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</a> <button aria-controls="toc-Origins_of_the_conflict-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Origins of the conflict subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Origins_of_the_conflict-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Warfare_in_the_ancient_Mediterranean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Warfare_in_the_ancient_Mediterranean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Warfare in the ancient Mediterranean</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Warfare_in_the_ancient_Mediterranean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Persia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Persia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greece" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greece"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Greece</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greece-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Naval_warfare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Naval_warfare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3</span> <span>Naval warfare</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Naval_warfare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Preliminary_contacts_between_Persia_and_mainland_Greece_(507_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preliminary_contacts_between_Persia_and_mainland_Greece_(507_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Preliminary contacts between Persia and mainland Greece (507 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preliminary_contacts_between_Persia_and_mainland_Greece_(507_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ionian_Revolt_(499–493_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ionian_Revolt_(499–493_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Ionian Revolt (499–493 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ionian_Revolt_(499–493_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_invasion_of_Greece_(492–490_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_invasion_of_Greece_(492–490_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>First invasion of Greece (492–490 BC)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-First_invasion_of_Greece_(492–490_BC)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle First invasion of Greece (492–490 BC) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-First_invasion_of_Greece_(492–490_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-492_BC:_Mardonius'_campaign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#492_BC:_Mardonius'_campaign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>492 BC: Mardonius' campaign</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-492_BC:_Mardonius'_campaign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-490_BC:_Datis_and_Artaphernes'_campaign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#490_BC:_Datis_and_Artaphernes'_campaign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>490 BC: Datis and Artaphernes' campaign</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-490_BC:_Datis_and_Artaphernes'_campaign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Marathon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Marathon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1</span> <span>Battle of Marathon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Marathon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interbellum_(490–480_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interbellum_(490–480_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Interbellum (490–480 BC)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Interbellum_(490–480_BC)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Interbellum (490–480 BC) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Interbellum_(490–480_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Achaemenid_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Achaemenid_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Achaemenid Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Achaemenid_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Size_of_the_Persian_forces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Size_of_the_Persian_forces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1</span> <span>Size of the Persian forces</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Size_of_the_Persian_forces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greek_city_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greek_city_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Greek city states</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greek_city_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Athens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Athens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.1</span> <span>Athens</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Athens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sparta" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sparta"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.2</span> <span>Sparta</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sparta-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hellenic_alliance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hellenic_alliance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.3</span> <span>Hellenic alliance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hellenic_alliance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_invasion_of_Greece_(480–479_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_invasion_of_Greece_(480–479_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Second invasion of Greece (480–479 BC)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Second_invasion_of_Greece_(480–479_BC)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Second invasion of Greece (480–479 BC) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Second_invasion_of_Greece_(480–479_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_480_BC:_Thrace,_Macedonia,_and_Thessaly" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_480_BC:_Thrace,_Macedonia,_and_Thessaly"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Early 480 BC: Thrace, Macedonia, and Thessaly</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_480_BC:_Thrace,_Macedonia,_and_Thessaly-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-August_480_BC:_Battles_of_Thermopylae_and_Artemisium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#August_480_BC:_Battles_of_Thermopylae_and_Artemisium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>August 480 BC: Battles of Thermopylae and Artemisium</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-August_480_BC:_Battles_of_Thermopylae_and_Artemisium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-September_480_BC:_Battle_of_Salamis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#September_480_BC:_Battle_of_Salamis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>September 480 BC: Battle of Salamis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-September_480_BC:_Battle_of_Salamis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-June_479_BC:_Battles_of_Plataea_and_Mycale" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#June_479_BC:_Battles_of_Plataea_and_Mycale"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>June 479 BC: Battles of Plataea and Mycale</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-June_479_BC:_Battles_of_Plataea_and_Mycale-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greek_counterattack_(479–478_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greek_counterattack_(479–478_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Greek counterattack (479–478 BC)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Greek_counterattack_(479–478_BC)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Greek counterattack (479–478 BC) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Greek_counterattack_(479–478_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mycale_and_Ionia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mycale_and_Ionia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Mycale and Ionia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mycale_and_Ionia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sestos" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sestos"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Sestos</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sestos-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cyprus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cyprus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Cyprus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cyprus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Byzantium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Byzantium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Byzantium</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Byzantium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wars_of_the_Delian_League_(477–449_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wars_of_the_Delian_League_(477–449_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Wars of the Delian League (477–449 BC)</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Wars_of_the_Delian_League_(477–449_BC)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Wars of the Delian League (477–449 BC) subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Wars_of_the_Delian_League_(477–449_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Delian_League" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Delian_League"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Delian League</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Delian_League-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Campaigns_against_Persia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Campaigns_against_Persia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Campaigns against Persia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Campaigns_against_Persia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peace_with_Persia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peace_with_Persia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Peace with Persia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peace_with_Persia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath_and_later_conflicts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath_and_later_conflicts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Aftermath and later conflicts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aftermath_and_later_conflicts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bibliography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.1</span> <span>Ancient sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.2</span> <span>Modern sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Greco-Persian Wars</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 76 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-76" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">76 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grieks-Persiese_Oorlo%C3%AB" title="Grieks-Persiese Oorloë – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Grieks-Persiese Oorloë" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perserkriege" title="Perserkriege – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Perserkriege" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الحروب الفارسية اليونانية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الحروب الفارسية اليونانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerres_m%C3%A9diques" title="Guerres médiques – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Guerres médiques" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yunan-%C4%B0ran_m%C3%BCharib%C9%99l%C9%99ri" title="Yunan-İran müharibələri – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Yunan-İran müharibələri" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B4%E2%80%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="یونان-ایران ساواش‌لاری – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="یونان-ایران ساواش‌لاری" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hi-lia%CC%8Dp_Pho-su_Chi%C3%A0n-cheng" title="Hi-lia̍p Pho-su Chiàn-cheng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hi-lia̍p Pho-su Chiàn-cheng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA-%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%8B_%D2%BB%D1%83%D2%93%D1%8B%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Грек-фарсы һуғыштары – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Грек-фарсы һуғыштары" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%BA%D0%B0-%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%8B" title="Грэка-персідскія войны – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Грэка-персідскія войны" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D1%8A%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Гръко-персийски войни – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Гръко-персийски войни" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C4%8Dko-perzijski_ratovi" title="Grčko-perzijski ratovi – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Grčko-perzijski ratovi" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brezelio%C3%B9_medek" title="Brezelioù medek – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Brezelioù medek" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerres_m%C3%A8diques" title="Guerres mèdiques – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Guerres mèdiques" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%98ecko-persk%C3%A9_v%C3%A1lky" title="Řecko-perské války – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Řecko-perské války" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhyfeloedd_Groeg_a_Phersia" title="Rhyfeloedd Groeg a Phersia – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Rhyfeloedd Groeg a Phersia" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perserkrigene" title="Perserkrigene – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Perserkrigene" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perserkriege" title="Perserkriege – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Perserkriege" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreeka-P%C3%A4rsia_s%C3%B5jad" title="Kreeka-Pärsia sõjad – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kreeka-Pärsia sõjad" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B5%CF%81%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%AF_%CE%A0%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%B9" title="Περσικοί Πόλεμοι – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Περσικοί Πόλεμοι" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerras_m%C3%A9dicas" title="Guerras médicas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Guerras médicas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grek-persaj_militoj" title="Grek-persaj militoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Grek-persaj militoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediar_Gerrak" title="Mediar Gerrak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Mediar Gerrak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%88_%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86" title="جنگ‌های ایران و یونان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنگ‌های ایران و یونان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerres_m%C3%A9diques" title="Guerres médiques – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Guerres médiques" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perzyske_Oarloggen" title="Perzyske Oarloggen – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Perzyske Oarloggen" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerras_m%C3%A9dicas" title="Guerras médicas – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Guerras médicas" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B7%B8%EB%A6%AC%EC%8A%A4-%ED%8E%98%EB%A5%B4%EC%8B%9C%EC%95%84_%EC%A0%84%EC%9F%81" title="그리스-페르시아 전쟁 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="그리스-페르시아 전쟁" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B5%D5%B6-%D5%BA%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%BD%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%B4%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Հույն-պարսկական պատերազմներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հույն-պարսկական պատերազմներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%95-%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7" title="ग्रीक-फारसी युद्ध – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ग्रीक-फारसी युद्ध" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C4%8Dko-perzijski_ratovi" title="Grčko-perzijski ratovi – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Grčko-perzijski ratovi" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greka-Persiana_militi" title="Greka-Persiana militi – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Greka-Persiana militi" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Yunani%E2%80%93Persia" title="Perang Yunani–Persia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perang Yunani–Persia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persastr%C3%AD%C3%B0" title="Persastríð – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Persastríð" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerre_persiane" title="Guerre persiane – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Guerre persiane" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%99%D7%95%D7%95%D7%9F%E2%80%93%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A1" title="מלחמות יוון–פרס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מלחמות יוון–פרס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%AB%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C-%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%97%E1%83%90_%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ბერძენ-სპარსელთა ომები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბერძენ-სპარსელთა ომები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA-%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%8B_%D1%81%D0%BE%D2%93%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Грек-парсы соғыстары – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Грек-парсы соғыстары" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA-%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81_%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%83%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B_(%D0%B1._%D0%B7._%D1%87._500%E2%80%94449_%D0%B6%D0%B6.)" title="Грек-перс согуштары (б. з. ч. 500—449 жж.) – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Грек-перс согуштары (б. з. ч. 500—449 жж.)" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bella_Graeco-Persica" title="Bella Graeco-Persica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Bella Graeco-Persica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grie%C4%B7u%E2%80%94persie%C5%A1u_kari" title="Grieķu—persiešu kari – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Grieķu—persiešu kari" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perserkricher" title="Perserkricher – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Perserkricher" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graik%C5%B3%E2%80%93pers%C5%B3_karai" title="Graikų–persų karai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Graikų–persų karai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6r%C3%B6g%E2%80%93perzsa_h%C3%A1bor%C3%BAk" title="Görög–perzsa háborúk – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Görög–perzsa háborúk" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%98%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Грчко-персиски војни – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Грчко-персиски војни" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ady_Grika-Persiana" title="Ady Grika-Persiana – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Ady Grika-Persiana" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perang_Yunani-Parsi" title="Perang Yunani-Parsi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Perang Yunani-Parsi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C4%AD-P%C5%8F%CC%A4_Ci%C3%A9ng-c%C4%95ng" title="Hĭ-Pŏ̤ Ciéng-cĕng – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Hĭ-Pŏ̤ Ciéng-cĕng" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perzische_Oorlogen" title="Perzische Oorlogen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Perzische Oorlogen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9A%E3%83%AB%E3%82%B7%E3%82%A2%E6%88%A6%E4%BA%89" title="ペルシア戦争 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ペルシア戦争" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perserkrigene" title="Perserkrigene – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Perserkrigene" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gu%C3%A8rras_Medicas" title="Guèrras Medicas – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Guèrras Medicas" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C5%A1ko-perzijske_vojne" title="Grško-perzijske vojne – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Grško-perzijske vojne" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%98%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8" title="Грчко-персијски ратови – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Грчко-персијски ратови" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a 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For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Persian_Wars_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Wars (disambiguation)">Persian Wars (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1034237262">.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="stack mw-stack stack-clear-right"><div><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Greco-Persian Wars</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek-Persian_duel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Greek-Persian_duel.jpg/250px-Greek-Persian_duel.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Greek-Persian_duel.jpg/375px-Greek-Persian_duel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Greek-Persian_duel.jpg/500px-Greek-Persian_duel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="868" data-file-height="859" /></a></span><br />Combat between a Persian soldier (left) and a Greek <a href="/wiki/Hoplite" title="Hoplite">hoplite</a> (right), depicted on a <a href="/wiki/Kylix" title="Kylix">kylix</a> at the <a href="/wiki/National_Archaeological_Museum,_Athens" title="National Archaeological Museum, Athens">National Archaeological Museum of Athens</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>499–449 BC<sup id="ref_i" class="reference"><a href="#cnote_i">[i]</a></sup></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location">Southeast Europe (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Islands" title="Aegean Islands">Aegean Islands</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history_of_Cyprus" title="Ancient history of Cyprus">Cyprus</a>), West Asia (<a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>), and Northeast Africa (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egypt</a>)</div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> Greek victory<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Territorial<br />changes</th><td> <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionia</a> regain their independence from <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Persia</a></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <b><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek city-states</a></b>:<sup id="ref_iv" class="reference"><a href="#cnote_iv">[iv]</a></sup><br /> •  <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Athens</a><br /> •  <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a><br /> •  <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Greece" title="Thebes, Greece">Thebes</a><br /> •  <a href="/wiki/Thespiae" title="Thespiae">Thespiae</a><br /> •  <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Cyprus">Cyprus</a><br /><span class="nowrap"> </span> •  <a href="/wiki/Delian_League" title="Delian League">Delian League</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <b><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></b><hr /><a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greek</a> <a href="/wiki/Vassal" title="Vassal">vassals</a>:<br /> •  <a href="/wiki/Halicarnassus" title="Halicarnassus">Halicarnassus</a><br /> •  <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Thessaly" title="Ancient Thessaly">Thessalia</a><br /> •  <a href="/wiki/Boeotia" title="Boeotia">Boeotia</a><br /> •  <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Greece" title="Thebes, Greece">Thebes</a><br /> •  <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedon</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <b><a href="/wiki/Miltiades_the_Younger" class="mw-redirect" title="Miltiades the Younger">Miltiades</a></b><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Pericles" title="Pericles">Pericles</a></b><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Leonidas_I" title="Leonidas I">Leonidas I</a></b> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Themistocles" title="Themistocles">Themistocles</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Adeimantus_of_Corinth" title="Adeimantus of Corinth">Adeimantus</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Ameinias_of_Athens" title="Ameinias of Athens">Ameinias of Athens</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Arimnestos" title="Arimnestos">Arimnestos</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_the_Phocaean" title="Dionysius the Phocaean">Dionysius the Phocaean</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Eurybiades" title="Eurybiades">Eurybiades</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Leotychides" class="mw-redirect" title="Leotychides">Leotychides</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pausanias (general)">Pausanias</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Xanthippus" class="mw-redirect" title="Xanthippus">Xanthippus</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Charopinos&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charopinos (page does not exist)">Charopinos</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hermophantus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hermophantus (page does not exist)">Hermophantus</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Melanthius_(general)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Melanthius (general) (page does not exist)">Melanthius</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br />Posidonius <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stesilaos&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Stesilaos (page does not exist)">Stesilaos</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Amompharetus" title="Amompharetus">Amompharetus</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Aristagoras" title="Aristagoras">Aristagoras</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Aristocyprus" title="Aristocyprus">Aristocyprus</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Callimachus_(polemarch)" title="Callimachus (polemarch)">Callimachus</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Charitimides" title="Charitimides">Charitimides</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Cimon" title="Cimon">Cimon</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Cynaegirus" title="Cynaegirus">Cynaegirus</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Demophilus_of_Thespiae" title="Demophilus of Thespiae">Demophilus</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Eualcides" title="Eualcides">Eualcides</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Histiaeus" title="Histiaeus">Histiaeus</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Onesilus" title="Onesilus">Onesilus</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Perilaus" class="mw-redirect" title="Perilaus">Perilaus</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Coes_of_Mytilene" title="Coes of Mytilene">Coes of Mytilene</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Leontiades_(Thermopylae)" title="Leontiades (Thermopylae)">Leontiades</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Surrender_(military)" title="Surrendered"><img alt="Surrendered" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/14px-White_flag_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/21px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/White_flag_icon.svg/28px-White_flag_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="351" /></a></span></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <b><a href="/wiki/Darius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius I">Darius I</a></b><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes I</a></b><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_I_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Artaxerxes I of Persia">Artaxerxes I</a></b><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Artemisia_I_of_Caria" title="Artemisia I of Caria">Artemisia I</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Ariomardus" title="Ariomardus">Ariomardus</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Artabazos_I_of_Phrygia" title="Artabazos I of Phrygia">Artabazus</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Artapanus_(general)" title="Artapanus (general)">Artapanus</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Artaphernes" title="Artaphernes">Artaphernes</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Artaphernes_(son_of_Artaphernes)" class="mw-redirect" title="Artaphernes (son of Artaphernes)">Artaphernes (son of Artaphernes)</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Artyphius" title="Artyphius">Artyphius</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Datis" title="Datis">Datis</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Boges" title="Boges">Boges</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Gongylos" title="Gongylos">Gongylos</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Hippias_(tyrant)" title="Hippias (tyrant)">Hippias</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Hydarnes_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydarnes II">Hydarnes II</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Masistes" title="Masistes">Masistes</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Megabates" title="Megabates">Megabates</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Megabazus" title="Megabazus">Megabazus</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Megabyzus" title="Megabyzus">Megabyzus</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Otanes_(son_of_Sisamnes)" title="Otanes (son of Sisamnes)">Otanes</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Tithraustes" title="Tithraustes">Tithraustes</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Artayntes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Artayntes (page does not exist)">Artayntes</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Azanes_(son_of_Arteios)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Azanes (son of Arteios) (page does not exist)">Azanes (son of Arteios)</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hyamees&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hyamees (page does not exist)">Hyamees</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ithamitres&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ithamitres (page does not exist)">Ithamitres</a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peraxes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peraxes (page does not exist)">Peraxes</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Artybius" title="Artybius">Artybius</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Daurises&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Daurises (page does not exist)">Daurises</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mardontes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mardontes (page does not exist)">Mardontes</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Tigranes" title="Tigranes">Tigranes</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Achaemenes_(satrap)" title="Achaemenes (satrap)">Achaemenes</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Ariabignes" title="Ariabignes">Ariabignes</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Damasithymus" title="Damasithymus">Damasithymus</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Mardonius_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mardonius (general)">Mardonius</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Masistius" title="Masistius">Masistius</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Pherendatis" title="Pherendatis">Pherendatis</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Artayctes" title="Artayctes">Artayctes</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" 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Revolt">Ionian Revolt</a> • <a href="/wiki/First_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="First Persian invasion of Greece">First Persian invasion of Greece</a> • <a href="/wiki/Second_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="Second Persian invasion of Greece">Second Persian invasion of Greece</a> • <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Delian_League" title="Wars of the Delian League">Wars of the Delian League</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Punic_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Punic Wars">Greco-Punic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Peloponnesian_War" title="First Peloponnesian War">First Peloponnesian War</a> (<a href="/wiki/Second_Sacred_War" title="Second Sacred War">Second Sacred War</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samian_War" title="Samian War">Samian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phyle_Campaign" title="Phyle Campaign">Phyle Campaign</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></div> <p>The <b>Greco-Persian Wars</b> (also often called the <b>Persian Wars</b>) were a series of conflicts between the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">Greek city-states</a> that started in 499 BC<sup id="ref_i" class="reference"><a href="#cnote_i">[i]</a></sup> and lasted until 449 BC. The collision between the fractious political world of the Greeks and the enormous empire of the Persians began when <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a> conquered the Greek-inhabited region of <a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionia</a> in 547 BC. Struggling to control the independent-minded cities of Ionia, the Persians appointed <a href="/wiki/Tyrant#Historical_forms" title="Tyrant">tyrants</a> to rule each of them. This would prove to be the source of much trouble for the Greeks and Persians alike. </p><p>In 499 BC, the tyrant of <a href="/wiki/Miletus" title="Miletus">Miletus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aristagoras" title="Aristagoras">Aristagoras</a>, embarked on an <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Naxos_(499_BC)" title="Siege of Naxos (499 BC)">expedition</a> to conquer the island of <a href="/wiki/Naxos_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Naxos Island">Naxos</a>, with Persian support;<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, the expedition was a debacle and, preempting his dismissal, Aristagoras incited all of Hellenic <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> into rebellion against the Persians. This was the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Ionian_Revolt" title="Ionian Revolt">Ionian Revolt</a>, which would last until 493 BC, progressively drawing more regions of Asia Minor into the conflict. Aristagoras secured military support from <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Athens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eretria" title="Eretria">Eretria</a>, and in 498 BC these forces helped to capture and burn the Persian regional capital of <a href="/wiki/Sardis" title="Sardis">Sardis</a>. The Persian king <a href="/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius the Great</a> vowed to have revenge on Athens and Eretria for this act. The revolt continued, with the two sides effectively stalemated throughout 497–495 BC. In 494 BC, the Persians regrouped and attacked the epicenter of the revolt in Miletus. At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lade" title="Battle of Lade">Battle of Lade</a>, the Ionians suffered a decisive defeat, and the rebellion collapsed, with the final embers being stamped out the following year. </p><p>Seeking to secure his empire from further revolts and from the interference of the mainland Greeks, Darius embarked on a scheme to conquer Greece and to punish Athens and Eretria for the burning of Sardis. The <a href="/wiki/First_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="First Persian invasion of Greece">first Persian invasion of Greece</a> began in 492 BC, with the Persian general <a href="/wiki/Mardonius_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mardonius (general)">Mardonius</a> successfully re-subjugating <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a> and <a href="/wiki/Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedon">Macedon</a> before several mishaps forced an early end to the rest of the campaign.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2011135–138_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2011135–138-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 490 BC a second force was sent to Greece, this time across the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean Sea</a>, under the command of <a href="/wiki/Datis" title="Datis">Datis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Artaphernes_(son_of_Artaphernes)" class="mw-redirect" title="Artaphernes (son of Artaphernes)">Artaphernes</a>. This expedition subjugated the <a href="/wiki/Cyclades" title="Cyclades">Cyclades</a>, before <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Eretria" title="Siege of Eretria">besieging, capturing and razing Eretria</a>. However, while en route to attack Athens, the Persian force was decisively defeated by the Athenians at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marathon" title="Battle of Marathon">Battle of Marathon</a>, ending Persian efforts for the time being. </p><p>Darius then began to plan to completely conquer Greece but died in 486 BC and responsibility for the conquest passed to his son <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes</a>. In 480 BC, Xerxes personally led the <a href="/wiki/Second_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="Second Persian invasion of Greece">second Persian invasion of Greece</a> with one of the largest ancient armies ever assembled. Victory over the allied Greek states at the famous <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae" title="Battle of Thermopylae">Battle of Thermopylae</a> allowed the Persians to torch an evacuated Athens and overrun most of Greece. However, while seeking to destroy the combined Greek fleet, the Persians suffered a severe defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Battle of Salamis</a>. The following year, the confederated Greeks went on the offensive, decisively defeating the Persian army at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plataea" title="Battle of Plataea">Battle of Plataea</a>, and ending the invasion of Greece by the Achaemenid Empire. </p><p>The allied Greeks followed up their success by destroying the rest of the Persian fleet at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mycale" title="Battle of Mycale">Battle of Mycale</a>, before expelling Persian garrisons from <a href="/wiki/Sestos" title="Sestos">Sestos</a> (479 BC) and <a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</a> (478 BC). Following the Persian withdrawal from Europe and the Greek victory at Mycale, Macedon and the city-states of Ionia regained their independence. The actions of the general <a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pausanias (general)">Pausanias</a> at the siege of Byzantium alienated many of the Greek states from the Spartans, and the anti-Persian alliance was therefore reconstituted around Athenian leadership, called the <a href="/wiki/Delian_League" title="Delian League">Delian League</a>. The Delian League <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Delian_League" title="Wars of the Delian League">continued to campaign</a> against Persia for the next three decades, beginning with the expulsion of the remaining Persian garrisons from Europe. At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Eurymedon" title="Battle of the Eurymedon">Battle of the Eurymedon</a> in 466 BC, the League won a double victory that finally secured freedom for the cities of Ionia. However, the League's involvement in the <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_I_of_Persia#Egyptian_revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Artaxerxes I of Persia">Egyptian revolt</a> by <a href="/wiki/Inaros_II" title="Inaros II">Inaros II</a> against <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_I" title="Artaxerxes I">Artaxerxes I</a> (from 460–454 BC) resulted in a disastrous Greek defeat, and further campaigning was suspended. A Greek fleet was sent to <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a> in 451 BC, but achieved little, and, when it withdrew, the Greco-Persian Wars drew to a quiet end. Some historical sources suggest the end of hostilities was marked by a peace treaty between Athens and Persia, the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Callias" title="Peace of Callias">Peace of Callias</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Herodotos_Met_91.8.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Herodotos_Met_91.8.jpg/170px-Herodotos_Met_91.8.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Herodotos_Met_91.8.jpg/255px-Herodotos_Met_91.8.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Herodotos_Met_91.8.jpg/340px-Herodotos_Met_91.8.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2616" data-file-height="3924" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>, the main historical source for this conflict</figcaption></figure> <p>All the surviving primary sources for the Greco-Persian Wars are Greek; no contemporary accounts survive in other languages. By far the most important source is the fifth-century Greek historian <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>. Herodotus, who has been called the "Father of History",<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was born in 484 BC in <a href="/wiki/Halicarnassus" title="Halicarnassus">Halicarnassus</a>, Asia Minor (then part of the Persian empire). He wrote his 'Enquiries' (Greek <i>Historia</i>, English <i><a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)">(The) Histories</a></i>) around 440–430 BC, trying to trace the origins of the Greco-Persian Wars, which would still have been recent history.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006xvi–xvii_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006xvi–xvii-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Herodotus's approach was novel and, at least in Western society, he invented 'history' as a discipline.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006xvi–xvii_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006xvi–xvii-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As historian <a href="/wiki/Tom_Holland_(author)" title="Tom Holland (author)">Tom Holland</a> has it, "For the first time, a chronicler set himself to trace the origins of a conflict not to a past so remote so as to be utterly fabulous, nor to the whims and wishes of some god, nor to a people's claim to manifest destiny, but rather explanations he could verify personally."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006xvi–xvii_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006xvi–xvii-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some later ancient historians, starting with <a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a>, criticized Herodotus and his methods.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinley197215_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinley197215-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, Thucydides chose to begin his history where Herodotus left off (at the <a href="#Sestos">siege of Sestos</a>) and felt Herodotus's history was accurate enough not to need re-writing or correcting.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinley197215_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinley197215-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> criticised Herodotus in his essay "On The Malignity of Herodotus", describing Herodotus as "<i>Philobarbaros</i>" (barbarian-lover) for not being pro-Greek enough, which suggests that Herodotus might actually have done a reasonable job of being even-handed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006xxiv_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006xxiv-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A negative view of Herodotus was passed on to Renaissance Europe, though he remained widely read. However, since the 19th century, his reputation has been dramatically rehabilitated by archaeological finds that have repeatedly confirmed his version of events.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006377_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006377-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The prevailing modern view is that Herodotus did a remarkable job in his <i>Historia</i>, but that some of his specific details (particularly troop numbers and dates) should be viewed with skepticism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006377_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006377-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, there are still some historians who believe Herodotus made up much of his story.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thucydides-bust-cutout_ROM.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Thucydides-bust-cutout_ROM.jpg/170px-Thucydides-bust-cutout_ROM.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="296" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Thucydides-bust-cutout_ROM.jpg/255px-Thucydides-bust-cutout_ROM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Thucydides-bust-cutout_ROM.jpg/340px-Thucydides-bust-cutout_ROM.jpg 2x" data-file-width="998" data-file-height="1735" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a> continued Herodotus's narrative</figcaption></figure> <p>The military history of Greece between the end of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="Second Persian invasion of Greece">second Persian invasion of Greece</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a> (479–431 BC) is not well supported by surviving ancient sources. This period, sometimes referred to as the <i><a href="/wiki/Pentekontaetia" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentekontaetia">pentekontaetia</a></i> (<i>πεντηκονταετία</i>, <i>the Fifty Years</i>) by ancient writers, was a period of relative peace and prosperity within Greece.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinley197216_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinley197216-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKagan198977_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKagan198977-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The richest source for the period, and also the most contemporaneous, is Thucydides' <i><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War" title="History of the Peloponnesian War">History of the Peloponnesian War</a></i>, which is generally considered by modern historians to be a reliable primary account.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESealey1976264_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESealey1976264-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983336_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFine1983336-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinley197229–30_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinley197229–30-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thucydides only mentions this period in a digression on the growth of Athenian power in the run up to the Peloponnesian War, and the account is brief, probably selective and lacks any dates.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESealey1976248_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESealey1976248-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983343_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFine1983343-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, Thucydides's account can be, and is, used by historians to draw up a skeleton chronology for the period, on to which details from archaeological records and other writers can be superimposed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESealey1976264_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESealey1976264-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More detail for the whole period is provided by Plutarch, in his <a href="/wiki/Parallel_Lives" title="Parallel Lives">biographies</a> of <a href="/wiki/Themistocles" title="Themistocles">Themistocles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aristides" title="Aristides">Aristides</a> and especially <a href="/wiki/Cimon" title="Cimon">Cimon</a>. Plutarch was writing some 600 years after the events in question, and is therefore a secondary source, but he often names his sources, which allows some degree of verification of his statements.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his biographies, he draws directly from many ancient histories that have not survived, and thus often preserves details of the period that are omitted in Herodotus and Thucydides's accounts. The final major existing source for the period is the universal history (<i><a href="/wiki/Bibliotheca_historica" title="Bibliotheca historica">Bibliotheca historica</a></i>) of the 1st century BC Sicilian, <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a>. Much of Diodorus's writing about this period is drawn from the much earlier Greek historian <a href="/wiki/Ephorus" title="Ephorus">Ephorus</a>, who also wrote a universal history.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983360_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFine1983360-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Diodorus is also a secondary source and often derided by modern historians for his style and inaccuracies, but he preserves many details of the ancient period found nowhere else.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Further scattered details can be found in <a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a>'s <i>Description of Greece</i>, while the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> <a href="/wiki/Suda" title="Suda">Suda</a> dictionary of the 10th century AD preserves some anecdotes found nowhere else. Minor sources for the period include the works of <a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Pompeius_Trogus" title="Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus">Pompeius Trogus</a> (epitomized by <a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justinus</a>), <a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ctesias" title="Ctesias">Ctesias of Cnidus</a> (epitomized by <a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photius</a>), which are not in their original textual form. These works are not considered reliable (especially Ctesias), and are not particularly useful for reconstructing the history of this period.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A few physical remnants of the conflict have been found by archaeologists. The most famous is the <a href="/wiki/Serpent_Column" title="Serpent Column">Serpent Column</a> in Istanbul, which was originally placed at <a href="/wiki/Delphi" title="Delphi">Delphi</a> to commemorate the Greek victory at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plataea" title="Battle of Plataea">Plataea</a>. In 1939, Greek archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Spyridon_Marinatos" title="Spyridon Marinatos">Spyridon Marinatos</a> found the remains of numerous Persian arrowheads at the <a href="/wiki/Kolonos_Hill" title="Kolonos Hill">Kolonos Hill</a> on the field of Thermopylae, which is now generally identified as the site of the defender's last stand.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins_of_the_conflict">Origins of the conflict</h2></div> <p>The Greeks of the classical period believed that, in the <a href="/wiki/Greek_Dark_Ages" title="Greek Dark Ages">dark age</a> that followed the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean civilization</a>, significant numbers of Greeks fled and had emigrated to Asia Minor and settled there.<sup id="cite_ref-I14x_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-I14x-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern historians generally accept this migration as historic (but separate from the later colonization of the Mediterranean by the Greeks).<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are, however, those who believe the Ionian migration cannot be explained as simply as the classical Greeks claimed.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These settlers were from three tribal groups: the <a href="/wiki/Aeolians" title="Aeolians">Aeolians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dorians" title="Dorians">Dorians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ionians" title="Ionians">Ionians</a>. The Ionians had settled about the coasts of <a href="/wiki/Lydia" title="Lydia">Lydia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caria" title="Caria">Caria</a>, founding the twelve cities that made up <a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-I14x_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-I14x-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These cities were <a href="/wiki/Miletus" title="Miletus">Miletus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Myus" title="Myus">Myus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Priene" title="Priene">Priene</a> in Caria; <a href="/wiki/Ephesus" title="Ephesus">Ephesus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colophon_(city)" title="Colophon (city)">Colophon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lebedos" class="mw-redirect" title="Lebedos">Lebedos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Teos" title="Teos">Teos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clazomenae" class="mw-redirect" title="Clazomenae">Clazomenae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phocaea" title="Phocaea">Phocaea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erythrae" title="Erythrae">Erythrae</a> in Lydia; and the islands of <a href="/wiki/Samos" title="Samos">Samos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chios" title="Chios">Chios</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-I142_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-I142-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the Ionian cities were independent of one another, they recognized their shared heritage and supposedly had a common temple and meeting place, the <i>Panionion</i>.<sup id="ref_ii" class="reference"><a href="#cnote_ii">[ii]</a></sup> They thus formed a 'cultural league', to which they would admit no other cities, or even other tribal Ionians.<sup id="cite_ref-I143_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-I143-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-I148_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-I148-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The cities of Ionia remained independent until they were conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Lydians" title="Lydians">Lydians</a> of western Asia Minor. The Lydian king <a href="/wiki/Alyattes_of_Lydia" class="mw-redirect" title="Alyattes of Lydia">Alyattes</a> attacked Miletus, a conflict that ended with a treaty of alliance between Miletus and Lydia, that meant that Miletus would have internal autonomy but follow Lydia in foreign affairs.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At this time, the Lydians were also in conflict with the <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Median</a> Empire, and the Milesians sent an army to aid the Lydians in this conflict. Eventually a peaceable settlement was established between the Medes and the Lydians, with the <a href="/wiki/Halys_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Halys River">Halys River</a> set up as the border between the kingdoms.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The famous Lydian king <a href="/wiki/Croesus" title="Croesus">Croesus</a> succeeded his father Alyattes in around 560 BC and set about conquering the other Greek city states of Asia Minor.<sup id="cite_ref-I126_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-I126-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persian</a> prince <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus</a> led a rebellion against the last Median king <a href="/wiki/Astyages" title="Astyages">Astyages</a> in 553 BC. Cyrus was a grandson of Astyages and was supported by part of the Median aristocracy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006377_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006377-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 550 BC, the rebellion was over, and Cyrus had emerged victorious, founding the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> in place of the Median kingdom in the process.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland20069–12_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland20069–12-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Croesus saw the disruption in the Median Empire and Persia as an opportunity to extend his realm and asked the <a href="/wiki/Delphic_Oracle" class="mw-redirect" title="Delphic Oracle">oracle</a> of <a href="/wiki/Delphi" title="Delphi">Delphi</a> whether he should attack them. The Oracle supposedly replied the famously ambiguous answer that "if Croesus was to cross the Halys he would destroy a great empire".<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Blind to the ambiguity of this prophecy, Croesus attacked the Persians, but was eventually defeated and Lydia fell to Cyrus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland200613–14_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland200613–14-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Achaemenid_Empire_under_different_kings_(flat_map).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Achaemenid_Empire_under_different_kings_%28flat_map%29.svg/300px-Achaemenid_Empire_under_different_kings_%28flat_map%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Achaemenid_Empire_under_different_kings_%28flat_map%29.svg/450px-Achaemenid_Empire_under_different_kings_%28flat_map%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Achaemenid_Empire_under_different_kings_%28flat_map%29.svg/600px-Achaemenid_Empire_under_different_kings_%28flat_map%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="672" data-file-height="442" /></a><figcaption>The Achaemenid Empire at its greatest extent under <a href="/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius the Great</a></figcaption></figure> <p>While fighting the Lydians, Cyrus had sent messages to the Ionians asking them to revolt against Lydian rule, which the Ionians had refused to do. After Cyrus finished the conquest of Lydia, the Ionian cities now offered to be his subjects under the same terms as they had been subjects of Croesus.<sup id="cite_ref-I141_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-I141-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cyrus refused, citing the Ionians' unwillingness to help him previously. The Ionians thus prepared to defend themselves, and Cyrus sent the Median general <a href="/wiki/Harpagus" title="Harpagus">Harpagus</a> to conquer them.<sup id="cite_ref-I163_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-I163-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He first attacked Phocaea; the Phocaeans decided to abandon their city entirely and sail into exile in Sicily, rather than become Persian subjects (although many later returned).<sup id="cite_ref-I164_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-I164-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some Teians also chose to emigrate when Harpagus attacked Teos, but the rest of the Ionians remained, and were each in turn conquered.<sup id="cite_ref-I169_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-I169-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the years following their conquest, the Persians found the Ionians difficult to rule. Elsewhere in the empire, Cyrus identified elite native groups such as the priesthood of Judea – to help him rule his new subjects. No such group existed in Greek cities at this time; while there was usually an aristocracy, this was inevitably divided into feuding factions. The Persians thus settled for sponsoring a tyrant in each Ionian city, even though this drew them into the Ionians' internal conflicts. Furthermore, certain tyrants might develop an independent streak and have to be replaced. The tyrants themselves faced a difficult task; they had to deflect the worst of their fellow citizens' hatred, while staying in the favour of the Persians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006147–151_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006147–151-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the past, Greek states had often been ruled by tyrants, but that form of government was on the decline. Past tyrants had also tended and needed to be strong and able leaders, whereas the rulers appointed by the Persians were simply place-men. Backed by Persian military might, these tyrants did not need the support of the population, and could thus rule absolutely.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983269–277_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFine1983269–277-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the eve of the Greco-Persian wars, it is probable that the Ionian population had become discontented and was ready for rebellion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006155–157_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006155–157-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Warfare_in_the_ancient_Mediterranean">Warfare in the ancient Mediterranean</h3></div> <p>In the Greco-Persian wars both sides made use of spear-armed infantry and light missile troops. Greek armies placed the emphasis on heavier infantry, while Persian armies favoured lighter troop types.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby199323–29,_256_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby199323–29,_256-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Persia">Persia</h4></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pers%C3%A9polis._La_Garde.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Pers%C3%A9polis._La_Garde.jpg/300px-Pers%C3%A9polis._La_Garde.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Pers%C3%A9polis._La_Garde.jpg/450px-Pers%C3%A9polis._La_Garde.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Pers%C3%A9polis._La_Garde.jpg/600px-Pers%C3%A9polis._La_Garde.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1675" data-file-height="1107" /></a><figcaption>Persian and Median <a href="/wiki/Immortals_(Achaemenid_Empire)" title="Immortals (Achaemenid Empire)">Immortals</a> in ceremonial dress, bas-relief in <a href="/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Persian military consisted of a diverse group of men drawn across the various nations of the empire.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, according to Herodotus, there was at least a general conformity in armor and style of fighting.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby199323–29_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby199323–29-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The troops were usually armed with a bow, a 'short spear' and a sword or axe, and carried a wicker shield. They wore a leather jerkin,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby199323–29_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby199323–29-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006196_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006196-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although individuals of high status wore high-quality metal armor. The Persians most likely used their bows to wear down the enemy, then closed in to deliver the final blow with spears and swords.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby199323–29_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby199323–29-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first rank of Persian infantry formations, the so-called '<a href="/wiki/Sparabara" title="Sparabara">sparabara</a>', had no bows, carried larger wicker shields and were sometimes armed with longer spears. Their role was to protect the back ranks of the formation.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cavalry probably fought as lightly armed missile cavalry.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby199323–29,_232_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby199323–29,_232-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Greece">Greece</h4></div> <p>The style of warfare between the Greek city-states, which dates back until at least 650 BC (as dated by the '<a href="/wiki/Chigi_vase" title="Chigi vase">Chigi vase</a>'), was based around the <a href="/wiki/Hoplite" title="Hoplite">hoplite</a> <a href="/wiki/Phalanx_formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Phalanx formation">phalanx</a> supported by missile troops.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby1993256_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby1993256-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland200669–72_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland200669–72-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The '<a href="/wiki/Hoplite" title="Hoplite">hoplites</a>' were foot soldiers usually drawn from the members of the middle-classes (in Athens called the <i>zeugites</i>), who could afford the equipment necessary to fight in this manner.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006217_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006217-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The heavy armour (the <i><a href="/wiki/Hoplon" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoplon">hoplon</a></i>) usually included a breastplate or a <a href="/wiki/Linothorax" title="Linothorax">linothorax</a>, greaves, a helmet, and a large round, concave shield (the <i><a href="/wiki/Aspis" title="Aspis">aspis</a></i>) .<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby1993256_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby1993256-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hoplites were armed with long spears (the <i><a href="/wiki/Dory_(spear)" title="Dory (spear)">dory</a></i>), which were significantly longer than Persian spears, and a sword (the <i><a href="/wiki/Xiphos" title="Xiphos">xiphos</a></i>). The heavy armour and longer spears made them superior in hand-to-hand combat and gave them significant protection against ranged attacks.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby1993256_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby1993256-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lightly armed skirmishers, the <a href="/wiki/Psiloi" title="Psiloi">psiloi</a> also comprised a part of Greek armies growing in importance during the conflict; at the Battle of Plataea, for instance, they may have formed over half the Greek army.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby1993227–228_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby1993227–228-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Use of cavalry in Greek armies is not reported in the battles of the Greco-Persian Wars.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Naval_warfare">Naval warfare</h4></div> <p>At the beginning of the conflict, all naval forces in the eastern Mediterranean had switched to the <a href="/wiki/Trireme" title="Trireme">trireme</a>, a warship powered by three banks of oars. The most common naval tactics during the period were <a href="/wiki/Ramming" title="Ramming">ramming</a> (Greek triremes were equipped with a cast-bronze ram at the bows), or boarding by ship-borne marines.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_46-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More experienced naval powers had by this time also begun to use a manoeuver known as <i>diekplous</i>. It is not clear what this was, but it probably involved sailing into gaps between enemy ships and then ramming them in the side.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby199334–37_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby199334–37-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Persian naval forces were primarily provided by the seafaring people of the empire: <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history_of_Cyprus" title="Ancient history of Cyprus">Cypriots</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-VII89_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VII89-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-VI9_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VI9-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other coastal regions of the Persian Empire would contribute ships throughout the course of the wars.<sup id="cite_ref-VII89_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VII89-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Preliminary_contacts_between_Persia_and_mainland_Greece_(507_BC)"><span id="Preliminary_contacts_between_Persia_and_mainland_Greece_.28507_BC.29"></span>Preliminary contacts between Persia and mainland Greece (507 BC)</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ceremony_of_Presenting_Earth_and_Water.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Ceremony_of_Presenting_Earth_and_Water.jpg/220px-Ceremony_of_Presenting_Earth_and_Water.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Ceremony_of_Presenting_Earth_and_Water.jpg/330px-Ceremony_of_Presenting_Earth_and_Water.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Ceremony_of_Presenting_Earth_and_Water.jpg/440px-Ceremony_of_Presenting_Earth_and_Water.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1277" data-file-height="791" /></a><figcaption>According to <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>, the Athenians, hoping for protection against <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a>, made the gift of "<a href="/wiki/Earth_and_Water" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth and Water">Earth and Water</a>" to the Persians in 507 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-penelope.uchicago.edu_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-penelope.uchicago.edu-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ATTICA,_Athens._Circa_510_to_500-490_BC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/ATTICA%2C_Athens._Circa_510_to_500-490_BC.jpg/220px-ATTICA%2C_Athens._Circa_510_to_500-490_BC.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/ATTICA%2C_Athens._Circa_510_to_500-490_BC.jpg/330px-ATTICA%2C_Athens._Circa_510_to_500-490_BC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/ATTICA%2C_Athens._Circa_510_to_500-490_BC.jpg/440px-ATTICA%2C_Athens._Circa_510_to_500-490_BC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="452" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_coinage" title="Ancient Greek coinage">Coinage of Athens</a> at the time of <a href="/wiki/Cleisthenes" title="Cleisthenes">Cleisthenes</a>. Effigy of <a href="/wiki/Athena" title="Athena">Athena</a>, with owl and ΑΘΕ, initials of "<a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>". <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 510</span>–500/490 BC.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 507 BC, <a href="/wiki/Artaphernes" title="Artaphernes">Artaphernes</a>, as brother of <a href="/wiki/Darius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius I">Darius I</a> and Satrap of <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> in his capital <a href="/wiki/Sardis" title="Sardis">Sardis</a>, received an embassy from newly democratic <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>, probably sent by <a href="/wiki/Cleisthenes" title="Cleisthenes">Cleisthenes</a>, which was looking for Persian assistance to resist the threats from <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-MW84_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MW84-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MW123_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MW123-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> reports that Artaphernes had no previous knowledge of the Athenians, and his initial reaction was "Who are these people?".<sup id="cite_ref-MW84_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MW84-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Artaphernes asked the Athenians for "Water and Earth", a symbol of submission, if they wanted help from the Achaemenid king.<sup id="cite_ref-MW123_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MW123-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Athenians ambassadors apparently accepted to comply, and to give "Earth and Water".<sup id="cite_ref-MW84_59-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MW84-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Artaphernes also advised the Athenians that they should receive back the Athenian <a href="/wiki/Tyrant" title="Tyrant">tyrant</a> <a href="/wiki/Hippias_(son_of_Pisistratus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hippias (son of Pisistratus)">Hippias</a>. The Persians threatened to attack Athens if they did not accept Hippias. Nevertheless, the Athenians preferred to remain democratic despite the danger from Persia, and the ambassadors were disavowed and censured upon their return to Athens.<sup id="cite_ref-MW84_59-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MW84-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Athenians dispatched envoys to Sardis, desiring to make an alliance with the Persians; for they knew that they had provoked the <a href="/wiki/Lacedaemonians" class="mw-redirect" title="Lacedaemonians">Lacedaemonians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cleomenes_I" title="Cleomenes I">Cleomenes</a> to war. When the envoys came to <a href="/wiki/Sardis" title="Sardis">Sardis</a> and spoke as they had been bidden, <a href="/wiki/Artaphrenes" class="mw-redirect" title="Artaphrenes">Artaphrenes</a> son of <a href="/wiki/Hystaspes_(father_of_Darius_I)" title="Hystaspes (father of Darius I)">Hystaspes</a>, viceroy of Sardis, asked them, "What men are you, and where dwell you, who desire alliance with the Persians?" Being informed by the envoys, he gave them an answer whereof the substance was, that if the Athenians gave king <a href="/wiki/Darius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius I">Darius</a> <a href="/wiki/Earth_and_water" title="Earth and water">earth and water</a>, then he would make alliance with them; but if not, his command was that they should begone. The envoys consulted together and consented to give what was asked, in their desire to make the alliance. So they returned to their own country, and were then greatly blamed for what they had done.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Herodotus 5.73.<sup id="cite_ref-penelope.uchicago.edu_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-penelope.uchicago.edu-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>There is a possibility that the Achaemenid ruler now saw the Athenians as subjects who had solemnly promised submission through the gift of "Earth and Water", and that subsequent actions by the Athenians, such as their intervention in the Ionian revolt, were perceived as a break of oath, and a rebellion to the central authority of the Achaemenid ruler.<sup id="cite_ref-MW84_59-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MW84-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ionian_Revolt_(499–493_BC)"><span id="Ionian_Revolt_.28499.E2.80.93493_BC.29"></span>Ionian Revolt (499–493 BC)</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ionian_Revolt" title="Ionian Revolt">Ionian Revolt</a></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ionian_Revolt1211" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Ionian_Revolt" title="Template:Campaignbox Ionian Revolt"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Ionian_Revolt" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Ionian Revolt"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Ionian_Revolt" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Ionian Revolt"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ionian_Revolt1211" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Ionian_Revolt" title="Ionian Revolt">Ionian Revolt</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Naxos_(499_BC)" title="Siege of Naxos (499 BC)">Naxos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_Revolt#Sardis" title="Ionian Revolt">Sardis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ephesus_(498_BC)" title="Battle of Ephesus (498 BC)">Ephesos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_Revolt#Cyprus" title="Ionian Revolt">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_Revolt#Battle_of_the_Marsyas" title="Ionian Revolt">Marsyas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_Revolt#Battle_of_Labraunda" title="Ionian Revolt">Labraunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_Revolt#Battle_of_Pedasus" title="Ionian Revolt">Pedasos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lade" title="Battle of Lade">Lade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_Revolt#Fall_of_Miletus" title="Ionian Revolt">Miletos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_Revolt#Chios" title="Ionian Revolt">Chios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_Revolt#Battle_of_Malene" title="Ionian Revolt">Malene</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_burning_of_Sardis_during_the_Ionian_Revolt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/The_burning_of_Sardis_during_the_Ionian_Revolt.jpg/220px-The_burning_of_Sardis_during_the_Ionian_Revolt.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/The_burning_of_Sardis_during_the_Ionian_Revolt.jpg/330px-The_burning_of_Sardis_during_the_Ionian_Revolt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/The_burning_of_Sardis_during_the_Ionian_Revolt.jpg/440px-The_burning_of_Sardis_during_the_Ionian_Revolt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1054" data-file-height="1594" /></a><figcaption>The burning of Sardis by the Greeks and the Ionians during the Ionian Revolt in 498 BC.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Ionian_Revolt" title="Ionian Revolt">Ionian Revolt</a> and associated revolts in <a href="/wiki/Aeolis" title="Aeolis">Aeolis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doris_(Asia_Minor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doris (Asia Minor)">Doris</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Caria" title="Caria">Caria</a> were military rebellions by several regions of <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> against Persian rule, lasting from 499 to 493 BC. At the heart of the rebellion was the dissatisfaction of the Greek cities of Asia Minor with the tyrants appointed by Persia to rule them, along with opposition to the individual actions of two Milesian tyrants, <a href="/wiki/Histiaeus" title="Histiaeus">Histiaeus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristagoras" title="Aristagoras">Aristagoras</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006147–154_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006147–154-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 499 BC the then tyrant of Miletus, Aristagoras, launched a joint expedition with the Persian satrap <a href="/wiki/Artaphernes" title="Artaphernes">Artaphernes</a> to conquer Naxos, in an attempt to bolster his position in Miletus (both financially and in terms of prestige).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006153–154_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006153–154-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-V31_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-V31-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Naxos_(499_BC)" title="Siege of Naxos (499 BC)">mission</a> was a debacle,<sup id="cite_ref-V33_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-V33-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and sensing his imminent removal as tyrant, Aristagoras chose to incite the whole of Ionia into rebellion against the Persian king <a href="/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius the Great</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006155–157_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006155–157-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ionian_Revolt_Campaign_Map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Ionian_Revolt_Campaign_Map.png/200px-Ionian_Revolt_Campaign_Map.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Ionian_Revolt_Campaign_Map.png/300px-Ionian_Revolt_Campaign_Map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Ionian_Revolt_Campaign_Map.png/400px-Ionian_Revolt_Campaign_Map.png 2x" data-file-width="1645" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Map showing main events of the Ionian Revolt.</figcaption></figure> <p>Struggling to rule the independent-minded cities of Ionia, the Persians appointed local <a href="/wiki/Tyrant" title="Tyrant">tyrants</a> to rule each of them. This would prove to be the source of much trouble for the Greeks and Persians alike. In 498 BC, supported by troops from Athens and Eretria, the Ionians marched on, captured, and burnt Sardis.<sup id="cite_ref-V100*_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-V100*-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, on their return journey to Ionia, they were followed by Persian troops, and decisively beaten at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ephesus_(498_BC)" title="Battle of Ephesus (498 BC)">Battle of Ephesus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-V102_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-V102-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This campaign was the only offensive action taken by the Ionians, who subsequently went on the defensive. The Persians responded in 497 BC with a three-pronged attack aimed at recapturing the outlying areas of the rebellious territory,<sup id="cite_ref-V116_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-V116-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the spread of the revolt to Caria meant the largest army, under <a href="/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius</a>, moved there instead.<sup id="cite_ref-V117_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-V117-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While at first campaigning successfully in Caria, this army was wiped out in an ambush at the <a href="/wiki/Ionian_Revolt#Battle_of_Pedasus" title="Ionian Revolt">Battle of Pedasus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-V121_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-V121-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This resulted in a stalemate for the rest of 496 and 495 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 494 BC the Persian army and navy had regrouped, and they made straight for the epicentre of the rebellion at Miletus.<sup id="cite_ref-VI6_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VI6-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ionian fleet sought to defend Miletus by sea, but was defeated decisively at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lade" title="Battle of Lade">Battle of Lade</a>, after the <a href="/wiki/Samos" title="Samos">Samians</a> had defected.<sup id="cite_ref-VI8_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VI8-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Miletus was then besieged, captured, and its population was enslaved.<sup id="cite_ref-VI19_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VI19-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This double defeat effectively ended the revolt, and the Carians surrendered to the Persians as a result.<sup id="cite_ref-VI25_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VI25-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Persians spent 493 BC reducing the cities along the west coast that still held out against them,<sup id="cite_ref-VI31_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VI31-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> before finally imposing a peace settlement on Ionia that was considered<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (June 2011)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> to be both just and fair.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006175–177_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006175–177-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Ionian Revolt constituted the first major conflict between Greece and the Achaemenid Empire and represents the first phase of the Greco-Persian Wars. Asia Minor had been brought back into the Persian fold, but Darius had vowed to punish Athens and Eretria for their support for the revolt. Moreover, seeing that the political situation in Greece posed a continued threat to the stability of his Empire, he decided to embark on the conquest of all Greece.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006175–177_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006175–177-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="First_invasion_of_Greece_(492–490_BC)"><span id="First_invasion_of_Greece_.28492.E2.80.93490_BC.29"></span>First invasion of Greece (492–490 BC)</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/First_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="First Persian invasion of Greece">First Persian invasion of Greece</a></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="First_Persian_invasion_of_Greece867" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_First_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="Template:Campaignbox First Persian invasion of Greece"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_First_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="Template talk:Campaignbox First Persian invasion of Greece"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_First_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox First Persian invasion of Greece"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="First_Persian_invasion_of_Greece867" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/First_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="First Persian invasion of Greece">First Persian invasion <br /> of Greece</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Persian_invasion_of_Greece#Lindos" title="First Persian invasion of Greece">Lindos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Persian_invasion_of_Greece#Naxos" title="First Persian invasion of Greece">Naxos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Persian_invasion_of_Greece#Karystos" title="First Persian invasion of Greece">Karystos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Eretria" title="Siege of Eretria">Eretria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marathon" title="Battle of Marathon">Marathon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>After having reconquered Ionia, the Persians began to plan their next moves of extinguishing the threat to their empire from Greece; and punishing Athens and Eretria. The resultant <a href="/wiki/First_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="First Persian invasion of Greece">first Persian invasion of Greece</a> consisted of two main campaigns.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006177–178_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006177–178-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="492_BC:_Mardonius'_campaign"><span id="492_BC:_Mardonius.27_campaign"></span>492 BC: Mardonius' campaign</h3></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg/300px-Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg/450px-Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg/600px-Map_Greco-Persian_Wars-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="992" data-file-height="793" /></a><figcaption>Map showing events of the first phases of the Greco-Persian Wars</figcaption></figure> <p>The first campaign, in 492 BC, was led by Darius's son-in-law <a href="/wiki/Mardonius_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mardonius (general)">Mardonius</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-VI43_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VI43-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who re-subjugated <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a>, which had nominally been part of the Persian empire since 513 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006153_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006153-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mardonius was also able to force <a href="/wiki/Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedon">Macedon</a> to become a fully subordinate client kingdom of Persia; it had previously been a <a href="/wiki/Vassal" title="Vassal">vassal</a>, but retained a broad degree of autonomy.<sup id="cite_ref-VI44_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VI44-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2011343_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2011343-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, further progress in this campaign was prevented when Mardonius's fleet was wrecked in a storm off the coast of <a href="/wiki/Mount_Athos" title="Mount Athos">Mount Athos</a>. Mardonius himself was then injured in a raid on his camp by a Thracian tribe, and after this he returned with the rest of the expedition to Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-VI44_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VI44-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-VI45_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VI45-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The following year, having given clear warning of his plans, Darius sent ambassadors to all the cities of Greece, demanding their submission. He received it from almost all of them, except Athens and <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a>, both of whom instead executed the ambassadors.<sup id="cite_ref-VI48_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VI48-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With Athens still defiant, and Sparta now also effectively at war with him, Darius ordered a further military campaign for the following year.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006181–183_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006181–183-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="490_BC:_Datis_and_Artaphernes'_campaign"><span id="490_BC:_Datis_and_Artaphernes.27_campaign"></span>490 BC: Datis and Artaphernes' campaign</h3></div> <p>In 490 BC, <a href="/wiki/Datis" title="Datis">Datis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Artaphernes_(son_of_Artaphernes)" class="mw-redirect" title="Artaphernes (son of Artaphernes)">Artaphernes</a> (son of the satrap <a href="/wiki/Artaphernes" title="Artaphernes">Artaphernes</a>) were given command of an amphibious invasion force, and set sail from <a href="/wiki/Cilicia" title="Cilicia">Cilicia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006181–183_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006181–183-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Persian force sailed first to the island of <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a>, where a Lindian Temple Chronicle records that <a href="/wiki/Datis" title="Datis">Datis</a> besieged the city of <a href="/wiki/Lindos" title="Lindos">Lindos</a>, but was unsuccessful.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fleet sailed next to Naxos, to punish the Naxians for their resistance to the failed expedition the Persians had mounted there a decade earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006183–186_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006183–186-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the inhabitants fled to the mountains; those that the Persians caught were enslaved. The Persians then burnt the city and temples of the Naxians.<sup id="cite_ref-VI96_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VI96-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fleet then proceeded to island-hop across the rest of the Aegean on its way to Eretria, taking hostages and troops from each island.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006183–186_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006183–186-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The task force sailed on to <a href="/wiki/Euboea" title="Euboea">Euboea</a>, and to the first major target, Eretria.<sup id="cite_ref-VI100_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VI100-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Eretrians made no attempt to stop the Persians from landing or advancing and thus allowed themselves to be <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Eretria" title="Siege of Eretria">besieged</a>. For six days, the Persians attacked the walls, with losses on both sides; however, on the seventh day two reputable Eretrians opened the gates and betrayed the city to the Persians. The city was razed, and temples and shrines were looted and burned. Furthermore, according to Darius's commands, the Persians enslaved all the remaining townspeople.<sup id="cite_ref-VI101_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VI101-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Battle_of_Marathon">Battle of Marathon</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marathon" title="Battle of Marathon">Battle of Marathon</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Marathon_Greek_Double_Envelopment.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Battle_of_Marathon_Greek_Double_Envelopment.png/250px-Battle_of_Marathon_Greek_Double_Envelopment.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Battle_of_Marathon_Greek_Double_Envelopment.png/375px-Battle_of_Marathon_Greek_Double_Envelopment.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Battle_of_Marathon_Greek_Double_Envelopment.png/500px-Battle_of_Marathon_Greek_Double_Envelopment.png 2x" data-file-width="704" data-file-height="554" /></a><figcaption>The Greek wings envelop the Persians</figcaption></figure> <p>The Persian fleet next headed south down the coast of <a href="/wiki/Attica" title="Attica">Attica</a>, landing at the bay of <a href="/wiki/Marathon,_Greece" title="Marathon, Greece">Marathon</a>, roughly 40 kilometres (25 mi) from Athens.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the guidance of <a href="/wiki/Miltiades_the_Younger" class="mw-redirect" title="Miltiades the Younger">Miltiades</a>, the general with the greatest experience of fighting the Persians, the Athenian army marched to block the two exits from the plain of Marathon. Stalemate ensued for five days, before the Persians decided to continue onward to Athens, and began to load their troops back onto the ships. After the Persians had loaded their cavalry (their strongest soldiers) on the ships, the 10,000 Athenian soldiers descended from the hills around the plain. The Greeks crushed the weaker Persian foot soldiers by routing the wings before turning towards the centre of the Persian line. The remnants of the Persian army fled to their ships and left the battle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006195–197_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006195–197-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Herodotus records that 6,400 Persian bodies were counted on the battlefield; the Athenians lost only 192 men.<sup id="cite_ref-VI117_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VI117-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As soon as the Persian survivors had put to sea, the Athenians marched as quickly as possible to Athens.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They arrived in time to prevent Artaphernes from securing a landing in Athens. Seeing his opportunity lost, Artaphernes ended the year's campaign and returned to Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Battle of Marathon was a watershed in the Greco-Persian wars, showing the Greeks that the Persians could be beaten. It also highlighted the superiority of the more heavily armoured Greek hoplites, and showed their potential when used wisely.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006195–197_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006195–197-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interbellum_(490–480_BC)"><span id="Interbellum_.28490.E2.80.93480_BC.29"></span>Interbellum (490–480 BC)</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Achaemenid_Empire">Achaemenid Empire</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Achaemenid_king_fighting_hoplites,_Cimmerian_Bosphorus_intaglio_(composite).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Achaemenid_king_fighting_hoplites%2C_Cimmerian_Bosphorus_intaglio_%28composite%29.jpg/330px-Achaemenid_king_fighting_hoplites%2C_Cimmerian_Bosphorus_intaglio_%28composite%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Achaemenid_king_fighting_hoplites%2C_Cimmerian_Bosphorus_intaglio_%28composite%29.jpg/495px-Achaemenid_king_fighting_hoplites%2C_Cimmerian_Bosphorus_intaglio_%28composite%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Achaemenid_king_fighting_hoplites%2C_Cimmerian_Bosphorus_intaglio_%28composite%29.jpg/660px-Achaemenid_king_fighting_hoplites%2C_Cimmerian_Bosphorus_intaglio_%28composite%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1366" data-file-height="644" /></a><figcaption>Achaemenid king fighting hoplites, <a href="/wiki/Cylinder_seal" title="Cylinder seal">cylinder seal</a> and seal holder, <a href="/wiki/Cimmerian_Bosporus" class="mw-redirect" title="Cimmerian Bosporus">Cimmerian Bosporus</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>After the failure of the first invasion, Darius began raising a huge new army with which he intended to subjugate Greece completely. However, in 486 BC, his <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a> subjects revolted, and the revolt forced an indefinite postponement of any Greek expedition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006202–203_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006202–203-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Darius died while preparing to march on Egypt, and the throne of Persia passed to his son <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes I</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006206–208_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006206–208-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Xerxes crushed the Egyptian revolt, and very quickly resumed the preparations for the invasion of Greece.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006208–211_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006208–211-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since this was to be a full-scale invasion, it needed longterm planning, stockpiling and conscription. Xerxes decided that the <a href="/wiki/Hellespont" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellespont">Hellespont</a> would be bridged to allow his army to cross to Europe, and that a canal should be dug across the isthmus of <a href="/wiki/Mount_Athos" title="Mount Athos">Mount Athos</a> (a Persian fleet had been destroyed in 492 BC while rounding this coastline). These were both feats of exceptional ambition that would have been beyond the capabilities of any other contemporary state<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006213–214_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006213–214-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the campaign was delayed by one year because of another revolt in Egypt and <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Persians had the sympathy of several Greek city-states, including <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Argos" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Argos">Argos</a>, which had pledged to defect when the Persians reached their borders.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Aleuadae" title="Aleuadae">Aleuadae</a> family, who ruled <a href="/wiki/Larissa" title="Larissa">Larissa</a> in <a href="/wiki/Thessaly" title="Thessaly">Thessaly</a>, saw the invasion as an opportunity to extend their power.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Greece" title="Thebes, Greece">Thebes</a>, though not explicitly 'Medising', was suspected of being willing to aid the Persians once the invasion force arrived.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006225,_263_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006225,_263-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 481 BC, after roughly four years of preparation, Xerxes began to muster the troops to invade Europe. Herodotus gives the names of 46 nations from which troops were drafted.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Persian army was gathered in Asia Minor in the summer and autumn of 481 BC. The armies from the Eastern satrapies were gathered in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kritala&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kritala (page does not exist)">Kritala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cappadocia" title="Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a> and were led by Xerxes to Sardis where they passed the winter.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early in spring, it moved to <a href="/wiki/Abydos,_Hellespont" class="mw-redirect" title="Abydos, Hellespont">Abydos</a> where it was joined with the armies of the western satrapies.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Then the army that Xerxes had mustered marched towards Europe, crossing the Hellespont on two <a href="/wiki/Pontoon_bridge" title="Pontoon bridge">pontoon bridges</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Size_of_the_Persian_forces">Size of the Persian forces</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Second_Persian_invasion_of_Greece#Size_of_the_Persian_forces" title="Second Persian invasion of Greece">Second Persian invasion of Greece § Size of the Persian forces</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Xerxes_all_ethnicities.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Xerxes_all_ethnicities.jpg/400px-Xerxes_all_ethnicities.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Xerxes_all_ethnicities.jpg/600px-Xerxes_all_ethnicities.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Xerxes_all_ethnicities.jpg/800px-Xerxes_all_ethnicities.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4770" data-file-height="2335" /></a><figcaption>The soldiers of <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes I</a>, of all ethnicities,<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on the tomb of Xerxes I, at <a href="/wiki/Naqsh-e_Rostam" title="Naqsh-e Rostam">Naqsh-e Rostam</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The numbers of troops that Xerxes mustered for the second invasion of Greece have been the subject of endless dispute. Most modern scholars reject as unrealistic the figures of 2.5 million given by Herodotus and other ancient sources because the victors likely miscalculated or exaggerated. The topic has been hotly debated, but the consensus revolves around the figure of 200,000.<sup id="cite_ref-souza_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-souza-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The size of the Persian fleet is also disputed, although perhaps less so. Other ancient authors agree with Herodotus' number of 1,207. These numbers are by ancient standards consistent, and this could be interpreted that a number around 1,200 is correct. Among modern scholars, some have accepted this number, although suggesting the number must have been lower by the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Battle of Salamis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006320_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006320-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby199393–94_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby199393–94-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other recent works on the Persian Wars reject this number, viewing 1,207 as more of a reference to the combined Greek fleet in the <a href="/wiki/Iliad" title="Iliad">Iliad</a>. These works generally claim that the Persians could have launched no more than around 600 warships into the Aegean.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby199393–94_113-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby199393–94-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greek_city_states">Greek city states</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Athens">Athens</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cylinder_seal_Persian_stabbing_Greek_hoplite_89333.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Cylinder_seal_Persian_stabbing_Greek_hoplite_89333.jpg/220px-Cylinder_seal_Persian_stabbing_Greek_hoplite_89333.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Cylinder_seal_Persian_stabbing_Greek_hoplite_89333.jpg/330px-Cylinder_seal_Persian_stabbing_Greek_hoplite_89333.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Cylinder_seal_Persian_stabbing_Greek_hoplite_89333.jpg/440px-Cylinder_seal_Persian_stabbing_Greek_hoplite_89333.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="843" /></a><figcaption>Cylinder seal, chalcedony; depicts a 'Median' (Persian) warrior, on the left, facing a Greek warrior, with hoplite equipment, stabbing him with a lance; above, a winged solar disk. Achaemenid period, 6th–4th century BC. British Museum BM 89333.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>A year after Marathon, Miltiades, the hero of Marathon, was injured in a military campaign to <a href="/wiki/Paros" title="Paros">Paros</a>. Taking advantage of his incapacitation, the powerful <a href="/wiki/Alcmaeonid" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcmaeonid">Alcmaeonid</a> family arranged for him to be prosecuted for the failure of the campaign. A huge fine was imposed on Miltiades for the crime of 'deceiving the Athenian people', but he died weeks later from his wound.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006214–217_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006214–217-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The politician <a href="/wiki/Themistocles" title="Themistocles">Themistocles</a>, with a power base firmly established among the poor, filled the vacuum left by Miltiades's death, and in the following decade became the most influential politician in Athens. During this period, Themistocles continued to support the expansion of Athens' naval power.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006214–217_117-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006214–217-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Athenians were aware throughout this period that the Persian interest in Greece had not ended,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006208–211_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006208–211-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Themistocles's naval policies may be seen in the light of the potential threat from Persia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006214–217_117-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006214–217-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aristides, Themistocles's great rival, and champion of the <i>zeugites</i> (the 'upper hoplite-class') vigorously opposed such a policy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006217–219_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006217–219-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 483 BC, a vast new seam of silver was found in the Athenian mines at <a href="/wiki/Laurium" class="mw-redirect" title="Laurium">Laurium</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-PT4_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PT4-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Themistocles proposed that the silver should be used to build a new fleet of triremes, ostensibly to assist in a long running war with <a href="/wiki/Aegina" title="Aegina">Aegina</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006219–222_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006219–222-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plutarch suggests that Themistocles deliberately avoided mentioning Persia, believing that it was too distant a threat for the Athenians to act on, but that countering Persia was the fleet's aim.<sup id="cite_ref-PT4_119-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PT4-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fine suggests that many Athenians must have admitted that such a fleet would be needed to resist the Persians, whose preparations for the coming campaign were known. Themistocles's motion was passed easily, despite strong opposition from Aristides. Its passage was probably due to the desire of many of the poorer Athenians for paid employment as rowers in the fleet.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983292_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFine1983292-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is unclear from the ancient sources whether 100 or 200 ships were initially authorised; both Fine and Holland suggest that at first 100 ships were authorised and that a second vote increased this number to the levels seen during the second invasion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006219–222_120-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006219–222-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983292_121-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFine1983292-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aristides continued to oppose Themistocles's policy, and tension between the two camps built over the winter, so the <a href="/wiki/Ostracism" title="Ostracism">ostracism</a> of 482 BC became a direct contest between Themistocles and Aristides. In what Holland characterises as, in essence, the world's first referendum, Aristides was ostracised, and Themistocles's policies were endorsed. Indeed, becoming aware of the Persian preparations for the coming invasion, the Athenians voted to build more ships than those for which Themistocles had asked.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006219–222_120-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006219–222-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, during the preparations for the Persian invasion, Themistocles had become the leading politician in Athens.<sup id="cite_ref-PT5_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PT5-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sparta">Sparta</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vix_crater_hoplite_circa_500_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Vix_crater_hoplite_circa_500_BCE.jpg/180px-Vix_crater_hoplite_circa_500_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="287" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Vix_crater_hoplite_circa_500_BCE.jpg/270px-Vix_crater_hoplite_circa_500_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Vix_crater_hoplite_circa_500_BCE.jpg/360px-Vix_crater_hoplite_circa_500_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="603" data-file-height="962" /></a><figcaption>Probable <a href="/wiki/Spartan" class="mw-redirect" title="Spartan">Spartan</a> hoplite (<a href="/wiki/Vix_crater" class="mw-redirect" title="Vix crater">Vix crater</a>, c. 500 BC).<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The Spartan king <a href="/wiki/Demaratus" title="Demaratus">Demaratus</a> had been stripped of his kingship in 491 BC, and replaced with his cousin <a href="/wiki/Leotychides" class="mw-redirect" title="Leotychides">Leotychides</a>. Sometime after 490 BC, the humiliated Demaratus had chosen to go into exile, and had made his way to Darius's court in <a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006202–203_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006202–203-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Demaratus would from then on act as an advisor to Darius, and later Xerxes, on Greek affairs, and accompanied Xerxes during the second Persian invasion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006223–224_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006223–224-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the end of Herodotus's book 7, there is an anecdote relating that prior to the second invasion, Demaratus sent an apparently blank wax tablet to Sparta. When the wax was removed, a message was found scratched on the wooden backing, warning the Spartans of Xerxes's plans.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, many historians believe that this chapter was inserted into the text by a later author, possibly to fill a <a href="/wiki/Lacuna_(manuscripts)" title="Lacuna (manuscripts)">gap</a> between the end of book 7 and the start of book 8. The veracity of this anecdote is therefore unclear.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hellenic_alliance">Hellenic alliance</h4></div> <p>In 481 BC, Xerxes sent ambassadors to city states throughout Greece, asking for food, land, and water as tokens of their submission to Persia. However, Xerxes' ambassadors deliberately avoided Athens and Sparta, hoping thereby that those states would not learn of the Persians' plans.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> States that were opposed to Persia thus began to coalesce around these two city states. A congress of states met at <a href="/wiki/Corinth" title="Corinth">Corinth</a> in late autumn of 481 BC, and a confederate alliance of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Greece" title="History of Greece">Greek city-states</a> was formed.<sup id="cite_ref-VII145_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VII145-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This confederation had powers both to send envoys to ask for assistance and to dispatch troops from the member states to defensive points after joint consultation. Herodotus does not formulate an abstract name for the union but simply calls them "οἱ Ἕλληνες" (the Greeks) and "the Greeks who had sworn alliance" (Godley translation) or "the Greeks who had banded themselves together" (Rawlinson translation).<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From here on, they will be referred to in this article as the 'Allies'. Sparta and Athens had a leading role in the congress but the interests of all the states influenced defensive strategy.<sup id="cite_ref-VII160_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VII160-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Little is known about the internal workings of the congress or the discussions during its meetings. Only 70 of the nearly 700 Greek city-states sent representatives. Nevertheless, this was remarkable for the disjointed Greek world, especially since many of the city-states present were still technically at war with one another.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006226_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006226-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Second_invasion_of_Greece_(480–479_BC)"><span id="Second_invasion_of_Greece_.28480.E2.80.93479_BC.29"></span>Second invasion of Greece (480–479 BC)</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Second_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="Second Persian invasion of Greece">Second Persian invasion of Greece</a></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Second_Persian_invasion_of_Greece1122" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Second_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="Template:Campaignbox Second Persian invasion of Greece"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Second_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Second Persian invasion of Greece"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Second_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Second Persian invasion of Greece"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Second_Persian_invasion_of_Greece1122" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Second_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="Second Persian invasion of Greece">Second Persian <br /> invasion of Greece</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae" title="Battle of Thermopylae">Thermopylae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Artemisium" title="Battle of Artemisium">Artemisium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_destruction_of_Athens" title="Achaemenid destruction of Athens">Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Salamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Persian_invasion_of_Greece#Siege_of_Potidaea" title="Second Persian invasion of Greece">Potidaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Persian_invasion_of_Greece#Siege_of_Olynthus" title="Second Persian invasion of Greece">Olynthus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plataea" title="Battle of Plataea">Plataea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mycale" title="Battle of Mycale">Mycale</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_480_BC:_Thrace,_Macedonia,_and_Thessaly"><span id="Early_480_BC:_Thrace.2C_Macedonia.2C_and_Thessaly"></span>Early 480 BC: Thrace, Macedonia, and Thessaly</h3></div> <p>Having crossed into Europe in April 480 BC, the Persian army began its march to Greece, taking 3 months to travel unopposed from the Hellespont to <a href="/wiki/Therme" class="mw-redirect" title="Therme">Therme</a>. It paused at <a href="/wiki/Doriskos" class="mw-redirect" title="Doriskos">Doriskos</a> where it was joined by the fleet. Xerxes reorganized the troops into tactical units replacing the national formations used earlier for the march.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Thermopylae_and_movements_to_Salamis,_480_BC.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Battle_of_Thermopylae_and_movements_to_Salamis%2C_480_BC.gif/300px-Battle_of_Thermopylae_and_movements_to_Salamis%2C_480_BC.gif" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Battle_of_Thermopylae_and_movements_to_Salamis%2C_480_BC.gif/450px-Battle_of_Thermopylae_and_movements_to_Salamis%2C_480_BC.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Battle_of_Thermopylae_and_movements_to_Salamis%2C_480_BC.gif/600px-Battle_of_Thermopylae_and_movements_to_Salamis%2C_480_BC.gif 2x" data-file-width="747" data-file-height="561" /></a><figcaption>Major events in the second invasion of Greece</figcaption></figure> <p>The Allied 'congress' met again in the spring of 480 BC and agreed to defend the narrow <a href="/wiki/Vale_of_Tempe" title="Vale of Tempe">Vale of Tempe</a> on the borders of Thessaly and block Xerxes's advance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006248–249_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006248–249-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, once there, they were warned by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Macedon" title="Alexander I of Macedon">Alexander I of Macedon</a> that the vale could be bypassed and that the army of Xerxes was overwhelmingly large, thus the Greeks retreated. Shortly afterwards, they received the news that Xerxes had crossed the Hellespont.<sup id="cite_ref-VII173_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VII173-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At this point, a second strategy was suggested by Themistocles to the allies. The route to southern Greece (<a href="/wiki/Boeotia" title="Boeotia">Boeotia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Attica" title="Attica">Attica</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Peloponnesus">Peloponnesus</a>) would require the army of Xerxes to travel through the narrow pass of <a href="/wiki/Thermopylae" title="Thermopylae">Thermopylae</a>. This could easily be blocked by the Greek hoplites, despite the overwhelming numbers of Persians. Furthermore, to prevent the Persians bypassing Thermopylae by sea, the Athenian and allied navies could block the straits of <a href="/wiki/Artemisium" title="Artemisium">Artemisium</a>. This dual strategy was adopted by the congress.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006255–257_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006255–257-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the Peloponnesian cities made fall-back plans to defend the <a href="/wiki/Isthmus_of_Corinth" title="Isthmus of Corinth">Isthmus of Corinth</a> should it come to it, while the women and children of Athens were evacuated to the Peloponnesian city of <a href="/wiki/Troezen" title="Troezen">Troezen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="August_480_BC:_Battles_of_Thermopylae_and_Artemisium">August 480 BC: Battles of Thermopylae and Artemisium</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae" title="Battle of Thermopylae">Battle of Thermopylae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Artemisium" title="Battle of Artemisium">Battle of Artemisium</a></div> <p>Xerxes's estimated time of arrival at Thermopylae coincided with both the Olympic Games and the festival of <a href="/wiki/Carneia" title="Carneia">Carneia</a>. For the Spartans, warfare during these periods was considered sacrilegious. Despite the uncomfortable timing, the Spartans considered the threat so grave that they dispatched their king <a href="/wiki/Leonidas_I" title="Leonidas I">Leonidas I</a> with his personal bodyguard (the <i>Hippeis</i>) of 300 men. The customary elite young men in the Hippeis were replaced by veterans who already had children. Leonidas was supported by contingents from the Allied Peloponnesian cities, and other forces that the Allies picked up on the way to Thermopylae.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006257–259_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006257–259-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Allies proceeded to occupy the pass, rebuilt the wall the <a href="/wiki/Phocis_(ancient_region)" title="Phocis (ancient region)">Phocians</a> had built at the narrowest point of the pass, and waited for Xerxes's arrival.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006262–264_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006262–264-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thermopylae_ancient_coastline_large.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Thermopylae_ancient_coastline_large.jpg/220px-Thermopylae_ancient_coastline_large.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Thermopylae_ancient_coastline_large.jpg/330px-Thermopylae_ancient_coastline_large.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Thermopylae_ancient_coastline_large.jpg/440px-Thermopylae_ancient_coastline_large.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>The pass of Thermopylae</figcaption></figure> <p>When the Persians arrived at Thermopylae in mid-August, they initially waited for three days for the Allies to disperse. When Xerxes was eventually persuaded that the Allies intended to contest the pass, he sent his troops to attack.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the Allied position was ideally suited to <a href="/wiki/Hoplite" title="Hoplite">hoplite</a> warfare, the Persian contingents being forced to attack the Greek <a href="/wiki/Phalanx_formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Phalanx formation">phalanx</a> head on.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006274_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006274-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Allies withstood two full days of Persian attacks, including those by the elite <a href="/wiki/Persian_Immortals" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Immortals">Persian Immortals</a>. However, towards the end of the second day, they were betrayed by a local resident named <a href="/wiki/Ephialtes_of_Trachis" title="Ephialtes of Trachis">Ephialtes</a> who revealed to Xerxes a mountain path that led behind the Allied lines, according to Herodotus. Herodotus has often been dismissed as a 'story teller', by Aristotle himself among others, and this may be a piece of folklore to create a more engaging narrative. In any case, it is impossible to determine with absolute certainty the legitimacy of Ephialtes' involvement in the battle. The Anopoea path was defended by roughly 1000 Phocians, according to Herodotus, who reportedly fled when confronted by the Persians. Made aware by scouts that they were being outflanked, Leonidas dismissed most of the Allied army, remaining to guard the rear with perhaps 2,000 men. On the final day of the battle, the remaining Allies sallied forth from the wall to meet the Persians in the wider part of the pass to slaughter as many Persians as they could, but eventually they were all killed or captured.<sup id="cite_ref-VII223_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VII223-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Simultaneous with the battle at Thermopylae, an Allied naval force of 271 triremes defended the Straits of <a href="/wiki/Artemisium" title="Artemisium">Artemisium</a> against the Persians, thus protecting the flank of the forces at Thermopylae.<sup id="cite_ref-VIII2_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VIII2-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Here the Allied fleet held off the Persians for three days; however, on the third evening the Allies received news of the fate of Leonidas and the Allied troops at Thermopylae. Since the Allied fleet was badly damaged, and since it no longer needed to defend the flank of Thermopylae, the Allies retreated from Artemisium to the island of <a href="/wiki/Salamis_Island" title="Salamis Island">Salamis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Sack_of_Athens"></span><span class="anchor" id="Sack_of_Athens_(480_BC)"></span><span class="anchor" id="Siege_of_the_Acropolis"></span><span class="anchor" id="Siege_of_the_Acropolis_(480_BC)"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="September_480_BC:_Battle_of_Salamis">September 480 BC: Battle of Salamis</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_Athens" class="mw-redirect" title="Destruction of Athens">Destruction of Athens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Battle of Salamis</a></div> <p>Victory at Thermopylae meant that all <a href="/wiki/Boeotia" title="Boeotia">Boeotia</a> fell to Xerxes; Attica was then open to invasion. The remaining population of Athens was evacuated, with the aid of the Allied fleet, to Salamis.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Peloponnesian Allies began to prepare a defensive line across the <a href="/wiki/Isthmus_of_Corinth" title="Isthmus of Corinth">Isthmus of Corinth</a>, building a wall, and demolishing the road from <a href="/wiki/Megara" title="Megara">Megara</a>, abandoning Athens to the Persians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006300_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006300-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Athens thus fell to the Persians; the small number of Athenians who had barricaded themselves on the <a href="/wiki/Acropolis" title="Acropolis">Acropolis</a> were eventually defeated, and Xerxes then ordered the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_destruction_of_Athens" title="Achaemenid destruction of Athens">destruction of Athens</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006305–306_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006305–306-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_salamis.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Battle_of_salamis.png/300px-Battle_of_salamis.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Battle_of_salamis.png/450px-Battle_of_salamis.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Battle_of_salamis.png/600px-Battle_of_salamis.png 2x" data-file-width="741" data-file-height="556" /></a><figcaption>Schematic diagram illustrating events during the Battle of Salamis</figcaption></figure> <p>The Persians had now captured most of Greece, but Xerxes had perhaps not expected such defiance; his priority was now to complete the war as quickly as possible.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006327–329_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006327–329-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If Xerxes could destroy the Allied navy, he would be in a strong position to force an Allied surrender;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006308–309_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006308–309-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> conversely by avoiding destruction, or as Themistocles hoped, by destroying the Persian fleet, the Allies could prevent conquest from being completed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006303_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006303-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Allied fleet thus remained off the coast of Salamis into September, despite the imminent arrival of the Persians. Even after Athens fell, the Allied fleet remained off the coast of Salamis, trying to lure the Persian fleet to battle.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Partly because of deception by Themistocles, the navies met in the cramped Straits of Salamis.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006310–315_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006310–315-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There, the Persian numbers became a hindrance, as ships struggled to maneuver and became disorganised.<sup id="cite_ref-VIII89_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VIII89-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seizing the opportunity, the Allied fleet attacked, and scored a decisive victory, sinking or capturing at least 200 Persian ships, therefore ensuring the safety of the Peloponnessus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006320–326_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006320–326-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Herodotus, after the loss of the battle Xerxes attempted to build a causeway across the channel to attack the Athenian evacuees on Salamis, but this project was soon abandoned. With the Persians' naval superiority removed, Xerxes feared that the Allies might sail to the Hellespont and destroy the pontoon bridges.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His general Mardonius volunteered to remain in Greece and complete the conquest with a hand-picked group of troops, while Xerxes retreated to Asia with the bulk of the army.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mardonius over-wintered in Boeotia and Thessaly; the Athenians were thus able to return to their burnt-out city for the winter.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006327–329_147-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006327–329-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="June_479_BC:_Battles_of_Plataea_and_Mycale">June 479 BC: Battles of Plataea and Mycale</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plataea" title="Battle of Plataea">Battle of Plataea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mycale" title="Battle of Mycale">Battle of Mycale</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spartans_at_Plataea.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Spartans_at_Plataea.jpg/220px-Spartans_at_Plataea.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Spartans_at_Plataea.jpg/330px-Spartans_at_Plataea.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Spartans_at_Plataea.jpg/440px-Spartans_at_Plataea.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1622" data-file-height="1106" /></a><figcaption>Spartans fighting against Persian forces at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plataea" title="Battle of Plataea">Battle of Plataea</a>. 19th century illustration.</figcaption></figure> <p>Over the winter, there was some tension among the Allies. In particular, the Athenians, who were not protected by the Isthmus, but whose fleet was the key to the security of the Peloponnesus, felt that they had been treated unfairly, and so they refused to join the Allied navy in the spring.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006333–335_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006333–335-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mardonius_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mardonius (general)">Mardonius</a> remained in Thessaly, knowing an attack on the Isthmus was pointless, while the Allies refused to send an army outside the Peloponessus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006333–335_156-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006333–335-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mardonius moved to break the stalemate, by offering peace to the Athenians, using <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Macedon" title="Alexander I of Macedon">Alexander I of Macedon</a> as an intermediate. The Athenians made sure that a Spartan delegation was on hand to hear the Athenians reject the Persians' offer.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006336–338_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006336–338-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Athens was thus evacuated again, and the Persians marched south and re-took possession of it. Mardonius now repeated his offer of peace to the Athenian refugees on Salamis. Athens, with <a href="/wiki/Megara" title="Megara">Megara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plataea" title="Plataea">Plataea</a>, sent emissaries to Sparta demanding assistance, and threatening to accept the Persian terms if they were not aided.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response, the Spartans summoned a large army from the Peloponnese cities and marched to meet the Persians.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When Mardonius heard the Allied army was on the march, he retreated into Boeotia, near <a href="/wiki/Plataea" title="Plataea">Plataea</a>, trying to draw the Allies into open terrain where he could use his cavalry.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006339_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006339-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Allied army, under the command of the regent <a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pausanias (general)">Pausanias</a>, stayed on high ground above Plataea to protect themselves against such tactics. After several days of maneuver and stalemate, Pausanias ordered a night-time retreat towards the Allies' original positions. This maneuver went awry, leaving the Athenians, and Spartans and Tegeans isolated on separate hills, with the other contingents scattered further away near Plataea.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006342–349_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006342–349-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seeing that the Persians might never have a better opportunity to attack, Mardonius ordered his whole army forward.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the Persian infantry proved no match for the heavily armoured Greek hoplites,<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the Spartans broke through to Mardonius's bodyguard and killed him.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After this the Persian force dissolved in rout; 40,000 troops managed to escape via the road to Thessaly,<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the rest fled to the Persian camp where they were trapped and slaughtered by the Greeks, finalising the Greek victory.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006350–355_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006350–355-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Herodotus recounts that, on the afternoon of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plataea" title="Battle of Plataea">Battle of Plataea</a>, a rumour of their victory at that battle reached the Allies' navy, at that time off the coast of <a href="/wiki/Mycale" title="Mycale">Mount Mycale</a> in Ionia.<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their morale boosted, the Allied marines fought and won a decisive victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mycale" title="Battle of Mycale">Battle of Mycale</a> that same day, destroying the remnants of the Persian fleet, crippling Xerxes's sea power, and marking the ascendancy of the Greek fleet.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006357–358_169-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006357–358-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While many modern historians doubt that Mycale took place on the same day as Plataea, the battle may well only have occurred once the Allies received news of the events unfolding in Greece.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDandamaev1989223_170-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDandamaev1989223-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Greek_counterattack_(479–478_BC)"><span id="Greek_counterattack_.28479.E2.80.93478_BC.29"></span>Greek counterattack (479–478 BC)</h2></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Greek_counterattack745" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Greek_counterattack" title="Template:Campaignbox Greek counterattack"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Greek_counterattack" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Greek counterattack"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Greek_counterattack" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Greek counterattack"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Greek_counterattack745" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Greco%E2%80%93Persian_Wars#Greek_counterattack_(479–478_BC)" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco–Persian Wars"><span class="wrap">Greek counterattack</span></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mycale" title="Battle of Mycale">Mycale</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Sestos">Sestos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco%E2%80%93Persian_Wars#Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco–Persian Wars">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco%E2%80%93Persian_Wars#Byzantium" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco–Persian Wars">Byzantium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mycale_and_Ionia">Mycale and Ionia</h3></div> <p>Mycale was, in many ways, the beginning of a new phase in the conflict, in which the Greeks would go on the offensive against the Persians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby1993247_171-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby1993247-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The immediate result of the victory at Mycale was a second revolt among the Greek cities of Asia Minor. The Samians and Milesians had actively fought against the Persians at Mycale, thus openly declaring their rebellion, and the other cities followed in their example.<sup id="cite_ref-IX104_172-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IX104-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TI89_173-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TI89-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sestos">Sestos</h3></div> <p>Shortly after Mycale, the Allied fleet sailed to the Hellespont to break down the pontoon bridges, but found that this had already been done.<sup id="cite_ref-IX114_174-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IX114-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Peloponnesians sailed home, but the Athenians remained to attack the <a href="/wiki/Thracian_Chersonese" class="mw-redirect" title="Thracian Chersonese">Chersonesos</a>, still held by the Persians.<sup id="cite_ref-IX114_174-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IX114-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Persians and their allies made for <a href="/wiki/Sestos" title="Sestos">Sestos</a>, the strongest town in the region. Among them was one <a href="/w/index.php?title=Oeobazus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oeobazus (page does not exist)">Oeobazus</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cardia_(Thrace)" title="Cardia (Thrace)">Cardia</a>, who had with him the cables and other equipment from the pontoon bridges.<sup id="cite_ref-IX115_175-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IX115-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Persian governor, <a href="/wiki/Artayctes" title="Artayctes">Artayctes</a> had not prepared for a siege, not believing that the Allies would attack.<sup id="cite_ref-IX116_176-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IX116-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Athenians therefore were able to lay a siege around Sestos.<sup id="cite_ref-IX114_174-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IX114-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The siege dragged on for several months, causing some discontent among the Athenian troops,<sup id="cite_ref-IX117_177-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IX117-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but eventually, when the food ran out in the city, the Persians fled at night from the least guarded area of the city. The Athenians were thus able to take possession of the city the next day.<sup id="cite_ref-IX118_178-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IX118-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most of the Athenian troops were sent straight away to pursue the Persians.<sup id="cite_ref-IX118_178-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IX118-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The party of Oeobazus was captured by a Thracian tribe, and Oeobazus was sacrificed to the god <a href="/w/index.php?title=Plistorus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Plistorus (page does not exist)">Plistorus</a>. The Athenians eventually caught Artayctes, killing some of the Persians with him but taking most of them, including Artayctes, captive.<sup id="cite_ref-IX119_179-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IX119-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Artayctes was crucified at the request of the people of <a href="/wiki/Elaeus" title="Elaeus">Elaeus</a>, a town which Artayctes had plundered while governor of the Chersonesos.<sup id="cite_ref-IX120_180-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IX120-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Athenians, having pacified the region, then sailed back to Athens, taking the cables from the pontoon bridges with them as trophies.<sup id="cite_ref-IX121_181-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IX121-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cyprus">Cyprus</h3></div> <p>In 478 BC, still operating under the terms of the Hellenic alliance, the Allies sent out a fleet composed of 20 Peloponnesian and 30 Athenian ships supported by an unspecified number of allies, under the overall command of Pausanias. According to Thucydides, this fleet sailed to Cyprus and "subdued most of the island".<sup id="cite_ref-TI94_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TI94-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Exactly what Thucydides means by this is unclear. Sealey suggests that this was essentially a raid to gather as much treasure as possible from the Persian garrisons on Cyprus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESealey1976242_183-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESealey1976242-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is no indication that the Allies attempted to take possession of the island, and, shortly after, they sailed to Byzantium.<sup id="cite_ref-TI94_182-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TI94-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Certainly, the fact that the Delian League repeatedly campaigned in Cyprus suggests either that the island was not garrisoned by the Allies in 478 BC, or that the garrisons were quickly expelled.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Byzantium">Byzantium</h3></div> <p>The Greek fleet then sailed to <a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</a>, which they <a href="/wiki/Siegecraft_in_Ancient_Greece" title="Siegecraft in Ancient Greece">besieged</a> and eventually captured.<sup id="cite_ref-TI94_182-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TI94-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Control of both Sestos and Byzantium gave the allies command of the straits between Europe and Asia (over which the Persians had crossed), and allowed them access to the merchant trade of the Black Sea.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983331_184-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFine1983331-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Siegecraft_in_Ancient_Greece" title="Siegecraft in Ancient Greece">siege</a> was to prove troublesome for <a href="/wiki/Pausanias_the_Regent" title="Pausanias the Regent">Pausanias the Regent</a>. Exactly what happened is unclear; Thucydides gives few details, although later writers added plenty of lurid insinuations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983331_184-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFine1983331-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Through his arrogance and arbitrary actions (Thucydides says "violence"), Pausanias managed to alienate many of the Allied contingents, particularly those that had just been freed from Persian overlordship.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESealey1976264_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESealey1976264-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983331_184-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFine1983331-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TI95_185-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TI95-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ionians and others asked the Athenians to take leadership of the campaign, to which they agreed.<sup id="cite_ref-TI95_185-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TI95-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Spartans, hearing of his behaviour, recalled Pausanias and tried him on charges of collaborating with the enemy. Although he was acquitted, his reputation was tarnished and he was not restored to his command.<sup id="cite_ref-TI95_185-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TI95-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pausanias returned to Byzantium as a private citizen in 477 BC, and took command of the city until he was expelled by the Athenians. He then crossed the <a href="/wiki/Bosporus" title="Bosporus">Bosporus</a> and settled in <a href="/wiki/Kolonai" title="Kolonai">Kolonai</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Troad" title="Troad">Troad</a>, until he was again accused of collaborating with the Persians and was recalled by the Spartans for a trial after which he starved himself to death.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983338–339_186-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFine1983338–339-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The timescale is unclear, but Pausanias may have remained in possession of Byzantium until 470 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983338–339_186-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFine1983338–339-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the meantime, the Spartans had sent <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dorkis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dorkis (page does not exist)">Dorkis</a> to Byzantium with a small force, to take command of the Allied force. However, he found that the rest of the Allies were no longer prepared to accept Spartan leadership, and therefore returned home.<sup id="cite_ref-TI95_185-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TI95-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Wars_of_the_Delian_League_(477–449_BC)"><span id="Wars_of_the_Delian_League_.28477.E2.80.93449_BC.29"></span>Wars of the Delian League (477–449 BC)</h2></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Wars_of_the_Delian_League1778" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Wars_of_the_Delian_League" title="Template:Campaignbox Wars of the Delian League"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Wars_of_the_Delian_League" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Wars of the Delian League"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Wars_of_the_Delian_League" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Wars of the Delian League"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Wars_of_the_Delian_League1778" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Delian_League" title="Wars of the Delian League">Wars of the <br /> Delian League</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Delian_League#Siege_of_Eion" title="Wars of the Delian League">Eion</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Delian_League#Skyros" title="Wars of the Delian League">Skyros</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Delian_League#Karystos" title="Delian League">Karystos</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Delian_League#Naxos" title="Delian League">3rd Naxos</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Eurymedon" title="Battle of the Eurymedon">Eurymedon</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thasian_rebellion" title="Thasian rebellion">Thasos</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Delian_League#Chersonesos" title="Wars of the Delian League">Chersonesos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Delian_League#Battle_of_Pampremis" title="Wars of the Delian League">Pampremis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Delian_League#Siege_of_Memphis" title="Wars of the Delian League">Memphis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Delian_League#Siege_of_Prosopitis" title="Wars of the Delian League">Prosopitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Delian_League#Battle_of_Mendisium" title="Wars of the Delian League">Mendisium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Delian_League#Siege_of_Kition" title="Wars of the Delian League">Kition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Delian_League#Battles_of_Salamis-in-Cyprus" title="Wars of the Delian League">Salamis in Cyprus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Delian_League">Delian League</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Delian_League" title="Delian League">Delian League</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_athenian_empire_431_BC-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Map_athenian_empire_431_BC-en.svg/250px-Map_athenian_empire_431_BC-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Map_athenian_empire_431_BC-en.svg/375px-Map_athenian_empire_431_BC-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Map_athenian_empire_431_BC-en.svg/500px-Map_athenian_empire_431_BC-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="993" data-file-height="794" /></a><figcaption>Athens and her empire in 431 BC. The empire was the direct descendant of the <a href="/wiki/Delian_League" title="Delian League">Delian League</a></figcaption></figure> <p>After Byzantium, the Spartans were allegedly eager to end their involvement in the war. The Spartans were supposedly of the view that, with the liberation of mainland Greece and the Greek cities of Asia Minor, the war's purpose had already been reached. There was also perhaps a feeling that securing long-term security for the Asian Greeks would prove impossible.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006362_187-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006362-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the aftermath of Mycale, the Spartan king <a href="/wiki/Leotychides" class="mw-redirect" title="Leotychides">Leotychides</a> had proposed transplanting all the Greeks from Asia Minor to Europe as the only method of permanently freeing them from Persian dominion. <a href="/wiki/Xanthippus" class="mw-redirect" title="Xanthippus">Xanthippus</a>, the Athenian commander at Mycale, had furiously rejected this; the Ionian cities were originally Athenian colonies, and the Athenians, if no one else, would protect the Ionians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006362_187-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006362-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This marks the point at which the leadership of the Greek Alliance effectively passed to the Athenians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006362_187-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006362-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the Spartan withdrawal after Byzantium, the leadership of the Athenians became explicit. </p><p>The loose alliance of city-states that had fought against Xerxes's invasion had been dominated by Sparta and the Peloponnesian league. With the withdrawal of these states, a congress was called on the holy island of <a href="/wiki/Delos" title="Delos">Delos</a> to institute a new alliance to continue the fight against the Persians. This alliance, now including many of the Aegean islands, was formally constituted as the 'First Athenian Alliance', commonly known as the <a href="/wiki/Delian_League" title="Delian League">Delian League</a>. According to Thucydides, the official aim of the League was to "avenge the wrongs they suffered by ravaging the territory of the king".<sup id="cite_ref-TI96_188-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TI96-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In reality, this goal was divided into three main efforts—to prepare for future invasion, to seek revenge against Persia, and to organize a means of dividing spoils of war. The members were given a choice of either supplying armed forces or paying a tax to the joint treasury; most states chose the tax.<sup id="cite_ref-TI96_188-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TI96-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Campaigns_against_Persia">Campaigns against Persia</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Delian_League" title="Wars of the Delian League">Wars of the Delian League</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Delian_League_Campaign_Map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Delian_League_Campaign_Map.png/300px-Delian_League_Campaign_Map.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Delian_League_Campaign_Map.png/450px-Delian_League_Campaign_Map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Delian_League_Campaign_Map.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Map showing the locations of battles fought by the Delian League, 477–449 BC</figcaption></figure> <p>Throughout the 470s BC, the Delian League campaigned in Thrace and the Aegean to remove the remaining Persian garrisons from the region, primarily under the command of the Athenian politician <a href="/wiki/Cimon" title="Cimon">Cimon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESealey1976250_189-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESealey1976250-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the early part of the next decade, Cimon began campaigning in <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>, seeking to strengthen the Greek position there.<sup id="cite_ref-PC12_190-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PC12-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Eurymedon" title="Battle of the Eurymedon">Battle of the Eurymedon</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pamphylia" title="Pamphylia">Pamphylia</a>, the Athenians and allied fleet achieved a stunning double victory, destroying a Persian fleet and then landing the ships' marines to attack and rout the Persian army. After this battle, the Persians took an essentially passive role in the conflict, anxious not to risk battle if possible.<sup id="cite_ref-PC13_191-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PC13-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Towards the end of the 460s BC, the Athenians took the ambitious decision to support a revolt in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a> <a href="/wiki/Satrapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Satrapy">satrapy</a> of the Persian empire. Although the Greek task force achieved initial successes, they were unable to capture the Persian garrison in <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Egypt" title="Memphis, Egypt">Memphis</a>, despite a three-year long siege.<sup id="cite_ref-TI104_192-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TI104-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Persians then counterattacked, and the Athenian force was itself besieged for 18 months, before being wiped out.<sup id="cite_ref-TI109_193-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TI109-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This disaster, coupled with <a href="/wiki/First_Peloponnesian_War" title="First Peloponnesian War">ongoing warfare</a> in Greece, dissuaded the Athenians from resuming conflict with Persia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESealey1976271–273_194-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESealey1976271–273-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 451 BC however, a truce was agreed in Greece, and Cimon was then able to lead an expedition to Cyprus. However, while besieging <a href="/wiki/Kition" title="Kition">Kition</a>, Cimon died, and the Athenian force decided to withdraw, winning another double victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis_(in_Cyprus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Salamis (in Cyprus)">Battle of Salamis-in-Cyprus</a> to extricate themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-TI112_195-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TI112-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This campaign marked the end of hostilities between the Delian League and Persia, and therefore the end of the Greco-Persian Wars.<sup id="cite_ref-PC19_196-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PC19-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Peace_with_Persia">Peace with Persia</h2></div> <p>After the Battle of Salamis-in-Cyprus, Thucydides makes no further mention of conflict with the Persians, saying that the Greeks simply returned home.<sup id="cite_ref-TI112_195-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TI112-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Diodorus, on the other hand, claims that in the aftermath of Salamis, a proper peace treaty (the "Peace of Callias") was agreed with the Persians.<sup id="cite_ref-DSXII4_197-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DSXII4-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Diodorus was probably following the history of <a href="/wiki/Ephorus" title="Ephorus">Ephorus</a> at this point, who in turn was presumably influenced by his teacher <a href="/wiki/Isocrates" title="Isocrates">Isocrates</a>—from whom there is the earliest reference to the supposed peace, in 380 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983360_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFine1983360-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even during the 4th century BC, the idea of the treaty was controversial, and two authors from that period, <a href="/wiki/Callisthenes" title="Callisthenes">Callisthenes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theopompus" title="Theopompus">Theopompus</a>, appear to reject its existence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESealey1976280_198-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESealey1976280-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is possible that the Athenians had attempted to negotiate with the Persians previously. Plutarch suggests that in the aftermath of the victory at the Eurymedon, <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_I_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Artaxerxes I of Persia">Artaxerxes</a> had agreed to a peace treaty with the Greeks, even naming Callias as the Athenian ambassador involved. However, as Plutarch admits, Callisthenes denied that such a peace was made at this point (c. 466 BC).<sup id="cite_ref-PC13_191-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PC13-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Herodotus also mentions, in passing, an Athenian embassy headed by <a href="/wiki/Callias" class="mw-redirect" title="Callias">Callias</a>, which was sent to <a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa</a> to negotiate with Artaxerxes.<sup id="cite_ref-199" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This embassy included some <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Argos" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Argos">Argive</a> representatives and can probably be therefore dated to c. 461 BC (after an alliance was agreed between Athens and Argos).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983360_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFine1983360-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This embassy may have been an attempt to reach some kind of peace agreement, and it has even been suggested that the failure of these hypothetical negotiations led to the Athenian decision to support the Egyptian revolt.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKagan198984_200-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKagan198984-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ancient sources therefore disagree as to whether there was an official peace or not, and, if there was, when it was agreed. </p><p>Opinion among modern historians is also split; for instance, Fine accepts the concept of the Peace of Callias,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983360_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFine1983360-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whereas Sealey effectively rejects it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESealey1976281_201-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESealey1976281-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Holland accepts that some kind of accommodation was made between Athens and Persia, but no actual treaty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006366_202-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006366-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fine argues that Callisthenes's denial that a treaty was made after the Eurymedon does not preclude a peace being made at another point. Further, he suggests that Theopompus was actually referring to a treaty that had allegedly been negotiated with Persia in 423 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983360_19-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFine1983360-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If these views are correct, it would remove one major obstacle to the acceptance of the treaty's existence. A further argument for the existence of the treaty is the sudden withdrawal of the Athenians from Cyprus in 449 BC, which Fine suggests makes most sense in the light of some kind of peace agreement.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983363_203-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFine1983363-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, if there was indeed some kind of accommodation, Thucydides's failure to mention it is odd. In his digression on the <i>pentekontaetia</i>, his aim is to explain the growth of Athenian power, and such a treaty, and the fact that the Delian allies were not released from their obligations after it, would have marked a major step in the Athenian ascendancy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESealey1976282_204-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESealey1976282-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conversely, it has been suggested that certain passages elsewhere in Thucydides's history are best interpreted as referring to a peace agreement.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983360_19-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFine1983360-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is thus no clear consensus among modern historians as to the treaty's existence. </p><p>The ancient sources that give details of the treaty are reasonably consistent in their description of the terms:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983360_19-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFine1983360-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DSXII4_197-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DSXII4-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESealey1976280_198-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESealey1976280-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>All Greek cities of Asia were to 'live by their own laws' <i>or</i> 'be autonomous' (depending on translation).</li> <li>Persian satraps (and presumably their armies) were not to travel west of the <a href="/wiki/Halys_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Halys River">Halys River</a> (<a href="/wiki/Isocrates" title="Isocrates">Isocrates</a>) <i>or</i> closer than a <a href="/wiki/Day%27s_journey" title="Day's journey">day's journey</a> on horseback to the Aegean Sea (<a href="/wiki/Callisthenes" title="Callisthenes">Callisthenes</a>) <i>or</i> closer than three days' journey on foot to the Aegean Sea (<a href="/wiki/Ephorus" title="Ephorus">Ephorus</a> and Diodorus).</li> <li>No Persian warship was to sail west of <a href="/wiki/Phaselis" title="Phaselis">Phaselis</a> (on the southern coast of Asia Minor), nor west of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyanaean_rocks&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cyanaean rocks (page does not exist)">Cyanaean rocks</a> (probably at the eastern end of the <a href="/wiki/Bosporus" title="Bosporus">Bosporus</a>, on the north coast).</li> <li>If the terms were observed by the king and his generals, then the Athenians were not to send troops to lands ruled by Persia.</li></ul> <p>From the Persian perspective, such terms would not be so humiliating as they might at first seem. The Persians already agreed that the Greek cities of Asia would remain governed under their own laws (under the reorganization conducted by <a href="/wiki/Artaphernes" title="Artaphernes">Artaphernes</a>, following the <a href="/wiki/Ionian_Revolt" title="Ionian Revolt">Ionian Revolt</a>). By these terms, the Ionians were still Persian subjects, as they had been. Furthermore, Athens had already demonstrated their superiority at sea at the Eurymedon and Salamis-in-Cyprus, so any legal limitations for the Persian fleet were nothing more than "de jure" recognition of military realities. In exchange for limiting the movement of Persian troops in one region of the realm, Artaxerxes secured a promise from the Athenians to stay out of his entire realm.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath_and_later_conflicts">Aftermath and later conflicts</h2></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DYNASTS_of_LYCIA._Kherei._Circa_440-30-410_BC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/DYNASTS_of_LYCIA._Kherei._Circa_440-30-410_BC.jpg/300px-DYNASTS_of_LYCIA._Kherei._Circa_440-30-410_BC.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/DYNASTS_of_LYCIA._Kherei._Circa_440-30-410_BC.jpg/450px-DYNASTS_of_LYCIA._Kherei._Circa_440-30-410_BC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/DYNASTS_of_LYCIA._Kherei._Circa_440-30-410_BC.jpg/600px-DYNASTS_of_LYCIA._Kherei._Circa_440-30-410_BC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="417" /></a><figcaption>Dynast of <a href="/wiki/Lycia" title="Lycia">Lycia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kherei" title="Kherei">Kherei</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Athena" title="Athena">Athena</a> on the obverse, and himself wearing the Persian cap on the reverse. <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 440</span>/30–410 BC.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CILICIA,_Soloi._Tiribazos,_Satrap_of_Lydia._Second_reign,_388-380_BC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/CILICIA%2C_Soloi._Tiribazos%2C_Satrap_of_Lydia._Second_reign%2C_388-380_BC.jpg/300px-CILICIA%2C_Soloi._Tiribazos%2C_Satrap_of_Lydia._Second_reign%2C_388-380_BC.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/CILICIA%2C_Soloi._Tiribazos%2C_Satrap_of_Lydia._Second_reign%2C_388-380_BC.jpg/450px-CILICIA%2C_Soloi._Tiribazos%2C_Satrap_of_Lydia._Second_reign%2C_388-380_BC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/CILICIA%2C_Soloi._Tiribazos%2C_Satrap_of_Lydia._Second_reign%2C_388-380_BC.jpg/600px-CILICIA%2C_Soloi._Tiribazos%2C_Satrap_of_Lydia._Second_reign%2C_388-380_BC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="350" /></a><figcaption>Coinage of <a href="/wiki/Tiribazos" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiribazos">Tiribazos</a>, Satrap of <a href="/wiki/Lydia" title="Lydia">Lydia</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Faravahar" title="Faravahar">Faravahar</a> on the obverse. 388–380 BC.</figcaption></figure> <p>Towards the end of the conflict with Persia, the process by which the <a href="/wiki/Delian_League" title="Delian League">Delian League</a> became the Athenian Empire reached its conclusion.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006366-367_205-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006366-367-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The allies of Athens were not released from their obligations to provide either money or ships, despite the cessation of hostilities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESealey1976282_204-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESealey1976282-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Greece, the <a href="/wiki/First_Peloponnesian_War" title="First Peloponnesian War">First Peloponnesian War</a> between the power-blocs of Athens and Sparta, which had continued on/off since 460 BC, finally ended in 445 BC, with the agreement of a thirty-year truce.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKagan1989128_206-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKagan1989128-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the growing enmity between Sparta and Athens would lead, just 14 years later, into the outbreak of the Second <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006371_207-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006371-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This disastrous conflict, which dragged on for 27 years, would eventually result in the utter destruction of Athenian power, the dismemberment of the Athenian empire, and the establishment of a <a href="/wiki/Spartan_hegemony" title="Spartan hegemony">Spartan hegemony</a> over Greece.<sup id="cite_ref-208" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, not just Athens suffered—the conflict would significantly weaken the whole of Greece.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDandamaev1989256_209-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDandamaev1989256-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Repeatedly defeated in battle by the Greeks, and plagued by internal rebellions that hindered their ability to fight the Greeks, after 449 BC, <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_I" title="Artaxerxes I">Artaxerxes I</a> and his successors instead adopted a policy of divide-and-rule.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDandamaev1989256_209-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDandamaev1989256-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Avoiding fighting the Greeks themselves, the Persians instead attempted to set Athens against Sparta, regularly bribing politicians to achieve their aims. In this way, they ensured that the Greeks remained distracted by internal conflicts, and were unable to turn their attentions to Persia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDandamaev1989256_209-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDandamaev1989256-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was no open conflict between the Greeks and Persia until 396 BC, when the Spartan king <a href="/wiki/Agesilaus" class="mw-redirect" title="Agesilaus">Agesilaus</a> briefly invaded Asia Minor; as Plutarch points out, the Greeks were far too busy overseeing the destruction of their own power to fight against the "barbarians".<sup id="cite_ref-PC19_196-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PC19-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>If the wars of the Delian League shifted the balance of power between Greece and Persia in favour of the Greeks, then the subsequent half-century of internecine conflict in Greece did much to restore the balance of power to Persia. The Persians entered the Peloponnesian War in 411 BC forming a mutual-defence pact with Sparta and combining their naval resources against Athens in exchange for sole Persian control of Ionia.<sup id="cite_ref-210" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 404 BC when <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Younger" title="Cyrus the Younger">Cyrus the Younger</a> attempted to seize the Persian throne, he recruited <a href="/wiki/Ten_Thousand_(Greek_mercenaries)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ten Thousand (Greek mercenaries)">13,000 Greek mercenaries</a> from all over the Greek world, of which Sparta sent 700–800, believing they were following the terms of the defence pact and unaware of the army's true purpose.<sup id="cite_ref-211" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the failure of Cyrus, Persia tried to regain control of the Ionian city-states, which had rebelled during the conflict. The Ionians refused to capitulate and called upon Sparta for assistance, which she provided, in 396–395 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-212" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Athens, however, sided with the Persians, which led in turn to another large-scale conflict in Greece, the <a href="/wiki/Corinthian_War" title="Corinthian War">Corinthian War</a>. Towards the end of that conflict, in 387 BC, Sparta sought the aid of Persia to shore up her position. Under the so-called <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Antalcidas" title="Peace of Antalcidas">"King's Peace"</a> that brought the war to an end, <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_II" title="Artaxerxes II">Artaxerxes II</a> demanded and received the return of the cities of Asia Minor from the Spartans, in return for which the Persians threatened to make war on any Greek state that did not make peace.<sup id="cite_ref-213" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This humiliating treaty, which undid all the Greek gains of the previous century, sacrificed the Greeks of Asia Minor so that the Spartans could maintain their hegemony over Greece.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDandamaev1989294_214-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDandamaev1989294-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is in the aftermath of this treaty that Greek orators began to refer to the Peace of Callias (whether fictional or not), as a counterpoint to the shame of the King's Peace, and a glorious example of the "good old days" when the Greeks of the Aegean had been freed from Persian rule by the Delian League.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983360_19-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFine1983360-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Greece" title="History of Greece">History of Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran" title="History of Iran">History of Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_extended_by_diplomatic_irregularity" title="List of wars extended by diplomatic irregularity">List of wars extended by diplomatic irregularity</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <p><span id="cnote_i"><b><a href="#ref_i">^</a></b></span> <b>i:</b> The exact period covered by the term "Greco-Persian Wars" is open to interpretation, and usage varies between academics; the <a href="/wiki/Ionian_Revolt" title="Ionian Revolt">Ionian Revolt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Delian_League" title="Wars of the Delian League">Wars of the Delian League</a> are sometimes excluded. This article covers the maximum extent of the wars.<br /> <span id="cnote_ii"><b><a href="#ref_ii">^</a></b></span> <b>ii:</b> Archaeological evidence for the Panionion before the 6th century BC is very weak, and possibly this temple was a relatively late development.<sup id="cite_ref-215" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /> <span id="cnote_iii"><b><a href="#ref_iii">^</a></b></span> <b>iii:</b> Although historically inaccurate, the legend of a Greek messenger running to Athens with news of the victory and then promptly expiring, became the inspiration for this athletics event, introduced at the 1896 Athens Olympics, and originally run between Marathon and Athens.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006198_216-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006198-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /> <span id="cnote_iv"><b><a href="#ref_iv">^</a></b></span> <b>iv:</b> Not limited to those mentioned in the following list.<br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Greco-Persian-Wars">"Greco-Persian Wars | Definition, Summary, Facts, Effects, & History"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Greco-Persian+Wars+%26%23124%3B+Definition%2C+Summary%2C+Facts%2C+Effects%2C+%26+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fevent%2FGreco-Persian-Wars&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreco-Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEhrenberg2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Victor_Ehrenberg_(historian)" title="Victor Ehrenberg (historian)">Ehrenberg, Victor</a> (2011). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fromsolontosocra00ehre"><i>From Solon to Socrates: Greek History and Civilization During the 6th and 5th Centuries BC</i></a></span> (3 ed.). Abingdon-on-Thames: Routledge. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fromsolontosocra00ehre/page/n127">99</a>–100. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-41558487-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-41558487-6"><bdi>978-0-41558487-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Solon+to+Socrates%3A+Greek+History+and+Civilization+During+the+6th+and+5th+Centuries+BC&rft.place=Abingdon-on-Thames&rft.pages=99-100&rft.edition=3&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-41558487-6&rft.aulast=Ehrenberg&rft.aufirst=Victor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffromsolontosocra00ehre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreco-Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2011135–138-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2011135–138_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoismanWorthington2011">Roisman & Worthington 2011</a>, pp. 135–138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cicero, On the Laws, I, 5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006xvi–xvii-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006xvi–xvii_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006xvi–xvii_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006xvi–xvii_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, pp. xvi–xvii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, e.g. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Thuc.+1.22">I, 22</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinley197215-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinley197215_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinley197215_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFinley1972">Finley 1972</a>, p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006xxiv-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006xxiv_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, p. xxiv.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006377-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006377_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006377_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006377_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, p. 377.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFehling1989" class="citation book cs1">Fehling, Detlev (1989). <i>Herodotus and His 'Sources': Citation, Invention and Narrative Art</i>. Translated by Howie, J.G. Tallahasee: Francis Cairns. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-905205-70-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-905205-70-0"><bdi>978-0-905205-70-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Herodotus+and+His+%27Sources%27%3A+Citation%2C+Invention+and+Narrative+Art&rft.place=Tallahasee&rft.pub=Francis+Cairns&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-905205-70-0&rft.aulast=Fehling&rft.aufirst=Detlev&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreco-Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinley197216-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinley197216_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFinley1972">Finley 1972</a>, p. 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKagan198977-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKagan198977_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKagan1989">Kagan 1989</a>, p. 77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESealey1976264-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESealey1976264_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESealey1976264_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESealey1976264_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSealey1976">Sealey 1976</a>, p. 264.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFine1983336-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983336_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFine1983">Fine 1983</a>, p. 336.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinley197229–30-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinley197229–30_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFinley1972">Finley 1972</a>, pp. 29–30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESealey1976248-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESealey1976248_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSealey1976">Sealey 1976</a>, p. 248.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFine1983343-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983343_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFine1983">Fine 1983</a>, p. 343.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">e.g. Themistocles chapter 25 has a direct reference to Thucydides <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Thuc.+1.137">I, 137</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFine1983360-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983360_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983360_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983360_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983360_19-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983360_19-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983360_19-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983360_19-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983360_19-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFine1983">Fine 1983</a>, p. 360.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen2006" class="citation book cs1">Green, Peter, ed. (2006). <i>Diodorus Siculus – Greek History 480–431 BC: The Alternative Version</i>. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-70604-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-70604-0"><bdi>978-0-292-70604-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Diodorus+Siculus+%E2%80%93+Greek+History+480%E2%80%93431+BC%3A+The+Alternative+Version&rft.place=Austin&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E13&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-292-70604-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreco-Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoebuck1987" class="citation book cs1">Roebuck, R (1987). <i>Cornelius Nepos – Three Lives</i>. Wauconda: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86516-207-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86516-207-5"><bdi>978-0-86516-207-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cornelius+Nepos+%E2%80%93+Three+Lives&rft.place=Wauconda&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Bolchazy-Carducci+Publishers&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-86516-207-5&rft.aulast=Roebuck&rft.aufirst=R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreco-Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTraver2002" class="citation book cs1">Traver, Andrew (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/frompolistoempir00andr"><i>From Polis to Empire, the Ancient World, c. 800 B.C.–A.D. 500: A Biographical Dictionary</i></a>. Santa Barbera: Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. <span class="nowrap">115–</span>116. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-30942-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-30942-7"><bdi>978-0-313-30942-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Polis+to+Empire%2C+the+Ancient+World%2C+c.+800+B.C.%E2%80%93A.D.+500%3A+A+Biographical+Dictionary&rft.place=Santa+Barbera&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E115-%3C%2Fspan%3E116&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-313-30942-7&rft.aulast=Traver&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffrompolistoempir00andr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreco-Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFields2007" class="citation book cs1">Fields, Nic (2007). <i>Themopylae 480 BC</i>. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84176-180-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84176-180-0"><bdi>978-1-84176-180-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Themopylae+480+BC&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-84176-180-0&rft.aulast=Fields&rft.aufirst=Nic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreco-Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-I14x-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-I14x_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-I14x_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+1.142">I, 142–151</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Thuc.+1.12">I, 12</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnodgrass1971" class="citation book cs1">Snodgrass, Anthony (1971). <i>The Dark Age of Greece: An Archaeological Survey of the Eleventh to the Eighth Centuries BC</i>. New York: Routledge. pp. <span class="nowrap">373–</span>376. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-93635-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-93635-4"><bdi>978-0-415-93635-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dark+Age+of+Greece%3A+An+Archaeological+Survey+of+the+Eleventh+to+the+Eighth+Centuries+BC&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E373-%3C%2Fspan%3E376&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0-415-93635-4&rft.aulast=Snodgrass&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreco-Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomasConant2003" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Carol G.; Conant, Craig (2003). <i>Citadel to City-State: The Transformation of Greece, 1200–700 B.C.E</i>. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">72–</span>73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-21602-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-21602-1"><bdi>978-0-253-21602-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Citadel+to+City-State%3A+The+Transformation+of+Greece%2C+1200%E2%80%93700+B.C.E.&rft.place=Bloomington&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E72-%3C%2Fspan%3E73&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-253-21602-1&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Carol+G.&rft.au=Conant%2C+Craig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreco-Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOsborne1996" class="citation book cs1">Osborne, Robin (1996). <i>Greece in the Making, 1200–479 BC</i>. New York: Routledge. pp. <span class="nowrap">35–</span>37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-03583-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-03583-5"><bdi>978-0-415-03583-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greece+in+the+Making%2C+1200%E2%80%93479+BC&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E35-%3C%2Fspan%3E37&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-415-03583-5&rft.aulast=Osborne&rft.aufirst=Robin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreco-Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-I142-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-I142_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+1.142">I, 142</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-I143-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-I143_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+1.143">I, 143</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-I148-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-I148_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+1.148">I, 148</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+1.22">I, 22</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+1.74">I, 74–75</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-I126-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-I126_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+1.26">I, 26</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland20069–12-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland20069–12_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, pp. 9–12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+1.53">I, 53</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland200613–14-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland200613–14_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, pp. 13–14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-I141-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-I141_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+1.141">I, 141</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-I163-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-I163_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+1.163">I, 163</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-I164-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-I164_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+1.164">I, 164</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-I169-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-I169_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+1.169">I, 169</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006147–151-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006147–151_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, pp. 147–151.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFine1983269–277-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983269–277_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFine1983">Fine 1983</a>, pp. 269–277.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006155–157-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006155–157_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006155–157_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, pp. 155–157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby199323–29,_256-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby199323–29,_256_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLazenby1993">Lazenby 1993</a>, pp. 23–29, 256.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_46-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanson2007" class="citation book cs1">Hanson, Victor Davis (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XGr16-CxpH8C"><i>Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power</i></a>. New York: Knopf Doubleday. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-42518-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-42518-8"><bdi>978-0-307-42518-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carnage+and+Culture%3A+Landmark+Battles+in+the+Rise+to+Western+Power&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-307-42518-8&rft.aulast=Hanson&rft.aufirst=Victor+Davis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXGr16-CxpH8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreco-Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby199323–29-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby199323–29_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby199323–29_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby199323–29_47-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLazenby1993">Lazenby 1993</a>, pp. 23–29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006196-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006196_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, p. 196.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarrokh2007" class="citation book cs1">Farrokh, Keveh (2007). <i>Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War</i>. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. p. 76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84603-108-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84603-108-3"><bdi>978-1-84603-108-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shadows+in+the+Desert%3A+Ancient+Persia+at+War&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=76&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-84603-108-3&rft.aulast=Farrokh&rft.aufirst=Keveh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreco-Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby199323–29,_232-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby199323–29,_232_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLazenby1993">Lazenby 1993</a>, pp. 23–29, 232.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby1993256-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby1993256_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby1993256_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby1993256_51-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLazenby1993">Lazenby 1993</a>, p. 256.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland200669–72-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland200669–72_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, pp. 69–72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006217-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006217_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, p. 217.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby1993227–228-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby1993227–228_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLazenby1993">Lazenby 1993</a>, pp. 227–228.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby199334–37-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby199334–37_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLazenby1993">Lazenby 1993</a>, pp. 34–37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-VII89-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-VII89_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-VII89_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.89">VII, 89</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-VI9-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-VI9_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=6.9">VI, 9</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-penelope.uchicago.edu-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-penelope.uchicago.edu_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-penelope.uchicago.edu_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Herodotus/5C*.html">"LacusCurtius • Herodotus – Book V: Chapters 55–96"</a>. <i>penelope.uchicago.edu</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=penelope.uchicago.edu&rft.atitle=LacusCurtius+%E2%80%A2+Herodotus+%E2%80%93+Book+V%3A+Chapters+55%E2%80%9396&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2FHerodotus%2F5C%2A.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreco-Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MW84-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MW84_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MW84_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MW84_59-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MW84_59-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MW84_59-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaters2014" class="citation book cs1">Waters, Matt (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EjhEAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA84"><i>Ancient Persia: A Concise History of the Achaemenid Empire, 550–330 BCE</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">84–</span>85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107009608" title="Special:BookSources/9781107009608"><bdi>9781107009608</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Persia%3A+A+Concise+History+of+the+Achaemenid+Empire%2C+550%E2%80%93330+BCE&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E84-%3C%2Fspan%3E85&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781107009608&rft.aulast=Waters&rft.aufirst=Matt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEjhEAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA84&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreco-Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MW123-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MW123_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MW123_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaters2014" class="citation book cs1">Waters, Matt (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EjhEAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA123"><i>Ancient Persia: A Concise History of the Achaemenid Empire, 550–330 BCE</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107009608" title="Special:BookSources/9781107009608"><bdi>9781107009608</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Persia%3A+A+Concise+History+of+the+Achaemenid+Empire%2C+550%E2%80%93330+BCE&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781107009608&rft.aulast=Waters&rft.aufirst=Matt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEjhEAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA123&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreco-Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006147–154-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006147–154_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, pp. 147–154.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006153–154-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006153–154_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, pp. 153–154.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-V31-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-V31_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+5.31">V, 31</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-V33-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-V33_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+5.33">V, 33</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-V100*-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-V100*_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+5.100">V, 100–101</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-V102-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-V102_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+5.102">V, 102</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-V116-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-V116_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+5.116">V, 116</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-V117-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-V117_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+5.117">V, 117</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-V121-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-V121_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+5.121">V, 121</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurray1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Oswyn_Murray" title="Oswyn Murray">Murray, Oswyn</a> (1988). "The Ionian Revolt". In <a href="/wiki/John_Boardman_(art_historian)" title="John Boardman (art historian)">Boardman, John</a>; <a href="/wiki/N._G._L._Hammond" title="N. G. L. Hammond">Hammond, N.G.L.</a>; Lewis, D.M.; <a href="/wiki/Martin_Ostwald" title="Martin Ostwald">Ostwald, Martin</a> (eds.). <i>The Cambridge Ancient History</i>. Vol. 4. Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">481–</span>490. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05431-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05431-7"><bdi>978-1-139-05431-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Ionian+Revolt&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Ancient+History&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E481-%3C%2Fspan%3E490&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05431-7&rft.aulast=Murray&rft.aufirst=Oswyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreco-Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-VI6-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-VI6_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+6.6">VI, 6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-VI8-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-VI8_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+6.8">VI, 8–16</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-VI19-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-VI19_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+6.19">VI, 19</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-VI25-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-VI25_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+6.25">VI, 25</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-VI31-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-VI31_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+6.31">VI, 31–33</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006175–177-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006175–177_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006175–177_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, pp. 175–177.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006177–178-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006177–178_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, pp. 177–178.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-VI43-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-VI43_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+6.43">VI, 43</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006153-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006153_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, p. 153.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-VI44-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-VI44_80-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-VI44_80-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+6.44">VI, 44</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2011343-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoismanWorthington2011343_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoismanWorthington2011">Roisman & Worthington 2011</a>, p. 343.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-VI45-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-VI45_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+6.45">VI, 45</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-VI48-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-VI48_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+6.48">VI 48</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006181–183-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006181–183_84-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006181–183_84-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, pp. 181–183.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHigbie2003" class="citation book cs1">Higbie, Carolyn (2003). <i>The Lindian Chronicle and the Greek Creation of their Past</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-924191-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-924191-0"><bdi>978-0-19-924191-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lindian+Chronicle+and+the+Greek+Creation+of+their+Past&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E59&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-924191-0&rft.aulast=Higbie&rft.aufirst=Carolyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreco-Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006183–186-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006183–186_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006183–186_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, pp. 183–186.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-VI96-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-VI96_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+6.96">VI, 96</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-VI100-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-VI100_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+6.100">VI, 100</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-VI101-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-VI101_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+6.101">VI, 101</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+6.102">VI, 102</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006195–197-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006195–197_91-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006195–197_91-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, pp. 195–197.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-VI117-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-VI117_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+6.117">VI, 117</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+6.115">VI, 115</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+6.116">VI, 116</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006202–203-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006202–203_95-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006202–203_95-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, pp. 202–203.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006206–208-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006206–208_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, pp. 206–208.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006208–211-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006208–211_97-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006208–211_97-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, pp. 208–211.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006213–214-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006213–214_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, pp. 213–214.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.7">VII, 7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.150">VII, 150</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.6">VII,6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006225,_263-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006225,_263_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, pp. 225, 263.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.62">VII, 62–80</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.26">VII, 26</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.37">VII, 37</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.35">VII, 35</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/uploads/files/Clothing/v5f7a014_f1_300.jpg">Soldiers with names</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917035945/https://iranicaonline.org/uploads/files/Clothing/v5f7a014_f1_300.jpg">Archived</a> 2020-09-17 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, after Walser</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMageePetrieKnoxKhan2005" class="citation journal cs1">Magee, Peter; Petrie, Cameron; Knox, Robert; Khan, Farid; Thomas, Ken (October 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.brynmawr.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1082&context=arch_pubs">"The Achaemenid Empire in South Asia and Recent Excavations in Akra in Northwest Pakistan"</a>. <i>American Journal of Archaeology</i>. <b>109</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">711–</span>741. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3764%2Faja.109.4.711">10.3764/aja.109.4.711</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40025695">40025695</a> – via Bryn Mawr College.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Archaeology&rft.atitle=The+Achaemenid+Empire+in+South+Asia+and+Recent+Excavations+in+Akra+in+Northwest+Pakistan&rft.volume=109&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E711-%3C%2Fspan%3E741&rft.date=2005-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3764%2Faja.109.4.711&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40025695%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Magee&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Petrie%2C+Cameron&rft.au=Knox%2C+Robert&rft.au=Khan%2C+Farid&rft.au=Thomas%2C+Ken&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepository.brynmawr.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1082%26context%3Darch_pubs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreco-Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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New York: Osprey Publishing. p. 41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84176-358-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84176-358-3"><bdi>978-1-84176-358-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Greek+and+Persian+Wars%2C+499%E2%80%93386+BC&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=41&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-84176-358-3&rft.aulast=de+Souza&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreco-Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKöster1934" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Köster, August (1934). <i>Studien zur Geschichte des Antikes Seewesens</i> [<i>Studies on the History of Ancient Maritime Science</i>]. Klio Beiheft (in German). Leipzig: Dieterich. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/34041468">34041468</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studien+zur+Geschichte+des+Antikes+Seewesens&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.series=Klio+Beiheft&rft.pub=Dieterich&rft.date=1934&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F34041468&rft.aulast=K%C3%B6ster&rft.aufirst=August&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreco-Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006320-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006320_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, p. 320.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby199393–94-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby199393–94_113-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby199393–94_113-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLazenby1993">Lazenby 1993</a>, pp. 93–94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen1996" class="citation book cs1">Green, Peter (1996). <i>The Greco-Persian Wars</i>. 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Oxford University Press. p. 154. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-965191-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-965191-7"><bdi>978-0-19-965191-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egypt%2C+Greece%2C+and+Rome%3A+Civilizations+of+the+Ancient+Mediterranean&rft.pages=154&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-965191-7&rft.aulast=Freeman&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkXIVDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT172&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreco-Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006223–224-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006223–224_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, pp. 223–224.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.239.1">VII, 239</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHowWells1912" class="citation book cs1">How, W.W; Wells, Joseph (1912). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/24146/24146-pdf.pdf"><i>A Commentary on Herodotus</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press. p. 239.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Commentary+on+Herodotus&rft.pages=239&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1912&rft.aulast=How&rft.aufirst=W.W&rft.au=Wells%2C+Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Ffiles%2F24146%2F24146-pdf.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreco-Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.32.1">VII, 32</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-VII145-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-VII145_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.145">VII, 145</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.148">VII, 148</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-VII160-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-VII160_130-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.160">VII, 160</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006226-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006226_131-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, p. 226.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.100">VII, 100</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006248–249-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006248–249_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, pp. 248–249.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-VII173-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-VII173_134-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.173">VII, 173</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006255–257-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006255–257_135-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, pp. 255–257.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+8.40">VIII, 40</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006257–259-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006257–259_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, pp. 257–259.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006262–264-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006262–264_138-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, pp. 262–264.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.210">VII, 210</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006274-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006274_140-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, p. 274.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-VII223-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-VII223_141-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.223">VII, 223</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-VIII2-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-VIII2_142-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+8.2">VIII, 2</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+8.21">VIII, 21</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+8.41">VIII, 41</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006300-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006300_145-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, p. 300.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006305–306-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006305–306_146-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, pp. 305–306.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006327–329-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006327–329_147-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006327–329_147-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, pp. 327–329.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006308–309-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006308–309_148-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, pp. 308–309.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006303-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006303_149-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, p. 303.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+8.63">VIII, 63</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006310–315-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006310–315_151-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, pp. 310–315.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-VIII89-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-VIII89_152-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+8.89">VIII, 89</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006320–326-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006320–326_153-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, pp. 320–326.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+8.97">VIII, 97</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+8.100">VIII, 100</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006333–335-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006333–335_156-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006333–335_156-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, pp. 333–335.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006336–338-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006336–338_157-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, pp. 336–338.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+9.7">IX, 7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+9.10">IX, 10</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006339-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006339_160-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, p. 339.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006342–349-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006342–349_161-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, pp. 342–349.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+9.59">IX, 59</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+9.62">IX, 62</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+9.63">IX, 63</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+9.66">IX, 66</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+9.65">IX, 65</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006350–355-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006350–355_167-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, pp. 350–355.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+9.100">IX, 100</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006357–358-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006357–358_169-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, pp. 357–358.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDandamaev1989223-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDandamaev1989223_170-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDandamaev1989">Dandamaev 1989</a>, p. 223.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELazenby1993247-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELazenby1993247_171-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLazenby1993">Lazenby 1993</a>, p. 247.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IX104-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-IX104_172-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+9.104">IX, 104</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TI89-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TI89_173-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0200;query=chapter%3D%2389;layout=;loc=1.88.1">I, 89</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IX114-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IX114_174-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IX114_174-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IX114_174-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+9.114">IX, 114</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IX115-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-IX115_175-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+9.115">IX, 115</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IX116-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-IX116_176-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+9.116">IX, 116</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IX117-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-IX117_177-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+9.117">IX, 117</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IX118-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IX118_178-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IX118_178-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+9.118">IX, 118</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IX119-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-IX119_179-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+9.119">IX, 119</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IX120-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-IX120_180-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+9.120">IX, 120</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IX121-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-IX121_181-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+9.121">IX, 121</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TI94-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TI94_182-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TI94_182-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TI94_182-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Thuc.+1.94">I, 94</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESealey1976242-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESealey1976242_183-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSealey1976">Sealey 1976</a>, p. 242.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFine1983331-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983331_184-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983331_184-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983331_184-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFine1983">Fine 1983</a>, p. 331.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TI95-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TI95_185-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TI95_185-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TI95_185-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TI95_185-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Thuc.+1.95">I, 95</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFine1983338–339-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983338–339_186-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983338–339_186-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFine1983">Fine 1983</a>, pp. 338–339.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006362-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006362_187-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006362_187-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006362_187-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, p. 362.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TI96-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TI96_188-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TI96_188-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Thuc.+1.96">I, 96</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESealey1976250-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESealey1976250_189-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSealey1976">Sealey 1976</a>, p. 250.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PC12-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PC12_190-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plutarch, Cimon, 12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PC13-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PC13_191-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PC13_191-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Plutarch, Cimon, 13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TI104-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TI104_192-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Thuc.+1.104">I, 104</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TI109-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TI109_193-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Thuc.+1.109">I, 109</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESealey1976271–273-194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESealey1976271–273_194-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSealey1976">Sealey 1976</a>, pp. 271–273.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TI112-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TI112_195-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TI112_195-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Thucydides <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Thuc.+1.112">I, 112</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PC19-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PC19_196-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PC19_196-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Plutarch, Cimon, 19</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DSXII4-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DSXII4_197-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DSXII4_197-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Diodorus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Diod.+12.4">XII, 4</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESealey1976280-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESealey1976280_198-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESealey1976280_198-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSealey1976">Sealey 1976</a>, p. 280.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herodotus <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.151">VII, 151</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKagan198984-200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKagan198984_200-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKagan1989">Kagan 1989</a>, p. 84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESealey1976281-201"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESealey1976281_201-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSealey1976">Sealey 1976</a>, p. 281.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006366-202"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006366_202-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, p. 366.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFine1983363-203"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFine1983363_203-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFine1983">Fine 1983</a>, p. 363.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESealey1976282-204"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESealey1976282_204-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESealey1976282_204-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSealey1976">Sealey 1976</a>, p. 282.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006366-367-205"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006366-367_205-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, p. 366-367.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKagan1989128-206"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKagan1989128_206-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKagan1989">Kagan 1989</a>, p. 128.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006371-207"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006371_207-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, p. 371.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Xenophon, Hellenica II, 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDandamaev1989256-209"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDandamaev1989256_209-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDandamaev1989256_209-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDandamaev1989256_209-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDandamaev1989">Dandamaev 1989</a>, p. 256.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRung2008" class="citation book cs1">Rung, Eduard (2008). "Diplomacy in Graeco–Persian relations". In de Souza, Philip; France, John (eds.). <i>War and Peace in Ancient and Medieval History</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81703-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81703-5"><bdi>978-0-521-81703-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Diplomacy+in+Graeco%E2%80%93Persian+relations&rft.btitle=War+and+Peace+in+Ancient+and+Medieval+History&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pages=36&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-521-81703-5&rft.aulast=Rung&rft.aufirst=Eduard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreco-Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Xenophon, Hellenica III, 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Xenophon, Hellenica III, 2–4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Xenophon, Hellenica V, I</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDandamaev1989294-214"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDandamaev1989294_214-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDandamaev1989">Dandamaev 1989</a>, p. 294.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall2002" class="citation book cs1">Hall, Jonathon (2002). <i>Hellenicity: Between Ethnicity and Culture</i>. University of Chicago Press. p. 68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-31329-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-31329-0"><bdi>978-0-226-31329-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hellenicity%3A+Between+Ethnicity+and+Culture&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-226-31329-0&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Jonathon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreco-Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolland2006198-216"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolland2006198_216-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolland2006">Holland 2006</a>, p. 198.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_sources">Ancient sources</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)">The Histories</a></i> (Godley translation, 1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Peloponnesian_War" title="History of the Peloponnesian War">History of the Peloponnesian War</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Anabasis_(Xenophon)" title="Anabasis (Xenophon)">Anabasis</a></i>, <i>Hellenica</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Parallel_Lives" title="Parallel Lives">Parallel Lives</a></i>; Themistocles, Aristides, Pericles, Cimon</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Bibliotheca_historica" title="Bibliotheca historica">Bibliotheca historica</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a>, <i>Lives of the Eminent Commanders</i>; Miltiades, Themistocles</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_sources">Modern sources</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDandamaev1989" class="citation book cs1">Dandamaev, M. A. (1989). <i>A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire</i>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Willem_Vogelsang" title="Willem Vogelsang">Vogelsang, Willem</a>. Leiden: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09172-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09172-6"><bdi>978-90-04-09172-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Political+History+of+the+Achaemenid+Empire&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-90-04-09172-6&rft.aulast=Dandamaev&rft.aufirst=M.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreco-Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFine1983" class="citation book cs1">Fine, John Van Antwerp (1983). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientgreeks00john"><i>The Ancient Greeks: A Critical History</i></a></span>. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03314-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03314-6"><bdi>978-0-674-03314-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Greeks%3A+A+Critical+History&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-674-03314-6&rft.aulast=Fine&rft.aufirst=John+Van+Antwerp&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientgreeks00john&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreco-Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinley1972" class="citation book cs1">Finley, Moses (1972). "Introduction". In Warner, Rex (ed.). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofpelopo000thuc"><i>Thucydides – History of the Peloponnesian War</i></a></span>. Westminster: Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-044039-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-044039-3"><bdi>978-0-14-044039-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Thucydides+%E2%80%93+History+of+the+Peloponnesian+War&rft.place=Westminster&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0-14-044039-3&rft.aulast=Finley&rft.aufirst=Moses&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofpelopo000thuc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreco-Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolland2006" class="citation book cs1">Holland, Tom (2006). <i><a href="/wiki/Persian_Fire:_The_First_World_Empire_and_the_Battle_for_the_West" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Fire: The First World Empire and the Battle for the West">Persian Fire: The First World Empire and the Battle for the West</a></i>. London: Abacus. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-349-11717-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-349-11717-1"><bdi>978-0-349-11717-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Persian+Fire%3A+The+First+World+Empire+and+the+Battle+for+the+West&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Abacus&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-349-11717-1&rft.aulast=Holland&rft.aufirst=Tom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreco-Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKagan1989" class="citation book cs1">Kagan, Donald (1989). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780801405013"><i>The Outbreak of the Peloponnesian War</i></a></span>. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-9556-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8014-9556-3"><bdi>0-8014-9556-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Outbreak+of+the+Peloponnesian+War&rft.place=Ithaca&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-8014-9556-3&rft.aulast=Kagan&rft.aufirst=Donald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780801405013&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreco-Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLazenby1993" class="citation book cs1">Lazenby, J.F. (1993). <i>The Defence of Greece 490–479 BC</i>. Warminster: Aris & Phillips Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85668-591-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85668-591-0"><bdi>978-0-85668-591-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Defence+of+Greece+490%E2%80%93479+BC&rft.place=Warminster&rft.pub=Aris+%26+Phillips+Ltd&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-85668-591-0&rft.aulast=Lazenby&rft.aufirst=J.F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreco-Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoismanWorthington2011" class="citation book cs1">Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QsJ183uUDkMC&q=Achaemenid+Persians+ruled+balkans&pg=PA345"><i>A Companion to Ancient Macedonia</i></a>. Hoboken: John Wiley and Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-44-435163-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-44-435163-7"><bdi>978-1-44-435163-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-03-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Ancient+Macedonia&rft.place=Hoboken&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-44-435163-7&rft.aulast=Roisman&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft.au=Worthington%2C+Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQsJ183uUDkMC%26q%3DAchaemenid%2BPersians%2Bruled%2Bbalkans%26pg%3DPA345&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreco-Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSealey1976" class="citation book cs1">Sealey, Raphael (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofgreekci00raph"><i>A History of the Greek City States, 700–338 B.C.</i></a> Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-03177-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-03177-7"><bdi>978-0-520-03177-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Greek+City+States%2C+700%E2%80%93338+B.C.&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-520-03177-7&rft.aulast=Sealey&rft.aufirst=Raphael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofgreekci00raph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreco-Persian+Wars" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Greco%E2%80%93Persian_Wars" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Greco–Persian Wars">Greco–Persian Wars</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Achaemenid_Empire&#124;link=Achaemenid_Empire_Achaemenid_Empire264" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background:#DEB887"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Achaemenid_Empire" title="Template:Achaemenid Empire"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Achaemenid_Empire" title="Template talk:Achaemenid Empire"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Achaemenid_Empire" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Achaemenid Empire"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Achaemenid_Empire&#124;link=Achaemenid_Empire_Achaemenid_Empire264" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire"><img alt="Achaemenid Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great_%28Blue%29.svg/15px-Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great_%28Blue%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great_%28Blue%29.svg/23px-Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great_%28Blue%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great_%28Blue%29.svg/30px-Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great_%28Blue%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="470" data-file-height="470" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_family_tree" title="Achaemenid family tree">Family tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of the Achaemenid Empire">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_democracy_in_classical_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="History of democracy in classical Iran">History of democracy</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Achaemenid_Falcon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Achaemenid_Falcon.svg/150px-Achaemenid_Falcon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Achaemenid_Falcon.svg/225px-Achaemenid_Falcon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Achaemenid_Falcon.svg/300px-Achaemenid_Falcon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="397" data-file-height="333" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887">Art</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Persian_Lion_Rhyton" title="Achaemenid Persian Lion Rhyton">Achaemenid Persian Lion Rhyton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxus_Treasure" title="Oxus Treasure">Oxus Treasure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_coinage" title="Achaemenid coinage">Achaemenid coinage</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Apadana_hoard" title="Apadana hoard">Apadana hoard</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Danake" title="Danake">Danake</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Daric" title="Daric">Daric</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887"><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_architecture" title="Achaemenid architecture">Architecture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Apadana" title="Apadana">Apadana</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Gate_of_All_Nations" title="Gate of All Nations">Gate of All Nations</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Tachara" title="Tachara">Tachara</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Darius_in_Susa" title="Palace of Darius in Susa">Palace of Darius in Susa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Cyrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Tomb of Cyrus">Tomb of Cyrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_column" title="Persian column">Persian column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naqsh-e_Rostam" title="Naqsh-e Rostam">Naqsh-e Rostam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ka%27ba-ye_Zartosht" title="Ka'ba-ye Zartosht">Ka'ba-ye Zartosht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mausoleum_at_Halicarnassus" title="Mausoleum at Halicarnassus">Mausoleum at Halicarnassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tombs_at_Xanthos" title="Tombs at Xanthos">Tombs at Xanthos</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Harpy_Tomb" title="Harpy Tomb">Harpy Tomb</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Nereid_Monument" title="Nereid Monument">Nereid Monument</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Payava" title="Tomb of Payava">Tomb of Payava</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_music" title="Achaemenid music">Achaemenid music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Persian_cuneiform" title="Old Persian cuneiform">Old Persian cuneiform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Persian" title="Old Persian">Old Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behistun_Inscription" title="Behistun Inscription">Behistun Inscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I%27s_inscription_at_Van" class="mw-redirect" title="Xerxes I's inscription at Van">Xerxes I's inscription at Van</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganjnameh" title="Ganjnameh">Ganjnameh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrus_Cylinder" title="Cyrus Cylinder">Cyrus Cylinder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887">Warfare</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Revolt">Persian Revolt</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hyrba" title="Battle of Hyrba">Battle of Hyrba</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Persian_Border" title="Battle of the Persian Border">Battle of the Persian Border</a></span></li></ul></li> <li>Lydian-Persian Wars <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pteria" title="Battle of Pteria">Battle of Pteria</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thymbra" title="Battle of Thymbra">Battle of Thymbra</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Sardis_(547_BC)" title="Siege of Sardis (547 BC)">Siege of Sardis (547 BC)</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Opis" title="Battle of Opis">Battle of Opis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_conquest_of_the_Indus_Valley" title="Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley">Conquest of the Indus Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Achaemenid_conquest_of_Egypt" title="First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt">First conquest of Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_campaign_of_Darius_I" title="Scythian campaign of Darius I">Scythian campaign of Darius I</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Greco-Persian Wars</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Ionian_Revolt" title="Ionian Revolt">Ionian Revolt</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Naxos_(499_BC)" title="Siege of Naxos (499 BC)">Siege of Naxos (499 BC)</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lade" title="Battle of Lade">Battle of Lade</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Eretria" title="Siege of Eretria">Siege of Eretria</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marathon" title="Battle of Marathon">Battle of Marathon</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae" title="Battle of Thermopylae">Battle of Thermopylae</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Artemisium" title="Battle of Artemisium">Battle of Artemisium</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_destruction_of_Athens" title="Achaemenid destruction of Athens">Destruction of Athens</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Battle of Salamis</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plataea" title="Battle of Plataea">Battle of Plataea</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mycale" title="Battle of Mycale">Battle of Mycale</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_revolts_(484_BC)" title="Babylonian revolts (484 BC)">Babylonian revolts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Delian_League" title="Wars of the Delian League">Wars of the Delian League</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Eurymedon" title="Battle of the Eurymedon">Battle of the Eurymedon</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cyzicus" title="Battle of Cyzicus">Battle of Cyzicus</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cunaxa" title="Battle of Cunaxa">Battle of Cunaxa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corinthian_War" title="Corinthian War">Corinthian War</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cnidus" title="Battle of Cnidus">Battle of Cnidus</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Satraps%27_Revolt" title="Great Satraps' Revolt">Great Satraps' Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Achaemenid_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Second Achaemenid conquest of Egypt">Second conquest of Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">Wars of Alexander the Great</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Granicus" title="Battle of the Granicus">Battle of the Granicus</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Miletus" title="Siege of Miletus">Siege of Miletus</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Halicarnassus" title="Siege of Halicarnassus">Siege of Halicarnassus</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Issus" title="Battle of Issus">Battle of Issus</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tyre_(332_BC)" title="Siege of Tyre (332 BC)">Siege of Tyre (332 BC)</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Gaza_(332_BCE)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Gaza (332 BCE)">Siege of Gaza</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gaugamela" title="Battle of Gaugamela">Battle of Gaugamela</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Persian_Gate" title="Battle of the Persian Gate">Battle of the Persian Gate</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887">Diplomacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth_and_water" title="Earth and water">Earth and water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Callias" title="Peace of Callias">Peace of Callias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Antalcidas" title="Peace of Antalcidas">Peace of Antalcidas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887">Administration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Capitals <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Pasargadae" title="Pasargadae">Pasargadae</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Ecbatana" title="Ecbatana">Ecbatana</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Babylon#Persian_conquest" title="Babylon">Babylon</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satrap" title="Satrap">Satrapies</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Armenia</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Districts_of_the_Achaemenid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Districts of the Achaemenid Empire">Districts of the Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persepolis_Administrative_Archives" title="Persepolis Administrative Archives">Persepolis Administrative Archives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Road" title="Royal Road">Royal Road</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Chapar_Khaneh" title="Chapar Khaneh">Chapar Khaneh</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Angarium" title="Angarium">Angarium</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Angarum" title="Angarum">Angarum</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887">Dynasties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_dynasty" title="Achaemenid dynasty">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharnacid_dynasty" title="Pharnacid dynasty">Pharnacid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithridatic_dynasty" title="Mithridatic dynasty">Mithridatic</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Pontus</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariarathid_dynasty" title="Ariarathid dynasty">Ariarathid</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cappadocia" title="Kingdom of Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lygdamid_dynasty" title="Lygdamid dynasty">Lygdamid</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Caria" title="Caria">Caria</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orontid_dynasty" title="Orontid dynasty">Orontid</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Armenia</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Achaemenid_clans" title="Seven Achaemenid clans">Seven Achaemenid clans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#DEB887">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2,500-year_celebration_of_the_Persian_Empire" title="2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire">2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xanthian_Obelisk" title="Xanthian Obelisk">Xanthian Obelisk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cappadocian_calendar" title="Cappadocian calendar">Cappadocian calendar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Greece390" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Greece_topics" title="Template:Ancient Greece topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Greece_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Greece topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Greece_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Greece topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Greece390" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_ancient_Greece" title="Timeline of ancient Greece">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="HistoryGeography390" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Greece" title="History of Greece">History</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_ancient_Greece" title="Regions of ancient Greece">Geography</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Periods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cycladic_culture" title="Cycladic culture">Cycladic civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_civilization" title="Minoan civilization">Minoan civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Dark_Ages" title="Greek Dark Ages">Greek Dark Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Greece" title="Hellenistic Greece">Hellenistic Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greece_in_the_Roman_era" title="Greece in the Roman era">Roman Greece</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_ancient_Greece" title="Regions of ancient Greece">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeolis" title="Aeolis">Aeolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaica" title="Cyrenaica">Cyrenaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doric_Hexapolis" title="Doric Hexapolis">Doris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epirus" title="Epirus">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dardanelles" title="Dardanelles">Hellespont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_Sea" title="Ionian Sea">Ionian Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(region)" title="Macedonia (region)">Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peloponnese" title="Peloponnese">Peloponnesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontus_(region)" title="Pontus (region)">Pontus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Taurica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">Ancient Greek colonies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="City_statesPoliticsMilitary390" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">City states</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece#Politics_and_society" title="Ancient Greece">Politics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Military</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">City states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Argos" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Argos">Argos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcis" title="Chalcis">Chalcis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Corinth" title="Ancient Corinth">Corinth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephesus" title="Ephesus">Ephesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miletus" title="Miletus">Miletus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pergamon" title="Pergamon">Pergamon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretria" title="Eretria">Eretria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corfu" title="Corfu">Kerkyra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larissa" title="Larissa">Larissa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalopolis,_Greece" title="Megalopolis, Greece">Megalopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Greece" title="Thebes, Greece">Thebes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megara" title="Megara">Megara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samos" title="Samos">Samos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lissus_(Crete)" title="Lissus (Crete)">Lissus (Crete)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kingdoms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bithynia" title="Kingdom of Bithynia">Bithynia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cappadocia" title="Kingdom of Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epirus_(ancient_state)" title="Epirus (ancient state)">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Greco-Bactrian Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pergamon" title="Kingdom of Pergamon">Pergamon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Pontus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Federation" title="Federation">Federations</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Confederation" title="Confederation">Confederations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doric_Hexapolis" title="Doric Hexapolis">Doric Hexapolis</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1100</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 560 BC</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italiotes#Italiote_League" title="Italiotes">Italiote League</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 800</span>–389 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_League" title="Ionian League">Ionian League</a> (c. 650–404 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_League" title="Peloponnesian League">Peloponnesian League</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 550</span>–366 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amphictyonic_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphictyonic League">Amphictyonic League</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 595</span>–279 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acarnanian_League" title="Acarnanian League">Acarnanian League</a> (c. 500–31 BC)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hellenic League</a> (499–449 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delian_League" title="Delian League">Delian League</a> (478–404 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcidian_League" title="Chalcidian League">Chalcidian League</a> (430–348 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boeotia#Boeotian_League" title="Boeotia">Boeotian League</a> (c. 424–c. 395 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aetolian_League" title="Aetolian League">Aetolian League</a> (c. 400–188 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Athenian_League" title="Second Athenian League">Second Athenian League</a> (378–355 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thessalian_League" title="Thessalian League">Thessalian League</a> (374–196 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcadian_League" title="Arcadian League">Arcadian League</a> (370–c. 230 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epirote_League" title="Epirote League">Epirote League</a> (370–168 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/League_of_Corinth" title="League of Corinth">League of Corinth</a> (338–322 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euboean_League" title="Euboean League">Euboean League</a> (c. 300 BC–c. 300 AD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaean_League" title="Achaean League">Achaean League</a> (280–146 BC)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece#Politics_and_society" title="Ancient Greece">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boule_(ancient_Greece)" title="Boule (ancient Greece)">Boule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_city_(classical_antiquity)" title="Free city (classical antiquity)">Free city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koinon" title="Koinon">Koinon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxeny" title="Proxeny">Proxeny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stasis_(ancient_Greece)" title="Stasis (ancient Greece)">Stasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagus_(title)" title="Tagus (title)">Tagus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrant" title="Tyrant">Tyrant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Athenian_democracy" title="Athenian democracy">Athenian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agora" title="Agora">Agora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Areopagus" title="Areopagus">Areopagus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesia_(ancient_Athens)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecclesia (ancient Athens)">Ecclesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphe_paranomon" title="Graphe paranomon">Graphe paranomon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliaia" title="Heliaia">Heliaia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostracism" title="Ostracism">Ostracism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Spartan_Constitution" title="Spartan Constitution">Spartan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesia_(Sparta)" title="Ecclesia (Sparta)">Ekklesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephor" title="Ephor">Ephor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerousia" title="Gerousia">Gerousia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synedrion" title="Synedrion">Synedrion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koinon_of_Macedonians" class="mw-redirect" title="Koinon of Macedonians">Koinon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Greece" title="List of wars involving Greece">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athenian_military" title="Athenian military">Athenian military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_archers" title="Scythian archers">Scythian archers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antigonid_Macedonian_army" title="Antigonid Macedonian army">Antigonid Macedonian army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_army" title="Ancient Macedonian army">Army of Macedon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">Ballista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cretan_archers" title="Cretan archers">Cretan archers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_armies" title="Hellenistic armies">Hellenistic armies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippeis" title="Hippeis">Hippeis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoplite" title="Hoplite">Hoplite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Companion_cavalry" title="Companion cavalry">Hetairoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_phalanx" title="Macedonian phalanx">Macedonian phalanx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_Mycenaean_Greece" title="Military of Mycenaean Greece">Military of Mycenaean Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phalanx" title="Phalanx">Phalanx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peltast" title="Peltast">Peltast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pezhetairos" title="Pezhetairos">Pezhetairos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarissa" title="Sarissa">Sarissa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_Band_of_Thebes" title="Sacred Band of Thebes">Sacred Band of Thebes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sciritae" title="Sciritae">Sciritae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_army" title="Seleucid army">Seleucid army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spartan_army" title="Spartan army">Spartan army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategos" title="Strategos">Strategos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxotai" title="Toxotai">Toxotai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiphos" title="Xiphos">Xiphos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xyston" title="Xyston">Xyston</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="People390" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Greeks" title="Category:Ancient Greeks">People</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="List_of_ancient_Greeks183"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greeks" title="List of ancient Greeks">List of ancient Greeks</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_rulers_of_Greece#Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Lists of rulers of Greece">Rulers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Argos" title="List of kings of Argos">Kings of Argos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eponymous_archon" title="Eponymous archon">Archons of Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Athens" title="List of kings of Athens">Kings of Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Commagene" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Commagene">Kings of Commagene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">Diadochi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Macedonia" title="List of kings of Macedonia">Kings of Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Thrace_and_Dacia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Thrace and Dacia">Kings of Paionia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attalid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Attalid dynasty">Attalid kings of Pergamon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Pontus" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kings of Pontus">Kings of Pontus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty" title="Ptolemaic dynasty">Ptolemaic dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_dynasty" title="Seleucid dynasty">Seleucid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Sparta" title="List of kings of Sparta">Kings of Sparta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tyrants_of_Syracuse" title="List of tyrants of Syracuse">Tyrants of Syracuse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists & scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_astronomers" title="List of ancient Greek astronomers">Astronomers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_historians" title="List of ancient Greek historians">Historians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_mathematicians" title="List of ancient Greek mathematicians">Mathematicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_philosophers" title="List of ancient Greek philosophers">Philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_playwrights" title="List of ancient Greek playwrights">Playwrights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_poets" title="List of ancient Greek poets">Poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Sages_of_Greece" title="Seven Sages of Greece">Seven Sages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_writers" title="List of ancient Greek writers">Writers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anaxagoras" title="Anaxagoras">Anaxagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaximenes_of_Miletus" title="Anaximenes of Miletus">Anaximenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisthenes" title="Antisthenes">Antisthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes of Sinope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia">Hypatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leucippus" title="Leucippus">Leucippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protagoras" title="Protagoras">Protagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Elea" title="Zeno of Elea">Zeno</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Authors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aeschylus" title="Aeschylus">Aeschylus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesop" title="Aesop">Aesop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcaeus_of_Mytilene" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcaeus of Mytilene">Alcaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archilochus" title="Archilochus">Archilochus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristophanes" title="Aristophanes">Aristophanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacchylides" title="Bacchylides">Bacchylides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euripides" title="Euripides">Euripides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesiod" title="Hesiod">Hesiod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hipponax" title="Hipponax">Hipponax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibycus" title="Ibycus">Ibycus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menander" title="Menander">Menander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimnermus" title="Mimnermus">Mimnermus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panyassis" title="Panyassis">Panyassis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philocles" title="Philocles">Philocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pindar" title="Pindar">Pindar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sappho" title="Sappho">Sappho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simonides_of_Ceos" title="Simonides of Ceos">Simonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophocles" title="Sophocles">Sophocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stesichorus" title="Stesichorus">Stesichorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theognis_of_Megara" title="Theognis of Megara">Theognis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timocreon" title="Timocreon">Timocreon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrtaeus" title="Tyrtaeus">Tyrtaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Athenian_statesmen" class="mw-redirect" title="List of ancient Athenian statesmen">Athenian statesmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_lawgivers" title="List of ancient Greek lawgivers">Lawgivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Olympic_victors" title="List of ancient Olympic victors">Olympic victors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_tyrants" title="List of ancient Greek tyrants">Tyrants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_tribes" title="List of ancient Greek tribes">Ancient Greek tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Thracian_Greeks" title="List of Thracian Greeks">Thracian Greeks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Macedonians" title="List of ancient Macedonians">Ancient Macedonians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="SocietyCulture390" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece#Politics_and_society" title="Ancient Greece">Society</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Greece" title="Culture of Greece">Culture</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece#Politics_and_society" title="Ancient Greece">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Greece" title="Agriculture in ancient Greece">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_calendars" title="Ancient Greek calendars">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Greece" title="Clothing in ancient Greece">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_coinage" title="Ancient Greek coinage">Coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_cuisine" title="Ancient Greek cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_ancient_Greece" title="Economy of ancient Greece">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paideia" title="Paideia">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emporium_(antiquity)" title="Emporium (antiquity)">Emporium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euergetism" title="Euergetism">Euergetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athenian_festivals" title="Athenian festivals">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_folklore" title="Ancient Greek folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_in_ancient_Greece" title="Homosexuality in ancient Greece">Homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_law" title="Ancient Greek law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Olympic_Games" title="Ancient Olympic Games">Olympic Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pederasty_in_ancient_Greece" title="Pederasty in ancient Greece">Pederasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_ancient_Greece" title="Prostitution in ancient Greece">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Greece" title="Marriage in ancient Greece">Wedding customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece_and_wine" title="Ancient Greece and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_art" title="Ancient Greek art">Arts</a> and science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_architecture" title="Ancient Greek architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Revival_architecture" title="Greek Revival architecture">Greek Revival architecture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Ancient Greek astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_mathematics" title="Greek mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_medicine" title="Ancient Greek medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Greece" title="Music of ancient Greece">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Musical_system_of_ancient_Greece" title="Musical system of ancient Greece">Musical system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pottery_of_ancient_Greece" title="Pottery of ancient Greece">Pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_sculpture" title="Ancient Greek sculpture">Sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_technology" title="Ancient Greek technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Greece" title="Theatre of ancient Greece">Theatre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_funeral_and_burial_practices" title="Ancient Greek funeral and burial practices">Funeral and burial practices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Mythology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_deities" title="List of Greek deities">Deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_temple" title="Ancient Greek temple">Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Olympians" title="Twelve Olympians">Twelve Olympians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_underworld" title="Greek underworld">Underworld</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;text-align:left;">Sacred places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eleusis" class="mw-redirect" title="Eleusis">Eleusis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delphi" title="Delphi">Delphi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delos" title="Delos">Delos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dion,_Pieria" title="Dion, Pieria">Dion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dodona" title="Dodona">Dodona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Olympus" title="Mount Olympus">Mount Olympus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympia,_Greece" title="Olympia, Greece">Olympia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Athenian_Treasury" title="Athenian Treasury">Athenian Treasury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lion_Gate" title="Lion Gate">Lion Gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Walls" title="Long Walls">Long Walls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippeion" title="Philippeion">Philippeion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Dionysus" title="Theatre of Dionysus">Theatre of Dionysus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_of_Eupalinos" title="Tunnel of Eupalinos">Tunnel of Eupalinos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_temple" title="Ancient Greek temple">Temples</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Aphaea" class="mw-redirect" title="Temple of Aphaea">Aphaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Artemis" title="Temple of Artemis">Artemis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Athena_Nike" title="Temple of Athena Nike">Athena Nike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erechtheion" title="Erechtheion">Erechtheion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Hephaestus" title="Temple of Hephaestus">Hephaestus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Hera,_Olympia" title="Temple of Hera, Olympia">Hera, Olympia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthenon" title="Parthenon">Parthenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samothrace_temple_complex" title="Samothrace temple complex">Samothrace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Zeus,_Olympia" title="Temple of Zeus, Olympia">Zeus, Olympia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Language</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Greek_language" title="Proto-Greek language">Proto-Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greek" title="Mycenaean Greek">Mycenaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeric_Greek" title="Homeric Greek">Homeric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_dialects" title="Ancient Greek dialects">Dialects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aeolic_Greek" title="Aeolic Greek">Aeolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcadocypriot_Greek" title="Arcadocypriot Greek">Arcadocypriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attic_Greek" title="Attic Greek">Attic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doric_Greek" title="Doric Greek">Doric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epirote_Greek" title="Epirote Greek">Epirote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionic_Greek" title="Ionic Greek">Ionic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locrian_Greek" title="Locrian Greek">Locrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_language" title="Ancient Macedonian language">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pamphylian_Greek" title="Pamphylian Greek">Pamphylian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Greek_alphabet" title="History of the Greek alphabet">Writing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linear_A" title="Linear A">Linear A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_syllabary" title="Cypriot syllabary">Cypriot syllabary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_numerals" title="Greek numerals">Greek numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attic_numerals" title="Attic numerals">Attic numerals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Greek_colonisation390" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_colonisation" title="Greek colonisation">Greek colonisation</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mainland<br />Italy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lecce" title="Lecce">Alision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brindisi" title="Brindisi">Brentesion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caulonia_(ancient_city)" title="Caulonia (ancient city)">Caulonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casabona" title="Casabona">Chone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crotone" title="Crotone">Croton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumae" title="Cumae">Cumae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velia" title="Velia">Elea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclea_Lucania" title="Heraclea Lucania">Heraclea Lucania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vibo_Valentia" title="Vibo Valentia">Hipponion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otranto" title="Otranto">Hydrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krimisa" title="Krimisa">Krimisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La%C3%BCs" title="Laüs">Laüs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locri" title="Locri">Locri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medma" title="Medma">Medma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metauros" title="Metauros">Metauros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapontum" title="Metapontum">Metapontion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Neápolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandosia_(Lucania)" title="Pandosia (Lucania)">Pandosia (Lucania)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paestum" title="Paestum">Poseidonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Policastro_Bussentino" title="Policastro Bussentino">Pixous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reggio_Calabria" title="Reggio Calabria">Rhegion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scylletium" title="Scylletium">Scylletium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siris_(Magna_Graecia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siris (Magna Graecia)">Siris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sybaris" title="Sybaris">Sybaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sybaris_on_the_Traeis" title="Sybaris on the Traeis">Sybaris on the Traeis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taranto" title="Taranto">Taras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terina_(ancient_city)" title="Terina (ancient city)">Terina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurii" title="Thurii">Thurii</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrigento" title="Agrigento">Akragas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akrai" title="Akrai">Akrai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akrillai" title="Akrillai">Akrillai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonia_(Sicily)" title="Apollonia (Sicily)">Apollonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caronia" title="Caronia">Calacte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casmenae" title="Casmenae">Casmenae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catania" title="Catania">Catana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gela" title="Gela">Gela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helorus" title="Helorus">Helorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enna" title="Enna">Henna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclea_Minoa" title="Heraclea Minoa">Heraclea Minoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himera" title="Himera">Himera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybla_Gereatis" title="Hybla Gereatis">Hybla Gereatis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybla_Heraea" title="Hybla Heraea">Hybla Heraea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamarina,_Sicily" title="Kamarina, Sicily">Kamarina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lentini" title="Lentini">Leontinoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megara_Hyblaea" title="Megara Hyblaea">Megara Hyblaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messina" title="Messina">Messana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naxos_(Sicily)" title="Naxos (Sicily)">Naxos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segesta" title="Segesta">Segesta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selinunte" title="Selinunte">Selinous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_Sicily" title="Syracuse, Sicily">Syracuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taormina" title="Taormina">Tauromenion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sciacca" title="Sciacca">Thermae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tindari" title="Tindari">Tyndaris</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aeolian_Islands" title="Aeolian Islands">Aeolian Islands</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salina,_Sicily" title="Salina, Sicily">Didyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panarea" title="Panarea">Euonymos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alicudi" title="Alicudi">Ereikousa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basiluzzo" title="Basiluzzo">Hycesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipari" title="Lipari">Lipara/Meligounis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filicudi" title="Filicudi">Phoenicusa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stromboli" title="Stromboli">Strongyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulcano" title="Vulcano">Therassía</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaica" title="Cyrenaica">Cyrenaica</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bayda,_Libya" title="Bayda, Libya">Balagrae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barca_(ancient_city)" title="Barca (ancient city)">Barca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benghazi" title="Benghazi">Berenice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrene,_Libya" title="Cyrene, Libya">Cyrene</a> (<a href="/wiki/Apollonia,_Cyrenaica" class="mw-redirect" title="Apollonia, Cyrenaica">Apollonia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemais,_Cyrenaica" title="Ptolemais, Cyrenaica">Ptolemais</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lucentum" title="Lucentum">Akra Leuke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villajoyosa" title="Villajoyosa">Alonis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emp%C3%BAries" title="Empúries">Emporion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elche" title="Elche">Helike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9nia" title="Dénia">Hemeroscopion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aljaraque" title="Aljaraque">Kalathousa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant_Mart%C3%AD_d%27Emp%C3%BAries" title="Sant Martí d'Empúries">Kypsela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainake_(Greek_settlement)" title="Mainake (Greek settlement)">Mainake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Puerto_de_Santa_Mar%C3%ADa" title="El Puerto de Santa María">Menestheus's Limin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Pola" title="Santa Pola">Illicitanus Limin/Portus Illicitanus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roses,_Girona" class="mw-redirect" title="Roses, Girona">Rhode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salou" title="Salou">Salauris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sagunto" title="Sagunto">Zacynthos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Illyria" title="Illyria">Illyria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aspalathos" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspalathos">Aspalathos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonia_(Illyria)" title="Apollonia (Illyria)">Apollonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vlor%C3%AB#Early_history" title="Vlorë">Aulon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidamnos" title="Epidamnos">Epidamnos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidaurum" title="Epidaurum">Epidauros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Issa_(polis)" class="mw-redirect" title="Issa (polis)">Issa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melaina_Korkyra" class="mw-redirect" title="Melaina Korkyra">Melaina Korkyra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nymphaeum_(Illyria)" title="Nymphaeum (Illyria)">Nymphaion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oricum" title="Oricum">Orikon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharos_(polis)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharos (polis)">Pharos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragurion" class="mw-redirect" title="Tragurion">Tragurion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thronion_(Illyria)" title="Thronion (Illyria)">Thronion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a><br />basin</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North<br />coast</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akra_(Crimmerian_Bosporus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Akra (Crimmerian Bosporus)">Akra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berezan_Island" title="Berezan Island">Borysthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charax,_Crimea" title="Charax, Crimea">Charax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chersonesus" title="Chersonesus">Chersonesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sukhumi" title="Sukhumi">Dioscurias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anapa" title="Anapa">Gorgippia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tmutarakan" title="Tmutarakan">Hermonassa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalos_Limen" title="Kalos Limen">Kalos Limen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kepoi" title="Kepoi">Kepoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevpatoria" title="Yevpatoria">Kerkinitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimmerikon" title="Kimmerikon">Kimmerikon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myrmekion" class="mw-redirect" title="Myrmekion">Myrmekion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikonion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikonion">Nikonion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nymphaion_(Crimea)" title="Nymphaion (Crimea)">Nymphaion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olbia_(Pontic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Olbia (Pontic)">Olbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantikapaion" title="Pantikapaion">Pantikapaion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phanagoria" title="Phanagoria">Phanagoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitsunda" title="Pitsunda">Pityus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanais" title="Tanais">Tanais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feodosia" title="Feodosia">Theodosia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyras" title="Tyras">Tyras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyritake" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyritake">Tyritake</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South<br />coast</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abonoteichos" title="Abonoteichos">Abonoteichos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samsun" title="Samsun">Amisos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomorie" title="Pomorie">Anchialos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozopol" title="Sozopol">Apollonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pazar,_Rize" title="Pazar, Rize">Athina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batumi" title="Batumi">Bathus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balchik" title="Balchik">Dionysopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordu" title="Ordu">Cotyora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytorus" title="Cytorus">Cytorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eupatoria_(Pontus)" title="Eupatoria (Pontus)">Eupatoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclea_Pontica" title="Heraclea Pontica">Heraclea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giresun" title="Giresun">Kerasous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nesebar" title="Nesebar">Mesambria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varna,_Bulgaria" title="Varna, Bulgaria">Odessos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%9Cnye" title="Ünye">Oinòe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phasis_(town)" title="Phasis (town)">Phasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatsa" title="Fatsa">Polemonion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rize" title="Rize">Rhizos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C4%B1y%C4%B1k%C3%B6y" title="Kıyıköy">Salmydessus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amasra" title="Amasra">Sesamus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinop,_Turkey" title="Sinop, Turkey">Sinope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terme" title="Terme">Thèrmae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tium" title="Tium">Tium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trabzon" title="Trabzon">Trapezous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripolis_(Pontus)" title="Tripolis (Pontus)">Tripolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaliche" title="Zaliche">Zaliche</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Lists390" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Lists</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_cities" title="List of ancient Greek cities">Cities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_ancient_Epirus" title="List of cities in ancient Epirus">in Epirus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greeks" title="List of ancient Greeks">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_place_names" title="List of Greek place names">Place names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_stoae" title="List of stoae">Stoae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ancient_Greek_temples" title="List of Ancient Greek temples">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_theatres" title="List of ancient Greek theatres">Theatres</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Greece" title="Category:Ancient Greece">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Greece" title="Portal:Ancient Greece">Portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Greece" title="Outline of ancient Greece">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Greek_wars160" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Greek_wars" title="Template:Ancient Greek wars"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Greek_wars" title="Template talk:Ancient Greek wars"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Greek_wars" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Greek wars"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Greek_wars160" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Ancient Greek wars</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Messenian_War" title="First Messenian War">First Messenian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lelantine_War" title="Lelantine War">Lelantine War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Messenian_War" title="Second Messenian War">Second Messenian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lydian%E2%80%93Milesian_War" title="Lydian–Milesian War">Lydian–Milesian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Sacred_War" title="First Sacred War">First Sacred War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Wars" title="Sicilian Wars">Sicilian Wars</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Greco-Persian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeginetan_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Aeginetan War">Aeginetan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Delian_League" title="Wars of the Delian League">Wars of the Delian League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Messenian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Messenian War">Third Messenian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Peloponnesian_War" title="First Peloponnesian War">First Peloponnesian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sacred_War" title="Second Sacred War">Second Sacred War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samian_War" title="Samian War">Samian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Second Peloponnesian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phyle_Campaign" title="Phyle Campaign">Phyle Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corinthian_War" title="Corinthian War">Corinthian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosporan%E2%80%93Heracleote_War" title="Bosporan–Heracleote War">Bosporan–Heracleote War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boeotian_War" title="Boeotian War">Boeotian War</a></li> <li>Wars of the <a href="/wiki/Theban_hegemony" title="Theban hegemony">Theban hegemony</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theban%E2%80%93Spartan_War" title="Theban–Spartan War">Theban–Spartan War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_War_(357%E2%80%93355_BC)" title="Social War (357–355 BC)">Social War <span style="font-size:85%;">(357–355 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Sacred_War" title="Third Sacred War">Third Sacred War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_War" title="Foreign War">Foreign War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expansion_of_Macedonia_under_Philip_II" title="Expansion of Macedonia under Philip II">Expansion of Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">Wars of Alexander the Great</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Greece" title="Hellenistic Greece">Hellenistic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lamian_War" title="Lamian War">Lamian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Diadochi" title="Wars of the Diadochi">Wars of the <i>Diadochi</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antigonid%E2%80%93Nabataean_confrontations" title="Antigonid–Nabataean confrontations">Antigonid–Nabataean confrontations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid%E2%80%93Mauryan_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucid–Mauryan war">Seleucid–Mauryan war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhic_War" title="Pyrrhic War">Pyrrhic War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Wars" title="Syrian Wars">Syrian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhus%27_invasion_of_the_Peloponnese" title="Pyrrhus' invasion of the Peloponnese">Pyrrhus' invasion of the Peloponnese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chremonidean_War" title="Chremonidean War">Chremonidean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid%E2%80%93Parthian_Wars" title="Seleucid–Parthian Wars">Seleucid–Parthian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleomenean_War" title="Cleomenean War">Cleomenean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyttian_War" title="Lyttian War">Lyttian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_War_(220%E2%80%93217_BC)" title="Social War (220–217 BC)">Social War <span style="font-size:85%;">(220–217 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Wars" title="Macedonian Wars">Macedonian Wars</a> (<a href="/wiki/First_Macedonian_War" title="First Macedonian War">First</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_Macedonian_War" title="Second Macedonian War">Second</a>, <a href="/wiki/Third_Macedonian_War" title="Third Macedonian War">Third</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Macedonian_War" title="Fourth Macedonian War">Fourth</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cretan_War_(205%E2%80%93200_BC)" title="Cretan War (205–200 BC)">Cretan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Seleucid_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman–Seleucid War">Roman–Seleucid War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aetolian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Aetolian War">Aetolian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_against_Nabis" title="War against Nabis">War against Nabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galatian_War" title="Galatian War">Galatian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maccabean_Revolt" title="Maccabean Revolt">Maccabean Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Dynastic_Wars" title="Seleucid Dynastic Wars">Seleucid Dynastic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaean_War" title="Achaean War">Achaean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithridatic_Wars" title="Mithridatic Wars">Mithridatic Wars</a> (<a href="/wiki/First_Mithridatic_War" title="First Mithridatic War">First</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_Mithridatic_War" title="Second Mithridatic War">Second</a>, <a href="/wiki/Third_Mithridatic_War" title="Third Mithridatic War">Third</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Actium" title="War of Actium">War of Actium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">Military history</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Iranian_wars121" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Iranian_wars" title="Template:Ancient Iranian wars"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Iranian_wars" title="Template talk:Ancient Iranian wars"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Iranian_wars" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Iranian wars"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Iranian_wars121" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Ancient Iranian wars</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Median_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Median state">Median state</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medo-Babylonian_conquest_of_the_Assyrian_Empire" title="Medo-Babylonian conquest of the Assyrian Empire">Medo-Babylonian conquest of the Assyrian Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nineveh_(612_BC)" title="Battle of Nineveh (612 BC)">Fall of Nineveh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Eclipse" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of the Eclipse">Battle of the Eclipse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medo-Persian_conflict" title="Medo-Persian conflict">Medo-Persian conflict (Persian Revolt)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hyrba" title="Battle of Hyrba">Battle of Hyrba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Persian_Border" title="Battle of the Persian Border">Battle of the Persian Border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medes#Rise_and_fall" title="Medes">Siege of Pasargadae Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pasargadae" title="Pasargadae">Battle of Pasargadae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medes#Rise_and_fall" title="Medes">Fall of Ecbatana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Sardis_(547_BC)" title="Siege of Sardis (547 BC)">Conquest of Asia Minor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pelusium" title="Battle of Pelusium">First conquest of Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darius_the_Great#Military_campaigns" title="Darius the Great">Revolts against Darius I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_campaign_of_Darius_I" title="Scythian campaign of Darius I">Scythian campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_conquest_of_the_Indus_Valley" title="Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley">Conquest of Indus Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_Revolt" title="Ionian Revolt">Ionian Revolt</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Invasions of Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="First Persian invasion of Greece">1st</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="Second Persian invasion of Greece">2nd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cunaxa" title="Battle of Cunaxa">Revolt of Cyrus the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corinthian_War" title="Corinthian War">Corinthian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cadusian_campaign_of_Artaxerxes_II" title="Cadusian campaign of Artaxerxes II">Cadusian campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Satraps%27_Revolt" title="Great Satraps' Revolt">Great Satraps' Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdashtart_I#Revolt_against_the_Achaemenid_Empire" title="Abdashtart I">Abdashtart I' revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great#Persia" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">Fall of the Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parni_conquest_of_Parthia" title="Parni conquest of Parthia">Parni conquest of Parthia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid%E2%80%93Parthian_Wars" title="Seleucid–Parthian Wars">Seleucid Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian%E2%80%93Bactrian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Parthian–Bactrian War">Bactrian War</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scythian%E2%80%93Parthian_Wars&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Scythian–Parthian Wars (page does not exist)">Scythian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian%E2%80%93Parthian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenian–Parthian War">Armenian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_Wars" title="Roman–Parthian Wars">Roman Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hormozdgan" title="Battle of Hormozdgan">Fall of the Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars" title="Roman–Persian Wars">Roman Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine–Sasanian Wars">Against Byzantine Empire</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sasanian%E2%80%93Kushan_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sasanian–Kushan War (page does not exist)">Kushan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shapur_II%27s_Arab_campaign" title="Shapur II's Arab campaign">Against Arab tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalite%E2%80%93Sasanian_Wars" title="Hephthalite–Sasanian Wars">Hephthalite Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Avarayr" title="Battle of Avarayr">Armenian revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aksumite%E2%80%93Persian_wars" title="Aksumite–Persian wars">Aksumite Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_reconquest_of_Yemen" title="Sasanian reconquest of Yemen">Annexation of Yemen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_civil_war_of_589%E2%80%93591" title="Sasanian civil war of 589–591">Civil war of 589–591</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrk%E2%80%93Persian_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Göktürk–Persian wars">Göktürk Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Perso-Turkic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Perso-Turkic War">1st</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Perso-Turkic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Perso-Turkic War">2nd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Perso-Turkic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Perso-Turkic War">3rd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dhi_Qar" title="Battle of Dhi Qar">Battle of Dhi Qar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_civil_war_of_628%E2%80%93632" title="Sasanian civil war of 628–632">Civil war of 628–632</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Fall of the Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">Military history</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox1217" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q76026#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Greece--History--Persian Wars, 500-449 B.C"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85057079">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="řecko-perské války (500-449 př. Kr.)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph311283&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="perské války"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph369321&CON_LNG=ENG">2</a></span></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007540819405171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/21px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/32px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/42px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Greece" title="Portal:Greece">Greece</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/21px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/32px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/42px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="360" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Iran" title="Portal:Iran">Iran</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="map" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Europe_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/19px-Europe_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Europe_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/29px-Europe_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Europe_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/38px-Europe_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="541" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Europe" title="Portal:Europe">Europe</a></li></ul></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Greco-Persian_Wars&oldid=1274828354">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Greco-Persian_Wars&oldid=1274828354</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Category:Greco-Persian Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:490s_BC_conflicts" title="Category:490s BC conflicts">490s BC conflicts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:480s_BC_conflicts" title="Category:480s BC conflicts">480s BC conflicts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:470s_BC_conflicts" title="Category:470s BC conflicts">470s BC conflicts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:460s_BC_conflicts" title="Category:460s BC conflicts">460s BC conflicts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:450s_BC_conflicts" title="Category:450s BC conflicts">450s BC conflicts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:440s_BC_conflicts" title="Category:440s BC conflicts">440s BC conflicts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_ancient_Greece" title="Category:Wars involving ancient Greece">Wars involving ancient Greece</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_the_Achaemenid_Empire" title="Category:Wars involving the Achaemenid Empire">Wars involving the Achaemenid Empire</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_ancient_Cyprus" title="Category:Wars involving ancient Cyprus">Wars involving ancient Cyprus</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wars_involving_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Category:Wars involving Macedonia (ancient 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