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<span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biochemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biochemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Biochemistry</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Biochemistry-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Biochemistry subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Biochemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Biosynthesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biosynthesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Biosynthesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biosynthesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neural_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neural_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Neural sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neural_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-neural_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-neural_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Non-neural sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-neural_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Male" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Male"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Male</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Male-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Female" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Female"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Female</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Female-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Evolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biological_function" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biological_function"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Biological function</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Biological_function-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Biological function subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Biological_function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Physiological" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physiological"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Physiological</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physiological-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychological" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychological"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Psychological</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychological-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bonding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bonding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Bonding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bonding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Drugs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drugs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>Drugs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drugs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fear_and_anxiety" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fear_and_anxiety"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3</span> <span>Fear and anxiety</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fear_and_anxiety-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mood_and_depression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mood_and_depression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.4</span> <span>Mood and depression</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mood_and_depression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sex_differences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sex_differences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.5</span> <span>Sex differences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sex_differences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.6</span> <span>Social</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Chemistry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>In popular culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>In medicine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Oxytocin</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 70 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-70" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">70 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D9%83%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86" title="أكسيتوسين – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أكسيتوسين" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oksitosin" title="Oksitosin – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Oksitosin" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%88%DA%A9%D8%B3%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%86" title="اوکسی‌توسین – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="اوکسی‌توسین" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8" title="অক্সিটোসিন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অক্সিটোসিন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%81%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D0%BD" title="Аксітацын – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Аксітацын" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%81%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D0%BD" title="Аксытацын – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Аксытацын" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Окситоцин – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Окситоцин" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oksitocin" title="Oksitocin – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Oksitocin" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxitocina" title="Oxitocina – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Oxitocina" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Oxytocin" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Oxytocin" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Oxytocin" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%87%DE%AE%DE%86%DE%B0%DE%90%DE%A8%DE%93%DE%AF%DE%90%DE%A8%DE%82%DE%B0" title="އޮކްސިޓޯސިން – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="އޮކްސިޓޯސިން" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ދިވެހިބަސް</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oks%C3%BCtotsiin" title="Oksütotsiin – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Oksütotsiin" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A9%CE%BA%CF%85%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BA%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%B7" title="Ωκυτοκίνη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ωκυτοκίνη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxitocina" title="Oxitocina – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Oxitocina" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oksitocino" title="Oksitocino – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Oksitocino" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxitozina" title="Oxitozina – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Oxitozina" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%86" title="اکسی‌توسین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اکسی‌توسین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocytocine" title="Ocytocine – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Ocytocine" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocsaiteoisin" title="Ocsaiteoisin – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ocsaiteoisin" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxitocina" title="Oxitocina – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Oxitocina" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%98%A5%EC%8B%9C%ED%86%A0%EC%8B%A0" title="옥시토신 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="옥시토신" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%95%D6%84%D5%BD%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%B6" title="Օքսիտոցին – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Օքսիտոցին" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%91%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8" title="ऑक्सीटॉसिन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ऑक्सीटॉसिन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oksitocin" title="Oksitocin – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Oksitocin" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oksitosin" title="Oksitosin – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Oksitosin" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxyt%C3%B3s%C3%ADn" title="Oxytósín – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Oxytósín" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ossitocina" title="Ossitocina – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ossitocina" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%9F" title="אוקסיטוצין – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אוקסיטוצין" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%86%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D%E2%80%8C" title="ಆಕ್ಸಿಟೋಸಿನ್‌ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಆಕ್ಸಿಟೋಸಿನ್‌" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="ოქსიტოცინი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ოქსიტოცინი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Окситоцин – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Окситоцин" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oks%C3%AEtos%C3%AEn" title="Oksîtosîn – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Oksîtosîn" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Окситоцин – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Окситоцин" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxytocinum" title="Oxytocinum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Oxytocinum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oksitoc%C4%ABns" title="Oksitocīns – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Oksitocīns" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oksitocinas" title="Oksitocinas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Oksitocinas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxitocin" title="Oxitocin – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Oxitocin" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Окситоцин – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Окситоцин" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%91%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8" title="ऑक्सीटॉसिन – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="ऑक्सीटॉसिन" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oksitosin" title="Oksitosin – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Oksitosin" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%86%E1%80%AE%E1%80%90%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%86%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA" title="အောက်ဆီတိုဆင် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အောက်ဆီတိုဆင်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxytocine" title="Oxytocine – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Oxytocine" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AA%E3%82%AD%E3%82%B7%E3%83%88%E3%82%B7%E3%83%B3" title="オキシトシン – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="オキシトシン" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oksytocin" title="Oksytocin – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Oksytocin" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%85%E0%AC%95%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%9F%E0%AD%8B%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%A8" title="ଅକ୍ସିଟୋସିନ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଅକ୍ସିଟୋସିନ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%B9%D9%88%DA%A9%D9%86" title="اکسیٹوکن – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="اکسیٹوکن" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oksytocyna" title="Oksytocyna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Oksytocyna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocitocina" title="Ocitocina – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ocitocina" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxitocin%C4%83" title="Oxitocină – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Oxitocină" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Окситоцин – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Окситоцин" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oksitocina" title="Oksitocina – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Oksitocina" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Oxytocin" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxytoc%C3%ADn" title="Oxytocín – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Oxytocín" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oksiitoosiin" title="Oksiitoosiin – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Oksiitoosiin" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Окситоцин – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Окситоцин" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oksitocin" title="Oksitocin – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Oksitocin" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oksitosin" title="Oksitosin – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Oksitosin" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oksitosiini" title="Oksitosiini – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Oksitosiini" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Oxytocin" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%86%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D" title="ஆக்சிடாசின் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஆக்சிடாசின்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%86%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D" title="ఆక్సిటోసిన్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఆక్సిటోసిన్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99" title="ออกซิโตซิน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ออกซิโตซิน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oksitosin" title="Oksitosin – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Oksitosin" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Окситоцин – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Окситоцин" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Oxytocin" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%82%AC%E4%BA%A7%E7%B4%A0" title="催产素 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="催产素" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%82%AC%E7%94%A2%E7%B4%A0" title="催產素 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="催產素" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%82%AC%E4%BA%A7%E7%B4%A0" title="催产素 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="催产素" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q169960#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Peptide hormone and neuropeptide</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the hormone. For its use as a medication, see <a href="/wiki/Oxytocin_(medication)" title="Oxytocin (medication)">Oxytocin (medication)</a>. For the Billie Eilish song, see <a href="/wiki/Oxytocin_(song)" title="Oxytocin (song)">Oxytocin (song)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Oxycontin" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxycontin">Oxycontin</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="border-spacing:2px;"><caption class="infobox-title"><span title="International nonproprietary name (INN): Oxytocin">Oxytocin</span></caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image notheme" style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Oxytocin_with_labels.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Oxytocin_with_labels.png/220px-Oxytocin_with_labels.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Oxytocin_with_labels.png/330px-Oxytocin_with_labels.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Oxytocin_with_labels.png/440px-Oxytocin_with_labels.png 2x" data-file-width="2204" data-file-height="1378" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image notheme" style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Oxytocin-from-NMR-soln-3D-bs-17.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Oxytocin-from-NMR-soln-3D-bs-17.png/220px-Oxytocin-from-NMR-soln-3D-bs-17.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Oxytocin-from-NMR-soln-3D-bs-17.png/330px-Oxytocin-from-NMR-soln-3D-bs-17.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Oxytocin-from-NMR-soln-3D-bs-17.png/440px-Oxytocin-from-NMR-soln-3D-bs-17.png 2x" data-file-width="2905" data-file-height="2336" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ddd">Clinical data</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em;">Pronunciation</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="/ɒ/: 'o' in 'body'">ɒ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span></span>/</a></span></span> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_Therapeutic_Chemical_Classification_System" title="Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System">ATC code</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/ATC_code_H01" title="ATC code H01">H01BB02</a> (<span title="www.whocc.no"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.whocc.no/atc_ddd_index/?code=H01BB02">WHO</a></span>) </li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ddd"><a href="/wiki/Physiological" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiological">Physiological</a> data</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em;">Source <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissues</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Pituitary_gland" title="Pituitary gland">Pituitary gland</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em;">Target tissues</th><td class="infobox-data">Wide spread</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Receptor_(biochemistry)" title="Receptor (biochemistry)">Receptors</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Oxytocin_receptor" title="Oxytocin receptor">Oxytocin receptor</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Receptor_antagonist" title="Receptor antagonist">Antagonists</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Atosiban" title="Atosiban">Atosiban</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Precursor_(chemistry)" title="Precursor (chemistry)">Precursor</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Oxytocin/neurophysin I prepropeptide</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Drug_metabolism" title="Drug metabolism">Metabolism</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Liver and other <a href="/wiki/Oxytocinase" title="Oxytocinase">oxytocinases</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ddd">Legal status</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_therapeutic_goods" title="Regulation of therapeutic goods">Legal status</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><small><abbr class="country-name" title="United States">US</abbr>:</small> <a href="/wiki/Boxed_warning" title="Boxed warning"><span style="border:thin solid black;">WARNING</span></a><sup id="cite_ref-FDA-AllBoxedWarnings_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FDA-AllBoxedWarnings-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></div> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ddd"><a href="/wiki/Pharmacokinetics" title="Pharmacokinetics">Pharmacokinetic</a> data</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Plasma_protein_binding" title="Plasma protein binding">Protein binding</a></th><td class="infobox-data">30%</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Drug_metabolism" title="Drug metabolism">Metabolism</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Liver and other <a href="/wiki/Oxytocinase" title="Oxytocinase">oxytocinases</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Biological_half-life" title="Biological half-life">Elimination <span class="nowrap">half-life</span></a></th><td class="infobox-data">1–6 min (IV)<br />~2 h (intranasal)<sup id="cite_ref-pmid22436536_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid22436536-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid22467107_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid22467107-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Excretion" title="Excretion">Excretion</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Biliary and <a href="/wiki/Kidney" title="Kidney">kidney</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ddd">Identifiers</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><a href="/wiki/IUPAC_nomenclature_of_chemistry" title="IUPAC nomenclature of chemistry">IUPAC name</a></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0; word-break:break-all; text-align:left; padding-left:1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><div style="font-size: 97%;">1-({(4<i>R</i>,7<i>S</i>,10<i>S</i>,13<i>S</i>,16<i>S</i>,19<i>R</i>)-19-amino-7-(2-amino-2-oxoethyl)-10-(3-amino-3-oxopropyl)-16-(4-hydroxybenzyl)-13-[(1<i>S</i>)-1-methylpropyl]-6,9,12,15,18-pentaoxo-1,2-dithia-5,8,11,14,17-pentaazacycloicosan-4-yl}carbonyl)-<small>L</small>-prolyl-<small>L</small>-leucylglycinamide</div></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/CAS_Registry_Number" title="CAS Registry Number">CAS Number</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="commonchemistry.cas.org"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://commonchemistry.cas.org/detail?cas_rn=50-56-6">50-56-6</a></span><sup> <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="check" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/7px-Yes_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="7" height="7" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/11px-Yes_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/14px-Yes_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span></sup></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/PubChem#CID" title="PubChem">PubChem</a> <span style="font-weight:normal"><abbr title="Compound ID">CID</abbr></span></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/439302">439302</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Guide_to_Pharmacology" title="Guide to Pharmacology">IUPHAR/BPS</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="www.guidetopharmacology.org"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.guidetopharmacology.org/GRAC/LigandDisplayForward?ligandId=2174">2174</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/DrugBank" title="DrugBank">DrugBank</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="www.drugbank.ca"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.drugbank.ca/drugs/DB00107">DB00107</a></span><sup> <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="check" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/7px-Yes_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="7" height="7" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/11px-Yes_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/14px-Yes_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span></sup></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/ChemSpider" title="ChemSpider">ChemSpider</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="www.chemspider.com"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chemspider.com/Chemical-Structure.388434.html">388434</a></span><sup> <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="check" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/7px-Yes_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="7" height="7" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/11px-Yes_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/14px-Yes_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span></sup></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Unique_Ingredient_Identifier" title="Unique Ingredient Identifier">UNII</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="precision.fda.gov"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://precision.fda.gov/uniisearch/srs/unii/1JQS135EYN">1JQS135EYN</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/KEGG" title="KEGG">KEGG</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="www.kegg.jp"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kegg.jp/entry/D00089">D00089</a></span><sup> <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="check" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/7px-Yes_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="7" height="7" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/11px-Yes_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/14px-Yes_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span></sup></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/ChEBI" title="ChEBI">ChEBI</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="www.ebi.ac.uk"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ebi.ac.uk/chebi/searchId.do?chebiId=CHEBI:7872">CHEBI:7872</a></span><sup> <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="check" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/7px-Yes_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="7" height="7" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/11px-Yes_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/14px-Yes_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span></sup></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/ChEMBL" title="ChEMBL">ChEMBL</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="www.ebi.ac.uk"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ebi.ac.uk/chembldb/index.php/compound/inspect/ChEMBL395429">ChEMBL395429</a></span><sup> <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="check" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/7px-Yes_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="7" height="7" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/11px-Yes_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/14px-Yes_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span></sup></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/CompTox_Chemicals_Dashboard" title="CompTox Chemicals Dashboard">CompTox Dashboard</a> <span style="font-weight:normal">(<abbr title="U.S. Environmental Protection Agency">EPA</abbr>)</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="comptox.epa.gov"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://comptox.epa.gov/dashboard/chemical/details/DTXSID8048361">DTXSID8048361</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q169960#P3117" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/ECHA_InfoCard" class="mw-redirect" title="ECHA InfoCard"><span title="echa.europa.eu">ECHA InfoCard</span></a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://echa.europa.eu/substance-information/-/substanceinfo/100.000.045">100.000.045</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q169960#P2566" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ddd">Chemical and physical data</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Chemical_formula" title="Chemical formula">Formula</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Carbon">C</span><sub>43</sub><span title="Hydrogen">H</span><sub>66</sub><span title="Nitrogen">N</span><sub>12</sub><span title="Oxygen">O</span><sub>12</sub><span title="Sulfur">S</span><sub>2</sub></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Molar_mass" title="Molar mass">Molar mass</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003100719000000000♠"></span>1<span style="margin-left:.25em;">007</span>.19</span> g·mol<sup>−1</sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="line-height:1.2em;">3D model (<a href="/wiki/JSmol" class="mw-redirect" title="JSmol">JSmol</a>)</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="chemapps.stolaf.edu (3D interactive model)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chemapps.stolaf.edu/jmol/jmol.php?model=CC%5BC%40H%5D%28C%29%5BC%40%40H%5D1NC%28%3DO%29%5BC%40H%5D%28Cc2ccc%28O%29cc2%29NC%28%3DO%29%5BC%40%40H%5D%28N%29CSSC%5BC%40H%5D%28NC%28%3DO%29%5BC%40H%5D%28CC%28N%29%3DO%29NC%28%3DO%29%5BC%40H%5D%28CCC%28N%29%3DO%29NC1%3DO%29C%28%3DO%29N3CCC%5BC%40H%5D3C%28%3DO%29N%5BC%40%40H%5D%28CC%28C%29C%29C%28%3DO%29NCC%28N%29%3DO">Interactive image</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><a href="/wiki/Simplified_molecular-input_line-entry_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Simplified molecular-input line-entry system">SMILES</a></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0; word-break:break-all;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><div style="word-wrap:break-word; text-indent:-1.5em; text-align:left; padding-left:1.5em; font-size:97%; line-height:120%;">CC[C@H](C)[C@@H]1NC(=O)[C@H](Cc2ccc(O)cc2)NC(=O)[C@@H](N)CSSC[C@H](NC(=O)[C@H](CC(N)=O)NC(=O)[C@H](CCC(N)=O)NC1=O)C(=O)N3CCC[C@H]3C(=O)N[C@@H](CC(C)C)C(=O)NCC(N)=O</div></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><a href="/wiki/International_Chemical_Identifier" title="International Chemical Identifier">InChI</a></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0; word-break:break-all;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><div style="word-wrap:break-word; text-indent:-1.5em; text-align:left; padding-left:1.5em; font-size:97%; line-height:120%;">InChI=1S/C43H66N12O12S2/c1-5-22(4)35-42(66)49-26(12-13-32(45)57)38(62)51-29(17-33(46)58)39(63)53-30(20-69-68-19-25(44)36(60)50-28(40(64)54-35)16-23-8-10-24(56)11-9-23)43(67)55-14-6-7-31(55)41(65)52-27(15-21(2)3)37(61)48-18-34(47)59/h8-11,21-22,25-31,35,56H,5-7,12-20,44H2,1-4H3,(H2,45,57)(H2,46,58)(H2,47,59)(H,48,61)(H,49,66)(H,50,60)(H,51,62)(H,52,65)(H,53,63)(H,54,64)/t22-,25-,26-,27-,28-,29-,30-,31-,35-/m0/s1<sup> <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="check" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/7px-Yes_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="7" height="7" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/11px-Yes_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/14px-Yes_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span></sup></div></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><div style="word-wrap:break-word; text-indent:-1.5em; text-align:left; padding-left:1.5em; font-size:97%; line-height:120%;">Key:XNOPRXBHLZRZKH-DSZYJQQASA-N<sup> <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="check" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/7px-Yes_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="7" height="7" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/11px-Yes_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/14px-Yes_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span></sup></div></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><span class="nobold">  <span class="reflink plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:ComparePages&rev1=691721176&page2=Oxytocin">(verify)</a></span></span></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Oxytocin</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Peptide_hormone" title="Peptide hormone">peptide hormone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neuropeptide" title="Neuropeptide">neuropeptide</a> normally produced in the <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a> and released by the <a href="/wiki/Posterior_pituitary" title="Posterior pituitary">posterior pituitary</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Present in animals since early stages of evolution, in humans it plays roles in behavior that include <a href="/wiki/Human_bonding" title="Human bonding">social bonding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Love" title="Love">love</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">reproduction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">childbirth</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Postpartum_period" title="Postpartum period">period after childbirth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid12000539_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid12000539-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid11573971_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid11573971-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oxytocin is released into the bloodstream as a hormone in response to <a href="/wiki/Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">sexual activity</a> and during childbirth.<sup id="cite_ref-Rogers_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rogers-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chi2012_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chi2012-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also available in <a href="/wiki/Oxytocin_(medication)" title="Oxytocin (medication)">pharmaceutical form</a>. In either form, oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions to speed up the process of childbirth. In its natural form, it also plays a role in <a href="/wiki/Maternal_bonding" class="mw-redirect" title="Maternal bonding">maternal bonding</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lactation" title="Lactation">milk production</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chi2012_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chi2012-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Production and secretion of oxytocin is controlled by a <a href="/wiki/Positive_feedback" title="Positive feedback">positive feedback</a> mechanism, where its initial release stimulates production and release of further oxytocin. For example, when oxytocin is released during a contraction of the uterus at the start of childbirth, this stimulates production and release of more oxytocin and an increase in the intensity and frequency of contractions. This process compounds in intensity and frequency and continues until the triggering activity ceases. A similar process takes place during lactation and during sexual activity. </p><p>Oxytocin is derived by <a href="/wiki/Enzymatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Enzymatic">enzymatic</a> splitting from the <a href="/wiki/Peptide_precursor" class="mw-redirect" title="Peptide precursor">peptide precursor</a> encoded by the human OXT <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">gene</a>. The deduced structure of the active nonapeptide is: </p> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Cysteine" title="Cysteine">Cys</a> – <a href="/wiki/Tyrosine" title="Tyrosine">Tyr</a> – <a href="/wiki/Isoleucine" title="Isoleucine">Ile</a> – <a href="/wiki/Glutamine" title="Glutamine">Gln</a> – <a href="/wiki/Asparagine" title="Asparagine">Asn</a> – Cys – <a href="/wiki/Proline" title="Proline">Pro</a> – <a href="/wiki/Leucine" title="Leucine">Leu</a> – <a href="/wiki/Glycine" title="Glycine">Gly</a> – NH<sub>2</sub>, or CYIQNCPLG-NH<sub>2</sub>.</dd></dl> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oxytocin&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term "oxytocin" derives from the Greek "ὠκυτόκος" (<i>ōkutókos</i>), based on ὀξύς (oxús), meaning "sharp" or "swift", and τόκος (tókos), meaning "childbirth".<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The adjective form is "oxytocic", which refers to medicines which stimulate uterine contractions, to speed up the process of childbirth. Colloquially, it has been referred to as the "cuddle hormone" or the "moral molecule" which have been considered misnomers.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oxytocin&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The uterine-contracting properties of the principle that would later be named oxytocin were discovered by British pharmacologist <a href="/wiki/Henry_Hallett_Dale" title="Henry Hallett Dale">Henry Hallett Dale</a> in 1906,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid16992821_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16992821-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid19482229_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid19482229-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and its milk ejection property was described by Ott and Scott in 1910<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by Schafer and Mackenzie in 1911.<sup id="cite_ref-Schafer_Mackenzie_1911_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schafer_Mackenzie_1911-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1909, the first clinical use of oxytocin was performed by <a href="/wiki/William_Blair-Bell" title="William Blair-Bell">William Blair-Bell</a> to induce childbirth in patients with complications.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the 1920s, oxytocin and <a href="/wiki/Vasopressin" title="Vasopressin">vasopressin</a> had been isolated from pituitary tissue and given their current names. Oxytocin's molecular structure was determined in 1952.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the early 1950s, American biochemist <a href="/wiki/Vincent_du_Vigneaud" title="Vincent du Vigneaud">Vincent du Vigneaud</a> found that oxytocin is made up of nine amino acids, and he identified its amino acid sequence, the first polypeptide hormone to be sequenced.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid13129273_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid13129273-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1953, du Vigneaud carried out the synthesis of oxytocin, the first polypeptide hormone to be synthesized.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-du_Vigneaud_1954_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-du_Vigneaud_1954-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Du Vigneaud was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1955 for his work.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid13324123_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid13324123-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Further work on different synthetic routes for oxytocin, as well as the preparation of analogues of the hormone (<i>e.g.</i> 4-deamido-oxytocin) was performed in the following decade by <a href="/wiki/Iphigenia_Photaki" title="Iphigenia Photaki">Iphigenia Photaki</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oxytocin&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Biochemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="infobox" style="width:26.4em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="4" style="text-align:center;font-size:125%;font-weight:bold">OXT</th></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#ddd">Identifiers</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8"><span class="plainlinks"><a href="/wiki/Gene_nomenclature" title="Gene nomenclature">Aliases</a></span></th><td colspan="3" style="background:#eee"><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.genenames.org/data/gene-symbol-report/#!/hgnc_id/8528">OXT</a></span>, OT, OT-NPI, OXT-NPI, oxytocin/neurophysin I prepropeptide</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8">External IDs</th><td colspan="3" style="background-color:#eee"><span class="plainlinks"><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_Inheritance_in_Man" class="mw-redirect" title="Mendelian Inheritance in Man">OMIM</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://omim.org/entry/167050">167050</a>; <a href="/wiki/Mouse_Genome_Informatics" title="Mouse Genome Informatics">MGI</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.informatics.jax.org/marker/MGI:97453">97453</a>; <a href="/wiki/HomoloGene" title="HomoloGene">HomoloGene</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=homologene&dopt=HomoloGene&list_uids=55494">55494</a>; <a href="/wiki/GeneCards" title="GeneCards">GeneCards</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.genecards.org/cgi-bin/carddisp.pl?gene=OXT">OXT</a>; <a href="/wiki/Orthologous_MAtrix" title="Orthologous MAtrix">OMA</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://omabrowser.org/oma/vps/ENSG00000101405">OXT - orthologs</a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee"><table class="collapsible collapsed" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:left"><tbody><tr><th colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#ddd">Gene location (<a href="/wiki/Human_genome" title="Human genome">Human</a>)</th></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ideogram_human_chromosome_20.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chromosome 20 (human)"><img alt="Chromosome 20 (human)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Ideogram_human_chromosome_20.svg/300px-Ideogram_human_chromosome_20.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Ideogram_human_chromosome_20.svg/450px-Ideogram_human_chromosome_20.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Ideogram_human_chromosome_20.svg/600px-Ideogram_human_chromosome_20.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="474" data-file-height="189" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" width="15%" style="background-color:#c3fdb8"><a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">Chr.</a></th><td colspan="3" width="85%" style="background-color:#eee"><span class="plainlinks"><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_20_(human)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromosome 20 (human)">Chromosome 20 (human)</a><sup id="cite_ref-refGRCh38Ensembl_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-refGRCh38Ensembl-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee"><div align="center"><div style="position: relative; width: 300px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Human_chromosome_20_ideogram.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chromosome 20 (human)"><img alt="Chromosome 20 (human)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Human_chromosome_20_ideogram.svg/300px-Human_chromosome_20_ideogram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="58" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Human_chromosome_20_ideogram.svg/450px-Human_chromosome_20_ideogram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Human_chromosome_20_ideogram.svg/600px-Human_chromosome_20_ideogram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1125" data-file-height="216" /></a></span><div style="position: absolute; left: 8.6213983761199px; top: 2px; padding: 0;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:HSR_1996_II_3.5e.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Genomic location for OXT"><img alt="Genomic location for OXT" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/HSR_1996_II_3.5e.svg/14px-HSR_1996_II_3.5e.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/HSR_1996_II_3.5e.svg/21px-HSR_1996_II_3.5e.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/HSR_1996_II_3.5e.svg/28px-HSR_1996_II_3.5e.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="142" data-file-height="142" /></a></span></div><div style="position: absolute; left: 14.6px; top: 19px; padding: 0;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Red_rectangle_2x18.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Genomic location for OXT"><img alt="Genomic location for OXT" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Red_rectangle_2x18.png" decoding="async" width="2" height="18" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2" data-file-height="18" /></a></span></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" rowspan="2" width="15%" style="background-color:#c3fdb8"><a href="/wiki/Locus_(genetics)" title="Locus (genetics)">Band</a></th><td rowspan="2" width="35%" style="background-color:#eee"><span class="plainlinks">20p13</span></td><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8">Start</th><td style="background-color:#eee"><span class="plainlinks">3,071,620 <a href="/wiki/Base_pair" title="Base pair">bp</a><sup id="cite_ref-refGRCh38Ensembl_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-refGRCh38Ensembl-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8">End</th><td style="background-color:#eee"><span class="plainlinks">3,072,517 <a href="/wiki/Base_pair" title="Base pair">bp</a><sup id="cite_ref-refGRCh38Ensembl_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-refGRCh38Ensembl-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee"><table class="collapsible collapsed" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:left"><tbody><tr><th colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#ddd">Gene location (<a href="/wiki/Laboratory_mouse" title="Laboratory mouse">Mouse</a>)</th></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ideogram_house_mouse_chromosome_2.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chromosome 2 (mouse)"><img alt="Chromosome 2 (mouse)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Ideogram_house_mouse_chromosome_2.svg/260px-Ideogram_house_mouse_chromosome_2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Ideogram_house_mouse_chromosome_2.svg/390px-Ideogram_house_mouse_chromosome_2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Ideogram_house_mouse_chromosome_2.svg/520px-Ideogram_house_mouse_chromosome_2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="470" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" width="15%" style="background-color:#c3fdb8"><a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">Chr.</a></th><td colspan="3" width="85%" style="background-color:#eee"><span class="plainlinks">Chromosome 2 (mouse)<sup id="cite_ref-refGRCm38Ensembl_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-refGRCm38Ensembl-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee"><div align="center"><div style="position: relative; width: 300px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ideogram_of_house_mouse_chromosome_2.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chromosome 2 (mouse)"><img alt="Chromosome 2 (mouse)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Ideogram_of_house_mouse_chromosome_2.svg/300px-Ideogram_of_house_mouse_chromosome_2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="58" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Ideogram_of_house_mouse_chromosome_2.svg/450px-Ideogram_of_house_mouse_chromosome_2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Ideogram_of_house_mouse_chromosome_2.svg/600px-Ideogram_of_house_mouse_chromosome_2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="231" /></a></span><div style="position: absolute; left: 205.24050020696px; top: 2px; padding: 0;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:HSR_1996_II_3.5e.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Genomic location for OXT"><img alt="Genomic location for OXT" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/HSR_1996_II_3.5e.svg/14px-HSR_1996_II_3.5e.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/HSR_1996_II_3.5e.svg/21px-HSR_1996_II_3.5e.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/HSR_1996_II_3.5e.svg/28px-HSR_1996_II_3.5e.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="142" data-file-height="142" /></a></span></div><div style="position: absolute; left: 211.2px; top: 19px; padding: 0;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Red_rectangle_2x18.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Genomic location for OXT"><img alt="Genomic location for OXT" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Red_rectangle_2x18.png" decoding="async" width="2" height="18" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2" data-file-height="18" /></a></span></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" rowspan="2" width="15%" style="background-color:#c3fdb8"><a href="/wiki/Locus_(genetics)" title="Locus (genetics)">Band</a></th><td rowspan="2" width="35%" style="background-color:#eee"><span class="plainlinks">2 F1|2 63.24 cM</span></td><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8">Start</th><td style="background-color:#eee"><span class="plainlinks">130,418,093 <a href="/wiki/Base_pair" title="Base pair">bp</a><sup id="cite_ref-refGRCm38Ensembl_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-refGRCm38Ensembl-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8">End</th><td style="background-color:#eee"><span class="plainlinks">130,418,974 <a href="/wiki/Base_pair" title="Base pair">bp</a><sup id="cite_ref-refGRCm38Ensembl_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-refGRCm38Ensembl-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee"><table class="collapsible collapsed" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:left"><tbody><tr><th colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#ddd"><a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">RNA expression</a> pattern</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bgee.org/">Bgee</a></th><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:left"><tbody><tr><th><b><a href="/wiki/Human_genome" title="Human genome">Human</a></b></th><th><b><a href="/wiki/Laboratory_mouse" title="Laboratory mouse">Mouse</a> (ortholog)</b></th></tr><tr><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:center"><tbody><tr><td colspan="1"><span class="plainlinks" style="margin:-3px"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bgee.org/gene/ENSG00000101405">Top expressed in</a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><div class="plainlinks" style="margin:-12px 0px -10px 0px"><ul style="line-height:15%;margin:9px"><li style="line-height: 137%;">oocyte</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">testicle</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">hypothalamus</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">gonad</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">right lobe of liver</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">secondary oocyte</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">decidua</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">anterior pituitary</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">subcutaneous adipose tissue</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">right adrenal gland</li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></td><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:center"><tbody><tr><td colspan="1"><span class="plainlinks" style="margin:-3px"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bgee.org/gene/ENSMUSG00000027301">Top expressed in</a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><div class="plainlinks" style="margin:-12px 0px -10px 0px"><ul style="line-height:15%;margin:9px"><li style="line-height: 137%;">paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">supraoptic nucleus</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">arcuate nucleus</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">tibiofemoral joint</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">nucleus of stria terminalis</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">right ventricle</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">median eminence</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">gastrula</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">neck</li><br /><li style="line-height: 137%;">lateral hypothalamus</li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee"><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bgee.org/gene/ENSG00000101405">More reference expression data</a></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://biogps.org/">BioGPS</a></th><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:left"><tbody><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee">n/a</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee"><span class="plainlinks"></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee"><table class="collapsible collapsed" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:left"><tbody><tr><th colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#ddd"><a href="/wiki/Gene_ontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene ontology">Gene ontology</a></th></tr><tr><td style="background-color:#c3fdb8;font-weight:bold">Molecular function</td><td style="background-color:#eee"><div class="plainlinks"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0031855">oxytocin receptor binding</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0005179">hormone activity</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0005185">neurohypophyseal hormone activity</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0005184">neuropeptide hormone activity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td style="background-color:#c3fdb8;font-weight:bold">Cellular component</td><td style="background-color:#eee"><div class="plainlinks"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0043195">terminal bouton</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0005576">extracellular region</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0005737">cytoplasm</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0030141">secretory granule</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0005615">extracellular space</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td style="background-color:#c3fdb8;font-weight:bold">Biological process</td><td style="background-color:#eee"><div class="plainlinks"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0001975">response to amphetamine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0044058">regulation of digestive system process</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0042713">ejaculation</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0060450">positive regulation of hindgut contraction</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0007565">female pregnancy</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0060406">positive regulation of penile erection</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0048545">response to steroid hormone</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0007165">signal transduction</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0014823">response to activity</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0002027">regulation of heart rate</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0009744">response to sucrose</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0045778">positive regulation of ossification</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0051965">positive regulation of synapse assembly</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0042756">drinking behavior</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0042538">hyperosmotic salinity response</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0060179">male mating behavior</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0007204">positive regulation of cytosolic calcium ion concentration</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0032355">response to estradiol</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0051930">regulation of sensory perception of pain</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0051591">response to cAMP</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0042220">response to cocaine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0032570">response to progesterone</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0045777">positive regulation of blood pressure</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0007507">heart development</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0035811">negative regulation of urine volume</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0014070">response to organic cyclic compound</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0060455">negative regulation of gastric acid secretion</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0032308">positive regulation of prostaglandin secretion</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0043434">response to peptide hormone</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0042711">maternal behavior</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0045776">negative regulation of blood pressure</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0007613">memory</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0010701">positive regulation of norepinephrine secretion</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0035176">social behavior</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0051384">response to glucocorticoid</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0007625">grooming behavior</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0034695">response to prostaglandin E</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0042755">eating behavior</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0045472">response to ether</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0045925">positive regulation of female receptivity</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0030431">sleep</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0002125">maternal aggressive behavior</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0050806">positive regulation of synaptic transmission</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0051602">response to electrical stimulus</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0070474">positive regulation of uterine smooth muscle contraction</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0032094">response to food</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0032526">response to retinoic acid</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0035815">positive regulation of renal sodium excretion</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0010469">regulation of signaling receptor activity</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/amigo/term/GO:0007186">G protein-coupled receptor signaling pathway</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="background-color:#eee;text-align:center">Sources:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amigo.geneontology.org/">Amigo</a> / <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ebi.ac.uk/QuickGO/">QuickGO</a></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee"><table class="collapsible" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:left"><tbody><tr><th colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#ddd"><a href="/wiki/Orthologs" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthologs">Orthologs</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8">Species</th><td><b>Human</b></td><td><b>Mouse</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8"><a href="/wiki/Entrez" title="Entrez">Entrez</a></th><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:right"><tbody><tr><th colspan="1"><span class="plainlinks"></span></th></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><p class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=gene&cmd=retrieve&dopt=default&list_uids=5020&rn=1">5020</a></p></td></tr></tbody></table></td><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:right"><tbody><tr><th colspan="1"><span class="plainlinks"></span></th></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><p class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=gene&cmd=retrieve&dopt=default&list_uids=18429&rn=1">18429</a></p></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8"><a href="/wiki/Ensembl" class="mw-redirect" title="Ensembl">Ensembl</a></th><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:right"><tbody><tr><th colspan="1"><span class="plainlinks"></span></th></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><p class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ensembl.org/Homo_sapiens/geneview?gene=ENSG00000101405;db=core">ENSG00000101405</a></p></td></tr></tbody></table></td><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:right"><tbody><tr><th colspan="1"><span class="plainlinks"></span></th></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><p class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ensembl.org/Mus_musculus/geneview?gene=ENSMUSG00000027301;db=core">ENSMUSG00000027301</a></p></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8"><a href="/wiki/UniProt" title="UniProt">UniProt</a></th><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:right"><tbody><tr><th colspan="1"><span class="plainlinks"></span></th></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><p class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uniprot.org/uniprot/P01178">P01178</a></p></td></tr></tbody></table></td><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:right"><tbody><tr><th colspan="1"><span class="plainlinks"></span></th></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><p class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uniprot.org/uniprot/P35454">P35454</a></p></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8">RefSeq (mRNA)</th><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:right"><tbody><tr><th colspan="1" class="plainlinks"></th></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><p><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/viewer.fcgi?val=NM_000915">NM_000915</a></span></p></td></tr></tbody></table></td><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:right"><tbody><tr><th colspan="1" class="plainlinks"></th></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><p><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/viewer.fcgi?val=NM_011025">NM_011025</a></span></p></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8">RefSeq (protein)</th><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:right"><tbody><tr><th colspan="1" class="plainlinks"></th></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><p><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/viewer.fcgi?val=NP_000906">NP_000906</a></span></p></td></tr></tbody></table></td><td><table class="none" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:right"><tbody><tr><th colspan="1" class="plainlinks"></th></tr><tr><td colspan="1"><p><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/viewer.fcgi?val=NP_035155">NP_035155</a></span></p></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8">Location (UCSC)</th><td><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://genome.ucsc.edu/cgi-bin/hgTracks?org=Human&db=hg38&position=chr20:3071620-3072517">Chr 20: 3.07 – 3.07 Mb</a></span></td><td><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://genome.ucsc.edu/cgi-bin/hgTracks?org=Mouse&db=mm0&position=chr2:130418093-130418974">Chr 2: 130.42 – 130.42 Mb</a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" style="background-color:#c3fdb8"><a href="/wiki/PubMed" title="PubMed">PubMed</a> search</th><td><span class="plainlinks"><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span></td><td><span class="plainlinks"><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee"><a href="/wiki/Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;background-color:#eee"><table style="padding:0;border:none;margin:0;width:100%;text-align:center"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#eee;text-align:center"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14820911" class="extiw" title="d:Q14820911">View/Edit Human</a></td><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#eee;text-align:center"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14820914" class="extiw" title="d:Q14820914">View/Edit Mouse</a></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Estrogen" title="Estrogen">Estrogen</a> has been found to increase the <a href="/wiki/Secretion" title="Secretion">secretion</a> of oxytocin and to increase the <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">expression</a> of its <a href="/wiki/Receptor_(biochemistry)" title="Receptor (biochemistry)">receptor</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Oxytocin_receptor" title="Oxytocin receptor">oxytocin receptor</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-GoldsteinMeston2005_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GoldsteinMeston2005-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In women, a single dose of <a href="/wiki/Estradiol" title="Estradiol">estradiol</a> has been found to be sufficient to increase circulating oxytocin concentrations.<sup id="cite_ref-Acevedo-RodriguezMani2015_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Acevedo-RodriguezMani2015-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biosynthesis">Biosynthesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oxytocin&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Biosynthesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Oxytocin and vasopressin are the only known hormones released by the human posterior pituitary gland to act at a distance. However, oxytocin neurons make other peptides, including corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and dynorphin, for example, that act locally. The magnocellular neurons that make oxytocin are adjacent to magnocellular neurons that make vasopressin, and are similar in many respects. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_biosynthesis_of_the_different_forms_of_OT.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The biosynthesis of the different forms of OT" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/The_biosynthesis_of_the_different_forms_of_OT.jpg/220px-The_biosynthesis_of_the_different_forms_of_OT.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/The_biosynthesis_of_the_different_forms_of_OT.jpg/330px-The_biosynthesis_of_the_different_forms_of_OT.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/The_biosynthesis_of_the_different_forms_of_OT.jpg/440px-The_biosynthesis_of_the_different_forms_of_OT.jpg 2x" data-file-width="737" data-file-height="1042" /></a><figcaption>The biosynthesis of the different forms of OT</figcaption></figure> <p>The oxytocin <a href="/wiki/Peptide" title="Peptide">peptide</a> is synthesized as an inactive precursor protein from the <i>OXT</i> <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">gene</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid2991279_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid2991279-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid1968469_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid1968469-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid1978246_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid1978246-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This precursor protein also includes the oxytocin carrier protein <a href="/wiki/Neurophysin_I" title="Neurophysin I">neurophysin I</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid6153132_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid6153132-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The inactive precursor protein is progressively <a href="/wiki/Hydrolysis" title="Hydrolysis">hydrolyzed</a> into smaller fragments (one of which is neurophysin I) via a series of enzymes. The last hydrolysis that releases the active oxytocin nonapeptide is catalyzed by <a href="/wiki/Peptidylglycine_alpha-amidating_monooxygenase" title="Peptidylglycine alpha-amidating monooxygenase">peptidylglycine alpha-amidating monooxygenase</a> (PAM).<sup id="cite_ref-pmid2769155_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid2769155-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The activity of the PAM enzyme system is dependent upon <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_C" title="Vitamin C">vitamin C</a> (ascorbate), which is a necessary vitamin cofactor. By chance, sodium ascorbate by itself was found to stimulate the production of oxytocin from ovarian tissue over a range of concentrations in a dose-dependent manner.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid3668432_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid3668432-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the same tissues (<i>e.g.</i> ovaries, testes, eyes, adrenals, placenta, thymus, pancreas) where PAM (and oxytocin by default) is found are also known to store higher concentrations of vitamin C.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid1106295_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid1106295-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Oxytocin is known to be metabolized by the <a href="/wiki/Oxytocinase" title="Oxytocinase">oxytocinase</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leucyl/cystinyl_aminopeptidase" class="mw-redirect" title="Leucyl/cystinyl aminopeptidase">leucyl/cystinyl aminopeptidase</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid16054015_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16054015-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid15894523_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid15894523-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other oxytocinases are also known to exist.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid16054015_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16054015-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid1355623_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid1355623-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Amastatin" title="Amastatin">Amastatin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bestatin" class="mw-redirect" title="Bestatin">bestatin</a> (ubenimex), <a href="/wiki/Leupeptin" title="Leupeptin">leupeptin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Puromycin" title="Puromycin">puromycin</a> have been found to inhibit the enzymatic degradation of oxytocin, though they also inhibit the degradation of various other peptides, such as <a href="/wiki/Vasopressin" title="Vasopressin">vasopressin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Met-enkephalin" title="Met-enkephalin">met-enkephalin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dynorphin_A" title="Dynorphin A">dynorphin A</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid1355623_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid1355623-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid6540873_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid6540873-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid1800950_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid1800950-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid9013800_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid9013800-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neural_sources">Neural sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oxytocin&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Neural sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a>, oxytocin is made in <a href="/wiki/Magnocellular_neurosecretory_cell" title="Magnocellular neurosecretory cell">magnocellular neurosecretory cells</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Supraoptic_nucleus" title="Supraoptic nucleus">supraoptic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paraventricular_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraventricular nucleus">paraventricular</a> nuclei,<sup id="cite_ref-Sukhov_1993_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sukhov_1993-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is stored in <a href="/wiki/Herring_bodies" title="Herring bodies">Herring bodies</a> at the axon terminals in the posterior pituitary. It is then released into the blood from the <a href="/wiki/Posterior_pituitary" title="Posterior pituitary">posterior lobe</a> (neurohypophysis) of the <a href="/wiki/Pituitary_gland" title="Pituitary gland">pituitary gland</a>. These <a href="/wiki/Axons" class="mw-redirect" title="Axons">axons</a> (likely, but <a href="/wiki/Dendrites" class="mw-redirect" title="Dendrites">dendrites</a> have not been ruled out) have collaterals that innervate neurons in the <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_accumbens" title="Nucleus accumbens">nucleus accumbens</a>, a brain structure where oxytocin receptors are expressed.<sup id="cite_ref-Ross_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ross-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">endocrine</a> effects of hormonal oxytocin and the cognitive or behavioral effects of oxytocin <a href="/wiki/Neuropeptide" title="Neuropeptide">neuropeptides</a> are thought to be coordinated through its common release through these collaterals.<sup id="cite_ref-Ross_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ross-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oxytocin is also produced by some neurons in the paraventricular nucleus that project to other parts of the brain and to the spinal cord.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Depending on the species, oxytocin receptor-expressing cells are located in other areas, including the <a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">amygdala</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stria_terminalis#Bed_nucleus_of_the_stria_terminalis" title="Stria terminalis">bed nucleus of the stria terminalis</a>. </p><p>In the pituitary gland, oxytocin is packaged in large, dense-core vesicles, where it is bound to <a href="/wiki/Neurophysin_I" title="Neurophysin I">neurophysin I</a> as shown in the inset of the figure; neurophysin is a large <a href="/wiki/Peptide" title="Peptide">peptide</a> fragment of the larger precursor <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> molecule from which oxytocin is derived by <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymatic</a> cleavage. </p><p>Secretion of oxytocin from the neurosecretory nerve endings is regulated by the electrical activity of the oxytocin cells in the hypothalamus. These cells generate <a href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">action potentials</a> that propagate down <a href="/wiki/Axon" title="Axon">axons</a> to the nerve endings in the pituitary; the endings contain large numbers of oxytocin-containing vesicles, which are released by <a href="/wiki/Exocytosis" title="Exocytosis">exocytosis</a> when the nerve terminals are depolarised. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-neural_sources">Non-neural sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oxytocin&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Non-neural sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Endogenous oxytocin concentrations in the brain have been found to be as much as 1000-fold higher than peripheral levels.<sup id="cite_ref-BaribeauAnagnostou2015_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BaribeauAnagnostou2015-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Outside the brain, oxytocin-containing cells have been identified in several diverse tissues, including in females in the <a href="/wiki/Corpus_luteum" title="Corpus luteum">corpus luteum</a><sup id="cite_ref-pmid7078636_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid7078636-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid6124806_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid6124806-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the placenta;<sup id="cite_ref-pmid6832059_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid6832059-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in males in the testicles' <a href="/wiki/Leydig_cell" title="Leydig cell">interstitial cells of Leydig</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-pmid3995564_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid3995564-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in both sexes in the retina,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid6647119_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid6647119-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the adrenal medulla,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid6699132_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid6699132-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the thymus<sup id="cite_ref-pmid3961493_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid3961493-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the pancreas.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid3195625_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid3195625-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The finding of significant amounts of this classically "<a href="/wiki/Neurohypophysial_hormone" title="Neurohypophysial hormone">neurohypophysial</a>" hormone outside the central nervous system raises many questions regarding its possible importance in these diverse tissues. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Male">Male</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oxytocin&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Male"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Leydig_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Leydig cells">Leydig cells</a> in some species have been shown to possess the biosynthetic machinery to manufacture testicular oxytocin <i>de novo</i>, to be specific, in rats (which can synthesize vitamin C endogenously), and in guinea pigs, which, like humans, require an <a href="/wiki/Exogeny" title="Exogeny"> exogenous</a> source of vitamin C (ascorbate) in their diets.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid1456839_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid1456839-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Female">Female</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oxytocin&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Female"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Oxytocin is synthesized by <a href="/wiki/Corpora_lutea" class="mw-redirect" title="Corpora lutea">corpora lutea</a> of several species, including ruminants and primates. Along with estrogen, it is involved in inducing the endometrial synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Prostaglandin_F2alpha" title="Prostaglandin F2alpha">prostaglandin F<sub>2α</sub></a> to cause regression of the corpus luteum.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution">Evolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oxytocin&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Virtually all <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a> have an oxytocin-like <a href="/wiki/Nonapeptide" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonapeptide">nonapeptide</a> hormone that supports reproductive functions and a vasopressin-like nonapeptide hormone involved in water regulation. The two genes are usually located close to each other (less than 15,000 bases apart) on the same <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a>, and are transcribed in opposite directions (however, in <a href="/wiki/Fugu" title="Fugu">fugu</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid9356472_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid9356472-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the homologs are further apart and transcribed in the same direction). The two genes are believed to result from a <a href="/wiki/Gene_duplication" title="Gene duplication">gene duplication</a> event; the ancestral gene is estimated to be about 500 million years old and is found in <a href="/wiki/Cyclostomata" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyclostomata">cyclostomata</a> (modern members of the <a href="/wiki/Agnatha" title="Agnatha">Agnatha</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2023 study found that <a href="/wiki/Zebrafish" title="Zebrafish">zebrafish</a> utilize oxytocin in reaction to the fear of other fish. It found that zebrafish that have had oxytocin production removed by <a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">gene editing</a> cannot respond to the fear of other fish. When oxytocin is injected back into the fish, they react again in a way that suggests they may have empathy in regards to this emotion. Furthermore, because the same regions of the brain are involved as in mammals, the study suggests oxytocin-based empathy may have evolved from a common ancestor many millions of years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biological_function">Biological function</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oxytocin&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Biological function"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Oxytocin has peripheral (hormonal) actions, and also has actions in the brain. Its actions are mediated by specific <a href="/wiki/Oxytocin_receptor" title="Oxytocin receptor">oxytocin receptors</a>. The oxytocin receptor is a <a href="/wiki/G-protein-coupled_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="G-protein-coupled receptor">G-protein-coupled receptor</a>, OT-R, which requires <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cholesterol" title="Cholesterol">cholesterol</a> and is expressed in <a href="/wiki/Myometrium" title="Myometrium">myometrial cells</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It belongs to the <a href="/wiki/Rhodopsin-like_receptors" title="Rhodopsin-like receptors">rhodopsin-type</a> (class I) group of G-protein-coupled receptors.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Studies have looked at oxytocin's role in various behaviors, including <a href="/wiki/Orgasm" title="Orgasm">orgasm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_recognition" class="mw-redirect" title="Social recognition">social recognition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pair_bond" title="Pair bond">pair bonding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">anxiety</a>, in-group <a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">bias</a>, situational lack of <a href="/wiki/Honesty" title="Honesty">honesty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Autism" title="Autism">autism</a>, and maternal behaviors.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid19482229_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid19482229-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oxytocin is believed to have a significant role in social learning. There are indicators that oxytocin may help to decrease noise in the brain's auditory system, increase perception of social cues and support more targeted social behavior. It may also enhance reward responses. However, its effects may be influenced by context, such as the presence of familiar or unfamiliar individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-Holmes_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holmes-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Froemke_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Froemke-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to its oxytocin receptor agonism, oxytocin has been found to act as a <a href="/wiki/Positive_allosteric_modulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive allosteric modulator">positive allosteric modulator</a> (PAM) of the <a href="/wiki/%CE%9C-opioid_receptor" title="Μ-opioid receptor">μ-</a> and <a href="/wiki/%CE%9A-opioid_receptor" title="Κ-opioid receptor">κ-opioid receptors</a> and this may be involved in its <a href="/wiki/Analgesic" title="Analgesic">analgesic</a> effects.<sup id="cite_ref-DrakopoulosMoianosPrifti2022_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DrakopoulosMoianosPrifti2022-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-KaczyńskaWojciechowski2021_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KaczyńskaWojciechowski2021-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CarterKingsbury2022_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CarterKingsbury2022-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MeguroMiyanoHirayama2018_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MeguroMiyanoHirayama2018-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MiyanoYoshidaHirayama2021_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MiyanoYoshidaHirayama2021-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MizuguchiMiyanoKamauchi2023_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MizuguchiMiyanoKamauchi2023-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physiological">Physiological<span class="anchor" id="Actions_within_the_brain"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oxytocin&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Physiological"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Peripheral" title="Peripheral">peripheral</a> actions of oxytocin mainly reflect secretion from the <a href="/wiki/Pituitary_gland" title="Pituitary gland">pituitary gland</a>. The behavioral effects of oxytocin are thought to reflect release from centrally projecting oxytocin neurons, different from those that project to the pituitary gland, or that are collaterals from them.<sup id="cite_ref-Ross_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ross-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oxytocin receptors are expressed by neurons in many parts of the brain and spinal cord, including the <a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">amygdala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ventromedial_hypothalamus" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventromedial hypothalamus">ventromedial hypothalamus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Septum" title="Septum">septum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_accumbens" title="Nucleus accumbens">nucleus accumbens</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Brainstem" title="Brainstem">brainstem</a>, although the distribution differs markedly between species.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, the distribution of these receptors changes during development and has been observed to change after <a href="/wiki/Birth" title="Birth">parturition</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Montane_vole" title="Montane vole">montane vole</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_62-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lactation#Milk_ejection_reflex" title="Lactation">Milk ejection reflex</a>/Letdown reflex: in <a href="/wiki/Lactation" title="Lactation">lactating</a> (<a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding" title="Breastfeeding">breastfeeding</a>) mothers, oxytocin acts at the <a href="/wiki/Mammary_gland" title="Mammary gland">mammary glands</a>, causing milk to be 'let down' into <a href="/wiki/Lactiferous_duct" title="Lactiferous duct">lactiferous ducts</a>, from where it can be excreted via the <a href="/wiki/Nipple" title="Nipple">nipple</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Suckling by the <a href="/wiki/Infant" title="Infant">infant</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Nipple" title="Nipple">nipple</a> is relayed by <a href="/wiki/Spinal_nerves" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinal nerves">spinal nerves</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Stimulation" title="Stimulation">stimulation</a> causes <a href="/wiki/Neurons" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurons">neurons</a> that make oxytocin to fire action potentials in intermittent bursts; these bursts result in the secretion of pulses of oxytocin from the neurosecretory <a href="/wiki/Axon_terminal" title="Axon terminal">nerve terminals</a> of the pituitary gland.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uterine_contraction" title="Uterine contraction">Uterine contraction</a>: important for <a href="/wiki/Cervical_dilation" title="Cervical dilation">cervical dilation</a> before birth, oxytocin causes contractions during the second and third stages of <a href="/wiki/Labor_(childbirth)" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor (childbirth)">labor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-MacGill_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacGill-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oxytocin release during <a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding" title="Breastfeeding">breastfeeding</a> causes mild but often painful <a href="/wiki/Muscle_contraction" title="Muscle contraction">contractions</a> during the first few weeks of lactation. This also serves to assist the uterus in clotting the placental attachment point postpartum. However, in <a href="/wiki/Knockout_mouse" title="Knockout mouse">knockout mice</a> lacking the oxytocin receptor, reproductive <a href="/wiki/Behavior" title="Behavior">behavior</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parturition" class="mw-redirect" title="Parturition">parturition</a> are normal.<sup id="cite_ref-Takayanagi_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Takayanagi-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In male rats, oxytocin may induce <a href="/wiki/Erection" title="Erection">erections</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A burst of oxytocin is released during ejaculation in several species, including human males; its suggested function is to stimulate contractions of the reproductive tract, aiding <a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm</a> release.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_stimulation" title="Sexual stimulation">Human sexual response</a>: Oxytocin levels in <a href="/wiki/Blood_plasma" title="Blood plasma">plasma</a> rise during sexual stimulation and orgasm. At least two uncontrolled studies have found increases in plasma oxytocin at orgasm – in both men and women.<sup id="cite_ref-carm1987_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carm1987-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid8135652_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid8135652-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plasma oxytocin levels are increased around the time of self-stimulated orgasm and are still higher than baseline when measured five minutes after self arousal.<sup id="cite_ref-carm1987_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carm1987-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The authors of one of these studies speculated that oxytocin's effects on muscle contractibility may facilitate sperm and egg transport.<sup id="cite_ref-carm1987_77-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carm1987-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <dl><dd>In a study measuring oxytocin serum levels in women before and after <a href="/wiki/Sexual_stimulation" title="Sexual stimulation">sexual stimulation</a>, the author suggests it serves an important role in <a href="/wiki/Sexual_arousal" title="Sexual arousal">sexual arousal</a>. This study found genital tract stimulation resulted in increased oxytocin immediately after orgasm.<sup id="cite_ref-Blaicher1999_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blaicher1999-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another study reported increases of oxytocin during sexual arousal could be in response to nipple/areola, genital, and/or genital tract stimulation as confirmed in other mammals.<sup id="cite_ref-Andersonhunt1995_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andersonhunt1995-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Murphy et al. (1987), studying men, found that plasma oxytocin levels remain unchanged during sexual arousal, but that levels increase sharply after ejaculation, returning to baseline levels within 30 minutes. In contrast, <a href="/wiki/Vasopressin" title="Vasopressin">vasopressin</a> was increased during arousal but returned to baseline at the time of ejaculation. The study concludes that (in males) vasopressin is secreted during arousal, while oxytocin is only secreted after ejaculation.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid3654918_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid3654918-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A more recent study of men found an increase in plasma oxytocin immediately after orgasm, but only in a portion of their sample that did not reach statistical significance. The authors noted these changes "may simply reflect contractile properties on reproductive tissue".<sup id="cite_ref-pmid12697037_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid12697037-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <ul><li>Due to its similarity to <a href="/wiki/Vasopressin" title="Vasopressin">vasopressin</a>, it can reduce the excretion of <a href="/wiki/Urine" title="Urine">urine</a> slightly, and so it can be classified as an <a href="/wiki/Antidiuretic" title="Antidiuretic">antidiuretic</a>. In several species, oxytocin can stimulate sodium excretion from the kidneys (natriuresis), and, in humans, high doses can result in low sodium levels (<a href="/wiki/Hyponatremia" title="Hyponatremia">hyponatremia</a>).</li> <li>Cardiac effects: oxytocin and oxytocin receptors are also found in the <a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">heart</a> in some rodents, and the hormone may play a role in the embryonal development of the heart by promoting <a href="/wiki/Cardiomyocyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiomyocyte">cardiomyocyte</a> differentiation.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid12093924_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid12093924-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid15316117_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid15316117-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the absence of either oxytocin or its receptor in knockout mice has not been reported to produce cardiac insufficiencies.<sup id="cite_ref-Takayanagi_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Takayanagi-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Modulation of <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal_axis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis">hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis</a> activity: oxytocin, under certain circumstances, indirectly inhibits release of <a href="/wiki/Adrenocorticotropic_hormone" title="Adrenocorticotropic hormone">adrenocorticotropic hormone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cortisol" title="Cortisol">cortisol</a> and, in those situations, may be considered an antagonist of vasopressin.<sup id="cite_ref-isbn83-200-1415-8_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn83-200-1415-8-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Preparing fetal neurons for delivery (in rats): crossing the placenta, maternal oxytocin reaches the fetal brain and induces a switch in the action of neurotransmitter <a href="/wiki/GABA" title="GABA">GABA</a> from excitatory to inhibitory on fetal cortical neurons. This silences the fetal brain for the period of delivery and reduces its vulnerability to <a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypoxia (medical)">hypoxic damage</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17170309_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17170309-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Feeding: a 2012 paper suggested that oxytocin neurons in the para-ventricular hypothalamus in the brain may play a key role in suppressing appetite under normal conditions and that other hypothalamic neurons may trigger eating via inhibition of these oxytocin neurons. This population of oxytocin neurons is absent in <a href="/wiki/Prader-Willi_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Prader-Willi syndrome">Prader-Willi syndrome</a>, a genetic disorder that leads to uncontrollable feeding and obesity, and may play a key role in its pathophysiology.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research on the oxytocin-related neuropeptide asterotocin in <a href="/wiki/Starfish" title="Starfish">starfish</a> also showed that in echinoderms, the chemical induces muscle relaxation, and in starfish specifically caused the organisms to evert their stomach and react as though feeding on prey, even when none were present.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychological">Psychological</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oxytocin&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Psychological"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Autism: Oxytocin has been implicated in the etiology of autism, with one report suggesting autism is correlated to a mutation on the oxytocin receptor gene (<a href="/wiki/Oxytocin_receptor" title="Oxytocin receptor"><i>OXTR</i></a>). Studies involving Caucasian, Finnish and Chinese Han families provide support for the relationship of <i>OXTR</i> with autism.<sup id="cite_ref-Gregory2009_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gregory2009-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wermter2009_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wermter2009-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Autism may also be associated with an aberrant methylation of <i>OXTR</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gregory2009_89-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gregory2009-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, evidence has shown that intranasal administration is likely insufficient to produce behavioural effects<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and it could be explained by publication bias and selective outcome reporting, impacting reproducibility of results.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, current discussion has challenged the intervention and stated that neurodivergent perspectives need to be considered,<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with focus being primarily on animal models, which have a lack of translational validity due to autism's complex social and communicative dimensions.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Protection of brain functions: Studies in rats have demonstrated that nasal application of oxytocin can alleviate impaired learning capabilities caused by restrained stress. The authors attributed this effect to an improved hippocampal response in Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) being observed.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Accordingly, oxytocin has been shown to promote neural growth in the hippocampus in rats even during swim stress or glucocorticoid administration.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a mouse model of early onset of Alzheimer's, the administration of oxytocin by a gel particularly designed to make the peptide accessible for the brain, the cognitive decline and hippocampal atrophy of these mice were delayed. Moreover, the amyloid β-protein deposit and nerve cell apoptosis were retarded. An observed inhibitory impact by oxytocin on the inflammatory activity of the microglia was proposed to be an important factor.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bonding">Bonding</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oxytocin&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Bonding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Missing_information plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/44px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png" decoding="async" width="44" height="44" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/66px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/88px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="44" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>is missing information</b> about <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36708707">36708707</a> on Oxtr knockout voles still somehow bonding.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please expand the section to include this information. Further details may exist on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Oxytocin" title="Talk:Oxytocin">talk page</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2023</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Prairie_vole" title="Prairie vole">prairie vole</a>, oxytocin released into the brain of the female during sexual activity is important for forming a pair bond with her sexual partner. <a href="/wiki/Vasopressin" title="Vasopressin">Vasopressin</a> appears to have a similar effect in males.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oxytocin has a role in social behaviors in many species, so it likely also does in humans. In a 2003 study, both humans and dog oxytocin levels in the blood rose after a five to 24 minute petting session. This possibly plays a role in the <a href="/wiki/Human-canine_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Human-canine bond">emotional bonding between humans and dogs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid12672376_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid12672376-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_bond" title="Maternal bond">Maternal behavior</a>: Female rats given oxytocin <a href="/wiki/Receptor_antagonist" title="Receptor antagonist">antagonists</a> after giving birth do not exhibit typical maternal behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid3819639_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid3819639-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By contrast, virgin female sheep show maternal behavior toward foreign lambs upon <a href="/wiki/Cerebrospinal_fluid" title="Cerebrospinal fluid">cerebrospinal fluid</a> infusion of oxytocin, which they would not do otherwise.<sup id="cite_ref-urlBritish_Society_for_Neuroendocrinology_–_22._The_Neurobiology_of_Social_Bonds_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlBritish_Society_for_Neuroendocrinology_–_22._The_Neurobiology_of_Social_Bonds-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oxytocin is involved in the initiation of human maternal behavior, not its maintenance; for example, it is higher in mothers after they interact with unfamiliar children rather than their own.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid20953313_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid20953313-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Human <a href="/wiki/Ingroup" class="mw-redirect" title="Ingroup">ingroup</a> bonding: Oxytocin can increase positive attitudes, such as bonding, toward individuals classified as "in-group" members, whereas other individuals become classified as "out-group" members. Oxytocin has also been implicated in <a href="/wiki/Lie" title="Lie">lying</a> when lying would prove beneficial to other in-group members. In a study where such a relationship was examined, it was found that when individuals were administered oxytocin, rates of <a href="/wiki/Dishonesty" title="Dishonesty">dishonesty</a> in the participants' responses increased for their in-group members when a beneficial outcome for their group was expected.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both of these examples show the tendency of individuals to act in ways that benefit those considered to be members of their social group, or in-group.</li> <li>Decreased oxytocin & receptor expression has been associated with aggressive behavior in aggressive-impulsive disorders. <sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Oxytocin is not only correlated with the preferences of individuals to associate with members of their own group, but it is also evident during conflicts between members of different groups. During conflict, individuals receiving nasally administered oxytocin demonstrate more frequent defense-motivated responses toward in-group members than out-group members. Further, oxytocin was correlated with participant desire to protect vulnerable in-group members, despite that individual's attachment to the conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid23144787_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid23144787-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, it has been demonstrated that when oxytocin is administered, individuals alter their subjective preferences in order to align with in-group ideals over out-group ideals.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These studies demonstrate that oxytocin is associated with intergroup dynamics. Further, oxytocin influences the responses of individuals in a particular group to those of another group. The in-group bias is evident in smaller groups; however, it can also be extended to groups as large as one's entire country leading toward a tendency of strong national zeal. A study done in the Netherlands showed that oxytocin increased the in-group favoritism of their nation while decreasing acceptance of members of other ethnicities and foreigners.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid21220339_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid21220339-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People also show more affection for their country's flag while remaining indifferent to other cultural objects when exposed to oxytocin.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid25140135_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid25140135-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has thus been hypothesized that this hormone may be a factor in <a href="/wiki/Xenophobic" class="mw-redirect" title="Xenophobic">xenophobic</a> tendencies secondary to this effect. Thus, oxytocin appears to affect individuals at an international level where the in-group becomes a specific "home" country and the out-group grows to include all other countries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Drugs">Drugs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oxytocin&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Drugs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drug_interaction" title="Drug interaction">Drug interaction</a>: According to several studies in animals, oxytocin inhibits the development of <a href="/wiki/Drug_tolerance" title="Drug tolerance">tolerance</a> to various addictive drugs (<a href="/wiki/Opiate" title="Opiate">opiates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cocaine" title="Cocaine">cocaine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">alcohol</a>), and reduces <a href="/wiki/Drug_withdrawal" title="Drug withdrawal">withdrawal</a> symptoms.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid9924746_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid9924746-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/MDMA" title="MDMA">MDMA</a> (ecstasy) may increase feelings of love, empathy, and connection to others by stimulating oxytocin activity primarily via activation of <a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">serotonin</a> <a href="/wiki/5-HT1A_receptor" title="5-HT1A receptor">5-HT1A receptors</a>, if initial studies in animals apply to humans.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17383105_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17383105-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Anxiolytic" title="Anxiolytic">anxiolytic</a> drug <a href="/wiki/Buspirone" title="Buspirone">buspirone</a> may produce some of its effects via 5-HT1A receptor-induced oxytocin stimulation as well.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid9025112_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid9025112-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid8771561_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid8771561-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Addiction_vulnerability" title="Addiction vulnerability">Addiction vulnerability</a>: Concentrations of endogenous oxytocin can impact the effects of various drugs and one's susceptibility to <a href="/wiki/Substance_use_disorder" title="Substance use disorder">substance use disorders</a>, with higher concentrations associated with lower susceptibility. The status of the endogenous oxytocin system can enhance or reduce susceptibility to addiction through its bidirectional interaction with numerous systems, including the <a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a> system, the <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary%E2%80%93adrenal_axis" title="Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis">hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a>. Individual differences in the endogenous oxytocin system based on genetic predisposition, gender and environmental influences, may therefore affect <a href="/wiki/Addiction_vulnerability" title="Addiction vulnerability">addiction vulnerability</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-PBB_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PBB-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oxytocin may be related to the <a href="/wiki/Conditioned_place_preference" title="Conditioned place preference">place conditioning behaviors</a> observed in habitual drug abusers.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fear_and_anxiety">Fear and anxiety</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oxytocin&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Fear and anxiety"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Oxytocin is typically remembered for the effect it has on <a href="/wiki/Prosocial_behavior" title="Prosocial behavior">prosocial behaviors</a>, such as its role in facilitating trust and attachment between individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-Grillon_958–960_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grillon_958–960-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Qualify_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Qualify evidence"><span title="Cited sources need context/evaluation">qualify evidence</span></a></i>]</sup> However, oxytocin has a more complex role than solely enhancing prosocial behaviors. There is consensus that oxytocin modulates <a href="/wiki/Fear" title="Fear">fear</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">anxiety</a>; that is, it does not directly elicit fear or anxiety.<sup id="cite_ref-Guzmán_1185–1187_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guzmán_1185–1187-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two dominant theories explain the role of oxytocin in fear and anxiety. One theory states that oxytocin increases approach/avoidance to certain social stimuli and the second theory states that oxytocin increases the salience of certain social stimuli, causing animals (including humans) to pay closer attention to socially relevant stimuli.<sup id="cite_ref-Theodoridou_e58113_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Theodoridou_e58113-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nasally administered oxytocin has been reported to reduce <a href="/wiki/Fear" title="Fear">fear</a>, possibly by inhibiting the <a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">amygdala</a> (which is thought to be responsible for fear responses).<sup id="cite_ref-pmid16339042_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16339042-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indeed, studies in rodents have shown oxytocin can efficiently inhibit fear responses by activating an inhibitory circuit within the amygdala.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid15821089_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid15821089-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid21719680_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid21719680-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some researchers have argued oxytocin has a general enhancing effect on all social emotions, since intranasal administration of oxytocin also increases <a href="/wiki/Envy" title="Envy">envy</a> and <i><a href="/wiki/Schadenfreude" title="Schadenfreude">Schadenfreude</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Individuals who receive an intranasal dose of oxytocin identify facial expressions of disgust more quickly than individuals who do not receive oxytocin.<sup id="cite_ref-Theodoridou_e58113_117-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Theodoridou_e58113-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Qualify_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Qualify evidence"><span title="Cited sources need context/evaluation">qualify evidence</span></a></i>]</sup> Facial expressions of disgust are evolutionarily linked to the idea of contagion. Thus, oxytocin increases the salience of cues that imply contamination, which leads to a faster response because these cues are especially relevant for survival. In another study, after administration of oxytocin, individuals displayed an enhanced ability to recognize expressions of fear compared to the individuals who received the placebo.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid19747930_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid19747930-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oxytocin modulates fear responses by enhancing the maintenance of social memories. Rats who are genetically modified to have a surplus of oxytocin receptors display a greater fear response to a previously conditioned stressor. Oxytocin enhances the aversive social memory, leading the rat to display a greater fear response when the aversive stimulus is encountered again.<sup id="cite_ref-Guzmán_1185–1187_116-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guzmán_1185–1187-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mood_and_depression">Mood and depression</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oxytocin&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Mood and depression"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Oxytocin produces <a href="/wiki/Antidepressant" title="Antidepressant">antidepressant</a>-like effects in <a href="/wiki/Animal_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal model">animal models</a> of <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">depression</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-MatsuzakiMatsushita2012_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MatsuzakiMatsushita2012-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a deficit of it may be involved in the <a href="/wiki/Pathophysiology" title="Pathophysiology">pathophysiology</a> of depression in humans.<sup id="cite_ref-McQuaidMcInnis2014_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McQuaidMcInnis2014-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The antidepressant-like effects of oxytocin are not blocked by a selective antagonist of the oxytocin receptor, suggesting that these effects are not mediated by the oxytocin receptor.<sup id="cite_ref-Acevedo-RodriguezMani2015_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Acevedo-RodriguezMani2015-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In accordance, unlike oxytocin, the selective non-peptide oxytocin receptor agonist <a href="/wiki/WAY-267,464" class="mw-redirect" title="WAY-267,464">WAY-267,464</a> does not produce antidepressant-like effects, at least in the <a href="/wiki/Tail_suspension_test" title="Tail suspension test">tail suspension test</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ShalevEbstein2015_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ShalevEbstein2015-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast to WAY-267,464, <a href="/wiki/Carbetocin" title="Carbetocin">carbetocin</a>, a close <a href="/wiki/Structural_analog" title="Structural analog">analogue</a> of oxytocin and peptide oxytocin receptor agonist, notably does produce antidepressant-like effects in animals.<sup id="cite_ref-ShalevEbstein2015_127-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ShalevEbstein2015-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As such, the antidepressant-like effects of oxytocin may be mediated by modulation of a different target, perhaps the <a href="/wiki/Arginine_vasopressin_receptor_1A" class="mw-redirect" title="Arginine vasopressin receptor 1A">vasopressin V<sub>1A</sub> receptor</a> where oxytocin is known to weakly bind as an agonist.<sup id="cite_ref-HicksRamos2014_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HicksRamos2014-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ManningMisicka2012_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ManningMisicka2012-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Oxytocin mediates the antidepressant-like effects of sexual activity.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A drug for <a href="/wiki/Sexual_dysfunction" title="Sexual dysfunction">sexual dysfunction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sildenafil" title="Sildenafil">sildenafil</a> enhances electrically evoked oxytocin release from the <a href="/wiki/Pituitary_gland" title="Pituitary gland">pituitary gland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In accordance, it may have promise as an antidepressant.<sup id="cite_ref-MatsuzakiMatsushita2012_125-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MatsuzakiMatsushita2012-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sex_differences">Sex differences</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oxytocin&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Sex differences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It has been shown that oxytocin differentially affects males and females. Females who are administered oxytocin are overall faster in responding to socially relevant stimuli than males who received oxytocin.<sup id="cite_ref-Theodoridou_e58113_117-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Theodoridou_e58113-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lischke_1431–1438_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lischke_1431–1438-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, after the administration of oxytocin, females show increased <a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">amygdala</a> activity in response to threatening scenes; however, males do not show increased amygdala activation. This phenomenon can be explained by looking at the role of <a href="/wiki/Gonadal_hormones" class="mw-redirect" title="Gonadal hormones">gonadal hormones</a>, specifically <a href="/wiki/Estrogen" title="Estrogen">estrogen</a>, which modulate the enhanced threat processing seen in females. Estrogen has been shown to stimulate the release of oxytocin from the <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">hypothalamus</a> and promote receptor binding in the amygdala.<sup id="cite_ref-Lischke_1431–1438_134-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lischke_1431–1438-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It has also been shown that testosterone directly suppresses oxytocin in mice.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has been hypothesized to have evolutionary significance. With oxytocin suppressed, activities such as hunting and attacking invaders would be less mentally difficult as oxytocin is strongly associated with empathy.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid20371820_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid20371820-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Social">Social</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oxytocin&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Social"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Because oxytocin plays a role in social bonding, maternal behaviors and emotional connections between people, it is also informally referred to as the "love hormone".<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This term is not a medical or scientific name but is often used to describe oxytocin's effects on human behavior and emotions. </p> <ul><li>Affecting <a href="/wiki/Generosity" title="Generosity">generosity</a> by increasing empathy during perspective taking: In a <a href="/wiki/Neuroeconomics" title="Neuroeconomics">neuroeconomics</a> experiment, <a href="/wiki/Intranasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Intranasal">intranasal</a> oxytocin increased generosity in the <a href="/wiki/Ultimatum_Game" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultimatum Game">Ultimatum Game</a> by 80%, but had no effect in the <a href="/wiki/Dictator_Game" class="mw-redirect" title="Dictator Game">Dictator Game</a> that measures altruism. Perspective-taking is not required in the Dictator Game, but the researchers in this experiment explicitly induced perspective-taking in the Ultimatum Game by not identifying to participants into which role they would be placed.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17987115_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17987115-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Serious methodological questions have arisen, however, with regard to the role of oxytocin in trust and generosity.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Empathy in healthy males has been shown to be increased after intranasal oxytocin<sup id="cite_ref-pmid20371820_136-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid20371820-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid17137561_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17137561-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is most likely due to the effect of oxytocin in enhancing eye gaze.<sup id="cite_ref-Guastellab2008_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guastellab2008-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is some discussion about which aspect of empathy oxytocin might alter – for example, cognitive vs. emotional empathy.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid19102589_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid19102589-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While studying wild chimpanzees, it was noted that after a chimpanzee shared food with a non-kin related chimpanzee, the subjects' levels of oxytocin increased, as measured through their urine. In comparison to other cooperative activities between chimpanzees that were monitored including grooming, food sharing generated higher levels of oxytocin. This comparatively higher level of oxytocin after food sharing parallels the increased level of oxytocin in nursing mothers, sharing nutrients with their kin.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trust (social sciences)">Trust</a> is increased by oxytocin.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Theodoridou_2009_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Theodoridou_2009-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lane_2013_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lane_2013-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cardoso_2013_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cardoso_2013-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Study found that with the oxytocin nasal spray, people place more trust to strangers in handling their money.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_144-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Disclosure of emotional events is a sign of trust in humans. When recounting a negative event, humans who receive <a href="/wiki/Intranasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Intranasal">intranasal</a> oxytocin share more emotional details and stories with more emotional significance.<sup id="cite_ref-Lane_2013_146-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lane_2013-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Humans also find faces more trustworthy after receiving intranasal oxytocin. In a study, participants who received intranasal oxytocin viewed photographs of human faces with neutral expressions and found them to be more trustworthy than those who did not receive oxytocin.<sup id="cite_ref-Theodoridou_2009_145-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Theodoridou_2009-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This may be because oxytocin reduces the fear of social betrayal in humans.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid18498743_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid18498743-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even after experiencing social alienation by being excluded from a conversation, humans who received oxytocin scored higher in trust on the <a href="/wiki/Revised_NEO_Personality_Inventory" title="Revised NEO Personality Inventory">Revised NEO Personality Inventory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cardoso_2013_147-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cardoso_2013-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, in a risky investment game, experimental subjects given nasally administered oxytocin displayed "the highest level of trust" twice as often as the control group. Subjects who were told they were interacting with a computer showed no such reaction, leading to the conclusion that oxytocin was not merely affecting <a href="/wiki/Risk_aversion" title="Risk aversion">risk aversion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid15931222_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid15931222-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When there is a reason to be distrustful, such as experiencing betrayal, differing reactions are associated with <a href="/wiki/Oxytocin_receptor" title="Oxytocin receptor">oxytocin receptor</a> <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">gene</a> (<a href="/wiki/OXTR" class="mw-redirect" title="OXTR">OXTR</a>) differences. Those with the CT <a href="/wiki/Haplotype" title="Haplotype">haplotype</a> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (April 2020)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> experience a stronger reaction, in the form of anger, to betrayal.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid23547247_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid23547247-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_(love)" title="Romance (love)">Romantic attachment</a>: In some studies, high levels of <a href="/wiki/Blood_plasma" title="Blood plasma">plasma</a> oxytocin have been correlated with romantic attachment. For example, if a couple is separated for a long period of time, anxiety can increase due to the lack of physical affection. Oxytocin may aid romantically attached couples by increasing feelings of anxiety during separation.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17034623_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17034623-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Group-serving dishonesty/deception: In a carefully controlled study exploring the biological roots of immoral behavior, oxytocin was shown to promote dishonesty when the outcome favored the group to which an individual belonged instead of just the individual.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Oxytocin affects <a href="/wiki/Social_behavior" title="Social behavior">social</a> distance between adult males and females, and may be responsible at least in part for <a href="/wiki/Romance_(love)" title="Romance (love)">romantic attraction</a> and subsequent <a href="/wiki/Monogamy" title="Monogamy">monogamous</a> pair bonding. An oxytocin nasal spray caused men in a monogamous relationship, but not single men, to increase the distance between themselves and an attractive woman during a first encounter by 10 to 15 centimeters. The researchers suggested that oxytocin may help promote fidelity within monogamous relationships.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid23152592_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid23152592-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For this reason, it is sometimes referred to as the "bonding hormone". There is some evidence that oxytocin promotes <a href="/wiki/Ethnocentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnocentric">ethnocentric</a> behavior, incorporating the trust and empathy of <a href="/wiki/Ingroups_and_outgroups" class="mw-redirect" title="Ingroups and outgroups">in-groups</a> with their suspicion and rejection of outsiders.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid21220339_108-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid21220339-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, genetic differences in the <a href="/wiki/Oxytocin_receptor" title="Oxytocin receptor">oxytocin receptor</a> gene (OXTR) have been associated with maladaptive social traits such as aggressive behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid22372486_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid22372486-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_behavior" title="Social behavior">Social behavior</a><sup id="cite_ref-pmid21220339_108-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid21220339-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid15677415_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid15677415-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Wound_healing" title="Wound healing">wound healing</a>: Oxytocin is also thought to modulate <a href="/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">inflammation</a> by decreasing certain <a href="/wiki/Cytokines" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytokines">cytokines</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, the increased release in oxytocin following positive social interactions has the potential to improve wound healing. A study by Marazziti and colleagues used heterosexual couples to investigate this possibility. They found increases in plasma oxytocin following a social interaction were correlated with faster wound healing. They hypothesized this was due to oxytocin reducing inflammation, thus allowing the wound to heal more quickly. This study provides preliminary evidence that positive social interactions may directly influence aspects of health.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>According to a study published in 2014, silencing of oxytocin receptor interneurons in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) of female mice resulted in loss of social interest in male mice during the sexually receptive phase of the estrous cycle.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid25303526_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid25303526-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oxytocin evokes feelings of contentment, reductions in anxiety, and feelings of calmness and security when in the company of the mate.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17034623_152-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17034623-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This suggests oxytocin may be important for the inhibition of the brain regions associated with behavioral control, fear, and anxiety, thus allowing orgasm to occur. Research has also demonstrated that oxytocin can decrease anxiety and protect against <a href="/wiki/Stress_(biology)" title="Stress (biology)">stress</a>, particularly in combination with social support.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid14675803_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid14675803-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is found that <a href="/wiki/Endocannabinoid_system" title="Endocannabinoid system">endocannabinoid</a> signaling mediates oxytocin-driven social reward.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During a 2008 study, a lack of oxytocin in mice was associated with abnormalities in emotional behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another study conducted in 2014 saw similar results with a variation in the oxytocin receptor connected with dopamine transport and how levels of oxytocin are dependent on the levels of dopamine transporter levels.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One study explored the effects of low levels of oxytocin and the other on possible explanation of what affects oxytocin receptors. As a lack of social skills and proper emotional behavior are common signs of Autism, low levels of oxytocin could become a new sign for individuals that fall into the Autism Spectrum.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chemistry">Chemistry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oxytocin&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Chemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oxytocin-neurophysin.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Oxytocin-neurophysin.png/220px-Oxytocin-neurophysin.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Oxytocin-neurophysin.png/330px-Oxytocin-neurophysin.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Oxytocin-neurophysin.png/440px-Oxytocin-neurophysin.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="869" /></a><figcaption>Oxytocin (ball-and-stick) bound to its carrier protein neurophysin (ribbons)</figcaption></figure> <p>Oxytocin is a <a href="/wiki/Peptide" title="Peptide">peptide</a> of nine <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a> (a <a href="/wiki/Nonapeptide" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonapeptide">nonapeptide</a>) in the sequence cysteine-tyrosine-isoleucine-glutamine-asparagine-cysteine-proline-leucine-glycine-amide (<a href="/wiki/Cysteine" title="Cysteine">Cys</a> – <a href="/wiki/Tyrosine" title="Tyrosine">Tyr</a> – <a href="/wiki/Isoleucine" title="Isoleucine">Ile</a> – <a href="/wiki/Glutamine" title="Glutamine">Gln</a> – <a href="/wiki/Asparagine" title="Asparagine">Asn</a> – Cys – <a href="/wiki/Proline" title="Proline">Pro</a> – <a href="/wiki/Leucine" title="Leucine">Leu</a> – <a href="/wiki/Glycine" title="Glycine">Gly</a> – NH<sub>2</sub>, or CYIQNCPLG-NH<sub>2</sub>); its <i>C</i>-terminus has been converted to a <a href="/wiki/Primary_amide" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary amide">primary amide</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Disulfide_bridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Disulfide bridge">disulfide bridge</a> joins the cysteine <a href="/wiki/Moiety_(chemistry)" title="Moiety (chemistry)">moieties</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-OxytocinVasopressinStructures_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OxytocinVasopressinStructures-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oxytocin has a <a href="/wiki/Molecular_mass" title="Molecular mass">molecular mass</a> of 1007 <a href="/wiki/Dalton_(unit)" title="Dalton (unit)">Da</a>, and one <a href="/wiki/International_unit" title="International unit">international unit</a> (IU) of oxytocin is the equivalent of 1.68 <a href="/wiki/Microgram" title="Microgram">μg</a> of pure peptide.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the structure of oxytocin is highly conserved in placental mammals, a novel structure of oxytocin was reported in 2011 in <a href="/wiki/Marmoset" title="Marmoset">marmosets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tamarin" title="Tamarin">tamarins</a>, and other new world <a href="/wiki/Primates" class="mw-redirect" title="Primates">primates</a>. Genomic sequencing of the gene for oxytocin revealed a single <a href="/wiki/In-frame_mutation#in-frame" class="mw-redirect" title="In-frame mutation">in-frame mutation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Thymine" title="Thymine">thymine</a> for <a href="/wiki/Cytosine" title="Cytosine">cytosine</a>) which results in a single amino acid substitution at the 8-position (<a href="/wiki/Proline" title="Proline">proline</a> for <a href="/wiki/Leucine" title="Leucine">leucine</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-pmid21411453_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid21411453-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since this original Lee <i>et al.</i> paper, two other laboratories have confirmed Pro8-OT and documented additional oxytocin structural variants in this primate taxon. Vargas-Pinilla <i>et al.</i> sequenced the coding regions of the OXT gene in other genera in new world primates and identified the following variants in addition to Leu8- and Pro8-OT: Ala8-OT, Thr8-OT, and Val3/Pro8-OT.<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ren <i>et al.</i> identified a variant further, Phe2-OT in <a href="/wiki/Howler_monkey" title="Howler monkey">howler monkeys</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recent advances in analytical instrumental techniques highlighted the importance of liquid chromatography (LC) coupled with mass spectrometry (MS) for measuring oxytocin levels in various samples derived from biological sources. Most of these studies optimized the oxytocin quantification in electrospray ionization (ESI) positive mode, using [M+H]<sup>+</sup> as the parent ion at mass-to-charge ratio (<i>m/z</i>) 1007.4 and the fragment ions as diagnostic peaks at <i>m/z</i> 991.0,<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>m/z</i> 723.2<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i>m/z</i> 504.2.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These important ion selections paved the way for the development of current methods of oxytocin quantification using MS instrumentation. </p><p>The structure of oxytocin is very similar to that of <a href="/wiki/Vasopressin" title="Vasopressin">vasopressin</a>. Both are nonapeptides with a single disulfide bridge, differing only by two substitutions in the amino acid sequence (differences from oxytocin bolded for clarity): Cys – Tyr – <b><a href="/wiki/Phenylalanine" title="Phenylalanine">Phe</a></b> – Gln – Asn – Cys – Pro – <b><a href="/wiki/Arginine" title="Arginine">Arg</a></b> – Gly – NH<sub>2</sub>.<sup id="cite_ref-OxytocinVasopressinStructures_165-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OxytocinVasopressinStructures-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oxytocin and vasopressin were isolated and their <a href="/wiki/Total_synthesis" title="Total synthesis">total synthesis</a> reported in 1954,<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> work for which <a href="/wiki/Vincent_du_Vigneaud" title="Vincent du Vigneaud">Vincent du Vigneaud</a> was awarded the 1955 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a> with the citation: "for his work on biochemically important sulphur compounds, especially for the first synthesis of a polypeptide hormone."<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Oxytocin and vasopressin are the only known hormones released by the human <a href="/wiki/Posterior_pituitary_gland" class="mw-redirect" title="Posterior pituitary gland">posterior pituitary gland</a> to act at a distance. However, oxytocin neurons make other peptides, including <a href="/wiki/Corticotropin-releasing_hormone" title="Corticotropin-releasing hormone">corticotropin-releasing hormone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dynorphin" title="Dynorphin">dynorphin</a>, for example, that act locally. The <a href="/wiki/Magnocellular_neurosecretory_cell" title="Magnocellular neurosecretory cell">magnocellular neurosecretory cells</a> that make oxytocin are adjacent to magnocellular neurosecretory cells that make vasopressin. These are large neuroendocrine neurons which are excitable and can generate action potentials.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid10221785_175-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid10221785-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oxytocin&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: In popular culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>"Oxytocin" is the name of the fifth song on <a href="/wiki/Billie_Eilish" title="Billie Eilish">Billie Eilish</a>'s second album <i><a href="/wiki/Happier_Than_Ever" title="Happier Than Ever">Happier Than Ever</a></i>. </p><p>Oxytocin is mentioned in the first lyric of <a href="/wiki/Post_Malone" title="Post Malone">Post Malone</a>'s song <a href="/wiki/Chemical_(Post_Malone_song)" title="Chemical (Post Malone song)">Chemical</a>. </p><p>In the novel <i><a href="/wiki/The_Fireman_(novel)" title="The Fireman (novel)">The Fireman</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Joe_Hill_(novelist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Joe Hill (novelist)">Joe Hill</a>, the hormone plays a role in neutralizing the danger posed by an infectious spore that causes a condition known as Dragonscale. If the spore enters an oxytocin-rich environment, it will enter a dormant state instead of causing its host to undergo <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_human_combustion" title="Spontaneous human combustion">spontaneous human combustion</a>. </p><p>The formula for oxytocin is displayed as written on the fingers of <a href="/wiki/Nina_Zilli" title="Nina Zilli">Nina Zilli</a> and appears in the opening shot of her video for "Sola". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_medicine">In medicine</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oxytocin&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: In medicine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Small-molecule" class="mw-redirect" title="Small-molecule">Small-molecule</a> <a href="/wiki/Oxytocin_receptor_agonist" title="Oxytocin receptor agonist">oxytocin receptor agonists</a> like <a href="/wiki/LIT-001" title="LIT-001">LIT-001</a> may prove to be useful in the treatment of <a href="/wiki/Social_disorder" title="Social disorder">social deficits</a>, for instance in <a href="/wiki/Autism" title="Autism">autism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid34550574_176-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid34550574-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid30509888_177-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid30509888-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid30199637_178-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid30199637-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oxytocin&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oxytocin_(medication)" title="Oxytocin (medication)">Oxytocin (medication)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oxytocin&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FDA-AllBoxedWarnings-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FDA-AllBoxedWarnings_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nctr-crs.fda.gov/fdalabel/ui/spl-summaries/criteria/343802">"FDA-sourced list of all drugs with black box warnings (Use Download Full Results and View Query links.)"</a>. <i>nctr-crs.fda.gov</i>. <a href="/wiki/FDA" class="mw-redirect" title="FDA">FDA</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(October 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hal.science/hal-02366272/file/acs.jmedchem.8b00697.pdf">"LIT-001, the First Nonpeptide Oxytocin Receptor Agonist that Improves Social Interaction in a Mouse Model of Autism"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>J Med Chem</i>. <b>61</b> (19): 8670–8692. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Facs.jmedchem.8b00697">10.1021/acs.jmedchem.8b00697</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30199637">30199637</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:52181935">52181935</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J+Med+Chem&rft.atitle=LIT-001%2C+the+First+Nonpeptide+Oxytocin+Receptor+Agonist+that+Improves+Social+Interaction+in+a+Mouse+Model+of+Autism&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=19&rft.pages=8670-8692&rft.date=2018-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A52181935%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30199637&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Facs.jmedchem.8b00697&rft.aulast=Frantz&rft.aufirst=MC&rft.au=Pellissier%2C+LP&rft.au=Pflimlin%2C+E&rft.au=Loison%2C+S&rft.au=Gand%C3%ADa%2C+J&rft.au=Marsol%2C+C&rft.au=Durroux%2C+T&rft.au=Mouillac%2C+B&rft.au=Becker%2C+JA&rft.au=Le+Merrer%2C+J&rft.au=Valencia%2C+C&rft.au=Villa%2C+P&rft.au=Bonnet%2C+D&rft.au=Hibert%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhal.science%2Fhal-02366272%2Ffile%2Facs.jmedchem.8b00697.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOxytocin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oxytocin&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaldwellYoung2006" class="citation book cs1">Caldwell HK, Young WS (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://refworks.springer.com/mrw/fileadmin/pdf/Neurochemistry/0387303480C25.PDF">"Oxytocin and Vasopressin: Genetics and Behavioral Implications"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Abel L, Lim R (eds.). <i>Handbook of neurochemistry and molecular neurobiology</i>. Berlin: Springer. pp. 573–607. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-30348-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-30348-2"><bdi>978-0-387-30348-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Oxytocin+and+Vasopressin%3A+Genetics+and+Behavioral+Implications&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+neurochemistry+and+molecular+neurobiology&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=573-607&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-387-30348-2&rft.aulast=Caldwell&rft.aufirst=HK&rft.au=Young%2C+WS&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frefworks.springer.com%2Fmrw%2Ffileadmin%2Fpdf%2FNeurochemistry%2F0387303480C25.PDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOxytocin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmitzHöppner2014" class="citation book cs1">Schmitz S, Höppner G, eds. (2014). "Oxytocin as proximal cause of 'maternal instinct': weak science, post-feminism, and the hormones of mystique". <i>Gendered neurocultures: feminist and queer perspectives on current brain discourses</i>. challenge GENDER, 2. Wien: Zaglossus. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-902902-12-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-902902-12-2"><bdi>978-3-902902-12-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Oxytocin+as+proximal+cause+of+%27maternal+instinct%27%3A+weak+science%2C+post-feminism%2C+and+the+hormones+of+mystique&rft.btitle=Gendered+neurocultures%3A+feminist+and+queer+perspectives+on+current+brain+discourses&rft.place=Wien&rft.series=challenge+GENDER%2C+2&rft.pub=Zaglossus&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-3-902902-12-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOxytocin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYong2015" class="citation magazine cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ed_Yong" title="Ed Yong">Yong E</a> (13 November 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2015/11/the-weak-science-of-the-wrongly-named-moral-molecule/415581/">"The weak science behind the wrongly named moral molecule"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=The+weak+science+behind+the+wrongly+named+moral+molecule&rft.date=2015-11-13&rft.aulast=Yong&rft.aufirst=E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fscience%2Farchive%2F2015%2F11%2Fthe-weak-science-of-the-wrongly-named-moral-molecule%2F415581%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOxytocin" class="Z3988"></span>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oxytocin&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Oxytocin" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Oxytocin">Oxytocin</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Women%27s_health_icon.svg/18px-Women%27s_health_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Women%27s_health_icon.svg/24px-Women%27s_health_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="274" data-file-height="412" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health" title="Women's health">Women's health</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; line-height:1.2em"><a href="/wiki/Sexual_and_reproductive_health" title="Sexual and reproductive health">Reproductive <br />health</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Female_reproductive_system" title="Female reproductive system">Reproductive <br />tract</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vulva" title="Vulva">External female genitalia (vulva)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clitoris" title="Clitoris">Clitoris</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clitoral_hood" title="Clitoral hood">Clitoral hood</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labia_minora" title="Labia minora">Labia minora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labia_majora" title="Labia majora">Labia majora</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagina" title="Vagina">Vagina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cervix" title="Cervix">Cervix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uterus" title="Uterus">Uterus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallopian_tube" title="Fallopian tube">Fallopian tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovary" title="Ovary">Ovary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_system_disease" title="Reproductive system disease">Reproductive system disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maternal_health" title="Maternal health">Maternal <br />health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">Pregnancy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unintended_pregnancy" title="Unintended pregnancy">Unintended pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravidity_and_parity" title="Gravidity and parity">Gravidity and parity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics" title="Obstetrics">Obstetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antenatal_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Antenatal care">Antenatal care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolescent_pregnancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Adolescent pregnancy">Adolescent pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complications_of_pregnancy" title="Complications of pregnancy">Complications of pregnancy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hyperemesis_gravidarum" title="Hyperemesis gravidarum">Hyperemesis gravidarum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ectopic_pregnancy" title="Ectopic pregnancy">Ectopic pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miscarriage" title="Miscarriage">Miscarriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrical_bleeding" title="Obstetrical bleeding">Obstetrical bleeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gestational_diabetes" title="Gestational diabetes">Gestational diabetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypertensive_disease_of_pregnancy" title="Hypertensive disease of pregnancy">Hypertension</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Preeclampsia" class="mw-redirect" title="Preeclampsia">Preeclampsia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eclampsia" title="Eclampsia">Eclampsia</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">Childbirth</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Midwifery" title="Midwifery">Midwifery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preterm_birth" title="Preterm birth">Preterm birth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_births" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiple births">Multiple births</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Oxytocin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstructed_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Obstructed labor">Obstructed labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesarian_section" class="mw-redirect" title="Cesarian section">Cesarian section</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retained_placenta" title="Retained placenta">Retained placenta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrical_fistulae" class="mw-redirect" title="Obstetrical fistulae">Obstetrical fistulae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vesicovaginal_fistula" title="Vesicovaginal fistula">Vesicovaginal fistula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rectovaginal_fistula" title="Rectovaginal fistula">Rectovaginal fistula</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Episiotomy" title="Episiotomy">Episiotomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Husband_stitch" title="Husband stitch">Husband stitch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_care" title="Postpartum care">Postpartum care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_confinement" title="Postpartum confinement">Postpartum confinement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_deaths" class="mw-redirect" title="Maternal deaths">Maternal deaths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perinatal_mortality" title="Perinatal mortality">Perinatal mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stillbirths" class="mw-redirect" title="Stillbirths">Stillbirths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother-to-child_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Mother-to-child transmission">Mother-to-child transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sterilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Human sterilization">Sterilization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_and_mental_health" title="Breastfeeding and mental health">Breastfeeding and mental health</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_life_plan" class="mw-redirect" title="Reproductive life plan">Reproductive <br />life plan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Infertility" title="Infertility">Infertility</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Childlessness" title="Childlessness">Childlessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assisted_reproductive_technology" title="Assisted reproductive technology">Assisted reproductive technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_vitro_fertilization" class="mw-redirect" title="In vitro fertilization">In vitro fertilization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parenting" title="Parenting">Parenting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adoption" title="Adoption">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fostering" class="mw-redirect" title="Fostering">Fostering</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Contraception" class="mw-redirect" title="Contraception">Contraception</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">family planning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intrauterine_device" title="Intrauterine device">Intrauterine devices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_contraceptive_pill" title="Oral contraceptive pill">Oral contraceptives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condom" title="Condom">Condoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_contraceptive" title="Male contraceptive">Male contraceptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contraceptive_prevalence" class="mw-redirect" title="Contraceptive prevalence">Contraceptive prevalence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contraceptive_security" title="Contraceptive security">Contraceptive security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planned_parenthood" class="mw-redirect" title="Planned parenthood">Planned parenthood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertility_awareness" title="Fertility awareness">Fertility awareness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Menstruation" title="Menstruation">Menstruation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_and_menstruation" title="Culture and menstruation">Culture and menstruation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminine_hygiene" title="Feminine hygiene">Feminine hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menarche" title="Menarche">Menarche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menstrual_cycle" title="Menstrual cycle">Menstrual cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menstrual_aids" class="mw-redirect" title="Menstrual aids">Menstrual aids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloth_menstrual_pad" title="Cloth menstrual pad">Cloth menstrual pad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menstrual_cup" title="Menstrual cup">Menstrual cup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tampon" title="Tampon">Tampon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitary_napkin" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanitary napkin">Sanitary pad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysmenorrhea" title="Dysmenorrhea">Dysmenorrhea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menorrhagia" class="mw-redirect" title="Menorrhagia">Menorrhagia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amenorrhoea" class="mw-redirect" title="Amenorrhoea">Amenorrhoea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menopause" title="Menopause">Menopause</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hormone_replacement_therapy" title="Hormone replacement therapy">Hormone replacement therapy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%">Sexual <br />health</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Sexually_transmittedinfections" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infections" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexually transmitted infections">Sexually transmitted<br />infections</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Safe_sex" title="Safe sex">Safe sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_papilloma_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Human papilloma virus">Human papilloma virus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HPV_vaccine" title="HPV vaccine">HPV vaccine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelvic_inflammatory_disease" title="Pelvic inflammatory disease">Pelvic inflammatory disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation" title="Female genital mutilation">Female genital mutilation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clitoridectomy" title="Clitoridectomy">Clitoridectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infibulation" title="Infibulation">Infibulation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_binding" title="Breast binding">Breast binding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Breast health">Breast health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_ironing" title="Breast ironing">Breast ironing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_marriage" title="Child marriage">Child marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyspareunia" title="Dyspareunia">Dyspareunia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_marriage" title="Forced marriage">Forced marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynaecological_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Gynaecological disorders">Gynaecological disorders</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaginitis" title="Vaginitis">Vaginitis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leblouh" title="Leblouh">Leblouh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygamy" title="Polygamy">Polygamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_intercourse" title="Sexual intercourse">Sexual intercourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orgasm" title="Orgasm">Orgasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puberty" title="Puberty">Puberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex differences">Sex differences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_education" title="Sex education">Sex education</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%">Non-reproductive<br /> health</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Violence_against_women" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence <br />against women</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abuse_during_childbirth" title="Abuse during childbirth">Abuse during childbirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence" title="Domestic violence">Domestic violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_and_pregnancy" title="Domestic violence and pregnancy">Pregnancy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intimate_partner_violence" title="Intimate partner violence">Intimate partner violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_assault" title="Sexual assault">Sexual assault</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rape" title="Rape">Rape</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femicide" title="Femicide">Femicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_discrimination" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender discrimination">Gender discrimination</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Non-communicable_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-communicable diseases">Non-communicable <br />diseases</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Cancer" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">Cancer</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lung_cancer" title="Lung cancer">Lung cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_cancer" title="Breast cancer">Breast cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uterine_cancer" title="Uterine cancer">Uterine cancer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endometrial_cancer" title="Endometrial cancer">Endometrial cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_cancer" title="Cervical cancer">Cervical cancer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Papanicolaou_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Papanicolaou test">Papanicolaou test</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovarian_cancer" title="Ovarian cancer">Ovarian cancer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">Cardiovascular disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dementia" title="Dementia">Dementia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_health" title="Bone health">Bone health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Osteoporosis" title="Osteoporosis">Osteoporosis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hip_fracture" title="Hip fracture">Hip fracture</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaemia">Anaemia</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">Mental health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">Anxiety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">Depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">Major depressive disorder</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urinary_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Urinary tract">Urinary tract</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urethra" title="Urethra">Urethra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urinary_tract_infection" title="Urinary tract infection">Urinary tract infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urinary_incontinence" title="Urinary incontinence">Urinary incontinence</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%">Sociocultural <br />factors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disadvantaged" title="Disadvantaged">Disadvantaged</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">Gender equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_inequality" class="mw-redirect" title="Healthcare inequality">Healthcare inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_disparities_in_health" title="Gender disparities in health">Gender disparities in health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_justice" title="Reproductive justice">Reproductive justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_empowerment" title="Women's empowerment">Women's empowerment</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%">Politics, research<br />and advocacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Convention_on_the_Elimination_of_All_Forms_of_Discrimination_against_Women" class="mw-redirect" title="The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women">The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_on_the_elimination_of_violence_against_women" class="mw-redirect" title="Declaration on the elimination of violence against women">Declaration on the elimination of violence against women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Day_of_the_Girl_Child" title="International Day of the Girl Child">International Day of the Girl Child</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commission_on_the_Status_of_Women" class="mw-redirect" title="Commission on the Status of Women">Commission on the Status of Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UN_Women" title="UN Women">UN Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_Research_on_Women%27s_Health" class="mw-redirect" title="Office of Research on Women's Health">Office of Research on Women's Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Health_Initiative" title="Women's Health Initiative">Women's Health Initiative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Center_for_Research_on_Women" title="International Center for Research on Women">International Center for Research on Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nurses%27_Health_Study" title="Nurses' Health Study">Nurses' Health Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Women%27s_Health_Study" title="Black Women's Health Study">Black Women's Health Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartwright_Inquiry" title="Cartwright Inquiry">Cartwright Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_Women%27s_Health_Research" title="Society for Women's Health Research">Society for Women's Health Research</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F2D4CE;;width:1%">Women's health<br />by country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health_in_China" title="Women's health in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health_in_Ethiopia" title="Women's health in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health_in_India" title="Women's health in India">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning_in_India" title="Family planning in India">Family planning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_reproductive_health_in_Russia" title="Women's reproductive health in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control_in_the_United_States" title="Birth control in the United States">Birth control in the United States</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #F2D4CE;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Women%27s_health" title="Category:Women's health">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Women%27s_health" class="extiw" 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aria-labelledby="Hormones" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Hormones" title="Template:Hormones"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Hormones" title="Template talk:Hormones"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Hormones" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Hormones"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Hormones" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Hormone" title="Hormone">Hormones</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_gland" title="Endocrine gland">Endocrine<br />glands</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Hypothalamic–pituitary" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary_hormone" title="Hypothalamic–pituitary hormone">Hypothalamic–<br />pituitary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">Hypothalamus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gonadotropin-releasing_hormone" title="Gonadotropin-releasing hormone">GnRH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyrotropin-releasing_hormone" title="Thyrotropin-releasing hormone">TRH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">Dopamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corticotropin-releasing_hormone" title="Corticotropin-releasing hormone">CRH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Growth_hormone%E2%80%93releasing_hormone" title="Growth hormone–releasing hormone">GHRH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatostatin" title="Somatostatin">Somatostatin (GHIH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanin_concentrating_hormone" class="mw-redirect" title="Melanin concentrating hormone">MCH</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Posterior_pituitary" title="Posterior pituitary">Posterior pituitary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Oxytocin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasopressin" title="Vasopressin">Vasopressin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anterior_pituitary" title="Anterior pituitary">Anterior pituitary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Follicle-stimulating_hormone" title="Follicle-stimulating hormone">FSH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luteinizing_hormone" title="Luteinizing hormone">LH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyroid-stimulating_hormone" title="Thyroid-stimulating hormone">TSH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prolactin" title="Prolactin">Prolactin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proopiomelanocortin" title="Proopiomelanocortin">POMC</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corticotropin-like_intermediate_peptide" title="Corticotropin-like intermediate peptide">CLIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrenocorticotropic_hormone" title="Adrenocorticotropic hormone">ACTH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanocyte-stimulating_hormone" title="Melanocyte-stimulating hormone">MSH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endorphins" title="Endorphins">Endorphins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipotropin" title="Lipotropin">Lipotropin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Growth_hormone" title="Growth hormone">GH</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary%E2%80%93adrenal_axis" title="Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis">Adrenal axis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adrenal_gland#Adrenal_cortex" title="Adrenal gland">Adrenal cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aldosterone" title="Aldosterone">Aldosterone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cortisol" title="Cortisol">Cortisol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cortisone" title="Cortisone">Cortisone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehydroepiandrosterone" title="Dehydroepiandrosterone">DHEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehydroepiandrosterone_sulfate" title="Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate">DHEA-S</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Androstenedione" title="Androstenedione">Androstenedione</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrenal_gland#Adrenal_medulla" title="Adrenal gland">Adrenal medulla</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adrenaline" title="Adrenaline">Adrenaline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine" title="Norepinephrine">Norepinephrine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Thyroid" title="Thyroid">Thyroid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thyroid_hormones" title="Thyroid hormones">Thyroid hormones</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Triiodothyronine" title="Triiodothyronine">T<sub>3</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyroxine" class="mw-redirect" title="Thyroxine">T<sub>4</sub></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcitonin" title="Calcitonin">Calcitonin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary%E2%80%93thyroid_axis" title="Hypothalamic–pituitary–thyroid axis">Thyroid axis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Parathyroid_gland" title="Parathyroid gland">Parathyroid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parathyroid_hormone" title="Parathyroid hormone">PTH</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary%E2%80%93gonadal_axis" title="Hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis">Gonadal axis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Testicle" title="Testicle">Testis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Testosterone" title="Testosterone">Testosterone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-M%C3%BCllerian_hormone" title="Anti-Müllerian hormone">AMH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Activin_and_inhibin" title="Activin and inhibin">Inhibin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ovary" title="Ovary">Ovary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estradiol" title="Estradiol">Estradiol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progesterone" title="Progesterone">Progesterone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Activin_and_inhibin" title="Activin and inhibin">Activin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Activin_and_inhibin" title="Activin and inhibin">Inhibin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relaxin" title="Relaxin">Relaxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonadotropin_surge-attenuating_factor" title="Gonadotropin surge-attenuating factor">GnSAF</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Placenta" title="Placenta">Placenta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_chorionic_gonadotropin" title="Human chorionic gonadotropin">hCG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_placental_lactogen" title="Human placental lactogen">HPL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estrogen" title="Estrogen">Estrogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progesterone" title="Progesterone">Progesterone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pancreas" title="Pancreas">Pancreas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glucagon" title="Glucagon">Glucagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insulin" title="Insulin">Insulin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amylin" title="Amylin">Amylin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatostatin" title="Somatostatin">Somatostatin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_polypeptide" title="Pancreatic polypeptide">Pancreatic polypeptide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pineal_gland" title="Pineal gland">Pineal gland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Melatonin" title="Melatonin">Melatonin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N,N-Dimethyltryptamine" title="N,N-Dimethyltryptamine">N,N-Dimethyltryptamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5-Methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine" class="mw-redirect" title="5-Methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine">5-Methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Thymus" title="Thymus">Thymus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thymosin" title="Thymosin">Thymosins</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thymosin_%CE%B11" title="Thymosin α1">Thymosin α1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_thymosin" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta thymosin">Beta thymosins</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thymopoietin" title="Thymopoietin">Thymopoietin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thymulin" title="Thymulin">Thymulin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Digestion" title="Digestion">Digestive system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stomach" title="Stomach">Stomach</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gastrin" title="Gastrin">Gastrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghrelin" title="Ghrelin">Ghrelin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Duodenum" title="Duodenum">Duodenum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cholecystokinin" title="Cholecystokinin">CCK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastric_inhibitory_polypeptide" title="Gastric inhibitory polypeptide">GIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretin" title="Secretin">Secretin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motilin" title="Motilin">Motilin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasoactive_intestinal_peptide" title="Vasoactive intestinal peptide">VIP</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ileum" title="Ileum">Ileum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enteroglucagon" title="Enteroglucagon">Enteroglucagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peptide_YY" title="Peptide YY">Peptide YY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glucagon-like_peptide-1" title="Glucagon-like peptide-1">GLP-1</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">Liver</a>/other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Insulin-like_growth_factor" title="Insulin-like growth factor">Insulin-like growth factor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Insulin-like_growth_factor_1" title="Insulin-like growth factor 1">IGF-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insulin-like_growth_factor_2" title="Insulin-like growth factor 2">IGF-2</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Adipose_tissue" title="Adipose tissue">Adipose tissue</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leptin" title="Leptin">Leptin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adiponectin" title="Adiponectin">Adiponectin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistin" title="Resistin">Resistin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_skeleton" title="Human skeleton">Skeleton</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Osteocalcin" title="Osteocalcin">Osteocalcin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kidney" title="Kidney">Kidney</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renin" title="Renin">Renin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erythropoietin" title="Erythropoietin">EPO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcitriol" title="Calcitriol">Calcitriol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostaglandin" title="Prostaglandin">Prostaglandin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">Heart</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natriuretic_peptide" title="Natriuretic peptide">Natriuretic peptide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atrial_natriuretic_peptide" title="Atrial natriuretic peptide">ANP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_natriuretic_peptide_32" title="Brain natriuretic peptide 32">BNP</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Peptides:_neuropeptides" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Neuropeptides" title="Template:Neuropeptides"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Neuropeptides" title="Template talk:Neuropeptides"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Neuropeptides" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Neuropeptides"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Peptides:_neuropeptides" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Peptide" title="Peptide">Peptides</a>: <a href="/wiki/Neuropeptide" title="Neuropeptide">neuropeptides</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hormones</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i>see <a href="/wiki/Template:Hormones" title="Template:Hormones">hormones</a></i></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Opioid_peptide" title="Opioid peptide">Opioid peptides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em"><a href="/wiki/Dynorphin" title="Dynorphin">Dynorphins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dynorphin_A" title="Dynorphin A">Dynorphin A</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dynorphin_A1%E2%80%938" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynorphin A1–8">Dynorphin A<sub>1–8</sub></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynorphin_B" title="Dynorphin B">Dynorphin B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_dynorphin" title="Big dynorphin">Big dynorphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leumorphin" title="Leumorphin">Leumorphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha-Neoendorphin" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha-Neoendorphin">α-Neoendorphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta-Neoendorphin" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta-Neoendorphin">β-Neoendorphin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em"><a href="/wiki/Endomorphin" title="Endomorphin">Endomorphins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endomorphin-1" title="Endomorphin-1">Endomorphin-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endomorphin-2" title="Endomorphin-2">Endomorphin-2</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em"><a href="/wiki/Endorphins" title="Endorphins">Endorphins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha-Endorphin" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha-Endorphin">α-Endorphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta-Endorphin" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta-Endorphin">β-Endorphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma-Endorphin" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma-Endorphin">γ-Endorphin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em"><a href="/wiki/Enkephalin" title="Enkephalin">Enkephalins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Met-enkephalin" title="Met-enkephalin">Met-enkephalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leu-enkephalin" title="Leu-enkephalin">Leu-enkephalin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adrenorphin" title="Adrenorphin">Adrenorphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amidorphin" title="Amidorphin">Amidorphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemorphin" title="Hemorphin">Hemorphin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hemorphin-4" title="Hemorphin-4">Hemorphin-4</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nociceptin" title="Nociceptin">Nociceptin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opiorphin" title="Opiorphin">Opiorphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinorphin" title="Spinorphin">Spinorphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valorphin" title="Valorphin">Valorphin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other<br /> neuropeptides</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em"><a href="/wiki/Kinin" title="Kinin">Kinins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Bradykinin" title="Bradykinin">Bradykinins</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tachykinin_peptides" title="Tachykinin peptides">Tachykinins</a>: mammal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Substance_P" title="Substance P">Substance P</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurokinin_A" title="Neurokinin A">Neurokinin A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurokinin_B" title="Neurokinin B">Neurokinin B</a></li></ul></dd> <dd>amphibian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kassinin" title="Kassinin">Kassinin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physalaemin" title="Physalaemin">Physalaemin</a></li></ul></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em">Neuromedins</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neuromedin_B" title="Neuromedin B">B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromedin_N" title="Neuromedin N">N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromedin_S" title="Neuromedin S">S</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromedin_U" title="Neuromedin U">U</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em"><a href="/wiki/Orexin" title="Orexin">Orexins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orexin-A" title="Orexin-A">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orexin_B" class="mw-redirect" title="Orexin B">B</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angiotensin" title="Angiotensin">Angiotensin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombesin" title="Bombesin">Bombesin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcitonin_gene-related_peptide" title="Calcitonin gene-related peptide">Calcitonin gene-related peptide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnosine" title="Carnosine">Carnosine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cocaine_and_amphetamine_regulated_transcript" title="Cocaine and amphetamine regulated transcript">Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delta-sleep-inducing_peptide" title="Delta-sleep-inducing peptide">Delta-sleep-inducing peptide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FMRFamide" title="FMRFamide">FMRFamide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galanin" title="Galanin">Galanin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galanin-like_peptide" title="Galanin-like peptide">Galanin-like peptide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastrin-releasing_peptide" title="Gastrin-releasing peptide">Gastrin-releasing peptide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghrelin" title="Ghrelin">Ghrelin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuropeptide_AF&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Neuropeptide AF (page does not exist)">Neuropeptide AF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropeptide_FF" title="Neuropeptide FF">Neuropeptide FF</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuropeptide_SF&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Neuropeptide SF (page does not exist)">Neuropeptide SF</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuropeptide_VF&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Neuropeptide VF (page does not exist)">Neuropeptide VF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropeptide_S" title="Neuropeptide S">Neuropeptide S</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropeptide_Y" title="Neuropeptide Y">Neuropeptide Y</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophysins" title="Neurophysins">Neurophysins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotensin" title="Neurotensin">Neurotensin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_polypeptide" title="Pancreatic polypeptide">Pancreatic polypeptide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pituitary_adenylate_cyclase-activating_peptide" title="Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide">Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RVD-Hp%CE%B1" title="RVD-Hpα">RVD-Hpα</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VGF" title="VGF">VGF</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Neurotransmitters" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Neurotransmitters" title="Template:Neurotransmitters"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Neurotransmitters" title="Template talk:Neurotransmitters"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Neurotransmitters" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Neurotransmitters"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Neurotransmitters" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">Neurotransmitters</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acid</a>-derived</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Major excitatory /<br />inhibitory systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Glutamate system</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agmatine" title="Agmatine">Agmatine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspartic_acid" title="Aspartic acid">Aspartic acid (aspartate)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glutamate_(neurotransmitter)" title="Glutamate (neurotransmitter)">Glutamic acid (glutamate)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glutathione" title="Glutathione">Glutathione</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycine" title="Glycine">Glycine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-Nitrosoglutathione" title="S-Nitrosoglutathione">GSNO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxidized_glutathione" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidized glutathione">GSSG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kynurenic_acid" title="Kynurenic acid">Kynurenic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-Acetylaspartic_acid" title="N-Acetylaspartic acid">NAA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-Acetylaspartylglutamic_acid" title="N-Acetylaspartylglutamic acid">NAAG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proline" title="Proline">Proline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serine" title="Serine">Serine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">GABA system</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gamma-Aminobutyric_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma-Aminobutyric acid">GABA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma-Amino-beta-hydroxybutyric_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma-Amino-beta-hydroxybutyric acid">GABOB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma-Hydroxybutyric_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid">GHB</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Glycine system</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alanine" title="Alanine">α-Alanine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%92-Alanine" title="Β-Alanine">β-Alanine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycine" title="Glycine">Glycine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypotaurine" title="Hypotaurine">Hypotaurine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proline" title="Proline">Proline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarcosine" title="Sarcosine">Sarcosine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serine" title="Serine">Serine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taurine" title="Taurine">Taurine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/GHB_receptor" title="GHB receptor">GHB system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gamma-Hydroxybutyric_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid">GHB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-HCA" title="T-HCA">T-HCA (GHC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Biogenic_amine" title="Biogenic amine">Biogenic amines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Monoamines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/6-Hydroxymelatonin" title="6-Hydroxymelatonin">6-OHM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">Dopamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrenaline" title="Adrenaline">Epinephrine (adrenaline)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-Acetylserotonin" title="N-Acetylserotonin">NAS (normelatonin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine" title="Norepinephrine">Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">Serotonin (5-HT)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Trace amines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3-Iodothyronamine" title="3-Iodothyronamine">3-Iodothyronamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-Methylphenethylamine" title="N-Methylphenethylamine">N-Methylphenethylamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-Methyltryptamine" title="N-Methyltryptamine">N-Methyltryptamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norfenefrine" title="Norfenefrine"><i>m</i>-Octopamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Octopamine" title="Octopamine"><i>p</i>-Octopamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenylethanolamine" title="Phenylethanolamine">Phenylethanolamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenethylamine" title="Phenethylamine">Phenethylamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synephrine" title="Synephrine">Synephrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tryptamine" title="Tryptamine">Tryptamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-Tyramine" title="Meta-Tyramine"><i>m</i>-Tyramine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyramine" title="Tyramine"><i>p</i>-Tyramine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Histamine" title="Histamine">Histamine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Neuropeptide" title="Neuropeptide">Neuropeptides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>See <a href="/wiki/Template:Neuropeptides" title="Template:Neuropeptides">here</a> instead.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">Lipid</a>-derived</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Endocannabinoids" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Endocannabinoids</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2-Arachidonoylglycerol" title="2-Arachidonoylglycerol">2-AG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2-Arachidonyl_glyceryl_ether" title="2-Arachidonyl glyceryl ether">2-AGE (noladin ether)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2-Arachidonoyl_lysophosphatidylinositol&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2-Arachidonoyl lysophosphatidylinositol (page does not exist)">2-ALPI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2-Oleoylglycerol" title="2-Oleoylglycerol">2-OG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arachidonoyl_serotonin" title="Arachidonoyl serotonin">AA-5-HT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anandamide" title="Anandamide">Anandamide (AEA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Docosatetraenoylethanolamide" title="Docosatetraenoylethanolamide">DEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysophosphatidylinositol" title="Lysophosphatidylinositol">LPI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-Arachidonoyl_dopamine" title="N-Arachidonoyl dopamine">NADA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-Arachidonylglycine" title="N-Arachidonylglycine">NAGly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oleoylethanolamide" title="Oleoylethanolamide">OEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oleamide" title="Oleamide">Oleamide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmitoylethanolamide" title="Palmitoylethanolamide">PEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RVD-Hp%CE%B1" title="RVD-Hpα">RVD-Hpα</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stearoylethanolamide" title="Stearoylethanolamide">SEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virodhamine" title="Virodhamine">Virodhamine (O-AEA)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Neurosteroid" title="Neurosteroid">Neurosteroids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>See <a href="/wiki/Template:Steroid_hormones" title="Template:Steroid hormones">here</a> instead.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nucleobase" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleobase">Nucleobase</a>-derived</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Nucleosides" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Nucleosides</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Adenosine_system" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Adenosine" title="Adenosine">Adenosine</a> system</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adenosine_diphosphate" title="Adenosine diphosphate">ADP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adenosine_monophosphate" title="Adenosine monophosphate">AMP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vitamin" title="Vitamin">Vitamin</a>-derived</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Cholinergic_system" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Cholinergic system</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acetylcholine" title="Acetylcholine">Acetylcholine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Gasotransmitters" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Gasotransmitters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">Carbon monoxide (CO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">Hydrogen sulfide (H<sub>2</sub>S)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitric_oxide" title="Nitric oxide">Nitric oxide (NO)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Candidates" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Candidates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acetaldehyde" title="Acetaldehyde">Acetaldehyde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">Ammonia (NH<sub>3</sub>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonyl_sulfide" title="Carbonyl sulfide">Carbonyl sulfide (COS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">Nitrous oxide (N<sub>2</sub>O)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">Sulfur dioxide (SO<sub>2</sub>)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Galactagogues" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Galactagogues" title="Template:Galactagogues"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Galactagogues" title="Template talk:Galactagogues"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Galactagogues" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Galactagogues"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Galactagogues" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Galactagogue" title="Galactagogue">Galactagogues</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Prolactin_receptor_agonist" class="mw-redirect" title="Prolactin receptor agonist">Prolactin receptor agonists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Growth_hormone" title="Growth hormone">Growth hormone</a>/<a href="/wiki/Somatotropin" class="mw-redirect" title="Somatotropin">somatotropin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_placental_lactogen" title="Human placental lactogen">Human placental lactogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prolactin" title="Prolactin">Prolactin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Prolactin_releaser" class="mw-redirect" title="Prolactin releaser">Prolactin releasers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Dopamine_antagonist" title="Dopamine antagonist">D<sub>2</sub> receptor antagonists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Antiemetics/gastroprokinetic agents:</i> <a href="/wiki/Domperidone" title="Domperidone">Domperidone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metoclopramide" title="Metoclopramide">Metoclopramide</a></li></ul> <ul><li><i>Antipsychotics:</i> <a href="/wiki/Chlorpromazine" title="Chlorpromazine">Chlorpromazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risperidone" title="Risperidone">Risperidone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulpiride" title="Sulpiride">Sulpiride</a></li> <li>Others</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estrogen_(medication)" title="Estrogen (medication)">Estrogens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progestogen_(medication)" title="Progestogen (medication)">Progestogens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyrotropin-releasing_hormone" title="Thyrotropin-releasing hormone">Thyrotropin-releasing hormone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Breast development inducers:</i> <a href="/wiki/Estrogen_(medication)" title="Estrogen (medication)">Estrogens</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Estradiol_(medication)" title="Estradiol (medication)">estradiol</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progestogen_(medication)" title="Progestogen (medication)">Progestogens</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Progesterone_(medication)" title="Progesterone (medication)">progesterone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medroxyprogesterone_acetate" title="Medroxyprogesterone acetate">medroxyprogesterone acetate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyproterone_acetate" title="Cyproterone acetate">cyproterone acetate</a>)</li></ul> <ul><li><i>Milk letdown inducers:</i> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Oxytocin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Oxytocin_and_vasopressin_receptor_modulators" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Oxytocin_and_vasopressin_receptor_modulators" title="Template:Oxytocin and vasopressin receptor modulators"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Oxytocin_and_vasopressin_receptor_modulators" title="Template talk:Oxytocin and vasopressin receptor modulators"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Oxytocin_and_vasopressin_receptor_modulators" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Oxytocin and vasopressin receptor modulators"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Oxytocin_and_vasopressin_receptor_modulators" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Oxytocin_receptor" title="Oxytocin receptor">Oxytocin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vasopressin_receptor" title="Vasopressin receptor">vasopressin receptor</a> <a href="/wiki/Receptor_modulator" title="Receptor modulator">modulators</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Oxytocin_receptor" title="Oxytocin receptor">Oxytocin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>Agonists:</b> <i>Peptide:</i> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Aspartocin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aspartocin (page does not exist)">Aspartocin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbetocin" title="Carbetocin">Carbetocin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cargutocin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cargutocin (page does not exist)">Cargutocin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demoxytocin" title="Demoxytocin">Demoxytocin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipo-oxytocin-1" title="Lipo-oxytocin-1">Lipo-oxytocin-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merotocin" title="Merotocin">Merotocin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nacartocin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nacartocin (page does not exist)">Nacartocin</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Oxytocin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=PF-06478939&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PF-06478939 (page does not exist)">PF-06478939</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=PF-06655075&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PF-06655075 (page does not exist)">PF-06655075 (PF1)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=(Thr4,_Gly7)-Oxytocin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="(Thr4, Gly7)-Oxytocin (page does not exist)">TGOT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasotocin" title="Vasotocin">Vasotocin (argiprestocin)</a>; <i>Non-peptide:</i> <a href="/w/index.php?title=CA7_(drug)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CA7 (drug) (page does not exist)">CA7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LIT-001" title="LIT-001">LIT-001</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TC_OT_39" title="TC OT 39">TC OT 39</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WAY-267464" title="WAY-267464">WAY-267464</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=WJ0679&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="WJ0679 (page does not exist)">WJ0679</a></li></ul> <ul><li><b>Antagonists:</b> <i>Peptide:</i> <a href="/wiki/Atosiban" title="Atosiban">Atosiban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocinoic_acid" title="Tocinoic acid">Tocinoic acid</a>; <i>Non-peptide:</i> <a href="/wiki/Barusiban" title="Barusiban">Barusiban</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cligosiban&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cligosiban (page does not exist)">Cligosiban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epelsiban" title="Epelsiban">Epelsiban</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Erlosiban&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Erlosiban (page does not exist)">Erlosiban</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=IX-01&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IX-01 (page does not exist)">IX-01</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-368,899" title="L-368,899">L-368,899</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L-371,257" title="L-371,257">L-371,257</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=L-372,662&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="L-372,662 (page does not exist)">L-372,662</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nolasiban&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nolasiban (page does not exist)">Nolasiban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retosiban" title="Retosiban">Retosiban</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=SSR-126768&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SSR-126768 (page does not exist)">SSR-126768</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=WAY-162720&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="WAY-162720 (page does not exist)">WAY-162720</a></li></ul> <ul><li><b>Catabolism inhibitors:</b> <a href="/wiki/Amastatin" title="Amastatin">Amastatin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bestatin" class="mw-redirect" title="Bestatin">Bestatin (ubenimex)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethylenediaminetetraacetic_acid" title="Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid">EDTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methionine" title="Methionine"><small>L</small>-Methionine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leupeptin" title="Leupeptin">Leupeptin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/O-Phenanthroline" class="mw-redirect" title="O-Phenanthroline">o-Phenanthroline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphoramidon" title="Phosphoramidon">Phosphoramidon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puromycin" title="Puromycin">Puromycin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Vasopressin_receptor" title="Vasopressin receptor">Vasopressin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Arginine_vasopressin_receptor_1A" class="mw-redirect" title="Arginine vasopressin receptor 1A">V<sub>1A</sub></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>Agonists:</b> <a href="/wiki/Felypressin" title="Felypressin">Felypressin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lypressin" class="mw-redirect" title="Lypressin">Lypressin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornipressin" title="Ornipressin">Ornipressin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selepressin" title="Selepressin">Selepressin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terlipressin" title="Terlipressin">Terlipressin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasopressin" title="Vasopressin">Vasopressin (argipressin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasotocin" title="Vasotocin">Vasotocin (argiprestocin)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><b>Antagonists:</b> <a href="/wiki/Atosiban" title="Atosiban">Atosiban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balovaptan" title="Balovaptan">Balovaptan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conivaptan" title="Conivaptan">Conivaptan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=FR-218944&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="FR-218944 (page does not exist)">FR-218944</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=JNJ-17079166&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="JNJ-17079166 (page does not exist)">JNJ-17079166</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=JNJ-17308616&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="JNJ-17308616 (page does not exist)">JNJ-17308616</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LIT-001" title="LIT-001">LIT-001</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=LY-307174&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LY-307174 (page does not exist)">LY-307174</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PF-184563" title="PF-184563">PF-184563</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relcovaptan" title="Relcovaptan">Relcovaptan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RG7713" title="RG7713">RG7713</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SRX246" title="SRX246">SRX246</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=SRX251&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SRX251 (page does not exist)">SRX251</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TC_OT_39" title="TC OT 39">TC OT 39</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WAY-267464" title="WAY-267464">WAY-267464</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=YM-218&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="YM-218 (page does not exist)">YM-218</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=YM-471&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="YM-471 (page does not exist)">YM-471</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=YM-35471&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="YM-35471 (page does not exist)">YM-35471</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Arginine_vasopressin_receptor_1B" class="mw-redirect" title="Arginine vasopressin receptor 1B">V<sub>1B</sub></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>Agonists:</b> <a href="/wiki/Desmopressin" title="Desmopressin">Desmopressin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felypressin" title="Felypressin">Felypressin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lypressin" class="mw-redirect" title="Lypressin">Lypressin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornipressin" title="Ornipressin">Ornipressin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terlipressin" title="Terlipressin">Terlipressin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasopressin" title="Vasopressin">Vasopressin (argipressin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasotocin" title="Vasotocin">Vasotocin (argiprestocin)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><b>Antagonists:</b> <a href="/wiki/ABT-436" title="ABT-436">ABT-436</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=ABT-558&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ABT-558 (page does not exist)">ABT-558</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brezivaptan" title="Brezivaptan">Brezivaptan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelivaptan" title="Nelivaptan">Nelivaptan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=ORG-52186&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ORG-52186 (page does not exist)">ORG-52186 (SCH-740935)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=TASP-0233278&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="TASP-0233278 (page does not exist)">TASP-0233278</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=TASP-0390325&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="TASP-0390325 (page does not exist)">TASP-0390325</a></li></ul> <ul><li><b>Ligands:</b> <a href="/w/index.php?title=TASP-699&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="TASP-699 (page does not exist)">TASP-699</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Arginine_vasopressin_receptor_2" class="mw-redirect" title="Arginine vasopressin receptor 2">V<sub>2</sub></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>Agonists:</b> <a href="/wiki/Desmopressin" title="Desmopressin">Desmopressin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felypressin" title="Felypressin">Felypressin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LIT-001" title="LIT-001">LIT-001</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lypressin" class="mw-redirect" title="Lypressin">Lypressin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornipressin" title="Ornipressin">Ornipressin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TC_OT_39" title="TC OT 39">TC OT 39</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terlipressin" title="Terlipressin">Terlipressin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasopressin" title="Vasopressin">Vasopressin (argipressin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasotocin" title="Vasotocin">Vasotocin (argiprestocin)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><b>Antagonists:</b> <a href="/wiki/Conivaptan" title="Conivaptan">Conivaptan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=JNJ-17079166&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="JNJ-17079166 (page does not exist)">JNJ-17079166</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lixivaptan" title="Lixivaptan">Lixivaptan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozavaptan" title="Mozavaptan">Mozavaptan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=RWJ-351647&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="RWJ-351647 (page does not exist)">RWJ-351647</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satavaptan" title="Satavaptan">Satavaptan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolvaptan" title="Tolvaptan">Tolvaptan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=YM-471&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="YM-471 (page does not exist)">YM-471</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=YM-35471&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="YM-35471 (page does not exist)">YM-35471</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Unsorted</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>Antagonists:</b> <a href="/wiki/Balovaptan" title="Balovaptan">Balovaptan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ribuvaptan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ribuvaptan (page does not exist)">Ribuvaptan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=RWJ-339489&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="RWJ-339489 (page does not exist)">RWJ-339489</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=VMAX-367&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="VMAX-367 (page does not exist)">VMAX-367</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=VMAX-372&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="VMAX-372 (page does not exist)">VMAX-372</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=VMAX-382&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="VMAX-382 (page does not exist)">VMAX-382</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=YM-222546&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="YM-222546 (page does not exist)">YM-222546</a></li></ul> <ul><li><b>Other inhibitors:</b> <a href="/wiki/Demeclocycline" title="Demeclocycline">Demeclocycline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">Lithium</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lithium_carbonate" title="Lithium carbonate">lithium carbonate</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>Carrier proteins:</b> <a href="/wiki/Neurophysin" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurophysin">Neurophysin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Neurophysin_I" title="Neurophysin I">I</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neurophysin_II" title="Neurophysin II">II</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Opioid_receptor_modulators" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Opioid_receptor_modulators" title="Template:Opioid receptor modulators"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Opioid_receptor_modulators" title="Template talk:Opioid receptor modulators"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Opioid_receptor_modulators" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Opioid receptor modulators"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Opioid_receptor_modulators" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Opioid_receptor" title="Opioid receptor">Opioid receptor</a> <a href="/wiki/Receptor_modulator" title="Receptor modulator">modulators</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/%CE%9C-opioid_receptor" title="Μ-opioid receptor">μ-opioid</a><br />(MOR)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Agonists(abridged;_full_list)" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Agonists<br />(abridged;<br /> <a href="/wiki/List_of_opioids" title="List of opioids">full list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3-HO-PCP" title="3-HO-PCP">3-HO-PCP</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=7-Acetoxymitragynine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="7-Acetoxymitragynine (page does not exist)">7-Acetoxymitragynine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/7-Hydroxymitragynine" title="7-Hydroxymitragynine">7-Hydroxymitragynine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%CE%A8-Akuammigine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ψ-Akuammigine (page does not exist)">ψ-Akuammigine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlornaltrexamine" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlornaltrexamine">α-Chlornaltrexamine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alpha-Narcotine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alpha-Narcotine (page does not exist)">α-Narcotine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acetyldihydrocodeine" title="Acetyldihydrocodeine">Acetyldihydrocodeine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acetylfentanyl" title="Acetylfentanyl">Acetylfentanyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acrylfentanyl" title="Acrylfentanyl">Acrylfentanyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrenorphin" title="Adrenorphin">Adrenorphin (metorphamide)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AH-7921" title="AH-7921">AH-7921</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akuammicine" title="Akuammicine">Akuammicine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Akuammidine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Akuammidine (page does not exist)">Akuammidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfentanil" title="Alfentanil">Alfentanil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anileridine" title="Anileridine">Anileridine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apparicine" title="Apparicine">Apparicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta-Endorphin" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta-Endorphin">β-Endorphin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bovine_adrenal_medullary_peptide-12P&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bovine adrenal medullary peptide-12P (page does not exist)">BAM-12P</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bovine_adrenal_medullary_peptide-18P&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bovine adrenal medullary peptide-18P (page does not exist)">BAM-18P</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bovine_adrenal_medullary_peptide-22P&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bovine adrenal medullary peptide-22P (page does not exist)">BAM-22P</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzhydrocodone" title="Benzhydrocodone">Benzhydrocodone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzylmorphine" title="Benzylmorphine">Benzylmorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bezitramide" title="Bezitramide">Bezitramide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biphalin" title="Biphalin">Biphalin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=BU08070&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="BU08070 (page does not exist)">BU08070</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buprenorphine" title="Buprenorphine">Buprenorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butorphan" class="mw-redirect" title="Butorphan">Butorphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butorphanol" title="Butorphanol">Butorphanol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butyrfentanyl" title="Butyrfentanyl">Butyrfentanyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BW373U86" title="BW373U86">BW373U86</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carfentanil" title="Carfentanil">Carfentanil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casokefamide" title="Casokefamide">Casokefamide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cebranopadol" title="Cebranopadol">Cebranopadol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloroxymorphamine" title="Chloroxymorphamine">Chloroxymorphamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codeine" title="Codeine">Codeine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DADLE" title="DADLE">DADLE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DAMGO" title="DAMGO">DAMGO (DAGO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dermorphin" title="Dermorphin">Dermorphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desmetramadol" title="Desmetramadol">Desmetramadol (desmethyltramadol)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desomorphine" title="Desomorphine">Desomorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dextromoramide" title="Dextromoramide">Dextromoramide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dextropropoxyphene" title="Dextropropoxyphene">Dextropropoxyphene (propoxyphene)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dezocine" title="Dezocine">Dezocine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimenoxadol" title="Dimenoxadol">Dimenoxadol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimethylaminopivalophenone" title="Dimethylaminopivalophenone">Dimethylaminopivalophenone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eluxadoline" title="Eluxadoline">Eluxadoline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heroin" title="Heroin">Diamorphine (heroin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dihydrocodeine" title="Dihydrocodeine">Dihydrocodeine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dihydroetorphine" title="Dihydroetorphine">Dihydroetorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dihydromorphine" title="Dihydromorphine">Dihydromorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinalbuphine_sebacate" title="Dinalbuphine sebacate">Dinalbuphine sebacate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diphenoxylate" title="Diphenoxylate">Diphenoxylate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dipipanone" title="Dipipanone">Dipipanone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynorphin_A" title="Dynorphin A">Dynorphin A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embutramide" title="Embutramide">Embutramide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endomorphin-1" title="Endomorphin-1">Endomorphin-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endomorphin-2" title="Endomorphin-2">Endomorphin-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eseroline" title="Eseroline">Eseroline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethylmorphine" title="Ethylmorphine">Ethylmorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etorphine" title="Etorphine">Etorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fentanyl" title="Fentanyl">Fentanyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluorophen" title="Fluorophen">Fluorophen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frakefamide" title="Frakefamide">Frakefamide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Furanylfentanyl" title="Furanylfentanyl">Furanylfentanyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemorphin-4" title="Hemorphin-4">Hemorphin-4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herkinorin" title="Herkinorin">Herkinorin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hodgkinsine" title="Hodgkinsine">Hodgkinsine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrocodone" title="Hydrocodone">Hydrocodone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydromorphinol" title="Hydromorphinol">Hydromorphinol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydromorphone" title="Hydromorphone">Hydromorphone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IBNtxA" title="IBNtxA">IBNtxA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketamine" title="Ketamine">Ketamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketobemidone" title="Ketobemidone">Ketobemidone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitragyna_speciosa" title="Mitragyna speciosa">Kratom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laudanosine" title="Laudanosine">Laudanosine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lefetamine" title="Lefetamine">Lefetamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leu-enkephalin" title="Leu-enkephalin">Leu-enkephalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levacetylmethadol" title="Levacetylmethadol">Levacetylmethadol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levomethorphan" title="Levomethorphan">Levomethorphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levorphanol" title="Levorphanol">Levorphanol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lexanopadol&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lexanopadol (page does not exist)">Lexanopadol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loperamide" title="Loperamide">Loperamide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loxicodegol" class="mw-redirect" title="Loxicodegol">Loxicodegol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LS-115509" title="LS-115509">LS-115509</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrine" title="Matrine">Matrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meptazinol" title="Meptazinol">Meptazinol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Met-enkephalin" title="Met-enkephalin">Met-enkephalin (metenkefalin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methadone" title="Methadone">Methadone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metkefamide" title="Metkefamide">Metkefamide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metopon" title="Metopon">Metopon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitragynine" title="Mitragynine">Mitragynine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitragynine_pseudoindoxyl" title="Mitragynine pseudoindoxyl">Mitragynine pseudoindoxyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morphiceptin" title="Morphiceptin">Morphiceptin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morphine" title="Morphine">Morphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nalbuphine" title="Nalbuphine">Nalbuphine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naloxone_benzoylhydrazone&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Naloxone benzoylhydrazone (page does not exist)">NalBzOH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nalmexone" title="Nalmexone">Nalmexone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naltalimide" title="Naltalimide">Naltalimide</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neopine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Neopine (page does not exist)">Neopine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NFEPP" title="NFEPP">NFEPP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicocodeine" title="Nicocodeine">Nicocodeine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicodicodine" title="Nicodicodine">Nicodicodine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicomorphine" title="Nicomorphine">Nicomorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norketamine" title="Norketamine">Norketamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nufenoxole" title="Nufenoxole">Nufenoxole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Octreotide" title="Octreotide">Octreotide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliceridine" title="Oliceridine">Oliceridine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxycodegol" title="Oxycodegol">Oxycodegol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxymorphone-3-methoxynaltrexonazine" title="Oxymorphone-3-methoxynaltrexonazine">OM-3-MNZ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oripavine" title="Oripavine">Oripavine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxycodone" title="Oxycodone">Oxycodone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxymorphazone" title="Oxymorphazone">Oxymorphazone</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oxymorphonazine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oxymorphonazine (page does not exist)">Oxymorphonazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxymorphone" title="Oxymorphone">Oxymorphone</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oxymorphone_phenylhydrazone&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oxymorphone phenylhydrazone (page does not exist)">Oxymorphone phenylhydrazone</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oxymorphone_p-nitrophenylhydrazone&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oxymorphone p-nitrophenylhydrazone (page does not exist)">OxyPNPH</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Papaver_somniferum" title="Papaver somniferum">Papaver somniferum</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Opium" title="Opium">opium</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentazocine" title="Pentazocine">Pentazocine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pericine" title="Pericine">Pericine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pethidine" title="Pethidine">Pethidine (meperidine)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenazocine" title="Phenazocine">Phenazocine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phencyclidine" title="Phencyclidine">Phencyclidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piminodine" title="Piminodine">Piminodine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piritramide" title="Piritramide">Piritramide</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=PL-017&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="PL-017 (page does not exist)">PL-017</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prodine" title="Prodine">Prodine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propiram" title="Propiram">Propiram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PZM21" title="PZM21">PZM21</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methorphan" title="Methorphan">Racemethorphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racemorphan" title="Racemorphan">Racemorphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remifentanil" title="Remifentanil">Remifentanil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salsolinol" title="Salsolinol">Salsolinol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SC-17599" title="SC-17599">SC-17599</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinomenine" title="Sinomenine">Sinomenine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufentanil" title="Sufentanil">Sufentanil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapentadol" title="Tapentadol">Tapentadol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrahydropapaveroline" title="Tetrahydropapaveroline">Tetrahydropapaveroline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TH-030418" title="TH-030418">TH-030418</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thebaine" title="Thebaine">Thebaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thienorphine" title="Thienorphine">Thienorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tianeptine" title="Tianeptine">Tianeptine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tilidine" title="Tilidine">Tilidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tramadol" title="Tramadol">Tramadol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimebutine" title="Trimebutine">Trimebutine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TRIMU_5" title="TRIMU 5">TRIMU 5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TRV734" title="TRV734">TRV734</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tubotaiwine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tubotaiwine (page does not exist)">Tubotaiwine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U-47700" title="U-47700">U-47700</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valorphin" title="Valorphin">Valorphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viminol" title="Viminol">Viminol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xorphanol" title="Xorphanol">Xorphanol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antagonists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Picenadol" title="Picenadol">(3S,4S)-Picenadol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viminol" title="Viminol">2-(S)-N,N-(R)-Viminol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=3CS-nalmefene&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="3CS-nalmefene (page does not exist)">3CS-nalmefene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/4-Caffeoyl-1,5-quinide" title="4-Caffeoyl-1,5-quinide">4-Caffeoyl-1,5-quinide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/4%E2%80%B2-Hydroxyflavanone" class="mw-redirect" title="4′-Hydroxyflavanone">4′-Hydroxyflavanone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/4%27,7-Dihydroxyflavone" title="4',7-Dihydroxyflavone">4',7-Dihydroxyflavone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/6%CE%B2-Naltrexol" title="6β-Naltrexol">6β-Naltrexol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/6%CE%B2-Naltrexol-d4" title="6β-Naltrexol-d4">6β-Naltrexol-d4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/18-Methoxycoronaridine" title="18-Methoxycoronaridine">18-MC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha-Gliadin" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha-Gliadin">α-Gliadin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlornaltrexamine" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlornaltrexamine">β-Chlornaltrexamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta-Funaltrexamine" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta-Funaltrexamine">β-Funaltrexamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akuammine" title="Akuammine">Akuammine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvimopan" title="Alvimopan">Alvimopan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AM-251_(drug)" title="AM-251 (drug)">AM-251</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apigenin" title="Apigenin">Apigenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AT-076" title="AT-076">AT-076</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axelopran" title="Axelopran">Axelopran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bevenopran" title="Bevenopran">Bevenopran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catechin" title="Catechin">Catechin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicatechin_gallate" title="Epicatechin gallate">Catechin gallate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clocinnamox" title="Clocinnamox">Clocinnamox</a></li> <li>CTAP</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=CTOP&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CTOP (page does not exist)">CTOP</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyclofoxy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cyclofoxy (page does not exist)">Cyclofoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprodime" title="Cyprodime">Cyprodime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diacetylnalorphine" title="Diacetylnalorphine">Diacetylnalorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diprenorphine" title="Diprenorphine">Diprenorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicatechin_gallate" title="Epicatechin gallate">ECG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallocatechol" title="Gallocatechol">EGC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicatechin" class="mw-redirect" title="Epicatechin">Epicatechin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eptazocine" title="Eptazocine">Eptazocine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemazocine" title="Gemazocine">Gemazocine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ginsenoside_R&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ginsenoside R (page does not exist)">Ginsenoside R</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperoside" title="Hyperoside">Hyperoside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibogaine" title="Ibogaine">Ibogaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JDTic" title="JDTic">JDTic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levallorphan" title="Levallorphan">Levallorphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lobeline" title="Lobeline">Lobeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LY-255582" title="LY-255582">LY-255582</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LY-2196044" class="mw-redirect" title="LY-2196044">LY-2196044</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methocinnamox" title="Methocinnamox">Methocinnamox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methylnaltrexone" title="Methylnaltrexone">Methylnaltrexone</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Methylsamidorphan_chloride&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Methylsamidorphan chloride (page does not exist)">Methylsamidorphan chloride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naldemedine" title="Naldemedine">Naldemedine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nalmefene" title="Nalmefene">Nalmefene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nalodeine" title="Nalodeine">Nalodeine (N-allylnorcodeine)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nalorphine" title="Nalorphine">Nalorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nalorphine_dinicotinate" title="Nalorphine dinicotinate">Nalorphine dinicotinate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naloxazone" title="Naloxazone">Naloxazone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naloxegol" title="Naloxegol">Naloxegol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naloxol" title="Naloxol">Naloxol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naloxonazine" title="Naloxonazine">Naloxonazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naloxone" title="Naloxone">Naloxone</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naltrexazone&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Naltrexazone (page does not exist)">Naltrexazone</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naltrexonazine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Naltrexonazine (page does not exist)">Naltrexonazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naltrexone" title="Naltrexone">Naltrexone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naltrindole" title="Naltrindole">Naltrindole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naringenin" title="Naringenin">Naringenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noribogaine" title="Noribogaine">Noribogaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxilorphan" title="Oxilorphan">Oxilorphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawhuskin_A" title="Pawhuskin A">Pawhuskin A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rimonabant" title="Rimonabant">Rimonabant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadazocine" title="Quadazocine">Quadazocine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samidorphan" title="Samidorphan">Samidorphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxifolin" title="Taxifolin">Taxifolin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/%CE%94-opioid_receptor" title="Δ-opioid receptor">δ-opioid</a><br />(DOR)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Agonists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=3CS-nalmefene&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="3CS-nalmefene (page does not exist)">3CS-nalmefene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/6%27-Guanidinonaltrindole" title="6'-Guanidinonaltrindole">6'-GNTI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/7-Spiroindanyloxymorphone" title="7-Spiroindanyloxymorphone">7-SIOM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ADL-5747" title="ADL-5747">ADL-5747 (PF-04856881)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ADL-5859" title="ADL-5859">ADL-5859</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alazocine" title="Alazocine">Alazocine (SKF-10047)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoxapine" title="Amoxapine">Amoxapine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=AR-M100390&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="AR-M100390 (page does not exist)">AR-M100390 (ARM390)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AZD2327" class="mw-redirect" title="AZD2327">AZD2327</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta-Endorphin" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta-Endorphin">β-Endorphin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bovine_adrenal_medullary_peptide-18P&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bovine adrenal medullary peptide-18P (page does not exist)">BAM-18P</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biphalin" title="Biphalin">Biphalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BU-48" title="BU-48">BU-48</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butorphan" class="mw-redirect" title="Butorphan">Butorphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butorphanol" title="Butorphanol">Butorphanol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BW373U86" title="BW373U86">BW373U86</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casokefamide" title="Casokefamide">Casokefamide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cebranopadol" title="Cebranopadol">Cebranopadol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codeine" title="Codeine">Codeine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclazocine" title="Cyclazocine">Cyclazocine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DADLE" title="DADLE">DADLE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deltorphin" title="Deltorphin">Deltorphin A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deltorphin_I" title="Deltorphin I">Deltorphin I</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Deltorphin_II&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Deltorphin II (page does not exist)">Deltorphin II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desmethylclozapine" title="Desmethylclozapine">Desmethylclozapine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desmetramadol" title="Desmetramadol">Desmetramadol (desmethyltramadol)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dezocine" title="Dezocine">Dezocine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heroin" title="Heroin">Diamorphine (heroin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dihydroetorphine" title="Dihydroetorphine">Dihydroetorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dihydromorphine" title="Dihydromorphine">Dihydromorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DPDPE" title="DPDPE">DPDPE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DPI-221" title="DPI-221">DPI-221</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DPI-3290" title="DPI-3290">DPI-3290</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=(D-Ser2,_Leu5,_Thr6)-Enkephalin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="(D-Ser2, Leu5, Thr6)-Enkephalin (page does not exist)">DSLET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethylketazocine" title="Ethylketazocine">Ethylketazocine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etorphine" title="Etorphine">Etorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fentanyl" title="Fentanyl">Fentanyl</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fentanyl_isothiocyanate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fentanyl isothiocyanate (page does not exist)">FIT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluorophen" title="Fluorophen">Fluorophen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemorphin-4" title="Hemorphin-4">Hemorphin-4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrocodone" title="Hydrocodone">Hydrocodone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydromorphone" title="Hydromorphone">Hydromorphone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibogaine" title="Ibogaine">Ibogaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isomethadone" title="Isomethadone">Isomethadone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JNJ-20788560" title="JNJ-20788560">JNJ-20788560</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KNT-127" title="KNT-127">KNT-127</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitragyna_speciosa" title="Mitragyna speciosa">Kratom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laudanosine" title="Laudanosine">Laudanosine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leu-enkephalin" title="Leu-enkephalin">Leu-enkephalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levomethorphan" title="Levomethorphan">Levomethorphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levorphanol" title="Levorphanol">Levorphanol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lexanopadol&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lexanopadol (page does not exist)">Lexanopadol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lofentanil" title="Lofentanil">Lofentanil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Met-enkephalin" title="Met-enkephalin">Met-enkephalin (metenkefalin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metazocine" title="Metazocine">Metazocine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metkefamide" title="Metkefamide">Metkefamide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitragynine" title="Mitragynine">Mitragynine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitragynine_pseudoindoxyl" title="Mitragynine pseudoindoxyl">Mitragynine pseudoindoxyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morphine" title="Morphine">Morphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-Phenethyl-14-ethoxymetopon" title="N-Phenethyl-14-ethoxymetopon">N-Phenethyl-14-ethoxymetopon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norbuprenorphine" title="Norbuprenorphine">Norbuprenorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naloxone_benzoylhydrazone&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Naloxone benzoylhydrazone (page does not exist)">NalBzOH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oripavine" title="Oripavine">Oripavine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxycodone" title="Oxycodone">Oxycodone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxymorphone" title="Oxymorphone">Oxymorphone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pethidine" title="Pethidine">Pethidine (meperidine)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proglumide" title="Proglumide">Proglumide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methorphan" title="Methorphan">Racemethorphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racemorphan" title="Racemorphan">Racemorphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RWJ-394674" title="RWJ-394674">RWJ-394674</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samidorphan" title="Samidorphan">Samidorphan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=SB-235863&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SB-235863 (page does not exist)">SB-235863</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SNC-80" title="SNC-80">SNC-80</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=SNC-162&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SNC-162 (page does not exist)">SNC-162</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAN-67" title="TAN-67">TAN-67 (SB-205,607)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TH-030418" title="TH-030418">TH-030418</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thebaine" title="Thebaine">Thebaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C-8813" title="C-8813">Thiobromadol (C-8813)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonazocine" title="Tonazocine">Tonazocine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tramadol" title="Tramadol">Tramadol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=TRV250&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="TRV250 (page does not exist)">TRV250</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xorphanol" title="Xorphanol">Xorphanol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zenazocine" title="Zenazocine">Zenazocine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antagonists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/4%27,7-Dihydroxyflavone" title="4',7-Dihydroxyflavone">4',7-Dihydroxyflavone</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naltrindole-5%27-isothiocyanate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Naltrindole-5'-isothiocyanate (page does not exist)">5'-NTII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/6%CE%B2-Naltrexol" title="6β-Naltrexol">6β-Naltrexol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/6%CE%B2-Naltrexol-d4" title="6β-Naltrexol-d4">6β-Naltrexol-d4</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alpha-Santolol&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alpha-Santolol (page does not exist)">α-Santolol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlornaltrexamine" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlornaltrexamine">β-Chlornaltrexamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apigenin" title="Apigenin">Apigenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AT-076" title="AT-076">AT-076</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axelopran" title="Axelopran">Axelopran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bevenopran" title="Bevenopran">Bevenopran</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=7-Benzylidenenaltrexone&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="7-Benzylidenenaltrexone (page does not exist)">BNTX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catechin" title="Catechin">Catechin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicatechin_gallate" title="Epicatechin gallate">Catechin gallate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clocinnamox" title="Clocinnamox">Clocinnamox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diacetylnalorphine" title="Diacetylnalorphine">Diacetylnalorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diprenorphine" title="Diprenorphine">Diprenorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicatechin_gallate" title="Epicatechin gallate">ECG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallocatechol" title="Gallocatechol">EGC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eluxadoline" title="Eluxadoline">Eluxadoline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicatechin" class="mw-redirect" title="Epicatechin">Epicatechin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=ICI-154129&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ICI-154129 (page does not exist)">ICI-154129</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=ICI-174864&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ICI-174864 (page does not exist)">ICI-174864</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LY-255582" title="LY-255582">LY-255582</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LY-2196044" class="mw-redirect" title="LY-2196044">LY-2196044</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methylnaltrexone" title="Methylnaltrexone">Methylnaltrexone</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Methylnaltrindole&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Methylnaltrindole (page does not exist)">Methylnaltrindole</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=N-Benzylnaltrindole&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="N-Benzylnaltrindole (page does not exist)">N-Benzylnaltrindole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nalmefene" title="Nalmefene">Nalmefene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nalorphine" title="Nalorphine">Nalorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naltrexone" title="Naltrexone">Naltrexone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naltriben" title="Naltriben">Naltriben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naltrindole" title="Naltrindole">Naltrindole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naloxone" title="Naloxone">Naloxone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naringenin" title="Naringenin">Naringenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noribogaine" title="Noribogaine">Noribogaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawhuskin_A" title="Pawhuskin A">Pawhuskin A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadazocine" title="Quadazocine">Quadazocine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=SDM25N&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SDM25N (page does not exist)">SDM25N</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SoRI-9409" title="SoRI-9409">SoRI-9409</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxifolin" title="Taxifolin">Taxifolin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thienorphine" title="Thienorphine">Thienorphine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/%CE%9A-opioid_receptor" title="Κ-opioid receptor">κ-opioid</a><br />(KOR)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Agonists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=3CS-nalmefene&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="3CS-nalmefene (page does not exist)">3CS-nalmefene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/6%27-Guanidinonaltrindole" title="6'-Guanidinonaltrindole">6'-GNTI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8-Carboxamidocyclazocine" title="8-Carboxamidocyclazocine">8-CAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/18-Methoxycoronaridine" title="18-Methoxycoronaridine">18-MC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14-Methoxymetopon" title="14-Methoxymetopon">14-Methoxymetopon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlornaltrexamine" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlornaltrexamine">β-Chlornaltrexamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta-Funaltrexamine" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta-Funaltrexamine">β-Funaltrexamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrenorphin" title="Adrenorphin">Adrenorphin (metorphamide)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akuammicine" title="Akuammicine">Akuammicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alazocine" title="Alazocine">Alazocine (SKF-10047)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allomatrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Allomatrine">Allomatrine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Apadoline&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Apadoline (page does not exist)">Apadoline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asimadoline" title="Asimadoline">Asimadoline</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bovine_adrenal_medullary_peptide-12P&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bovine adrenal medullary peptide-12P (page does not exist)">BAM-12P</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bovine_adrenal_medullary_peptide-18P&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bovine adrenal medullary peptide-18P (page does not exist)">BAM-18P</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bovine_adrenal_medullary_peptide-22P&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bovine adrenal medullary peptide-22P (page does not exist)">BAM-22P</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_dynorphin" title="Big dynorphin">Big dynorphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bremazocine" title="Bremazocine">Bremazocine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BRL-52537" title="BRL-52537">BRL-52537</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butorphan" class="mw-redirect" title="Butorphan">Butorphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butorphanol" title="Butorphanol">Butorphanol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BW373U86" title="BW373U86">BW373U86</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cebranopadol" title="Cebranopadol">Cebranopadol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ciprefadol" title="Ciprefadol">Ciprefadol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CR665" title="CR665">CR665</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclazocine" title="Cyclazocine">Cyclazocine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclorphan" title="Cyclorphan">Cyclorphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprenorphine" title="Cyprenorphine">Cyprenorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desmetramadol" title="Desmetramadol">Desmetramadol (desmethyltramadol)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heroin" title="Heroin">Diamorphine (heroin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diacetylnalorphine" title="Diacetylnalorphine">Diacetylnalorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Difelikefalin" title="Difelikefalin">Difelikefalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dihydroetorphine" title="Dihydroetorphine">Dihydroetorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dihydromorphine" title="Dihydromorphine">Dihydromorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinalbuphine_sebacate" title="Dinalbuphine sebacate">Dinalbuphine sebacate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diprenorphine" title="Diprenorphine">Diprenorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynorphin_A" title="Dynorphin A">Dynorphin A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynorphin_B" title="Dynorphin B">Dynorphin B (rimorphin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eluxadoline" title="Eluxadoline">Eluxadoline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enadoline" title="Enadoline">Enadoline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eptazocine" title="Eptazocine">Eptazocine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Erinacine_E&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Erinacine E (page does not exist)">Erinacine E</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethylketazocine" title="Ethylketazocine">Ethylketazocine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etorphine" title="Etorphine">Etorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fedotozine" title="Fedotozine">Fedotozine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fentanyl" title="Fentanyl">Fentanyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemazocine" title="Gemazocine">Gemazocine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GR-89696" title="GR-89696">GR-89696</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=GR-103545&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="GR-103545 (page does not exist)">GR-103545</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemorphin-4" title="Hemorphin-4">Hemorphin-4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herkinorin" title="Herkinorin">Herkinorin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HS665" title="HS665">HS665</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydromorphone" title="Hydromorphone">Hydromorphone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HZ-2" title="HZ-2">HZ-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibogaine" title="Ibogaine">Ibogaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ICI-199,441" title="ICI-199,441">ICI-199,441</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ICI-204,448" title="ICI-204,448">ICI-204,448</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketamine" title="Ketamine">Ketamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketazocine" title="Ketazocine">Ketazocine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laudanosine" title="Laudanosine">Laudanosine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leumorphin" title="Leumorphin">Leumorphin (dynorphin B-29)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levallorphan" title="Levallorphan">Levallorphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levomethorphan" title="Levomethorphan">Levomethorphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levorphanol" title="Levorphanol">Levorphanol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lexanopadol&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lexanopadol (page does not exist)">Lexanopadol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lofentanil" title="Lofentanil">Lofentanil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LPK-26" title="LPK-26">LPK-26</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lufuradom" title="Lufuradom">Lufuradom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrine" title="Matrine">Matrine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MB-1C-OH&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MB-1C-OH (page does not exist)">MB-1C-OH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menthol" title="Menthol">Menthol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metazocine" title="Metazocine">Metazocine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metkefamide" title="Metkefamide">Metkefamide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mianserin" title="Mianserin">Mianserin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirtazapine" title="Mirtazapine">Mirtazapine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morphine" title="Morphine">Morphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moxazocine" title="Moxazocine">Moxazocine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MR-2034&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MR-2034 (page does not exist)">MR-2034</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=N-MPPP&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="N-MPPP (page does not exist)">N-MPPP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nalbuphine" title="Nalbuphine">Nalbuphine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naloxone_benzoylhydrazone&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Naloxone benzoylhydrazone (page does not exist)">NalBzOH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nalfurafine" title="Nalfurafine">Nalfurafine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nalmefene" title="Nalmefene">Nalmefene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nalodeine" title="Nalodeine">Nalodeine (N-allylnorcodeine)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nalorphine" title="Nalorphine">Nalorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naltriben" title="Naltriben">Naltriben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niravoline" title="Niravoline">Niravoline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norbuprenorphine" title="Norbuprenorphine">Norbuprenorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norbuprenorphine-3-glucuronide" title="Norbuprenorphine-3-glucuronide">Norbuprenorphine-3-glucuronide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noribogaine" title="Noribogaine">Noribogaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norketamine" title="Norketamine">Norketamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oripavine" title="Oripavine">Oripavine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxilorphan" title="Oxilorphan">Oxilorphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxycodone" title="Oxycodone">Oxycodone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentazocine" title="Pentazocine">Pentazocine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pethidine" title="Pethidine">Pethidine (meperidine)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenazocine" title="Phenazocine">Phenazocine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxorphan" title="Proxorphan">Proxorphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methorphan" title="Methorphan">Racemethorphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racemorphan" title="Racemorphan">Racemorphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RB-64" title="RB-64">RB-64</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvinorin_A" title="Salvinorin A">Salvinorin A</a> (<a href="/wiki/Salvia_divinorum" title="Salvia divinorum">salvia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvinorin_B_ethoxymethyl_ether" class="mw-redirect" title="Salvinorin B ethoxymethyl ether">Salvinorin B ethoxymethyl ether</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvinorin_B_methoxymethyl_ether" title="Salvinorin B methoxymethyl ether">Salvinorin B methoxymethyl ether</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samidorphan" title="Samidorphan">Samidorphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiradoline" title="Spiradoline">Spiradoline (U-62,066)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TH-030418" title="TH-030418">TH-030418</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thienorphine" title="Thienorphine">Thienorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tifluadom" title="Tifluadom">Tifluadom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tricyclic_antidepressant" title="Tricyclic antidepressant">Tricyclic antidepressants</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Amitriptyline" title="Amitriptyline">amitriptyline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Desipramine" title="Desipramine">desipramine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imipramine" title="Imipramine">imipramine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nortriptyline" title="Nortriptyline">nortriptyline</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/U-50488" title="U-50488">U-50488</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=U-54,494A&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="U-54,494A (page does not exist)">U-54,494A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U-69,593" title="U-69,593">U-69,593</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xorphanol" title="Xorphanol">Xorphanol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antagonists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/4%E2%80%B2-Hydroxyflavanone" class="mw-redirect" title="4′-Hydroxyflavanone">4′-Hydroxyflavanone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/4%27,7-Dihydroxyflavone" title="4',7-Dihydroxyflavone">4',7-Dihydroxyflavone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5%27-Guanidinonaltrindole" title="5'-Guanidinonaltrindole">5'-GNTI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/6%27-Guanidinonaltrindole" title="6'-Guanidinonaltrindole">6'-GNTI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/6%CE%B2-Naltrexol" title="6β-Naltrexol">6β-Naltrexol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/6%CE%B2-Naltrexol-d4" title="6β-Naltrexol-d4">6β-Naltrexol-d4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlornaltrexamine" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlornaltrexamine">β-Chlornaltrexamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buprenorphine/samidorphan" title="Buprenorphine/samidorphan">Buprenorphine/samidorphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amentoflavone" title="Amentoflavone">Amentoflavone</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=5%27-Acetamidinoethylnaltrindole&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="5'-Acetamidinoethylnaltrindole (page does not exist)">ANTI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apigenin" title="Apigenin">Apigenin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arodyne&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arodyne (page does not exist)">Arodyne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AT-076" title="AT-076">AT-076</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aticaprant" title="Aticaprant">Aticaprant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axelopran" title="Axelopran">Axelopran</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=AZ-MTAB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="AZ-MTAB (page does not exist)">AZ-MTAB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binaltorphimine" title="Binaltorphimine">Binaltorphimine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BU09059" title="BU09059">BU09059</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buprenorphine" title="Buprenorphine">Buprenorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catechin" title="Catechin">Catechin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicatechin_gallate" title="Epicatechin gallate">Catechin gallate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CERC-501" class="mw-redirect" title="CERC-501">CERC-501 (LY-2456302)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clocinnamox" title="Clocinnamox">Clocinnamox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icalcaprant" title="Icalcaprant">CVL-354</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyclofoxy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cyclofoxy (page does not exist)">Cyclofoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dezocine" title="Dezocine">Dezocine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=DIPPA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="DIPPA (page does not exist)">DIPPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallocatechol" title="Gallocatechol">EGC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicatechin_gallate" title="Epicatechin gallate">ECG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicatechin" class="mw-redirect" title="Epicatechin">Epicatechin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperoside" title="Hyperoside">Hyperoside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JDTic" title="JDTic">JDTic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LY-255582" title="LY-255582">LY-255582</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LY-2196044" class="mw-redirect" title="LY-2196044">LY-2196044</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=LY-2444296&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LY-2444296 (page does not exist)">LY-2444296</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LY-2459989" title="LY-2459989">LY-2459989</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=LY-2795050&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LY-2795050 (page does not exist)">LY-2795050</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MeJDTic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MeJDTic (page does not exist)">MeJDTic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methylnaltrexone" title="Methylnaltrexone">Methylnaltrexone</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=ML190&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ML190 (page does not exist)">ML190</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=ML350&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ML350 (page does not exist)">ML350</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MR-2266&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MR-2266 (page does not exist)">MR-2266</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=N-Fluoropropyl-JDTic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="N-Fluoropropyl-JDTic (page does not exist)">N-Fluoropropyl-JDTic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naloxone" title="Naloxone">Naloxone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naltrexone" title="Naltrexone">Naltrexone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naltrindole" title="Naltrindole">Naltrindole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naringenin" title="Naringenin">Naringenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navacaprant" title="Navacaprant">Navacaprant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norbinaltorphimine" title="Norbinaltorphimine">Norbinaltorphimine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noribogaine" title="Noribogaine">Noribogaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawhuskin_A" title="Pawhuskin A">Pawhuskin A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PF-4455242" class="mw-redirect" title="PF-4455242">PF-4455242</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RB-64" title="RB-64">RB-64</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadazocine" title="Quadazocine">Quadazocine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxifolin" title="Taxifolin">Taxifolin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=UPHIT&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="UPHIT (page does not exist)">UPHIT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zyklophin" title="Zyklophin">Zyklophin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Nociceptin_receptor" title="Nociceptin receptor">Nociceptin</a><br />(NOP)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Agonists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=(Arg14,Lys15)Nociceptin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="(Arg14,Lys15)Nociceptin (page does not exist)">(Arg14,Lys15)Nociceptin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=((pF)Phe4)Nociceptin(1-13)NH2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="((pF)Phe4)Nociceptin(1-13)NH2 (page does not exist)">((pF)Phe<sup>4</sup>)Nociceptin(1-13)NH<sub>2</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=(Phe1%CE%A8(CH2-NH)Gly2)Nociceptin(1-13)NH2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="(Phe1Ψ(CH2-NH)Gly2)Nociceptin(1-13)NH2 (page does not exist)">(Phe<sup>1</sup>Ψ(CH<sub>2</sub>-NH)Gly<sup>2</sup>)Nociceptin(1-13)NH<sub>2</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ac-RYYRWK-NH2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ac-RYYRWK-NH2 (page does not exist)">Ac-RYYRWK-NH<sub>2</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ac-RYYRIK-NH2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ac-RYYRIK-NH2 (page does not exist)">Ac-RYYRIK-NH<sub>2</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=BU08070&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="BU08070 (page does not exist)">BU08070</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buprenorphine" title="Buprenorphine">Buprenorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cebranopadol" title="Cebranopadol">Cebranopadol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dihydroetorphine" title="Dihydroetorphine">Dihydroetorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etorphine" title="Etorphine">Etorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=JNJ-19385899&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="JNJ-19385899 (page does not exist)">JNJ-19385899</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levomethorphan" title="Levomethorphan">Levomethorphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levorphanol" title="Levorphanol">Levorphanol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lexanopadol&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lexanopadol (page does not exist)">Lexanopadol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MCOPPB" title="MCOPPB">MCOPPB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MT-7716" title="MT-7716">MT-7716</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NNC_63-0532" title="NNC 63-0532">NNC 63-0532</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nociceptin" title="Nociceptin">Nociceptin (orphanin FQ)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nociceptin_(1-11)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nociceptin (1-11) (page does not exist)">Nociceptin (1-11)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nociceptin_(1-13)NH2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nociceptin (1-13)NH2 (page does not exist)">Nociceptin (1-13)NH<sub>2</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norbuprenorphine" title="Norbuprenorphine">Norbuprenorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methorphan" title="Methorphan">Racemethorphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racemorphan" title="Racemorphan">Racemorphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ro64-6198" title="Ro64-6198">Ro64-6198</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ro65-6570" title="Ro65-6570">Ro65-6570</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SCH-221510" title="SCH-221510">SCH-221510</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=SCH-486757&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SCH-486757 (page does not exist)">SCH-486757</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=SR-8993&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SR-8993 (page does not exist)">SR-8993</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SR-16435" title="SR-16435">SR-16435</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunobinop" title="Sunobinop">Sunobinop (S-117957)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TH-030418" title="TH-030418">TH-030418</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antagonists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=(Nphe1)Nociceptin(1-13)NH2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="(Nphe1)Nociceptin(1-13)NH2 (page does not exist)">(Nphe<sup>1</sup>)Nociceptin(1-13)NH<sub>2</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AT-076" title="AT-076">AT-076</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=BAN-ORL-24&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="BAN-ORL-24 (page does not exist)">BAN-ORL-24</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BTRX-246040" title="BTRX-246040">BTRX-246040 (LY-2940094)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J-113,397" title="J-113,397">J-113,397</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JTC-801" title="JTC-801">JTC-801</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Naloxone_benzoylhydrazone&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Naloxone benzoylhydrazone (page does not exist)">NalBzOH</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nociceptin_(1-7)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nociceptin (1-7) (page does not exist)">Nociceptin (1-7)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nocistatin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nocistatin (page does not exist)">Nocistatin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SB-612,111" title="SB-612,111">SB-612,111</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=SR-16430&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SR-16430 (page does not exist)">SR-16430</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thienorphine" title="Thienorphine">Thienorphine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trap-101&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Trap-101 (page does not exist)">Trap-101</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=UFP-101&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="UFP-101 (page does not exist)">UFP-101</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Enkephalinase_inhibitor" title="Enkephalinase inhibitor">Enkephalinase inhibitors</a>:</i> <a href="/wiki/Amastatin" title="Amastatin">Amastatin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=BL-2401&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="BL-2401 (page does not exist)">BL-2401</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candoxatril" title="Candoxatril">Candoxatril</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenylalanine#D-,_L-_and_DL-phenylalanine" title="Phenylalanine"><span style="font-size:85%;">D </span>-Phenylalanine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dexecadotril&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dexecadotril (page does not exist)">Dexecadotril (retorphan)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecadotril" title="Ecadotril">Ecadotril (sinorphan)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelatorphan" title="Kelatorphan">Kelatorphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racecadotril" title="Racecadotril">Racecadotril (acetorphan)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RB-101" title="RB-101">RB-101</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RB-120" title="RB-120">RB-120</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RB-3007" title="RB-3007">RB-3007</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Opiorphan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Opiorphan (page does not exist)">Opiorphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selank" title="Selank">Selank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semax" title="Semax">Semax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinorphin" title="Spinorphin">Spinorphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiorphan" title="Thiorphan">Thiorphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tynorphin" title="Tynorphin">Tynorphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubenimex" title="Ubenimex">Ubenimex (bestatin)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><i>Propeptides:</i> <a href="/wiki/Lipotropin" title="Lipotropin">β-Lipotropin (proendorphin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prodynorphin" title="Prodynorphin">Prodynorphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proenkephalin" title="Proenkephalin">Proenkephalin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pronociceptin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pronociceptin (page does not exist)">Pronociceptin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proopiomelanocortin" title="Proopiomelanocortin">Proopiomelanocortin (POMC)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><i>Others:</i> <a href="/wiki/Kyotorphin" title="Kyotorphin">Kyotorphin</a> (met-enkephalin releaser/degradation stabilizer)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" 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