philadelphia: Association of Islamic Charitable Projects.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Substantiation+of+the+People+of+Truth+that+the+Direction+of+al-Qibla+in+the+United+States+and+Canada+is+to+the+Southeast&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=Association+of+Islamic+Charitable+Projects&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Nachef&rft.aufirst=Riad&rft.au=Kadi%2C+Samir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQibla" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This article is <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbdali1997" class="citation web cs1">Abdali, S. Kamal (17 September 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geomete.com/abdali/papers/qibla.pdf">"The Correct Qibla"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>geomete.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191218035850/https://geomete.com/abdali/papers/qibla.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 18 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=geomete.com&rft.atitle=The+Correct+Qibla&rft.date=1997-09-17&rft.aulast=Abdali&rft.aufirst=S.+Kamal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgeomete.com%2Fabdali%2Fpapers%2Fqibla.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQibla" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qibla&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qibla&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWensinck1978317-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWensinck1978317_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWensinck1978">Wensinck 1978</a>, p. 317.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWensinck1978318-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWensinck1978318_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWensinck1978318_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWensinck1978">Wensinck 1978</a>, p. 318.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori201597–98-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori201597–98_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBashori2015">Bashori 2015</a>, pp. 97–98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori2015104-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori2015104_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBashori2015">Bashori 2015</a>, p. 104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWensinck198682-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWensinck198682_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWensinck198682_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWensinck198682_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWensinck198682_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWensinck198682_5-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWensinck198682_5-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWensinck198682_5-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWensinck1986">Wensinck 1986</a>, p. 82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWensinck1978321-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWensinck1978321_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWensinck1978">Wensinck 1978</a>, p. 321.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaftary2007149-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaftary2007149_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaftary2007">Daftary 2007</a>, p. 149.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori2015103-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori2015103_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBashori2015">Bashori 2015</a>, p. 103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori201591-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori201591_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBashori2015">Bashori 2015</a>, p. 91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuban19743-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuban19743_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuban19743_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKuban1974">Kuban 1974</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuban19744-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuban19744_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKuban1974">Kuban 1974</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996134-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996134_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996134_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing1996">King 1996</a>, p. 134.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori2015104–105-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori2015104–105_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBashori2015">Bashori 2015</a>, pp. 104–105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESaksonoFulazzakySari2018137-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaksonoFulazzakySari2018137_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSaksonoFulazzakySari2018">Saksono, Fulazzaky & Sari 2018</a>, p. 137.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESaksonoFulazzakySari2018134-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaksonoFulazzakySari2018134_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSaksonoFulazzakySari2018">Saksono, Fulazzaky & Sari 2018</a>, p. 134.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESaksonoFulazzakySari2018136-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaksonoFulazzakySari2018136_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaksonoFulazzakySari2018136_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaksonoFulazzakySari2018136_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaksonoFulazzakySari2018136_17-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaksonoFulazzakySari2018136_17-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaksonoFulazzakySari2018136_17-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSaksonoFulazzakySari2018">Saksono, Fulazzaky & Sari 2018</a>, p. 136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori201592,_95-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori201592,_95_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBashori2015">Bashori 2015</a>, pp. 92, 95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996134–135-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996134–135_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996134–135_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing1996">King 1996</a>, pp. 134–135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori201595-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori201595_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBashori2015">Bashori 2015</a>, p. 95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWensinck198683-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWensinck198683_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWensinck198683_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWensinck198683_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWensinck1986">Wensinck 1986</a>, p. 83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori201594-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori201594_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBashori2015">Bashori 2015</a>, p. 94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaltham201398-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaltham201398_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWaltham2013">Waltham 2013</a>, p. 98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDi_Justo2007-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Justo2007_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Justo2007_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Justo2007_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Justo2007_24-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Justo2007_24-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Justo2007_24-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Justo2007_24-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Justo2007_24-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Justo2007_24-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Justo2007_24-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDi_Justo2007_24-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDi_Justo2007">Di Justo 2007</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2004166-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2004166_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing2004">King 2004</a>, p. 166.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlmakkySnyder199631-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlmakkySnyder199631_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlmakkySnyder199631_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlmakkySnyder1996">Almakky & Snyder 1996</a>, p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESaksonoFulazzakySari2018132–134-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaksonoFulazzakySari2018132–134_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSaksonoFulazzakySari2018">Saksono, Fulazzaky & Sari 2018</a>, pp. 132–134.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlmakkySnyder199635-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlmakkySnyder199635_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlmakkySnyder1996">Almakky & Snyder 1996</a>, p. 35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori2015123-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori2015123_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori2015123_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBashori2015">Bashori 2015</a>, p. 123.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing198683-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing198683_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing198683_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing198683_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing198683_30-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing1986">King 1986</a>, p. 83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori2015119-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori2015119_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori2015119_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBashori2015">Bashori 2015</a>, p. 119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing198685–86-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing198685–86_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing1986">King 1986</a>, pp. 85–86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing198685-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing198685_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing198685_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing1986">King 1986</a>, p. 85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing198686-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing198686_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing198686_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing1986">King 1986</a>, p. 86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIlyas1984171–172-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIlyas1984171–172_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIlyas1984">Ilyas 1984</a>, pp. 171–172.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIlyas1984172-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIlyas1984172_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIlyas1984">Ilyas 1984</a>, p. 172.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERahartoSurya201125-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERahartoSurya201125_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERahartoSurya201125_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERahartoSurya201125_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERahartoSurya201125_37-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERahartoSurya201125_37-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRahartoSurya2011">Raharto & Surya 2011</a>, p. 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori2015125-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori2015125_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori2015125_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori2015125_38-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBashori2015">Bashori 2015</a>, p. 125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERahartoSurya201124-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERahartoSurya201124_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRahartoSurya2011">Raharto & Surya 2011</a>, p. 24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori2015125–126-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori2015125–126_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBashori2015">Bashori 2015</a>, pp. 125–126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori2015126–127-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori2015126–127_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBashori2015">Bashori 2015</a>, pp. 126–127.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori2015127-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori2015127_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBashori2015">Bashori 2015</a>, p. 127.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlmakkySnyder199631–32-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlmakkySnyder199631–32_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlmakkySnyder1996">Almakky & Snyder 1996</a>, pp. 31–32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori2015110-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori2015110_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBashori2015">Bashori 2015</a>, p. 110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETobler200217–18-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETobler200217–18_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTobler2002">Tobler 2002</a>, pp. 17–18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETobler200218-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETobler200218_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETobler200218_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTobler2002">Tobler 2002</a>, p. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996150-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996150_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996150_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing1996">King 1996</a>, p. 150.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996151-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996151_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing1996">King 1996</a>, p. 151.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder1997227–228-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder1997227–228_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder1997227–228_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSnyder1997">Snyder 1997</a>, pp. 227–228.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder1997228-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder1997228_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSnyder1997">Snyder 1997</a>, p. 228.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETobler200219-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETobler200219_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTobler2002">Tobler 2002</a>, p. 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996130-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996130_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing1996">King 1996</a>, p. 130.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996130–131-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996130–131_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996130–131_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing1996">King 1996</a>, pp. 130–131.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996132-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996132_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996132_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing1996">King 1996</a>, p. 132.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996132,_also_figure_4.2_in_p._131-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996132,_also_figure_4.2_in_p._131_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing1996">King 1996</a>, p. 132, also figure 4.2 in p. 131.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996128-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996128_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing1996">King 1996</a>, p. 128.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996130–132-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996130–132_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing1996">King 1996</a>, pp. 130–132.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996128–129-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996128–129_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing1996">King 1996</a>, pp. 128–129.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996133-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996133_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996133_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing1996">King 1996</a>, p. 133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996132–133-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996132–133_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing1996">King 1996</a>, pp. 132–133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorelon1996b20–21-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorelon1996b20–21_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorelon1996b">Morelon 1996b</a>, pp. 20–21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorelon1996b21-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorelon1996b21_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorelon1996b">Morelon 1996b</a>, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996141-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996141_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing1996">King 1996</a>, p. 141.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorelon1996a15-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorelon1996a15_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorelon1996a">Morelon 1996a</a>, p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996142–143-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996142–143_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing1996">King 1996</a>, pp. 142–143.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996144–145-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996144–145_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing1996">King 1996</a>, pp. 144–145.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996145–146-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996145–146_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing1996">King 1996</a>, pp. 145–146.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996147-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996147_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996147_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996147_73-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996147_73-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing1996">King 1996</a>, p. 147.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2004170-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2004170_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2004170_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2004170_74-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing2004">King 2004</a>, p. 170.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996153-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996153_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing1996">King 1996</a>, p. 153.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing1996153–154-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing1996153–154_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing1996">King 1996</a>, pp. 153–154.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2004177-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2004177_77-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2004177_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2004177_77-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing2004">King 2004</a>, p. 177.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2004171-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2004171_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing2004">King 2004</a>, p. 171.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacGregor2018130-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacGregor2018130_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMacGregor2018">MacGregor 2018</a>, p. 130.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlmakkySnyder199629-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlmakkySnyder199629_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlmakkySnyder1996">Almakky & Snyder 1996</a>, p. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2004175-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2004175_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing2004">King 2004</a>, p. 175.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlmakkySnyder199632-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlmakkySnyder199632_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlmakkySnyder1996">Almakky & Snyder 1996</a>, p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing2004175–176-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2004175–176_83-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing2004175–176_83-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKing2004">King 2004</a>, pp. 175–176.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonine2008151-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonine2008151_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBonine2008">Bonine 2008</a>, p. 151.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonine199052-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonine199052_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBonine1990">Bonine 1990</a>, p. 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonine2008151–152-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonine2008151–152_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBonine2008">Bonine 2008</a>, pp. 151–152.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonine2008154-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonine2008154_87-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonine2008154_87-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBonine2008">Bonine 2008</a>, p. 154.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonine2008153–155-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonine2008153–155_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBonine2008">Bonine 2008</a>, pp. 153–155.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonine2008156-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonine2008156_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBonine2008">Bonine 2008</a>, p. 156.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori201459–60-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori201459–60_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBashori2014">Bashori 2014</a>, pp. 59–60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBashori201460–61-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBashori201460–61_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBashori2014">Bashori 2014</a>, pp. 60–61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKersten2017130-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKersten2017130_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKersten2017">Kersten 2017</a>, p. 130.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENashir201577-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENashir201577_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNashir2015">Nashir 2015</a>, p. 77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMay1953367-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMay1953367_94-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMay1953367_94-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMay1953">May 1953</a>, p. 367.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBilici201254-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBilici201254_95-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBilici201254_95-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBilici201254_95-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBilici2012">Bilici 2012</a>, p. 54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBilici201254–55-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBilici201254–55_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBilici2012">Bilici 2012</a>, pp. 54–55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBilici201255–56-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBilici201255–56_99-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBilici201255–56_99-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBilici2012">Bilici 2012</a>, pp. 55–56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBilici201257-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBilici201257_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBilici2012">Bilici 2012</a>, p. 57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis2013114-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis2013114_102-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis2013114_102-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLewis2013">Lewis 2013</a>, p. 114.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis2013109-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis2013109_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLewis2013">Lewis 2013</a>, p. 109.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qibla&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlmakkySnyder1996" class="citation journal cs1">Almakky, Ghazy; Snyder, John (1996). "Calculating an Azimuth from One Location to Another A Case Study in Determining the Qibla to Makkah". <i><a href="/wiki/Cartographica:_The_International_Journal_for_Geographic_Information_and_Geovisualization" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartographica: The International Journal for Geographic Information and Geovisualization">Cartographica: The International Journal for Geographic Information and Geovisualization</a></i>. <b>33</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">29–</span>36. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3138%2FC567-3003-1225-M204">10.3138/C567-3003-1225-M204</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0317-7173">0317-7173</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cartographica%3A+The+International+Journal+for+Geographic+Information+and+Geovisualization&rft.atitle=Calculating+an+Azimuth+from+One+Location+to+Another+A+Case+Study+in+Determining+the+Qibla+to+Makkah&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E29-%3C%2Fspan%3E36&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3138%2FC567-3003-1225-M204&rft.issn=0317-7173&rft.aulast=Almakky&rft.aufirst=Ghazy&rft.au=Snyder%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQibla" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBilici2012" class="citation book cs1">Bilici, Mucahit (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-GLAV-KTtQ0C"><i>Finding Mecca in America: How Islam Is Becoming an American Religion</i></a>. Chicago and London: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-92287-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-92287-4"><bdi>978-0-226-92287-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Finding+Mecca+in+America%3A+How+Islam+Is+Becoming+an+American+Religion&rft.place=Chicago+and+London&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-226-92287-4&rft.aulast=Bilici&rft.aufirst=Mucahit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-GLAV-KTtQ0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQibla" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBonine1990" class="citation journal cs1">Bonine, Michael E. (1990). "The Sacred Direction and City Structure: A Preliminary Analysis of the Islamic Cities of Morocco". <i><a href="/wiki/Muqarnas_(journal)" title="Muqarnas (journal)">Muqarnas</a></i>. <b>7</b>: <span class="nowrap">50–</span>72. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1523121">10.2307/1523121</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1523121">1523121</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Muqarnas&rft.atitle=The+Sacred+Direction+and+City+Structure%3A+A+Preliminary+Analysis+of+the+Islamic+Cities+of+Morocco&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E50-%3C%2Fspan%3E72&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1523121&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1523121%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Bonine&rft.aufirst=Michael+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQibla" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBonine2008" class="citation book cs1">Bonine, Michael E. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4DJpDW6IAukC&pg=PA145">"Romans, Astronomy, and the Qibla: Urban Form and Orientation of Islamic Cities of Tunisia"</a>. In Jarita Holbrook; R. Thebe Medupe; Johnson O. Urama (eds.). <i>African Cultural Astronomy: Current Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy research in Africa</i>. Berlin: Springer. pp. <span class="nowrap">145–</span>178. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-6639-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-6639-9"><bdi>978-1-4020-6639-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Romans%2C+Astronomy%2C+and+the+Qibla%3A+Urban+Form+and+Orientation+of+Islamic+Cities+of+Tunisia&rft.btitle=African+Cultural+Astronomy%3A+Current+Archaeoastronomy+and+Ethnoastronomy+research+in+Africa&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E145-%3C%2Fspan%3E178&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-6639-9&rft.aulast=Bonine&rft.aufirst=Michael+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4DJpDW6IAukC%26pg%3DPA145&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQibla" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaftary2007" class="citation book cs1">Daftary, Farhad (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cSO9zh61AGEC"><i>The Isma'ilis: Their History and Doctrines</i></a>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-46578-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-46578-6"><bdi>978-1-139-46578-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Isma%27ilis%3A+Their+History+and+Doctrines&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-139-46578-6&rft.aulast=Daftary&rft.aufirst=Farhad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcSO9zh61AGEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQibla" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDi_Justo2007" class="citation magazine cs1">Di Justo, Patrick (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/2007/09/mecca-in-orbit/">"A Muslim Astronaut's Dilemma: How to Face Mecca From Space"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Wired_(magazine)" title="Wired (magazine)">Wired</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wired&rft.atitle=A+Muslim+Astronaut%27s+Dilemma%3A+How+to+Face+Mecca+From+Space&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Di+Justo&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2F2007%2F09%2Fmecca-in-orbit%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQibla" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBashori2014" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bashori, Muhammad Hadi (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9YhKDwAAQBAJ"><i>Penanggalan Islam</i></a> (in Indonesian). Jakarta: <a href="/wiki/Elex_Media_Komputindo" title="Elex Media Komputindo">Elex Media Komputindo</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-602-02-3675-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-602-02-3675-9"><bdi>978-602-02-3675-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Penanggalan+Islam&rft.place=Jakarta&rft.pub=Elex+Media+Komputindo&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-602-02-3675-9&rft.aulast=Bashori&rft.aufirst=Muhammad+Hadi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9YhKDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQibla" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBashori2015" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bashori, Muhammad Hadi (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=erLqDAAAQBAJ"><i>Pengantar Ilmu Falak</i></a> (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Pustaka Al Kautsar. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-979-592-701-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-979-592-701-3"><bdi>978-979-592-701-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pengantar+Ilmu+Falak&rft.place=Jakarta&rft.pub=Pustaka+Al+Kautsar&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-979-592-701-3&rft.aulast=Bashori&rft.aufirst=Muhammad+Hadi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DerLqDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQibla" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIlyas1984" class="citation book cs1">Ilyas, Mohammad (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4mrvAAAAMAAJ"><i>A modern guide to astronomical calculations of Islamic calendar, times & qibla</i></a>. 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Edinburgh: <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh_University_Press" title="Edinburgh University Press">Edinburgh University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-8187-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-8187-7"><bdi>978-0-7486-8187-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Islam+in+Indonesia%3A+Unity+in+Diversity&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-7486-8187-7&rft.aulast=Kersten&rft.aufirst=Carool&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJDVYDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQibla" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing1986" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_A._King_(historian)" title="David A. King (historian)">King, David A.</a> (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brill.com/search?q=%E1%B8%B2ibla%3A+Astronomical+Aspects&source=%2Fdb%2Feieo">"Ḳibla: Astronomical Aspects"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/C._E._Bosworth" class="mw-redirect" title="C. E. Bosworth">Bosworth, C. E.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Emeri_Johannes_van_Donzel" class="mw-redirect" title="Emeri Johannes van Donzel">van Donzel, E.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Lewis, B.</a> & <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pellat" title="Charles Pellat">Pellat, Ch.</a> (eds.). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Encyclopaedia_of_Islam#2nd_edition,_EI2" class="mw-redirect" title="The Encyclopaedia of Islam">The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition</a>. </i>Volume V:<i> Khe–Mahi</i>. Leiden: E. J. 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(2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/30909/201310SH.pdf">"Muslims in Space: Observing Religious Rites in a New Environment"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Astropolitics</i>. <b>11</b> (<span class="nowrap">1–</span>2): <span class="nowrap">108–</span>115. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013AstPo..11..108L">2013AstPo..11..108L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14777622.2013.802622">10.1080/14777622.2013.802622</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1477-7622">1477-7622</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143467927">143467927</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astropolitics&rft.atitle=Muslims+in+Space%3A+Observing+Religious+Rites+in+a+New+Environment&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E108-%3C%2Fspan%3E115&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14777622.2013.802622&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143467927%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1477-7622&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013AstPo..11..108L&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Cathleen+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepository.si.edu%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F10088%2F30909%2F201310SH.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQibla" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacGregor2018" class="citation book cs1">MacGregor, Neil (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=w_0tDwAAQBAJ"><i>Living with the Gods: On Beliefs and Peoples</i></a>. 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London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-12410-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-12410-2"><bdi>978-0-415-12410-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=General+survey+of+Arabic+astronomy&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+History+of+Arabic+Science&rft.place=London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E19&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-415-12410-2&rft.aulast=Morelon&rft.aufirst=R%C3%A9gis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQibla" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorelon1996b" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Morelon, Régis (1996b). "Eastern Arabic astronomy between the eight and the eleventh centuries". In Rashed, Roshdi (ed.). <i>Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science</i>. Vol. I. London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">20–</span>57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-12410-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-12410-2"><bdi>978-0-415-12410-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Eastern+Arabic+astronomy+between+the+eight+and+the+eleventh+centuries&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+History+of+Arabic+Science&rft.place=London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E20-%3C%2Fspan%3E57&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-415-12410-2&rft.aulast=Morelon&rft.aufirst=R%C3%A9gis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQibla" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNashir2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Haedar_Nashir" title="Haedar Nashir">Nashir, Haedar</a> (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x3-hDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA77"><i>Muhammadiyah: a Reform Movement</i></a>. Surakarta: <a href="/wiki/Muhammadiyah_University_Press" title="Muhammadiyah University Press">Muhammadiyah University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-602-361-012-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-602-361-012-9"><bdi>978-602-361-012-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muhammadiyah%3A+a+Reform+Movement&rft.place=Surakarta&rft.pub=Muhammadiyah+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-602-361-012-9&rft.aulast=Nashir&rft.aufirst=Haedar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx3-hDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA77&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQibla" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRahartoSurya2011" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Raharto, Moedji; Surya, Dede Jaenal Arifin (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.neliti.com/publications/79316/telaah-penentuan-arah-kiblat-dengan-perhitungan-trigonometri-bola-dan-bayang-bay">"Telaah Penentuan Arah Kiblat dengan Perhitungan Trigonometri Bola dan Bayang-Bayang Gnomon oleh Matahari"</a>. <i>Jurnal Fisika Himpunan Fisika Indonesia</i> (in Indonesian). <b>11</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">23–</span>29. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0854-3046">0854-3046</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jurnal+Fisika+Himpunan+Fisika+Indonesia&rft.atitle=Telaah+Penentuan+Arah+Kiblat+dengan+Perhitungan+Trigonometri+Bola+dan+Bayang-Bayang+Gnomon+oleh+Matahari&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E23-%3C%2Fspan%3E29&rft.date=2011&rft.issn=0854-3046&rft.aulast=Raharto&rft.aufirst=Moedji&rft.au=Surya%2C+Dede+Jaenal+Arifin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.neliti.com%2Fpublications%2F79316%2Ftelaah-penentuan-arah-kiblat-dengan-perhitungan-trigonometri-bola-dan-bayang-bay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQibla" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaksonoFulazzakySari2018" class="citation journal cs1">Saksono, Tono; Fulazzaky, Mohamad Ali; Sari, Zamah (2018). "Geodetic analysis of disputed accurate qibla direction". <i>Journal of Applied Geodesy</i>. <b>12</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">129–</span>138. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018JAGeo..12..129S">2018JAGeo..12..129S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fjag-2017-0036">10.1515/jag-2017-0036</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1862-9024">1862-9024</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:126128439">126128439</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Applied+Geodesy&rft.atitle=Geodetic+analysis+of+disputed+accurate+qibla+direction&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E129-%3C%2Fspan%3E138&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fjag-2017-0036&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A126128439%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1862-9024&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018JAGeo..12..129S&rft.aulast=Saksono&rft.aufirst=Tono&rft.au=Fulazzaky%2C+Mohamad+Ali&rft.au=Sari%2C+Zamah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQibla" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnyder1997" class="citation book cs1">Snyder, John (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0UzjTJ4w9yEC&pg=PA227"><i>Flattening the Earth: Two Thousand Years of Map Projections</i></a>. Chicago and London: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-76747-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-76747-5"><bdi>978-0-226-76747-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Flattening+the+Earth%3A+Two+Thousand+Years+of+Map+Projections&rft.place=Chicago+and+London&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-226-76747-5&rft.aulast=Snyder&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0UzjTJ4w9yEC%26pg%3DPA227&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQibla" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTobler2002" class="citation journal cs1">Tobler, Waldo (2002). "Qibla, and Related, Map Projections". <i>Cartography and Geographic Information Science</i>. <b>29</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">17–</span>23. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002CGISc..29...17T">2002CGISc..29...17T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1559%2F152304002782064574">10.1559/152304002782064574</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1523-0406">1523-0406</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14202789">14202789</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cartography+and+Geographic+Information+Science&rft.atitle=Qibla%2C+and+Related%2C+Map+Projections&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E17-%3C%2Fspan%3E23&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1559%2F152304002782064574&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14202789%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1523-0406&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002CGISc..29...17T&rft.aulast=Tobler&rft.aufirst=Waldo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQibla" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaltham2013" class="citation book cs1">Waltham, David (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lRiAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA98"><i>Mathematics: a Simple Tool for Geologists</i></a>. Cheltenham: Stanley Thornes. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-98308-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-98308-7"><bdi>978-1-134-98308-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mathematics%3A+a+Simple+Tool+for+Geologists&rft.place=Cheltenham&rft.pub=Stanley+Thornes&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-134-98308-7&rft.aulast=Waltham&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlRiAAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA98&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQibla" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWensinck1978" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Wensinck, Arent Jan (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brill.com/search?q=Ka%CA%BFba&source=%2Fdb%2Feieo">"Kaʿba"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Emeri_Johannes_van_Donzel" class="mw-redirect" title="Emeri Johannes van Donzel">van Donzel, E.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Lewis, B.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pellat" title="Charles Pellat">Pellat, Ch.</a> & <a href="/wiki/C._E._Bosworth" class="mw-redirect" title="C. E. Bosworth">Bosworth, C. E.</a> (eds.). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Encyclopaedia_of_Islam#2nd_edition,_EI2" class="mw-redirect" title="The Encyclopaedia of Islam">The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition</a>. </i>Volume IV:<i> Iran–Kha</i>. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. <span class="nowrap">317–</span>322. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/758278456">758278456</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ka%CA%BFba&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+Second+Edition.+Volume+IV%3A+Iran%E2%80%93Kha&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E317-%3C%2Fspan%3E322&rft.pub=E.+J.+Brill&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F758278456&rft.aulast=Wensinck&rft.aufirst=Arent+Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brill.com%2Fsearch%3Fq%3DKa%25CA%25BFba%26source%3D%252Fdb%252Feieo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQibla" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWensinck1986" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Wensinck, Arent Jan (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brill.com/search?q=%E1%B8%B2ibla%3A+Ritual+and+Legal+Aspects&source=%2Fdb%2Feieo">"Ḳibla: Ritual and Legal Aspects"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/C._E._Bosworth" class="mw-redirect" title="C. E. Bosworth">Bosworth, C. E.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Emeri_Johannes_van_Donzel" class="mw-redirect" title="Emeri Johannes van Donzel">van Donzel, E.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Lewis, B.</a> & <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pellat" title="Charles Pellat">Pellat, Ch.</a> (eds.). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Encyclopaedia_of_Islam#2nd_edition,_EI2" class="mw-redirect" title="The Encyclopaedia of Islam">The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition</a>. </i>Volume V:<i> Khe–Mahi</i>. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. <span class="nowrap">82–</span>83. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07819-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07819-2"><bdi>978-90-04-07819-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%E1%B8%B2ibla%3A+Ritual+and+Legal+Aspects&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+Second+Edition.+Volume+V%3A+Khe%E2%80%93Mahi&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E82-%3C%2Fspan%3E83&rft.pub=E.+J.+Brill&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-90-04-07819-2&rft.aulast=Wensinck&rft.aufirst=Arent+Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brill.com%2Fsearch%3Fq%3D%25E1%25B8%25B2ibla%253A%2BRitual%2Band%2BLegal%2BAspects%26source%3D%252Fdb%252Feieo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQibla" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qibla&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Qibla" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Qibla">Qibla</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the 1905 <i><a href="/wiki/New_International_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="New International Encyclopedia">New International Encyclopedia</a></i> article "<b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_International_Encyclop%C3%A6dia/Kiblah" class="extiw" title="s:The New International Encyclopædia/Kiblah">Kiblah</a></b>".</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbdali1997" class="citation book cs1">Abdali, S. Kamal (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geomete.com/abdali/papers/qibla.pdf"><i>The Correct Qibla</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Correct+Qibla&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Abdali&rft.aufirst=S.+Kamal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgeomete.com%2Fabdali%2Fpapers%2Fqibla.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQibla" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing2018" class="citation web cs1">King, David A. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/38858159">"Bibliography of books, articles and websites on historical <i>qibla</i> determinations"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bibliography+of+books%2C+articles+and+websites+on+historical+qibla+determinations&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F38858159&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQibla" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_Gent2017" class="citation web cs1">van Gent, Robert Harry (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://webspace.science.uu.nl/~gent0113/islam/qibla.htm">"Determining the Sacred Direction of Islam"</a>. <i>Webpages on the History of Astronomy</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Webpages+on+the+History+of+Astronomy&rft.atitle=Determining+the+Sacred+Direction+of+Islam&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=van+Gent&rft.aufirst=Robert+Harry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwebspace.science.uu.nl%2F~gent0113%2Fislam%2Fqibla.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQibla" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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style="width:1%">Regular <a href="/wiki/Fard" title="Fard">mandatory</a> prayers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fajr_prayer" title="Fajr prayer">Fajr</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fajr_nafl_prayer" title="Fajr nafl prayer">Fajr nafl prayer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qunut" title="Qunut">Qunut</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuhr_prayer" title="Zuhr prayer">Zuhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asr_prayer" title="Asr prayer">Asr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghrib_prayer" title="Maghrib prayer">Maghrib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isha_prayer" title="Isha prayer">Isha</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chafa%27a" title="Chafa'a">Chafa'a</a>, <a href="/wiki/Witr" title="Witr">Witr</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friday_prayer" title="Friday prayer">Jumu'ah</a> (weekly Friday prayer)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Communal mandatory prayers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Funeral_prayer_(Islam)" title="Funeral prayer (Islam)">Salat al-Janazah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absentee_funeral_prayer_(Islam)" title="Absentee funeral prayer (Islam)">Prayers for the absent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eid_prayers" title="Eid prayers">Eid prayers</a> (according to some Islamic scholars)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Salah_al_jama%27ah" class="mw-redirect" title="Salah al jama'ah">Congregational prayers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jumu%27ah" class="mw-redirect" title="Jumu'ah">Jumu'ah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarawih" title="Tarawih">Tarawih</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eid_prayers" title="Eid prayers">Eid prayers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rain_prayer" title="Rain prayer">Rain prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eclipse_prayer" class="mw-redirect" title="Eclipse prayer">Eclipse prayer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Supererogatory prayers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunnah_prayer" title="Sunnah prayer">Prayers of the tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nafl_prayer" title="Nafl prayer">Voluntary prayers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duha" title="Duha">Duha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nafl_prayer#Ishraq_prayer" title="Nafl prayer">Ishraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahajjud" title="Tahajjud">Tahajjud</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Night_nafl_prayer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Night nafl prayer (page does not exist)">Night nafl prayer</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A9_%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84" class="extiw" title="ar:صلاة قيام الليل">ar</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarawih" title="Tarawih">Tarawih</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawassul" title="Tawassul">Tawassul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chafa%27a" title="Chafa'a">Chafa'a</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witr" title="Witr">Witr</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tahiyyat_masjid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tahiyyat masjid (page does not exist)">Tahiyyat masjid</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AC%D8%AF" class="extiw" title="ar:تحية المسجد">ar</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Occasional prayers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salat_al-Istikharah" title="Salat al-Istikharah">Salat al-Istikharah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salat_al-Tawba" title="Salat al-Tawba">Salat al-Tawba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sick_prayer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sick prayer (page does not exist)">Sick prayer</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B6" class="extiw" title="ar:صلاة المريض">ar</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Need_prayer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Need prayer (page does not exist)">Need prayer</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%A9" class="extiw" title="ar:صلاة الحاجة">ar</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fear_prayer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fear prayer (page does not exist)">Fear prayer</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D9%88%D9%81" class="extiw" title="ar:صلاة الخوف">ar</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tasbih_prayer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tasbih prayer (page does not exist)">Tasbih prayer</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%AD" class="extiw" title="ar:صلاة التسابيح">ar</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eid_prayers" title="Eid prayers">Eid prayers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarawih" title="Tarawih">Tarawih</a> (Ramadan)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kaaba_mirror_edit_jj.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Kaaba_mirror_edit_jj.jpg/120px-Kaaba_mirror_edit_jj.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Kaaba_mirror_edit_jj.jpg/180px-Kaaba_mirror_edit_jj.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Kaaba_mirror_edit_jj.jpg/240px-Kaaba_mirror_edit_jj.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Prayer unit (<i><a href="/wiki/Rakat" class="mw-redirect" title="Rakat">raka'ah</a></i>) and<br />its constituents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Intention (<a href="/wiki/Niyyah" title="Niyyah">Niyyah</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basmala" title="Basmala">Basmala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takbir" title="Takbir">Takbir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Fatiha" title="Al-Fatiha">Al-Fatiha</a></li> <li>Standing (<a href="/wiki/Qiyam" title="Qiyam">Qiyam</a>)</li> <li>Recitation <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qira%27at" title="Qira'at">Qira'at</a></li> <li>Proper pronunciation (<a href="/wiki/Tajwid" title="Tajwid">Tajwid</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tilawa" title="Tilawa">Tilawa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Loud_prayer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Loud prayer (page does not exist)">Loud prayer</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A9_%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" class="extiw" title="ar:صلاة جهرية">ar</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Silent_prayer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Silent prayer (page does not exist)">Silent prayer</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A9_%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" class="extiw" title="ar:صلاة سرية">ar</a>]</span></li></ul></li> <li>Supplication (<a href="/wiki/Qunut" title="Qunut">Qunut</a>)</li> <li>Bowing (<a href="/wiki/Ruku" title="Ruku">Ruku</a>)</li> <li>Prostration <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sujud" title="Sujud">Sujud</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sujud_Sahwi" title="Sujud Sahwi">Sujud Sahwi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostration_of_thanksgiving" title="Prostration of thanksgiving">Sujud Shukr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sujud_Tilawa" title="Sujud Tilawa">Sujud Tilawa</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sitting_in_salah" title="Sitting in salah">Sitting in salah</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tashahhud" title="Tashahhud">Tashahhud</a>)</li> <li>Peace greeting (<a href="/wiki/Taslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Taslim">Taslim</a>)</li> <li>Reverence (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Khouchou%C3%A2a&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Khouchouâa (page does not exist)">Khouchouâa</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%B9" class="extiw" title="ar:خشوع">ar</a>]</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contentment" title="Contentment">Contentment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">Mosque</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mihrab" title="Mihrab">Mihrab</a></li> <li>Podium (<a href="/wiki/Minbar" title="Minbar">Minbar</a>)</li> <li>Sermon (<a href="/wiki/Khutbah" title="Khutbah">Khutbah</a>)</li> <li>Prayer hall (<a href="/wiki/Musalla" title="Musalla">Musalla</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_rug" title="Prayer rug">Prayer rug</a> (<i>sajjādah</i>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Conditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Prayer call <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adhan" title="Adhan">Adhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iqama" title="Iqama">Iqama</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_times" title="Salah times">Salah times</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_forbidden_times" class="mw-redirect" title="Prayer forbidden times">Prayer forbidden times</a></li> <li>Prayer direction (<a class="mw-selflink selflink">Qibla</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_hygienical_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic hygienical jurisprudence">Islamic hygienical jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual_purity_in_Islam" title="Ritual purity in Islam">Ritual purity in Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Junub" class="mw-redirect" title="Junub">Junub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menstruation_in_Islam" title="Menstruation in Islam">Menstruation in Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istihadha" title="Istihadha">Istihadha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najis" title="Najis">Najis</a></li></ul></li> <li>Bath (<a href="/wiki/Ghusl" title="Ghusl">Ghusl</a>)</li> <li>Ablution (<a href="/wiki/Wudu" title="Wudu">Wudu</a>)</li> <li>Dry ablution (<a href="/wiki/Tayammum" title="Tayammum">Tayammum</a>)</li> <li>Screen or barrier (<a href="/wiki/Sutrah" title="Sutrah">Sutrah</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><a href="/wiki/Category:Salah" title="Category:Salah">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Islamic_architecture421" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islamic_architecture" title="Template:Islamic architecture"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islamic_architecture" title="Template talk:Islamic architecture"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic_architecture" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic architecture"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Islamic_architecture421" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Islamic architecture</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Styles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_architecture" title="Abbasid architecture">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_Seljuk_architecture" title="Anatolian Seljuk architecture">Anatolian Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty#Architecture" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Islamic_architecture" title="Chinese Islamic architecture">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_architecture" title="Fatimid architecture">Fatimid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Seljuk_architecture" title="Great Seljuk architecture">Great Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hausa_architecture" title="Hausa architecture">Hausa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Islamic_architecture" title="Indo-Islamic architecture">Indo-Islamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_Muslim_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Bengali Muslim architecture">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_the_Deccan_sultanates" title="Architecture of the Deccan sultanates">Deccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutb_Shahi_architecture" title="Qutb Shahi architecture">Qutb Shahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_architecture" title="Mughal architecture">Mughal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosque_architecture_in_Indonesia" title="Mosque architecture in Indonesia">Indonesian</a> / <a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Malaysia" title="Islamic architecture">Malaysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_architecture" title="Iranian architecture">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk_architecture" title="Mamluk architecture">Mamluk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moorish_architecture" title="Moorish architecture">Moorish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aghlabid_architecture" title="Aghlabid architecture">Aghlabid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almoravid_architecture" title="Almoravid architecture">Almoravid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_architecture" title="Almohad architecture">Almohad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafsid_architecture" title="Hafsid architecture">Hafsid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zayyanid_architecture" title="Zayyanid architecture">Zayyanid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_architecture" title="Ottoman architecture">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_architecture" title="Somali architecture">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudano-Sahelian_architecture" title="Sudano-Sahelian architecture">Sudano-Sahelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swahili_architecture" title="Swahili architecture">Swahili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatar_mosque" title="Tatar mosque">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_architecture" title="Timurid architecture">Timurid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_architecture" title="Umayyad architecture">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Yemen" title="Architecture of Yemen">Yemeni</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Elements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qadad" title="Qadad">Qadad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tadelakt" title="Tadelakt">Tadelakt</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px;padding:0 1.0em 0 1.0em"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Iranian_Tiles_1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Iranian_Tiles_1.JPG/200px-Iranian_Tiles_1.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Iranian_Tiles_1.JPG/300px-Iranian_Tiles_1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Iranian_Tiles_1.JPG/400px-Iranian_Tiles_1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2511" data-file-height="3648" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Arches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chahartaq_(architecture)" title="Chahartaq (architecture)">Chahartaq</a> (four-arch structure)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discharging_arch" title="Discharging arch">Discharging arch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four-centred_arch" title="Four-centred arch">Four-centred arch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horseshoe_arch" title="Horseshoe arch">Horseshoe arch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambrequin_arch" title="Lambrequin arch">Lambrequin arch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multifoil_arch" title="Multifoil arch">Multifoil arch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogee#Ogee_arch" title="Ogee">Ogee arch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogive#architecture" title="Ogive">Pointed arch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squinch" title="Squinch">Squinch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture#Vaulting" title="Islamic architecture">Vaulting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Roofs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dome" title="Dome">Dome</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_medieval_Arabic_and_Western_European_domes" title="History of medieval Arabic and Western European domes">Arabic dome</a> / <a href="/wiki/Onion_dome" title="Onion dome">Onion dome</a> / <a href="/wiki/History_of_Persian_domes" title="History of Persian domes">Persian dome</a> / <a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Asian_domes" class="mw-redirect" title="History of South Asian domes">South Asian dome</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-dome" title="Semi-dome">Semi-dome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajug" title="Tajug">Tajug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chhajja" title="Chhajja">Chhajja</a> (eaves)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religious<br />objects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anaza" title="Anaza">Anaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bedug" title="Bedug">Bedug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dikka" title="Dikka">Dikka</a> (or müezzin mahfili)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonbad" class="mw-redirect" title="Gonbad">Gonbad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussainiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Hussainiya">Hussainiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imamzadeh" title="Imamzadeh">Imamzadeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiswah" title="Kiswah">Kiswah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loudspeakers_in_mosques" title="Loudspeakers in mosques">Loudspeakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maqsurah" title="Maqsurah">Maqsurah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mihrab" title="Mihrab">Mihrab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minaret" title="Minaret">Minaret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minbar" title="Minbar">Minbar</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Qibla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarih" title="Zarih">Zarih</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Decorations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>(<i>For overview, see</i> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_ornament" title="Islamic ornament">Islamic ornament</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ablaq" title="Ablaq">Ablaq</a> (multicoloured ashlar)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80ina-k%C4%81ri" class="mw-redirect" title="Āina-kāri">Āina-kāri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfiz" title="Alfiz">Alfiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabesque" title="Arabesque">Arabesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banna%27i" title="Banna'i">Banna'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Girih" title="Girih">Girih</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Girih_tiles" title="Girih tiles">Girih tiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Islamic calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patterns" title="Islamic geometric patterns">Islamic geometric patterns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jali" title="Jali">Jali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosque_lamp" title="Mosque lamp">Mosque lamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muqarnas" title="Muqarnas">Muqarnas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagash_painting" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagash painting">Nagash painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qashani" title="Qashani">Qashani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebka" title="Sebka">Sebka (Darj-wa-ktaf)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shabaka_(window)" title="Shabaka (window)">Shabaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamsa" title="Shamsa">Shamsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sitara_(textile)" title="Sitara (textile)">Sitara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socarrat" title="Socarrat">Socarrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stucco_decoration_in_Islamic_architecture" title="Stucco decoration in Islamic architecture">Stucco decoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zellij" title="Zellij">Zellij</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rooms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andaruni" title="Andaruni">Andaruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iwan" title="Iwan">Iwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liwan" title="Liwan">Liwan</a> (entrance hall)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirador_(architecture)" title="Mirador (architecture)">Mirador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hosh_(architecture)" title="Hosh (architecture)">Hosh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qa%27a_(room)" title="Qa'a (room)">Qa’a</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zenana" title="Zenana">Zenana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Gardens</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bagh_(garden)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bagh (garden)">Bagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charbagh" title="Charbagh">Charbagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_garden" title="Islamic garden">Islamic garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_garden" title="Mughal garden">Mughal garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradise_garden" title="Paradise garden">Paradise garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_gardens" title="Persian gardens">Persian gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflecting_pool" title="Reflecting pool">Reflecting pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riad_(architecture)" title="Riad (architecture)">Riad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Outdoor<br />objects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chhatri" title="Chhatri">Chhatri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eidgah" title="Eidgah">Eidgah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fina_(architecture)" title="Fina (architecture)">Fina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechouar" title="Mechouar">Mechouar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebil_(fountain)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sebil (fountain)">Sebil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadirvan" title="Shadirvan">Shadirvan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Passive<br />cooling</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypostyle" title="Hypostyle">Hypostyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howz" title="Howz">Howz</a> (fountain type)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jharokha" title="Jharokha">Jharokha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kucheh" title="Kucheh">Kucheh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashrabiya" title="Mashrabiya">Mashrabiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riwaq_(arcade)" title="Riwaq (arcade)">Riwaq (arcade)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahn" title="Sahn">Sahn</a> (courtyard)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salsabil_(fountain)" title="Salsabil (fountain)">Salsabil (fountain)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shabestan" title="Shabestan">Shabestan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medina_Haram_Piazza_Shading_Umbrellas" class="mw-redirect" title="Medina Haram Piazza Shading Umbrellas">Shading Umbrellas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windcatcher" title="Windcatcher">Windcatcher</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religious</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congregational_mosque" title="Congregational mosque">Congregational mosque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dar_al-Muwaqqit" title="Dar al-Muwaqqit">Dar al-Muwaqqit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dargah" title="Dargah">Dargah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gongbei_(Islamic_architecture)" title="Gongbei (Islamic architecture)">Gongbei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jama%27at_Khana" title="Jama'at Khana">Jama'at Khana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanqah" class="mw-redirect" title="Khanqah">Khanqah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C3%BClliye" title="Külliye">Külliye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuttab" title="Kuttab">Kuttab (or maktab)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">Madrasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maqam_(shrine)" title="Maqam (shrine)">Maqam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maqbara" title="Maqbara">Maqbara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazar_(mausoleum)" title="Mazar (mausoleum)">Mazar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">Mosque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musalla" title="Musalla">Musalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qubba" title="Qubba">Qubba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rauza" title="Rauza">Rauza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surau" title="Surau">Surau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takya" class="mw-redirect" title="Takya">Takya</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Takyeh" title="Takyeh">takyeh</a> in modern Iran)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCrbe" title="Türbe">Türbe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zawiya_(institution)" title="Zawiya (institution)">Zawiya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Civilian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baradari_(building)" title="Baradari (building)">Baradari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bazaar" title="Bazaar">Bazaar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caravanserai" title="Caravanserai">Caravanserai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimaristan" title="Bimaristan">Dar al-Shifa (Bimaristan)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghorfa" title="Ghorfa">Ghorfa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammam" title="Hammam">Hammam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasht-Bihisht_(Architecture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasht-Bihisht (Architecture)">Hasht-Bihisht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasbah" title="Kasbah">Kasbah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahal_(palace)" title="Mahal (palace)">Mahal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medina_quarter" title="Medina quarter">Medina quarter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Souq" class="mw-redirect" title="Souq">Souq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well_house" class="mw-redirect" title="Well house">Well house</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albarrana_tower" title="Albarrana tower">Albarrana tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alc%C3%A1zar" title="Alcázar">Alcázar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amsar" title="Amsar">Amsar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasbah" title="Kasbah">Kasbah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ksar" title="Ksar">Ksar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qalat_(fortress)" title="Qalat (fortress)">Qalat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ribat" title="Ribat">Ribat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Resources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aga_Khan_Award_for_Architecture" title="Aga Khan Award for Architecture">Aga Khan Award for Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ArchNet" title="ArchNet">ArchNet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_with_No_Frontiers" title="Museum with No Frontiers">Museum with No Frontiers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Influences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Saracenic_Revival_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture">Indo-Saracenic Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_influences_on_Western_art#Architecture" title="Islamic influences on Western art">Influences on Western architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moorish_Revival_architecture" title="Moorish Revival architecture">Moorish Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mud%C3%A9jar" title="Mudéjar">Mudéjar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Category pages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Arabic_architecture" title="Category:Arabic architecture">Arabic architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Berber_architecture" title="Category:Berber architecture">Berber architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Architecture_in_Iran" title="Category:Architecture in Iran">Iranian architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Islamic_architecture" title="Category:Islamic architecture">Islamic architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Moorish_architecture" title="Category:Moorish architecture">Moorish architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mughal_architecture" title="Category:Mughal architecture">Mughal architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Architecture_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Category:Architecture in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sudano-Sahelian_architecture" title="Category:Sudano-Sahelian architecture">Sudano-Sahelian architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Architecture_in_Yemen" title="Category:Architecture in Yemen">Yemeni architecture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Part of <a href="/wiki/Template:Islamic_art" title="Template:Islamic art">Islamic arts</a> •  <b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P_parthenon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/P_parthenon.svg/16px-P_parthenon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/P_parthenon.svg/24px-P_parthenon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/P_parthenon.svg/32px-P_parthenon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Architecture" title="Portal:Architecture">Architecture portal</a></b> •  <b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/15px-Allah-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/23px-Allah-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/31px-Allah-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="206" data-file-height="215" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Islam" title="Portal:Islam">Islam portal</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/18px-Allah-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/28px-Allah-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/36px-Allah-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="206" data-file-height="215" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Islam" title="Portal:Islam">Islam</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Terra.png/19px-Terra.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Terra.png/29px-Terra.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Terra.png/38px-Terra.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geography" title="Portal:Geography">Geography</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P_religion_world.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/21px-P_religion_world.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/32px-P_religion_world.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/42px-P_religion_world.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Religion" title="Portal:Religion">Religion</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/21px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/42px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/19px-Crab_Nebula.jpg" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/29px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/38px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3864" data-file-height="3864" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Astronomy" title="Portal:Astronomy">Astronomy</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:He1523a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/16px-He1523a.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/25px-He1523a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/33px-He1523a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="207" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Stars" title="Portal:Stars">Stars</a></li></ul></div> <div 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title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q175047#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 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