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There are <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Professionalism/Norbert_Wiener_and_the_Expert%E2%80%99s_Responsibility_for_Weapons&oldid=4287852&diff=cur&diffonly=0">6 pending changes</a> awaiting review.</div></div></div></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p><br /> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Introduction">Introduction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Professionalism/Norbert_Wiener_and_the_Expert%E2%80%99s_Responsibility_for_Weapons&veaction=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Introduction" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Professionalism/Norbert_Wiener_and_the_Expert%E2%80%99s_Responsibility_for_Weapons&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section's source code: Introduction"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norbert_Wiener" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:Norbert Wiener">Norbert Wiener</a> was born November 26, 1894 to Leo and Bertha Wiener<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. His father, a lecturer at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:Harvard University">Harvard</a>, tutored Wiener privately from a young age and he graduated High School at the age of 11, considered to be a prodigy child. After graduating from <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tufts_University" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:Tufts University">Tufts college</a> Wiener completed a PHD in mathematics at Harvard, receiving his doctorate in 1913<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. At the start of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, Wiener attempted enlisting in the military but was rejected due to poor eyesight. Wiener was unable to find a teaching position at Harvard and work a variety of jobs after WW1 including teaching, writing and journalism. Eventually he found a position at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:Massachusetts Institute of Technology">MIT</a>, where he worked until his death in 1964. While at MIT, his early research set the foundation for stochastic processes and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brownian_motion" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:Brownian motion">Brownian motion</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. During <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:World War II">WWII</a> Wiener worked to develop the first automatic anti-aircraft weaponry, but became critical of the relationship between scientists and the military afterwards. His later work included the foundation of cybernetics as a field, which gained popularity in the scientific community after the release of his book <i>Cybernetics: or, Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine</i> in 1948. Throughout his life Wiener wrote about the ethical implications of the work of scientists and advocated for researchers and intellectuals to consider the dangers that new technologies presented alongside their potential new benefits. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ethical_Views_on_Weaponry">Ethical Views on Weaponry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Professionalism/Norbert_Wiener_and_the_Expert%E2%80%99s_Responsibility_for_Weapons&veaction=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ethical Views on Weaponry" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Professionalism/Norbert_Wiener_and_the_Expert%E2%80%99s_Responsibility_for_Weapons&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section's source code: Ethical Views on Weaponry"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Research_on_Weapons">Research on Weapons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Professionalism/Norbert_Wiener_and_the_Expert%E2%80%99s_Responsibility_for_Weapons&veaction=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Research on Weapons" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Professionalism/Norbert_Wiener_and_the_Expert%E2%80%99s_Responsibility_for_Weapons&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section's source code: Research on Weapons"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Norbert Wiener was one of the first and most prominent researchers in the field of cybernetics.  <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybernetics" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:Cybernetics">Cybernetics</a> refers to an integration of computing and a physical process.  In World War II, Wiener found himself working with a team of MIT scientists on auto-aiming anti-aircraft weaponry<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. </p><p>In order to make the guns auto-aiming, they had to not only account for where the aircraft was, but also where it was going to be at any given moment.  To do this, the team applied a “<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiener_filter" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:Wiener filter">Wiener filter</a>”, by which they performed a stationary transformation to data points collected by the system using a Fourier transform, and could then determine where the aircraft would be when the gun is fired<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>.  Today, Wiener filters have been replaced by FFTs (fast Fourier transforms) as a less accurate, but quicker way of processing signals .  Given the deadly nature of anti-aircraft weaponry, Wiener swore off helping any army in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:Cold War">Cold War</a>, and devoted the rest of his time working to improving his cybernetic research<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books_and_Statements">Books and Statements</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Professionalism/Norbert_Wiener_and_the_Expert%E2%80%99s_Responsibility_for_Weapons&veaction=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Books and Statements" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Professionalism/Norbert_Wiener_and_the_Expert%E2%80%99s_Responsibility_for_Weapons&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section's source code: Books and Statements"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After WWII ended, Wiener became extremely disillusioned with military research. The dropping of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:Nuclear weapon">atomic bombs</a> on Hiroshima and Nagasaki led to a widespread moral reckoning among the scientific community. Many researchers, including Wiener, reflected on their role in the destruction from weapons of their design. This, coupled by the end of the war, caused numerous scientists to explore other fields. Wiener took it a step further, cutting ties entirely with defense contractors and becoming a critic of the military and researchers that continued to work with it<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. After continued requests to join a weapons project for his expertise in guided missiles, Wiener replied to a military contractor in a letter which he also sent to a magazine for publication. The article, titled “A Scientist Rebels,” was soon published by <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Atlantic" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:The Atlantic">The Atlantic</a></i>. In it, Wiener lambasted the contractor while simultaneously challenging the preconception that knowledge should be available for all. He asserted that military actions during the war, to include the use of nuclear weapons, caused him to reconsider his role in enabling destruction, concluding that “to provide scientific information is not a necessarily innocent act, and may entail the gravest consequences.”<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wiener published this article not only as a form of protest, but also as a call to action and warning for other scientists to heed. He called upon the scientific community to think critically about how available their research is as well as who they choose to share it with. He again referenced his particular distrust in the military, denouncing any future work with “irresponsible militarists.” Wiener drove the point home stating that any sharing of information or ideas must “receive certain limitations when the scientist becomes an arbiter of life and death.” Wiener continued to write on this topic, later publishing “Moral Reflections of a Mathematician”<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and other works about the role of ethics in scientific research. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Professionals_and_Weaponry">Professionals and Weaponry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Professionalism/Norbert_Wiener_and_the_Expert%E2%80%99s_Responsibility_for_Weapons&veaction=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Professionals and Weaponry" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Professionalism/Norbert_Wiener_and_the_Expert%E2%80%99s_Responsibility_for_Weapons&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section's source code: Professionals and Weaponry"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oppenheimer">Oppenheimer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Professionalism/Norbert_Wiener_and_the_Expert%E2%80%99s_Responsibility_for_Weapons&veaction=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Oppenheimer" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Professionalism/Norbert_Wiener_and_the_Expert%E2%80%99s_Responsibility_for_Weapons&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section's source code: Oppenheimer"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:J. Robert Oppenheimer">J. Robert Oppenheimer</a> was famously the lead scientist of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan_Project" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>, where he was charged with creating the first nuclear weapon. After years of work, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test)" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:Trinity (nuclear test)">Trinity test</a> showed the first successful detonation of an atomic bomb. In seeing the sheer power released in the explosion, Oppenheimer stated: “Now I am become death, the destroyer of worlds,” a quote from a chapter of the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a> outlining the end of the world<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. Oppenheimer was filled with regret for the weapon he helped create, and he is known to have faced severe remorse following the use of the atomic bombs on Japan. Like Wiener, Oppenheimer became a devout pacifist and advocate for nuclear disarmament. He believed that his creation would ultimately lead to a nuclear apocalypse, going so far as to request an audience with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:Harry S. Truman">President Truman</a> to help clear his conscience. In the meeting, Oppenheimer admitted that he felt that he had blood on his hands. President Truman replied that any guilt for the Japanese deaths was his own. Oppenheimer, however, was talking about the future blood of those to die in the case of total nuclear annihilation<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Albert_Einstein">Albert Einstein</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Professionalism/Norbert_Wiener_and_the_Expert%E2%80%99s_Responsibility_for_Weapons&veaction=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Albert Einstein" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Professionalism/Norbert_Wiener_and_the_Expert%E2%80%99s_Responsibility_for_Weapons&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section's source code: Albert Einstein"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> never worked on the atomic bomb, however he still had a hand in its creation. After discovering that the Germans were attempting to make their own atomic bomb, Einstein endorsed the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Szilard_letter" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:Einstein–Szilard letter">Einstein-Szilard letter</a>, which encouraged <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:Franklin D. Roosevelt">President Roosevelt</a> to increase funding towards nuclear research in order to beat the Germans to it. Einstein was never admitted into the Manhattan Project, as he was denied a security clearance due to his ties to socialism. Einstein after the war, Einstein stated in an interview that he regretted his early encouragement, saying “had I known that the Germans would not succeed in developing an atomic bomb, I would have done nothing.” </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alan_Turing">Alan Turing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Professionalism/Norbert_Wiener_and_the_Expert%E2%80%99s_Responsibility_for_Weapons&veaction=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Alan Turing" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Professionalism/Norbert_Wiener_and_the_Expert%E2%80%99s_Responsibility_for_Weapons&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section's source code: Alan Turing"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Turing" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a>, a British mathematician, invented the computer, at that point called a Bombe Machine.  The machine was invented to crack German codes played over radios so the Allied troops could stay ahead of them.  For his work, Turing was granted the OBE by the British government<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. </p><p>However, after this, Turing was arrested by the British government for homosexuality and charged with “gross indecency”.  Turing agreed to take medication, otherwise known as “chemical castration”, in order to avoid jail time.  Turing was found dead in his home 2 years later from cyanide poisoning, assumed to be suicide<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. </p><p>Turing’s story helps us question what an engineer’s role is in war.  If his wartime inventions stayed connected to him, it would be unlikely the British government would drive him to suicide after awarding him a high honor.  Therefore, this can lead us to believe that, unlike Oppenheimer’s disdain of his connection to a device of death and destruction, Turing was separated from his invention that saved countless Allied forces’ lives. </p><p>In 2013, Alan Turing received a posthumous pardon for his crime of gross indecency, and in 2017, Britain passed “<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Turing_law" class="extiw" title="wikipedia:Alan Turing law">Alan Turing’s Law</a>”, a law deeming that other deceased individuals charged with similar crimes will be pardoned<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_Work_and_Ethical_Advocacy">Other Work and Ethical Advocacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Professionalism/Norbert_Wiener_and_the_Expert%E2%80%99s_Responsibility_for_Weapons&veaction=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Other Work and Ethical Advocacy" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Professionalism/Norbert_Wiener_and_the_Expert%E2%80%99s_Responsibility_for_Weapons&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section's source code: Other Work and Ethical Advocacy"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p>With the publishing of his book <i>Cybernetics: or, Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine</i>, Wiener introduced the field of Cybernetics to the world<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. Cybernetics is the “the science of communication and control theory that is concerned especially with the comparative study of automatic control systems.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>” At the recommendation of friends and colleagues, Wiener published a follow up book in 1950 titled :<i>The Human Use of Human Beings</i>, which was aimed towards non-scientists and described both the field of Cybernetics and the possible effects of such systems in the future. In this book Wiener questioned the role of the scientist in society, claiming that the creators of new systems and technology must also be aware of the damage they can do to society. In regards to Cybernetics, Wiener predicted that the incentives of profit and political motives could skew this new field from opening new pathways for people to communicate and spread information, to controlling information and exasperate issues that are already plaguing the world. Wiener also saw similarities in the feedback loops and logical workings between machines and animal brains, writing “it is my thesis that the operation of the living individuals and the operation of some of the newer communication machines are precisely parallel.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>” Wiener’s thoughts gave rise to the field of Artificial Intelligence, and his concerns mirror debates that computer scientists are still having today. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Future_Work_on_this_Page">Future Work on this Page</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Professionalism/Norbert_Wiener_and_the_Expert%E2%80%99s_Responsibility_for_Weapons&veaction=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Future Work on this Page" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Professionalism/Norbert_Wiener_and_the_Expert%E2%80%99s_Responsibility_for_Weapons&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section's source code: Future Work on this Page"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Further work on this chapter can include more of Wiener's work on wartime research, as well as other research he has performed.  In addition to this, including philosophical ideas as to the engineer’s role in war could be explored as well, exploring questions such as whether or not the engineer is responsible for his inventions.  Since history often repeats itself, reviewing more current scientists, rather than just World War II scientists, and their ideas about this issue could provide a modern application. </p> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-1">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r4271529">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Norbert-Wiener">"Norbert Wiener | American mathematician | Britannica"</a>. <i>www.britannica.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-05-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Norbert+Wiener+%7C+American+mathematician+%7C+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FNorbert-Wiener&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikibooks.org%3AProfessionalism%2FNorbert+Wiener+and+the+Expert%E2%80%99s+Responsibility+for+Weapons" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-2">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r4271529"><cite id="CITEREFBasu2021" class="citation web cs1">Basu, Lex (2021-01-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history-computer.com/norbert-wiener-complete-biography/">"Norbert Wiener - Complete Biography, History and Inventions"</a>. <i>History-Computer</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-05-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Maths+History&rft.atitle=Norbert+Wiener+-+Biography&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk%2FBiographies%2FWiener_Norbert%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikibooks.org%3AProfessionalism%2FNorbert+Wiener+and+the+Expert%E2%80%99s+Responsibility+for+Weapons" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-4">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r4271529"><cite id="CITEREFGalison" class="citation web cs1">Galison, Sina Najafi and Peter. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cabinetmagazine.org/issues/12/najafi_galison.php">"The Ontology of the Enemy: An Interview with Peter Galison | Sina Najafi and Peter Galison"</a>. <i>cabinetmagazine.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-05-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cabinetmagazine.org&rft.atitle=The+Ontology+of+the+Enemy%3A+An+Interview+with+Peter+Galison+%7C+Sina+Najafi+and+Peter+Galison&rft.aulast=Galison&rft.aufirst=Sina+Najafi+and+Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcabinetmagazine.org%2Fissues%2F12%2Fnajafi_galison.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikibooks.org%3AProfessionalism%2FNorbert+Wiener+and+the+Expert%E2%80%99s+Responsibility+for+Weapons" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-5">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r4271529"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://homepages.inf.ed.ac.uk/rbf/CVonline/LOCAL_COPIES/VELDHUIZEN/node15.html">"The Wiener filter"</a>. <i>homepages.inf.ed.ac.uk</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-05-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=homepages.inf.ed.ac.uk&rft.atitle=The+Wiener+filter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhomepages.inf.ed.ac.uk%2Frbf%2FCVonline%2FLOCAL_COPIES%2FVELDHUIZEN%2Fnode15.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikibooks.org%3AProfessionalism%2FNorbert+Wiener+and+the+Expert%E2%80%99s+Responsibility+for+Weapons" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-6">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r4271529"><cite id="CITEREFSack" class="citation web cs1">Sack, Harald. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scihi.org/norbert-wiener-cybernetics/">"Norbert Wiener and the Science of Cybernetics | SciHi Blog"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-05-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Norbert+Wiener+and+the+Science+of+Cybernetics+%7C+SciHi+Blog&rft.aulast=Sack&rft.aufirst=Harald&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscihi.org%2Fnorbert-wiener-cybernetics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikibooks.org%3AProfessionalism%2FNorbert+Wiener+and+the+Expert%E2%80%99s+Responsibility+for+Weapons" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-0"><i><b>a</b></i></a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-1"><i><b>b</b></i></a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r4271529"><cite id="CITEREFWiener1956" class="citation journal cs1">Wiener, Norbert (1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CwoAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA53&source=gbs_toc_r&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=false">"Moral Reflections of a Mathematician"</a>. <i>Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists</i>. <b>12</b> (2): 53–56 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+Atomic+Scientists&rft.atitle=Moral+Reflections+of+a+Mathematician&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=53-56&rft.date=1956&rft.aulast=Wiener&rft.aufirst=Norbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCwoAAAAAMBAJ%26pg%3DPA53%26source%3Dgbs_toc_r%26hl%3Den%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikibooks.org%3AProfessionalism%2FNorbert+Wiener+and+the+Expert%E2%80%99s+Responsibility+for+Weapons" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-8">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r4271529"><cite id="CITEREFWiener1947" class="citation web cs1">Wiener, Norbert (1947-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1947/01/a-scientist-rebels/656040/">"A Scientist Rebels"</a>. <i>The Atlantic</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-05-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=A+Scientist+Rebels&rft.date=1947-01-01&rft.aulast=Wiener&rft.aufirst=Norbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fmagazine%2Farchive%2F1947%2F01%2Fa-scientist-rebels%2F656040%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikibooks.org%3AProfessionalism%2FNorbert+Wiener+and+the+Expert%E2%80%99s+Responsibility+for+Weapons" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-9">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation news">Nast, Condé. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.co.uk/article/manhattan-project-robert-oppenheimer">"'Now I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds'. The story of Oppenheimer's infamous quote"</a> (in en-GB). <i>Wired UK</i>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" class="extiw" title="w:International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldcat.org/issn/1357-0978">1357-0978</a><span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.wired.co.uk/article/manhattan-project-robert-oppenheimer">https://www.wired.co.uk/article/manhattan-project-robert-oppenheimer</a></span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=%27Now+I+am+become+Death%2C+the+destroyer+of+worlds%27.+The+story+of+Oppenheimer%27s+infamous+quote&rft.jtitle=Wired+UK&rft.aulast=Nast&rft.aufirst=Cond%C3%A9&rft.au=Nast%2C%26%2332%3BCond%C3%A9&rft.issn=1357-0978&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.co.uk%2Farticle%2Fmanhattan-project-robert-oppenheimer&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Professionalism/Norbert_Wiener_and_the_Expert%E2%80%99s_Responsibility_for_Weapons"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-10">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r4271529"><cite id="CITEREFHam2015" class="citation web cs1">Ham, Paul (2015-08-05). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newsweek.com/hiroshima-smouldered-our-atom-bomb-scientists-suffered-remorse-360125">"As Hiroshima Smouldered, Our Atom Bomb Scientists Suffered Remorse"</a>. <i>Newsweek</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-05-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Newsweek&rft.atitle=As+Hiroshima+Smouldered%2C+Our+Atom+Bomb+Scientists+Suffered+Remorse&rft.date=2015-08-05&rft.aulast=Ham&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newsweek.com%2Fhiroshima-smouldered-our-atom-bomb-scientists-suffered-remorse-360125&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikibooks.org%3AProfessionalism%2FNorbert+Wiener+and+the+Expert%E2%80%99s+Responsibility+for+Weapons" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-11">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r4271529"><cite id="CITEREFSpeedMcCarthy" class="citation web cs1">Speed, Richard; McCarthy, Kieren. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theregister.com/2020/01/22/alan_turing_belongings_found/">"Alan Turing's OBE medal, PhD cert, other missing items found in super-fan's Colorado home by agents, says US govt"</a>. <i>www.theregister.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-05-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.theregister.com&rft.atitle=Alan+Turing%E2%80%99s+OBE+medal%2C+PhD+cert%2C+other+missing+items+found+in+super-fan%E2%80%99s+Colorado+home+by+agents%2C+says+US+govt&rft.aulast=Speed&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=McCarthy%2C+Kieren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theregister.com%2F2020%2F01%2F22%2Falan_turing_belongings_found%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikibooks.org%3AProfessionalism%2FNorbert+Wiener+and+the+Expert%E2%80%99s+Responsibility+for+Weapons" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-12">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r4271529"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/alan-turing-new-ps50-banknote-gay-codebreaker-mathematician-sexuality-pardon-a9005086.html">"Alan Turing: Why was the codebreaker convicted and pardoned for his sexuality?"</a>. <i>The Independent</i>. 2019-07-15<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-05-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=Alan+Turing%3A+Why+was+the+codebreaker+convicted+and+pardoned+for+his+sexuality%3F&rft.date=2019-07-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Flife-style%2Falan-turing-new-ps50-banknote-gay-codebreaker-mathematician-sexuality-pardon-a9005086.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikibooks.org%3AProfessionalism%2FNorbert+Wiener+and+the+Expert%E2%80%99s+Responsibility+for+Weapons" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-13">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r4271529"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://royalsociety.org/blog/2017/03/alan-turings-law/">"Alan Turing's Law | Royal Society"</a>. <i>royalsociety.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-05-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=royalsociety.org&rft.atitle=Alan+Turing%E2%80%99s+Law+%7C+Royal+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Froyalsociety.org%2Fblog%2F2017%2F03%2Falan-turings-law%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikibooks.org%3AProfessionalism%2FNorbert+Wiener+and+the+Expert%E2%80%99s+Responsibility+for+Weapons" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-14">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r4271529"><cite id="CITEREFWiener1948" class="citation book cs1">Wiener, Norbert (1948). <i>Cybernetics: Or, Control and Communication In the Animal and the Machine</i>. Technology Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cybernetics%3A+Or%2C+Control+and+Communication+In+the+Animal+and+the+Machine&rft.pub=Technology+Press&rft.date=1948&rft.aulast=Wiener&rft.aufirst=Norbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikibooks.org%3AProfessionalism%2FNorbert+Wiener+and+the+Expert%E2%80%99s+Responsibility+for+Weapons" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-15">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r4271529"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cybernetics">"Definition of CYBERNETICS"</a>. <i>www.merriam-webster.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-05-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.merriam-webster.com&rft.atitle=Definition+of+CYBERNETICS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fcybernetics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikibooks.org%3AProfessionalism%2FNorbert+Wiener+and+the+Expert%E2%80%99s+Responsibility+for+Weapons" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-16">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r4271529"><cite id="CITEREFWeiner1988" class="citation book cs1">Weiner, Norbert (1988). <i>The Human Use of Human Beings: Cybernetics and Society</i>. DA CAPO PRESS. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="extiw" title="w:ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780306803208" title="Special:BookSources/9780306803208"><bdi>9780306803208</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Human+Use+of+Human+Beings%3A+Cybernetics+and+Society&rft.pub=DA+CAPO+PRESS&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=9780306803208&rft.aulast=Weiner&rft.aufirst=Norbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikibooks.org%3AProfessionalism%2FNorbert+Wiener+and+the+Expert%E2%80%99s+Responsibility+for+Weapons" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Professionalism/Norbert_Wiener_and_the_Expert’s_Responsibility_for_Weapons&oldid=4287878">https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Professionalism/Norbert_Wiener_and_the_Expert’s_Responsibility_for_Weapons&oldid=4287878</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Special:Categories" title="Special:Categories">Category</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Book:Professionalism" title="Category:Book:Professionalism">Book:Professionalism</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 9 May 2023, at 15:09.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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