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<li id="toc-Early_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Early history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-German_migrations_eastward" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#German_migrations_eastward"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>German migrations eastward</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-German_migrations_eastward-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prussia_and_Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prussia_and_Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Prussia and Russia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prussia_and_Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_German_and_Russian_Empires" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_German_and_Russian_Empires"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>The German and Russian Empires</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_German_and_Russian_Empires-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interwar_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interwar_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Interwar period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interwar_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-German_invasion_of_Soviet_Union_and_World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#German_invasion_of_Soviet_Union_and_World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>German invasion of Soviet Union and World War II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-German_invasion_of_Soviet_Union_and_World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_the_war:_the_Soviet_Union_and_the_two_German_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_the_war:_the_Soviet_Union_and_the_two_German_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>After the war: the Soviet Union and the two German states</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-After_the_war:_the_Soviet_Union_and_the_two_German_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Federal_Republic_of_Germany_and_the_Russian_Federation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Federal_Republic_of_Germany_and_the_Russian_Federation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>Federal Republic of Germany and the Russian Federation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Federal_Republic_of_Germany_and_the_Russian_Federation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.9</span> <span>21st century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2014–2021" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2014–2021"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.10</span> <span>2014–2021</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2014–2021-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2022–present" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2022–present"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11</span> <span>2022–present</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2022–present-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Trade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russians_in_Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russians_in_Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Russians in Germany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russians_in_Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Resident_diplomatic_missions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resident_diplomatic_missions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Resident diplomatic missions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Resident_diplomatic_missions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Germany–Russia relations</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 24 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-24" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">24 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="العلاقات الألمانية الروسية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="العلاقات الألمانية الروسية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almaniya%E2%80%93Rusiya_m%C3%BCnasib%C9%99tl%C9%99ri" title="Almaniya–Rusiya münasibətləri – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Almaniya–Rusiya münasibətləri" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%83_%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B8_%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Отношения между Германия и Русия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Отношения между Германия и Русия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forholdet_mellem_Tyskland_og_Rusland" title="Forholdet mellem Tyskland og Rusland – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Forholdet mellem Tyskland og Rusland" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsch-russische_Beziehungen" title="Deutsch-russische Beziehungen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Deutsch-russische Beziehungen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relaciones_Alemania-Rusia" title="Relaciones Alemania-Rusia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Relaciones Alemania-Rusia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B7_%D8%A2%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%88_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%87" title="روابط آلمان و روسیه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="روابط آلمان و روسیه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relations_entre_l%27Allemagne_et_la_Russie" title="Relations entre l'Allemagne et la Russie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Relations entre l'Allemagne et la Russie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD-%D5%A3%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%B0%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Ռուս-գերմանական հարաբերություններ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ռուս-գերմանական հարաբերություններ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubungan_Jerman_dengan_Rusia" title="Hubungan Jerman dengan Rusia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Hubungan Jerman dengan Rusia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relazioni_bilaterali_tra_Germania_e_Russia" title="Relazioni bilaterali tra Germania e Russia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Relazioni bilaterali tra Germania e Russia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%97%D7%A1%D7%99_%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%94%E2%80%93%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%94" title="יחסי גרמניה–רוסיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="יחסי גרמניה–רוסיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A9metorsz%C3%A1g_%C3%A9s_Oroszorsz%C3%A1g_kapcsolatai" title="Németország és Oroszország kapcsolatai – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Németország és Oroszország kapcsolatai" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8" title="Германско-руски односи – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Германско-руски односи" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaniya_%E2%80%94_Rossiya_munosabatlari" title="Germaniya — Rossiya munosabatlari – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Germaniya — Rossiya munosabatlari" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rela%C3%A7%C3%B5es_entre_Alemanha_e_R%C3%BAssia" title="Relações entre Alemanha e Rússia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Relações entre Alemanha e Rússia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaniya%E2%80%94Rossiya_qatnas%C4%B1qlar%C4%B1" title="Germaniya—Rossiya qatnasıqları – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Germaniya—Rossiya qatnasıqları" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Российско-германские отношения – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Российско-германские отношения" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nem%C5%A1ko-ruski_odnosi" title="Nemško-ruski odnosi – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Nemško-ruski odnosi" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8_%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B5_%D0%B8_%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B5" title="Односи Русије и Немачке – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Односи Русије и Немачке" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Njema%C4%8Dko-ruski_odnosi" title="Njemačko-ruski odnosi – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Njemačko-ruski odnosi" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%96%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%86%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Німецько-російські відносини – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Німецько-російські відносини" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%86%DB%8C-%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3_%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="جرمنی-روس تعلقات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جرمنی-روس تعلقات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Bilateral relations</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="border-collapse:collapse;"><caption class="infobox-title">Germany–Russia relations</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Germany_Russia_Locator.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Map indicating locations of Germany and Russia"><img alt="Map indicating locations of Germany and Russia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Germany_Russia_Locator.svg/250px-Germany_Russia_Locator.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Germany_Russia_Locator.svg/375px-Germany_Russia_Locator.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Germany_Russia_Locator.svg/500px-Germany_Russia_Locator.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="415" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:lightgrey"></th></tr><tr style="height:0.6em"> <td style="background:#339933;"></td> <td style="background:#E08020;"></td> </tr><tr> <th scope="col" style="width:50%; text-align:center"><span class="mw-default-size mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/50px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/75px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/100px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a></th> <th scope="col" style="width:50%; text-align:center; border-left:thin solid lightgrey;"><span class="mw-default-size mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/68px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/90px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a></th> </tr><tr style="display:none"><th colspan="2"> </th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:lightgrey">Diplomatic mission</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal; text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Embassy_of_Germany,_Moscow" title="Embassy of Germany, Moscow">Embassy of Germany, Moscow</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:center; border-left:thin solid lightgrey;"><a href="/wiki/Embassy_of_Russia,_Berlin" title="Embassy of Russia, Berlin">Embassy of Russia, Berlin</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vladimir_Putin_and_Frank-Walter_Steinmeier_(2017-10-25)_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Vladimir_Putin_and_Frank-Walter_Steinmeier_%282017-10-25%29_02.jpg/220px-Vladimir_Putin_and_Frank-Walter_Steinmeier_%282017-10-25%29_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Vladimir_Putin_and_Frank-Walter_Steinmeier_%282017-10-25%29_02.jpg/330px-Vladimir_Putin_and_Frank-Walter_Steinmeier_%282017-10-25%29_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Vladimir_Putin_and_Frank-Walter_Steinmeier_%282017-10-25%29_02.jpg/440px-Vladimir_Putin_and_Frank-Walter_Steinmeier_%282017-10-25%29_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1880" data-file-height="1160" /></a><figcaption>German President <a href="/wiki/Frank-Walter_Steinmeier" title="Frank-Walter Steinmeier">Frank-Walter Steinmeier</a> during conversation with Russian President <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a>, 25 October 2017. </figcaption></figure> <p><b>Germany–Russia relations</b> display cyclical patterns, moving back and forth from cooperation and alliance to strain and to total warfare. Historian <a href="/wiki/John_Wheeler-Bennett" title="John Wheeler-Bennett">John Wheeler-Bennett</a> says that since the 1740s: </p> <dl><dd>Relations between Russia and Germany...have been a series of alienations, distinguished for their bitterness, and of rapprochements, remarkable for their warmth....A cardinal factor in the relationship has been the existence of an independent Poland...when separated by a buffer state the two great Powers of eastern Europe have been friendly, whereas a contiguity of frontiers has bred hostility.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p><a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</a> established the <a href="/wiki/League_of_the_Three_Emperors" title="League of the Three Emperors">League of the Three Emperors</a> in 1873 with Russia, Germany, and Austria-Hungary. But after Bismarck's dismissal in 1890, his successors chose to support Austria against Russia over competing influence in the Balkans. Germany fought against Russia in <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> (1914–1918). Relations were warm in the 1920s, very cold throughout the 1930s, cooperative and friendly in 1939–41,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and hostile in 1941–45. In the 1920s both countries co-operated with each other in trade and (secretly) in military affairs. Hostilities escalated in the 1930s as the fascists sponsored by Berlin and the communists sponsored by Moscow fought each other across the world, most famously in the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a> (1936–39). In a stunning turnabout in August 1939, <a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">both countries came to an agreement</a>, and divided up the previously independent nations of Eastern Europe. That détente collapsed <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">in 1941 when Germany invaded the USSR</a>. The Soviets survived however and formed an alliance with Britain and the U.S., and pushed the Germans back, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Berlin" title="Battle of Berlin">capturing Berlin in May 1945</a>. </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> 1947–1991, Germany was divided, with <a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a> under Communist control and under the close watch of Moscow, which stationed a large military force there and <a href="/wiki/Uprising_of_1953_in_East_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Uprising of 1953 in East Germany">repressed an uprising in 1953</a>. </p><p>Germany has been consistently among the countries with the most negative views of Russia. In 2014 only 19% of Germans viewed Russia positively while 79% had a negative opinion and 81% disapproved of the Russian Leadership, making Germany one of the 10 countries with the highest disapproval in the world. <sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2021 73% disapproved, still one of the highest numbers in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the <a href="/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine">2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine</a> German distrust of Russia reached a record of 90% and as of 2024 95% disapprove of Russia's President <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Relations turned highly negative in 2014 in response to Russia's seizure of Crimea from Ukraine and support for insurgents in Ukraine. Germany was a leader between <a href="/wiki/NATO_Quint" class="mw-redirect" title="NATO Quint">NATO Quint</a> in imposing round after round of increasingly harsh European Union sanctions against the Russian oil and banking industries and top allies of <a href="/wiki/President_of_Russia" title="President of Russia">President</a> <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a>. Russia responded by cutting food imports from the EU. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine">2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine</a> led to a near complete reversal of German-Russian relations with the new German Chancellor, <a href="/wiki/Olaf_Scholz" title="Olaf Scholz">Olaf Scholz</a>, "ordering" the immediate transfer of thousands of missiles to the Ukrainian military to aid in its fight against the invading Russian forces. Germany has also participated in severe economic banking sanctions against Russia since the start of the war. However, Germany is very dependent on Russia for natural gas and has been less willing to sanction this sector, aside from halting the <a href="/wiki/Nord_Stream_2" title="Nord Stream 2">Nord Stream 2</a> gas pipeline and the attack on September 26 temporarily shutting the pipes down. The pipeline made up a significant portion of Germany's petroleum imports from Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response to sanctions imposed by Germany and the West, Russia gradually plunged flows of gas, which came to a complete halt in September 2022. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germany%E2%80%93Russia_relations&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_history">Early history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germany%E2%80%93Russia_relations&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ice-battle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ice-battle.jpg/220px-Ice-battle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ice-battle.jpg/330px-Ice-battle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Ice-battle.jpg/440px-Ice-battle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="818" /></a><figcaption>Prince <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Nevsky" title="Alexander Nevsky">Alexander Nevsky</a> defeats the <a href="/wiki/Teutonic_Knights" class="mw-redirect" title="Teutonic Knights">Teutonic Knights</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Ice" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of the Ice">Battle of the Ice</a> in 1242 (20th century work)</figcaption></figure> <p>The earliest contact between <a href="/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">Germans</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Slavs" title="East Slavs">East Slavs</a> is unknown, though evidence of <a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages"> East Germanic</a> loan-words suggest Slavic interactions with the <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a>. Substantive historically recorded contact goes back to the times of the <a href="/wiki/Teutonic_Order" title="Teutonic Order"> Teutonic Knights</a>' campaigns in the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_region" title="Baltic region"> Baltic</a>, where the Knights <a href="/wiki/Northern_Crusades" title="Northern Crusades"> took control of the land</a> in the 13th century CE. Prince <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Nevsky" title="Alexander Nevsky">Alexander Nevsky</a> defeated the Teutonic Knights at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Ice" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of the Ice">Battle of the Ice</a> in 1242. </p><p>Russia before the mid-18th century stood largely aloof from German affairs, while Germany, until the Napoleonic period, remained divided into numerous small states under the nominal leadership of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor</a>. </p><p>After Russia's <a href="/wiki/Great_Northern_War" title="Great Northern War">Great Northern War</a> of 1700-1721 against <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire"> Sweden</a>, however, Russia's influence spread definitively into the Baltic area. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_I,_venerates_the_mortal_remains_of_Frederick_the_Great_in_presence_of_King_Frederick_William_III_and_Queen_Louisa.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Alexander_I%2C_venerates_the_mortal_remains_of_Frederick_the_Great_in_presence_of_King_Frederick_William_III_and_Queen_Louisa.PNG/166px-Alexander_I%2C_venerates_the_mortal_remains_of_Frederick_the_Great_in_presence_of_King_Frederick_William_III_and_Queen_Louisa.PNG" decoding="async" width="166" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Alexander_I%2C_venerates_the_mortal_remains_of_Frederick_the_Great_in_presence_of_King_Frederick_William_III_and_Queen_Louisa.PNG/249px-Alexander_I%2C_venerates_the_mortal_remains_of_Frederick_the_Great_in_presence_of_King_Frederick_William_III_and_Queen_Louisa.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Alexander_I%2C_venerates_the_mortal_remains_of_Frederick_the_Great_in_presence_of_King_Frederick_William_III_and_Queen_Louisa.PNG/332px-Alexander_I%2C_venerates_the_mortal_remains_of_Frederick_the_Great_in_presence_of_King_Frederick_William_III_and_Queen_Louisa.PNG 2x" data-file-width="511" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>Emperor <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia" title="Alexander I of Russia">Alexander I of Russia</a> venerates the mortal remains of <a href="/wiki/Frederick_the_Great" title="Frederick the Great">Frederick the Great</a> in the presence of King <a href="/wiki/Frederick_William_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick William III">Frederick William III</a> and <a href="/wiki/Louise_of_Mecklenburg-Strelitz" title="Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz">Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz</a> in 1805</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="German_migrations_eastward">German migrations eastward</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germany%E2%80%93Russia_relations&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: German migrations eastward"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Over the centuries, from the Middle Ages onwards, German settlers steadily <a href="/wiki/Ostsiedlung" title="Ostsiedlung">moved eastward</a>, often into mostly Slavic areas and areas near to or controlled by Russia. Flegel points out that German farmers, traders and entrepreneurs moved into East and West Prussia, the Baltic region (Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia), the Danzig and Vistula River region, <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Eastern_Europe)" title="Galicia (Eastern Europe)"> Galicia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slovenia" title="Slovenia">Slovenia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Banat" title="Banat">Banat</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bachka" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachka">Bachka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bukovina" title="Bukovina">Bukovina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transylvania" title="Transylvania">Transylvania</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Volga_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Volga River">Volga River</a> district of Russia, <a href="/wiki/Posen_(region)" title="Posen (region)"> Posen</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Warsaw" title="Duchy of Warsaw">Duchy of Warsaw</a>, Polish and Ukrainian <a href="/wiki/Volhynia" title="Volhynia">Volhynia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bessarabia" title="Bessarabia">Bessarabia</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus_Germans" title="Caucasus Germans"> Mount Ararat</a> region between the 17th and the 20th centuries. Often they came at the invitation of Russian governments. The Germans typically became the dominant factors in land-owning and in business enterprise. Some groups, such as part of the Mennonites, migrated to North America 1860–1914. The Germans in the Baltic states returned home voluntarily in 1940. Some 12 to 14 million were brutally <a href="/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944%E2%80%9350)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50)">expelled</a> from Poland, Czechoslovakia and other countries in Eastern Europe in 1944–46, with the death of 500,000 or more.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the Cold War ended Germany funded the return of hundreds of thousands of people of German descent, whether or not they spoke German.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%AD.%D0%98._%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%83.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%AD.%D0%98._%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%83.jpg/220px-%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%AD.%D0%98._%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%83.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%AD.%D0%98._%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%83.jpg/330px-%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%AD.%D0%98._%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%83.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%AD.%D0%98._%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%83.jpg/440px-%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%AD.%D0%98._%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%83.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Monument to Baltic German military engineer <a href="/wiki/Eduard_Totleben" title="Eduard Totleben">Eduard Totleben</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sevastopol" title="Sevastopol">Sevastopol</a>, Crimea</figcaption></figure> <p>A number of <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Germans" title="Baltic Germans">Baltic Germans</a> served as ranking generals in the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Imperial_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Imperial Army">Russian Imperial Army</a> and <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Navy" title="Imperial Russian Navy">Navy</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Michael_Andreas_Barclay_de_Tolly" title="Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly">Michael Barclay de Tolly</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adam_Johann_von_Krusenstern" title="Adam Johann von Krusenstern">Adam von Krusenstern</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fabian_Gottlieb_von_Bellingshausen" title="Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen">Fabian von Bellingshausen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Wilhelm_von_Buxhoeveden" title="Friedrich Wilhelm von Buxhoeveden">Friedrich von Buxhoeveden</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_von_Rennenkampf" title="Paul von Rennenkampf">Paul von Rennenkampf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Ivanovich_Michelson" class="mw-redirect" title="Ivan Ivanovich Michelson">Ivan Ivanovich Michelson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eduard_Totleben" title="Eduard Totleben">Eduard Totleben</a>. </p><p>Many Baltic Germans (such as <a href="/wiki/Roman_von_Ungern-Sternberg" title="Roman von Ungern-Sternberg">Baron Roman von Ungern-Sternberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Nikolayevich_Wrangel" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangel">Baron Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yevgeny_Miller" title="Yevgeny Miller">Yevgeny Miller</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anatoly_Lieven" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatoly Lieven">Anatoly Lieven</a>) sided with the <a href="/wiki/White_movement" title="White movement">Whites</a> and related anti-Bolshevik forces (like the <i><a href="/wiki/Baltische_Landeswehr" title="Baltische Landeswehr">Baltische Landeswehr</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Freikorps_in_the_Baltic" title="Freikorps in the Baltic">Freikorps</a></i> movement) during the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prussia_and_Russia">Prussia and Russia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germany%E2%80%93Russia_relations&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Prussia and Russia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a> in 1701 and the proclamation of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> in 1721, two powerful new states emerged that began to interact. </p><p>They fought on opposite sides during the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Austrian_Succession" title="War of the Austrian Succession">War of the Austrian Succession</a> (1740 – 1748), but the war saw both grow in power. Russia defeated Sweden and Prussia defeated Austria. Russia and Prussia again were at odds during the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a> (1756–1763) and fought the battles of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gross-J%C3%A4gersdorf" title="Battle of Gross-Jägersdorf">Gross-Jägersdorf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zorndorf" title="Battle of Zorndorf">Zorndorf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kay" title="Battle of Kay">Kay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kunersdorf" title="Battle of Kunersdorf">Kunersdorf</a>. However, when Russian Tsar <a href="/wiki/Peter_III_of_Russia" title="Peter III of Russia">Peter III</a> came to power, he made peace with Prussia by signing the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint_Petersburg_(1762)" title="Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1762)">Treaty of Saint Petersburg</a>, allowing Prussian King <a href="/wiki/Frederick_the_Great" title="Frederick the Great">Frederick the Great</a> to concentrate on his other enemies. </p><p>Prussia and Russia in agreement with Austria then cooperated to <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">carve up Poland-Lithuania</a> between them in 1772, 1793, and 1795. Poland disappeared from the map. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Declaration_of_victory_after_the_Battle_of_Leipzig,_1813_(by_Johann_Peter_Krafft).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Declaration_of_victory_after_the_Battle_of_Leipzig%2C_1813_%28by_Johann_Peter_Krafft%29.jpg/220px-Declaration_of_victory_after_the_Battle_of_Leipzig%2C_1813_%28by_Johann_Peter_Krafft%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Declaration_of_victory_after_the_Battle_of_Leipzig%2C_1813_%28by_Johann_Peter_Krafft%29.jpg/330px-Declaration_of_victory_after_the_Battle_of_Leipzig%2C_1813_%28by_Johann_Peter_Krafft%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Declaration_of_victory_after_the_Battle_of_Leipzig%2C_1813_%28by_Johann_Peter_Krafft%29.jpg/440px-Declaration_of_victory_after_the_Battle_of_Leipzig%2C_1813_%28by_Johann_Peter_Krafft%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8021" data-file-height="5694" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Frederick_William_III_of_Prussia" title="Frederick William III of Prussia">Frederick III</a> of Prussia, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia" title="Alexander I of Russia">Alexander I</a> of Russia and <a href="/wiki/Francis_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor">Francis I</a> of Austria after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leipzig" title="Battle of Leipzig">Battle of Leipzig</a>, 1813</figcaption></figure> <p>Both Russia and Prussia had <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute monarchies</a> that reacted sharply when the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> executed the king. They at first were part of the coalition against the new French regime during the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="French Revolutionary Wars">French Revolutionary Wars</a> and later the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>. During the Napoleonic era (1799 to 1815) Austria, Prussia, and Russia were at one time or another in coalition with Napoleon against his arch-enemy Great Britain. In the end, the two German states of Austria and Prussia united with Russia and Britain in opposing Napoleon. That coalition was primarily a matter of convenience for each nation. The key matchmaker was the Austrian Chancellor Klemens von Metternich, who forged a united front that proved decisive in overthrowing Napoleon, 1813–1814.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Russia was the most powerful force on the continent after 1815 and played a major role in the <a href="/wiki/Concert_of_Europe" title="Concert of Europe">Concert of Europe</a> which included France, Russia, Austria and Britain, but not Prussia.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1815, the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Alliance" title="Holy Alliance">Holy Alliance</a> consisting of Prussia, Russia and Austria was completed in Paris. For forty years (1816–56) Russian-German diplomat <a href="/wiki/Karl_Nesselrode" title="Karl Nesselrode">Karl Nesselrode</a> as foreign minister guided Russian foreign policy. The revolutions of 1848 did not reach Russia, but its political and economic system was inadequate to maintain a modern army. It did poorly in the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a>. As Fuller notes, "Russia had been beaten on the Crimean peninsula, and the military feared that it would inevitably be beaten again unless steps were taken to surmount its military weakness."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Crimean War marked the end of the Concert of Europe. Prussia was shaken by the <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a> but was able to withstand the revolutionaries' call to war against Russia. Prussia did go to war with Denmark, however, and was only stopped by British and Russian pressure. Prussia remained neutral in the Crimean War. </p><p>Prussia's successes in the <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">Wars of German Unification</a> in the 1860s were facilitated by Russia's lack of involvement. The creation of the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a> under Prussian dominance in 1871, however, greatly changed the relations between the two countries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_German_and_Russian_Empires">The German and Russian Empires</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germany%E2%80%93Russia_relations&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The German and Russian Empires"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Triple_Alliance.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Triple_Alliance.png/220px-Triple_Alliance.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Triple_Alliance.png/330px-Triple_Alliance.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Triple_Alliance.png/440px-Triple_Alliance.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="492" /></a><figcaption>The Triple Alliance (shown in red) was constructed by Germany to isolate France; it responded by a new alliance, the <a href="/wiki/Triple_Entente" title="Triple Entente">Triple Entente</a> with Britain and Russia. As a result, Russia and Germany were now on opposite sides</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zar_Nikolaus_II._und_Kaiser_Wilhelm_II._auf_der_Kommandobr%C3%BCcke_der_SMS_Deutschland.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Zar_Nikolaus_II._und_Kaiser_Wilhelm_II._auf_der_Kommandobr%C3%BCcke_der_SMS_Deutschland.jpg/220px-Zar_Nikolaus_II._und_Kaiser_Wilhelm_II._auf_der_Kommandobr%C3%BCcke_der_SMS_Deutschland.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Zar_Nikolaus_II._und_Kaiser_Wilhelm_II._auf_der_Kommandobr%C3%BCcke_der_SMS_Deutschland.jpg/330px-Zar_Nikolaus_II._und_Kaiser_Wilhelm_II._auf_der_Kommandobr%C3%BCcke_der_SMS_Deutschland.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Zar_Nikolaus_II._und_Kaiser_Wilhelm_II._auf_der_Kommandobr%C3%BCcke_der_SMS_Deutschland.jpg/440px-Zar_Nikolaus_II._und_Kaiser_Wilhelm_II._auf_der_Kommandobr%C3%BCcke_der_SMS_Deutschland.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1622" data-file-height="1006" /></a><figcaption>Czar <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_II" title="Nicholas II">Nicholas II</a> of Russia and his cousin, Kaiser <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_II" title="Wilhelm II">Wilhelm II</a> of Germany, 1907</figcaption></figure> <p>Initially, it seemed as if the two great empires would be strong allies. German Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</a> formed the <a href="/wiki/League_of_the_Three_Emperors" title="League of the Three Emperors">League of the Three Emperors</a> in 1872 binding together Russia, Austria, and Germany. The League stated that <a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">republicanism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a> were common enemies, and that the three powers would discuss any matters concerning foreign policy. Bismarck needed good relations with Russia in order to keep France isolated.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1877–1878, Russia fought a victorious <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%9378)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russo-Turkish War (1877–78)">war with the Ottoman Empire</a> and attempted to impose the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_San_Stefano" title="Treaty of San Stefano">Treaty of San Stefano</a> on it. This upset the British in particular, as they were long concerned with preserving the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> and preventing a Russian takeover of the <a href="/wiki/Bosphorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosphorus">Bosphorus</a>. Germany hosted the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Berlin" title="Congress of Berlin">Congress of Berlin</a> (1878), whereby a more moderate peace settlement was agreed to. Germany had no direct interest in the Balkans, however, which was largely an Austrian and Russian sphere of influence.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1879, Bismarck formed a Dual Alliance of Germany and Austria-Hungary, with the aim of mutual military assistance in the case of an attack from Russia, which was not satisfied with the agreement reached at the Congress of Berlin. The establishment of the Dual Alliance led Russia to take a more conciliatory stance, and in 1887, the so-called <a href="/wiki/Reinsurance_Treaty" title="Reinsurance Treaty">Reinsurance Treaty</a> was signed between Germany and Russia: in it, the two powers agreed on mutual military support in the case that France attacked Germany, or in case of an Austrian attack on Russia. Russia turned its attention eastward to Asia and remained largely inactive in European politics for the next 25 years.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Germany was somewhat worried about Russia's potential industrialization—it had far more potential soldiers—while Russia feared Germany's already established industrial power. In 1907 Russia went into a coalition with Britain and France, the <a href="/wiki/Triple_Entente" title="Triple Entente">Triple Entente</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ultimate result of this was that Russia and Germany became enemies in <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Eastern Front (World War I)">Eastern Front</a> saw Germany successful, with victories at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tannenberg" title="Battle of Tannenberg">Tannenberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_the_Masurian_Lakes" title="First Battle of the Masurian Lakes">First</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_the_Masurian_Lakes" title="Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes">Second Masurian Lakes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lake_Naroch_Offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Lake Naroch Offensive">Lake Naroch</a>. The czarist system collapsed in 1917. The Bolsheviks came to power in the <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a>. The new regime signed the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk" title="Treaty of Brest-Litovsk">Treaty of Brest-Litovsk</a> which was highly advantageous to Germany, although it was reversed when Germany surrendered to the Allies in November 1918.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interwar_period">Interwar period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germany%E2%80%93Russia_relations&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Interwar period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations,_1918%E2%80%931941" title="Germany–Soviet Union relations, 1918–1941">Germany–Soviet Union relations, 1918–1941</a> and <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Rapallo_(1922)" title="Treaty of Rapallo (1922)">Treaty of Rapallo (1922)</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Germany_Soviet_Union_Locator_until_1937.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Germany_Soviet_Union_Locator_until_1937.png/350px-Germany_Soviet_Union_Locator_until_1937.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="355" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Germany_Soviet_Union_Locator_until_1937.png/525px-Germany_Soviet_Union_Locator_until_1937.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Germany_Soviet_Union_Locator_until_1937.png/700px-Germany_Soviet_Union_Locator_until_1937.png 2x" data-file-width="1011" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"> <tbody><tr> <th><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Germany_(3-2).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg/50px-Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg/75px-Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg/100px-Flag_of_Germany_%283-2%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic</a> (1918–1933) </p> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Germany_(1935%E2%80%931945).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg/50px-Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg/75px-Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg/100px-Flag_of_Germany_%281935%E2%80%931945%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> (1933–1945) </p> </th> <th><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_(1918%E2%80%931925).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/50px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/75px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/100px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian SFSR</a> (1917–1922)<br />as a <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">sovereign state</a> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1924%E2%80%931936).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281924%E2%80%931936%29.svg/50px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281924%E2%80%931936%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281924%E2%80%931936%29.svg/75px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281924%E2%80%931936%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281924%E2%80%931936%29.svg/100px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281924%E2%80%931936%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">USSR</a> (1922–1990) </p> </th></tr></tbody></table> <p>After the peace treaties that ended the Great War, the newly created states of the <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> both found themselves outcasts in the international system and gravitated toward each other. The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Rapallo_(1922)" title="Treaty of Rapallo (1922)">Treaty of Rapallo (1922)</a> formalized their warming relationship.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Until 1933 the Soviet Union secretly provided training camps for the German Armed Forces.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The coming to power in 1933 of <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> and the creation of <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">the Nazi state</a> with its virulent anti-Semitic and <a href="/wiki/Anti-communist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-communist">anti-communist</a> rhetoric made for extremely hostile propaganda in both directions. Nazi propaganda, across Europe and Latin America, focused on warnings against Jewish and Bolshevik threats emanating from Moscow.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Communist_International" title="Communist International">Comintern</a>, representing Moscow's international Communist network, moved to a <a href="/wiki/Popular_front" title="Popular front">popular front</a> approach after 1934, allowing the Communists worldwide to cooperate with socialists, intellectuals and workers on the left in opposing Fascism. The worldwide left-wing support for the Republicans in the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a> (1936–39) proved of enormous aid to the Communist cause. Germany and the Soviets both sent military forces and advisors into Spain, as did Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spotkanie_Sojusznik%C3%B3w.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Spotkanie_Sojusznik%C3%B3w.jpg/220px-Spotkanie_Sojusznik%C3%B3w.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Spotkanie_Sojusznik%C3%B3w.jpg/330px-Spotkanie_Sojusznik%C3%B3w.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Spotkanie_Sojusznik%C3%B3w.jpg/440px-Spotkanie_Sojusznik%C3%B3w.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1496" /></a><figcaption>German and Soviet troops shaking hands following the <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland" title="Invasion of Poland">invasion of Poland</a> in September 1939.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Spanish Civil War was in part a proxy war. The Nationalists led by General <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Francisco Franco</a> and the Republican government fought it out for the control of the country. Militarily, the Nationalists usually had the upper hand and they won in the end. Germany sent in the <a href="/wiki/Condor_Legion" title="Condor Legion">Condor Legion</a> comprising elite air and tank units to the Nationalist forces. The Soviet Union sent military and political advisors, and sold munitions in support of the "Loyalist," or Republican, side. The Comintern helped Communist parties around the world send volunteers to the <a href="/wiki/International_Brigades" title="International Brigades">International Brigades</a> that fought for the Loyalists.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In August 1939 the two totalitarian states stunned the world by coming to a major agreement, the <a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a>. They agreed to invade and partition Poland and divided up Eastern Europe. The Soviets provided Germany with oil and reversed the anti-Nazi rhetoric of Communist parties around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, the Soviet and German interests were not reconciled in the Balkano-Danubian region. Thus, during 1940-1941 hot Soviet-German discussions concerning a new division of the South-Eastern Europe were going on. In June 1940, Moscow recognized that Slovakia was in the German sphere of influence.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Otherwise, Russian request for the exclusive influence in Romania, Bulgaria and Turkey was rejected by Berlin in November 1940. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="German_invasion_of_Soviet_Union_and_World_War_II">German invasion of Soviet Union and World War II</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germany%E2%80%93Russia_relations&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: German invasion of Soviet Union and World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_2153_After_bombing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/RIAN_archive_2153_After_bombing.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_2153_After_bombing.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/RIAN_archive_2153_After_bombing.jpg/330px-RIAN_archive_2153_After_bombing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/RIAN_archive_2153_After_bombing.jpg/440px-RIAN_archive_2153_After_bombing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2976" data-file-height="1823" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leningrad" title="Siege of Leningrad">siege of Leningrad</a> during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> was the deadliest siege of a city in history</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front (World War II)</a></div> <p>In 1941, it was Russia's turn, yet <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> refused to believe the multiple warnings of a German invasion. <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Operation Barbarossa</a> began in June 1941, captured or destroyed multiple Soviet armies, and reached the gates of Moscow by December. Stalin fought back and forged close relations with Britain and the United States, both of which provided large amounts of munitions.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a> became the horrendous ideological and <a href="/wiki/Race_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Race war">race war</a> with more than 27 million killed, including <a href="/wiki/German_mistreatment_of_Soviet_prisoners_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="German mistreatment of Soviet prisoners of war">Soviet prisoners of war</a> and Jews. It was perhaps <a href="/wiki/List_of_battles_by_death_toll" class="mw-redirect" title="List of battles by death toll">the bloodiest conflict in human history</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="After_the_war:_the_Soviet_Union_and_the_two_German_states">After the war: the Soviet Union and the two German states</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germany%E2%80%93Russia_relations&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: After the war: the Soviet Union and the two German states"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Bilateral relations</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="border-collapse:collapse;"><caption class="infobox-title">West Germany–Soviet Union relations</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:West_Germany_Soviet_Union_Locator_(cropped).png" class="mw-file-description" title="Map indicating locations of West Germany and Soviet Union"><img alt="Map indicating locations of West Germany and Soviet Union" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/West_Germany_Soviet_Union_Locator_%28cropped%29.png/250px-West_Germany_Soviet_Union_Locator_%28cropped%29.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/West_Germany_Soviet_Union_Locator_%28cropped%29.png/375px-West_Germany_Soviet_Union_Locator_%28cropped%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/West_Germany_Soviet_Union_Locator_%28cropped%29.png/500px-West_Germany_Soviet_Union_Locator_%28cropped%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1479" data-file-height="889" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:lightgrey"></th></tr><tr style="height:0.6em"> <td style="background:#339933;"></td> <td style="background:#E08020;"></td> </tr><tr> <th scope="col" style="width:50%; text-align:center"><span class="mw-default-size mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/50px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/75px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/100px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><br /><a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a></th> <th scope="col" style="width:50%; text-align:center; border-left:thin solid lightgrey;"><span class="mw-default-size mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/60px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/90px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/120px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></th> </tr><tr style="display:none"><th colspan="2"> </th></tr></tbody></table> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Bilateral relations</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="border-collapse:collapse;"><caption class="infobox-title">East Germany–Soviet Union relations</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:East_Germany_Soviet_Union_Locator.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Map indicating locations of East Germany and Soviet Union"><img alt="Map indicating locations of East Germany and Soviet Union" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/East_Germany_Soviet_Union_Locator.png/250px-East_Germany_Soviet_Union_Locator.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/East_Germany_Soviet_Union_Locator.png/375px-East_Germany_Soviet_Union_Locator.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/East_Germany_Soviet_Union_Locator.png/500px-East_Germany_Soviet_Union_Locator.png 2x" data-file-width="1236" data-file-height="1245" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:lightgrey"></th></tr><tr style="height:0.6em"> <td style="background:#339933;"></td> <td style="background:#E08020;"></td> </tr><tr> <th scope="col" style="width:50%; text-align:center"><span class="mw-default-size mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/50px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/75px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg/100px-Flag_of_East_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><br /><a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a></th> <th scope="col" style="width:50%; text-align:center; border-left:thin solid lightgrey;"><span class="mw-default-size mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/60px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/90px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/120px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></th> </tr><tr style="display:none"><th colspan="2"> </th></tr></tbody></table> <p>The defeat of Germany by the Soviets and the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Western allies</a> eventually led to the occupation and partition of Germany and the <a href="/wiki/Flight_and_expulsion_of_Germans_(1944%E2%80%9350)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50)">expulsions of most ethnic-Germans from Soviet-conquered areas</a>. </p><p>The creation of <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a> complicated relations. West Germany initially tried to claim that it was the only German state and the East was illegitimate and under the <a href="/wiki/Hallstein_Doctrine" title="Hallstein Doctrine">Hallstein Doctrine</a> refused to have relation with any socialist state except the Soviet Union itself. This policy eventually gave way to <i><a href="/wiki/Ostpolitik" title="Ostpolitik">Ostpolitik</a></i>, under which West Germany recognized the East. </p><p>Gorbachev gave up on trying to support the deeply unpopular East German government.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">fall of the Berlin Wall</a>, the Communist regime in East Germany collapsed and <a href="/wiki/German_reunification" title="German reunification">German reunification</a> took place. One issue was the presence of large numbers of Soviet troops; West Germany paid for their repatriation for housing them in the USSR.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Remarkably, despite the two 20th century wars, there are very few hard feelings against Germany in modern Russia, particularly on the part of Russians born after 1945.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Moreover, in many places in Russia German war cemeteries were established in places of fierce World War II battles,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whereas Germans were happy to get rid of the hated <a href="/wiki/Stasi" title="Stasi">Stasi</a> and Russian occupation.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Federal_Republic_of_Germany_and_the_Russian_Federation">Federal Republic of Germany and the Russian Federation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germany%E2%80%93Russia_relations&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Federal Republic of Germany and the Russian Federation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:German_Embassy_Mosfilmovskaya_Street.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/German_Embassy_Mosfilmovskaya_Street.jpg/220px-German_Embassy_Mosfilmovskaya_Street.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/German_Embassy_Mosfilmovskaya_Street.jpg/330px-German_Embassy_Mosfilmovskaya_Street.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/German_Embassy_Mosfilmovskaya_Street.jpg/440px-German_Embassy_Mosfilmovskaya_Street.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Embassy_of_Germany,_Moscow" title="Embassy of Germany, Moscow">Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mosfilmovskaya_Street" title="Mosfilmovskaya Street">Mosfilmovskaya Street</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vladimir_Putin_with_Johannes_Rau-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Vladimir_Putin_with_Johannes_Rau-1.jpg/220px-Vladimir_Putin_with_Johannes_Rau-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Vladimir_Putin_with_Johannes_Rau-1.jpg/330px-Vladimir_Putin_with_Johannes_Rau-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Vladimir_Putin_with_Johannes_Rau-1.jpg/440px-Vladimir_Putin_with_Johannes_Rau-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="334" /></a><figcaption>Vladimir Putin and German President <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Rau" title="Johannes Rau">Johannes Rau</a> (right) in 2001</figcaption></figure> <p>Relations between the two nations since the fall of Communism in 1990 have been generally good but not always without tension. German chancellor <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Schr%C3%B6der" title="Gerhard Schröder">Gerhard Schröder</a> placed high value on relations with Russia and worked for the completion of the <a href="/wiki/Nord_Stream_1" title="Nord Stream 1">Nord Stream 1</a> gas pipeline between them.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> His successor <a href="/wiki/Angela_Merkel" title="Angela Merkel">Angela Merkel</a>, an Easterner and former dissident, has been more critical and clashed with Russian <a href="/wiki/President_of_Russia" title="President of Russia">president</a> <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a> over <a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Russia" title="Human rights in Russia">human rights</a> and other issues. However, she, like her predecessor, always put a high value on the Nordstream pipeline, due to its ability to increase Russian influence.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Most of the human rights issues could be seen as side-shows for the public - whilst the end-goal was always the completion of, and compensation for, NordStream. The project under both the Bush and Obama administration moved forward at rapid pace, but with only 300 km left, the Trump Administration halted the project by putting pressure on the Danish company overseeing the completion of the pipeline.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Germany's relations with Russia were never likely to be as cozy under Angela Merkel as under her predecessor, Gerhard Schröder, who adopted a 3-year-old Russian girl and, on his 60th birthday, invited President Vladimir V. Putin home to celebrate.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Germany created a German-Russian Forum (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <i lang="de">Deutsch-Russisches Forum</i>) in 1993. Alexandra Gräfin Lambsdorff was its first president. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="21st_century">21st century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germany%E2%80%93Russia_relations&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: 21st century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation" title="Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation">Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation</a></div> <p>After the failure of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and troubles of the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">early Russian Federation</a>, a policy of rapprochement named <a href="/wiki/Wandel_durch_Handel" title="Wandel durch Handel">Wandel durch Handel</a> ensued. </p><p>In 2007 then-<a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Foreign_Affairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Minister of Foreign Affairs">Minister of Foreign Affairs</a> <a href="/wiki/Frank-Walter_Steinmeier" title="Frank-Walter Steinmeier">Frank-Walter Steinmeier</a> published a long article explaining his rationale on EU being such a exceptional role model on international cooperation that Putinite <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> will unavoidably get "like us" by merely "intertwining of interests" (<i>Verflechtung</i>), and also that "a pan-European peace order and a lasting solution to important security problems (…) can only be achieved with Russia, not without it or even against it".<sup id="cite_ref-inpol_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inpol-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Even after the five-day <a href="/wiki/Russo-Georgian_War" title="Russo-Georgian War">Russo-Georgian War</a> in August 2008, Steinmeier argued for a new <a href="/wiki/Ostpolitik" title="Ostpolitik">Ostpolitik</a> and proposed a comprehensive project of ‘Partnership for Modernisation’ – a continued attempt of ‘westernisation’ of Russia and thus an export of norms, institutions and procedures of the western community.<sup id="cite_ref-dh18_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dh18-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Relations were normal in the first part of the new century, with expanding trade relations and an increasing German reliance on pipeline shipments of Russian natural gas, especially in light of the November 2011 completion of the <a href="/wiki/Nord_Stream_1" title="Nord Stream 1">Nord Stream 1</a> pipeline.<sup id="cite_ref-ft081111_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ft081111-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Generations of German foreign ministers helped over many years to admit Putin into the <a href="/wiki/WTO" class="mw-redirect" title="WTO">WTO</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-inpol_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inpol-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which occurred after a span of two decades in 2011.<sup id="cite_ref-rusmem_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rusmem-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Relations turned negative in 2014 in response to Russia's seizure of Crimea from Ukraine and support for insurgents in Ukraine. Germany was a leader between <a href="/wiki/NATO_Quint" class="mw-redirect" title="NATO Quint">NATO Quint</a> in imposing round after round of increasingly harsh sanctions against the Russian oil and banking industries and top allies of President Putin. Russia responded by cutting food imports from the EU.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Since the crisis began, Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Angela_Merkel" title="Angela Merkel">Angela Merkel</a> told President Putin that the <a href="/wiki/2014_Crimean_status_referendum" title="2014 Crimean status referendum">referendum on accession of Crimea to Russia</a> is illegal.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2014–2021"><span id="2014.E2.80.932021"></span>2014–2021</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germany%E2%80%93Russia_relations&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: 2014–2021"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/International_sanctions_during_the_Ukrainian_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="International sanctions during the Ukrainian crisis">International sanctions during the Ukrainian crisis</a></div> <p>The European Union, the United States and their allies began using economic sanctions to force Russia to reverse course regarding Ukraine and stop supporting <a href="/wiki/2014_pro-Russian_unrest_in_Ukraine" title="2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine">2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine</a>. The <i>Los Angeles Times</i> reported that: </p> <dl><dd>Merkel and her fellow Western leaders are angered by Russia's actions in Ukraine, especially its seizure of Crimea, support for pro-Russia separatists in eastern Ukraine and fresh military incursion. Moscow's denial that it has any involvement in Ukraine's blood conflict only irks them more. The German chancellor has signaled a tougher stance toward Russia, spelling out her willingness to sacrifice German economic interests and further boost sanctions to send a strong message that Moscow's actions are unacceptable. [She said,] "Being able to change borders in Europe without consequences, and attacking other countries with troops, is in my view a far greater danger than having to accept certain disadvantages for the economy."<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nordstream.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Nordstream.png/220px-Nordstream.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Nordstream.png/330px-Nordstream.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Nordstream.png/440px-Nordstream.png 2x" data-file-width="736" data-file-height="422" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nord_Stream_1" title="Nord Stream 1">Nord Stream 1</a> <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a> pipeline, running under the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a>. Germany imported 50% to 75% of its natural gas from Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>On the left, however, former Social Democrat Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Schr%C3%B6der" title="Gerhard Schröder">Gerhard Schröder</a> announced his understanding of Russian policies and support for Putin. The <i>New York Times</i> editorialized that Schröder's decision to "embrace him [Putin] in a bear hug sent an unacceptable signal that some prominent Europeans are willing to ignore Mr. Putin's brutish ways."<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the Russian news agency <a href="/wiki/Russian_News_Agency_TASS" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian News Agency TASS">ITAR/TASS</a> in September 2014, Russia's Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Dmitry_Medvedev" title="Dmitry Medvedev">Dmitry Medvedev</a> admitted the sanctions are hurting the Russian economy and slowing its growth. However he expected to support oil industries that are hurt, to seek financing and high technology from Asia, and to import food from new sources.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Germany also tried to persuade Russia to return to the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_Conventional_Armed_Forces_in_Europe" title="Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe">Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe</a>, which it had abrogated in March 2015.<sup id="cite_ref-dh18_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dh18-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even as late as 2016, "German leaders rejected the proposal to send weapons to the Ukrainian government, as advocated by Republican congressmen in the US and treated as a possibility by <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a>, since pursuit of a military solution to the conflict collided with Germany’s post-war pacific security culture."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddi2016_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddi2016-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:German_fans_Russia_2018.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/German_fans_Russia_2018.jpg/220px-German_fans_Russia_2018.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/German_fans_Russia_2018.jpg/330px-German_fans_Russia_2018.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/German_fans_Russia_2018.jpg/440px-German_fans_Russia_2018.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>German fans at the <a href="/wiki/2018_FIFA_World_Cup" title="2018 FIFA World Cup">2018 FIFA World Cup</a> in Russia</figcaption></figure> <p>Germany has traditionally been one of Russia's key economic partners. The annual trade turnover between the two countries had exceeded the $80 billion-level just before the sanctions were imposed. It is estimated that mutual sanctions entailed the decline in the bilateral trade volume of up to 20% that meant billions of losses for the German economy and, obviously, many jobs being cut. By early 2014, when the conflict was about to start, not only did German exports to Russia constitute the third of the whole EU's, but more than 6,200 German firms operated in Russia itself.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2017, for the first time since the introduction of anti-Russian sanctions in 2014, bilateral trade increased - by 22.8%, amounting to about $50 billion. In the first eight months of 2018, the volume of mutual trade between Russia and Germany increased by almost a quarter compared to the same period last year. At the same time, Russian exports to Germany in 2018 increased by 35% to $22.1 billion, while imports rose by 12% to $16.9 billion.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2019-07-29-3510-204555-Rammstein_venue.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/2019-07-29-3510-204555-Rammstein_venue.jpg/220px-2019-07-29-3510-204555-Rammstein_venue.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/2019-07-29-3510-204555-Rammstein_venue.jpg/330px-2019-07-29-3510-204555-Rammstein_venue.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/2019-07-29-3510-204555-Rammstein_venue.jpg/440px-2019-07-29-3510-204555-Rammstein_venue.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3976" data-file-height="2083" /></a><figcaption>The Moscow concert by the German rock band <a href="/wiki/Rammstein" title="Rammstein">Rammstein</a> on 29 July 2019</figcaption></figure> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Levada_Center" title="Levada Center">Levada</a> poll released in August 2018 found that 68% of Russian respondents believe that Russia needs to dramatically improve relations with Western countries, including Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A Levada poll released in February 2020 found that 80% of Russian respondents believe that Russia and the West should become friends and partners.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/East_StratCom_Task_Force" title="East StratCom Task Force">East StratCom Task Force</a> of the <a href="/wiki/European_External_Action_Service" title="European External Action Service">European External Action Service</a> registered an increase in false information <a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_the_Russian_Federation" class="mw-redirect" title="Propaganda in the Russian Federation">propagated in Russia</a> about Germany as a result of the deterioration in German-Russian relations developed since the <a href="/wiki/Poisoning_of_Alexei_Navalny" title="Poisoning of Alexei Navalny">Poisoning of Alexei Navalny</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In October 2021, German Defense Minister <a href="/wiki/Annegret_Kramp-Karrenbauer" title="Annegret Kramp-Karrenbauer">Annegret Kramp-Karrenbauer</a> had talked about the possibility of deploying <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a> against Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She noted that nuclear weapons are a "means of deterrence."<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2022–present"><span id="2022.E2.80.93present"></span>2022–present</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germany%E2%80%93Russia_relations&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: 2022–present"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Putin-Scholz_meeting.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Putin-Scholz_meeting.jpg/220px-Putin-Scholz_meeting.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Putin-Scholz_meeting.jpg/330px-Putin-Scholz_meeting.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Putin-Scholz_meeting.jpg/440px-Putin-Scholz_meeting.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1880" data-file-height="1160" /></a><figcaption>Putin's hypochondria on display as he meets with German chancellor <a href="/wiki/Olaf_Scholz" title="Olaf Scholz">Olaf Scholz</a> on 15 February 2022</figcaption></figure> <p>After the 2022 <a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a> started, Germany, as one of the EU countries, imposed <a href="/wiki/International_sanctions_during_the_Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="International sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War">sanctions on Russia</a>, and Russia added all EU countries to the list of "unfriendly nations".<sup id="cite_ref-leectv_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-leectv-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Germany joined other countries in spring 2022 in <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_expulsions_during_the_Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="Diplomatic expulsions during the Russo-Ukrainian War">declaring a number of Russian diplomats</a> <i>persona non grata</i>. </p><p>In April 2022, the German government said it will send 1 billion euros in <a href="/wiki/List_of_military_aid_to_Ukraine_during_the_Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="List of military aid to Ukraine during the Russo-Ukrainian War">military aid</a> to Ukraine.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 17 May 2022, German Finance Minister <a href="/wiki/Christian_Lindner" title="Christian Lindner">Christian Lindner</a> said he is "politically open to the idea of seizing" the frozen <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_foreign-exchange_reserves" title="List of countries by foreign-exchange reserves">foreign-exchange reserves</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Russia" title="Central Bank of Russia">Central Bank of Russia</a> —which amount to over $300 billion— to cover the costs of rebuilding Ukraine after the war. Russian Deputy Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Grushko" title="Alexander Grushko">Alexander Grushko</a> remarked that it would amount to "complete lawlessness", and that the measure would hurt Germany if adopted.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>German <a href="/wiki/Riol_Chemie_GmbH" title="Riol Chemie GmbH">Riol Chemie GmbH</a> has allegedly illegally delivered chemicals to Russia, including precursor for <a href="/wiki/Novichok" title="Novichok">Novichok</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1 September 2022, the actual volume of <a href="/wiki/List_of_military_aid_to_Ukraine_during_the_Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="List of military aid to Ukraine during the Russo-Ukrainian War">German arms deliveries to Ukraine</a> was only exceeded by that of deliveries by the United States and the United Kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fall 2022, Russia had halted gas flows via the <a href="/wiki/Nord_Stream_1" title="Nord Stream 1">Nord Stream 1</a> pipeline several times, blaming <a href="/wiki/International_sanctions_during_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="International sanctions during the Russian invasion of Ukraine">international sanctions against Russia</a>. This led to an upward jump in energy prices as Russia tried to use energy as a weapon to reduce support for Ukraine.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russia's foreign ministry blamed the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> for Germany's energy crisis, by pushing its leaders towards a "suicidal" step of cutting economic and energy cooperation with <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>, which he claimed had been a reliable energy supplier since Soviet times,<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> despite previous <a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Ukraine_gas_disputes" title="Russia–Ukraine gas disputes">Russian-Ukrainian gas disputes</a> having affected Russia's natural gas supply to Europe in 2006 and 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Berlin_rally_after_Navalny%27s_murder_asv2024-02-16_img18.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Berlin_rally_after_Navalny%27s_murder_asv2024-02-16_img18.jpg/220px-Berlin_rally_after_Navalny%27s_murder_asv2024-02-16_img18.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Berlin_rally_after_Navalny%27s_murder_asv2024-02-16_img18.jpg/330px-Berlin_rally_after_Navalny%27s_murder_asv2024-02-16_img18.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Berlin_rally_after_Navalny%27s_murder_asv2024-02-16_img18.jpg/440px-Berlin_rally_after_Navalny%27s_murder_asv2024-02-16_img18.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4080" data-file-height="3072" /></a><figcaption>Protest outside the Russian Embassy in Berlin demanding the release of Russia's <a href="/wiki/Political_prisoner" title="Political prisoner">political prisoners</a>, February 2024</figcaption></figure> <p>A discussion on the legitimacy of economic sanctions against Russia took place. Parties to the right (<a href="/wiki/Alternative_for_Germany" title="Alternative for Germany">AfD</a>) and to the left (<a href="/wiki/Die_Linke" class="mw-redirect" title="Die Linke">Die Linke</a>) were split on the issue whether economic sanctions are effective to stop the conflict, and how they impact the German economy. Proponents of the right wanted to support the <a href="/wiki/Nord_Stream_2" title="Nord Stream 2">Nord Stream 2</a> pipeline, while politicians to the left have voiced similar concerns with regard to Germany's economic viability.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/2022_Nord_Stream_pipeline_sabotage" class="mw-redirect" title="2022 Nord Stream pipeline sabotage">destruction of Nord Stream 2</a> in September 2022 changed the debate. </p><p>In January 2023, Scholz announced the decision to send <a href="/wiki/Leopard_2" title="Leopard 2">Leopard 2</a> battle tanks to Ukraine.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In April 2023, Germany expelled 50 Russian diplomats, the action was reportedly taken "in order to reduce the presence of Russian intelligence in Germany".<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russia closed four of the five Russian Consulates in Germany. The <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Russia)" title="Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Russia)">Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs</a> responded by expelling 34 German diplomats from Moscow, stating that Germany "continues to demonstratively destroy the entire array of Russian-German relations".<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In May 2023, the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Foreign_Office" title="Federal Foreign Office">German Foreign Ministry</a> stated that hundreds of Germans would be expelled from Moscow at the beginning of June, this due to a decision by Russia to cap the number of German employees in the country. Those expelled include employees from the <a href="/wiki/German_School_Moscow" title="German School Moscow">German School Moscow</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Germany closed consulates general in Novosibirsk and Yekaterinburg on 1 December 2023, having already closed the one in Kaliningrad.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2022, Scholz stated that Russian deserters and draft evaders who refused to take part in the Russian invasion of Ukraine and <a href="/wiki/Russian_emigration_during_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian emigration during the Russian invasion of Ukraine">fled Russia</a> should be given protection in Germany. However, in 2024, German authorities ordered the deportation of Russian nationals who wanted to avoid <a href="/wiki/2022_Russian_mobilization" title="2022 Russian mobilization">mobilization</a> and criticized Putin's government on the grounds that they would not face <a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Russia" title="Human rights in Russia">persecution</a> in Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2A6_into_a_Poklonnaya_hill9.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/2A6_into_a_Poklonnaya_hill9.jpg/220px-2A6_into_a_Poklonnaya_hill9.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/2A6_into_a_Poklonnaya_hill9.jpg/330px-2A6_into_a_Poklonnaya_hill9.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/2A6_into_a_Poklonnaya_hill9.jpg/440px-2A6_into_a_Poklonnaya_hill9.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4080" data-file-height="3072" /></a><figcaption>A captured German-supplied <a href="/wiki/Leopard_2" title="Leopard 2">Leopard 2</a> main battle tank in Ukrainian service on display at Moscow's Victory Park on <a href="/wiki/Poklonnaya_Hill" title="Poklonnaya Hill">Poklonnaya Hill</a>, 2024</figcaption></figure> <p>In May 2024, Scholz gave Ukraine permission to <a href="/wiki/Attacks_in_Russia_during_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Attacks in Russia during the Russian invasion of Ukraine">strike targets inside Russia</a> with German-supplied weapons.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In July 2024, the United States announced its intention to deploy <a href="/wiki/Ballistic_missiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Ballistic missiles">long-range missiles</a> in Germany from 2026 that could hit Russian territory within 10 minutes. In response, Russian President Putin warned of a <a href="/wiki/Second_Cold_War" title="Second Cold War">Cold War</a>-style missile crisis and threatened to deploy long-range missiles within striking distance of the West.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-guardian-missiles_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-guardian-missiles-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> US weapons in Germany would include <a href="/wiki/RIM-174_Standard_ERAM" title="RIM-174 Standard ERAM">SM-6</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tomahawk_(missile_family)" title="Tomahawk (missile family)">Tomahawk</a> cruise missiles and <a href="/wiki/Long-Range_Hypersonic_Weapon" title="Long-Range Hypersonic Weapon">hypersonic weapons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-guardian-missiles_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-guardian-missiles-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The United States' decision to deploy long-range missiles in Germany has been compared to the deployment of <a href="/wiki/Pershing_II" title="Pershing II">Pershing II</a> launchers in Western Europe in 1979.<sup id="cite_ref-aljazeera-cold_war_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aljazeera-cold_war-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-guardian-missiles_71-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-guardian-missiles-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The decision was supported by German Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Olaf_Scholz" title="Olaf Scholz">Olaf Scholz</a> and German Defense Minister <a href="/wiki/Boris_Pistorius" title="Boris Pistorius">Boris Pistorius</a>. Critics say the move would trigger a new <a href="/wiki/Arms_race" title="Arms race">arms race</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Russian military analysts, it would be extremely difficult to distinguish between a conventionally armed missile and a missile carrying a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warhead" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear warhead">nuclear warhead</a>, and Russia could respond by deploying longer-range nuclear systems targeting Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Trade">Trade</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germany%E2%80%93Russia_relations&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Trade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2021 German exports to Russia were $31.3 billion of goods with medication being the top export. Russian exports to Germany were valued at $19.2 billion with crude oil being the top item. Between 1995 and 2021 German exports rose on average by 6.22% p.a. with Russian exports rising by an average of 4.56% p.a.<sup id="cite_ref-ocjan_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ocjan-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In August 2023 German exports for the month were $736m and imports just $216m, proving the dramatic fall in trade between the two nations following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.<sup id="cite_ref-ocjan_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ocjan-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Russians_in_Germany">Russians in Germany</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germany%E2%80%93Russia_relations&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Russians in Germany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Volga_Germans" title="Volga Germans">Volga Germans</a></div> <p>Since German reunification, Germany is home to a fast-growing and large community of people of Russian ancestry who have moved to Germany as full citizens. In the 1990s, some 100,000 to 200,000 arrived annually.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Germany also has funded the communities that remain behind in Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Education">Education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germany%E2%80%93Russia_relations&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Russian international schools in Germany include the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Embassy_School_in_Berlin" title="Russian Embassy School in Berlin">Russian Embassy School in Berlin</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Consulate_School_in_Bonn" title="Russian Consulate School in Bonn">Russian Consulate School in Bonn</a>. There is a German school in Russia: <a href="/wiki/German_School_Moscow" title="German School Moscow">German School Moscow</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Resident_diplomatic_missions">Resident diplomatic missions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germany%E2%80%93Russia_relations&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Resident diplomatic missions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Germany has an embassy in <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> and a consulate-general in <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a>.</li> <li>Russia has an embassy in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>.</li></ul> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:German_Embassy_Mosfilmovskaya_Street.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Embassy of Germany in Moscow"><img alt="Embassy of Germany in Moscow" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/German_Embassy_Mosfilmovskaya_Street.jpg/120px-German_Embassy_Mosfilmovskaya_Street.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/German_Embassy_Mosfilmovskaya_Street.jpg/180px-German_Embassy_Mosfilmovskaya_Street.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/German_Embassy_Mosfilmovskaya_Street.jpg/240px-German_Embassy_Mosfilmovskaya_Street.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Embassy_of_Germany_in_Moscow" class="mw-redirect" title="Embassy of Germany in Moscow">Embassy of Germany in Moscow</a> </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:General_Consulate_of_Germany.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Consulate-General of Germany in Saint Petersburg"><img alt="Consulate-General of Germany in Saint Petersburg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/General_Consulate_of_Germany.jpg/120px-General_Consulate_of_Germany.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/General_Consulate_of_Germany.jpg/180px-General_Consulate_of_Germany.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/General_Consulate_of_Germany.jpg/240px-General_Consulate_of_Germany.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="758" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Consulate-General of Germany in Saint Petersburg</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Berlin,_Mitte,_Unter_den_Linden_55-65,_Russische_Botschaft_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Embassy of Russia in Berlin"><img alt="Embassy of Russia in Berlin" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Berlin%2C_Mitte%2C_Unter_den_Linden_55-65%2C_Russische_Botschaft_02.jpg/120px-Berlin%2C_Mitte%2C_Unter_den_Linden_55-65%2C_Russische_Botschaft_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Berlin%2C_Mitte%2C_Unter_den_Linden_55-65%2C_Russische_Botschaft_02.jpg/180px-Berlin%2C_Mitte%2C_Unter_den_Linden_55-65%2C_Russische_Botschaft_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Berlin%2C_Mitte%2C_Unter_den_Linden_55-65%2C_Russische_Botschaft_02.jpg/240px-Berlin%2C_Mitte%2C_Unter_den_Linden_55-65%2C_Russische_Botschaft_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3448" data-file-height="2695" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Embassy_of_Russia_in_Berlin" class="mw-redirect" title="Embassy of Russia in Berlin">Embassy of Russia in Berlin</a> </div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germany%E2%80%93Russia_relations&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/32px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/48px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/64px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Germany" title="Portal:Germany">Germany portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/32px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/48px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/64px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Russia" title="Portal:Russia">Russia portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russia_in_the_European_energy_sector" title="Russia in the European energy sector">Russia in the European energy sector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_espionage_in_Germany" title="Russian espionage in Germany">Russian espionage in Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations_before_1941" class="mw-redirect" title="Germany–Soviet Union relations before 1941">Germany–Soviet Union relations before 1941</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold War II">Cold War II</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germany%E2%80%93Russia_relations&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John W. Wheeler-Bennett, "Twenty Years of Russo-German Relations: 1919-1939" <i>Foreign Affairs</i> 25#1 (1946), pp. 23-43. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20030017">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chubarov refers to "friendly relations" 1939-41; <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAlexander_Chubarov2001" class="citation book cs1">Alexander Chubarov (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/russiasbitterpat0000chub"><i>Russia's Bitter Path to Modernity: A History of the Soviet and Post-Soviet Eras</i></a></span>. A&C Black. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/russiasbitterpat0000chub/page/111">111</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780826413505" title="Special:BookSources/9780826413505"><bdi>9780826413505</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia%27s+Bitter+Path+to+Modernity%3A+A+History+of+the+Soviet+and+Post-Soviet+Eras&rft.pages=111&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780826413505&rft.au=Alexander+Chubarov&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frussiasbitterpat0000chub&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermany%E2%80%93Russia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2014/07/09/russias-global-image-negative-amid-crisis-in-ukraine/">"Russia's Global Image Negative amid Crisis in Ukraine"</a>. pewresearch.org. 9 July 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-01-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Russia%E2%80%99s+Global+Image+Negative+amid+Crisis+in+Ukraine&rft.pub=pewresearch.org&rft.date=2014-07-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewresearch.org%2Fglobal%2F2014%2F07%2F09%2Frussias-global-image-negative-amid-crisis-in-ukraine%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermany%E2%80%93Russia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.gallup.com/poll/182795/russia-receives-lowest-approval-world-highest.aspx">"Russia Receives Lowest Approval in World; U.S. Highest"</a>. gallup.com. 21 April 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-01-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Russia+Receives+Lowest+Approval+in+World%3B+U.S.+Highest&rft.pub=gallup.com&rft.date=2014-04-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.gallup.com%2Fpoll%2F182795%2Frussia-receives-lowest-approval-world-highest.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermany%E2%80%93Russia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.gallup.com/poll/474596/russia-suffers-global-rebuke-invasion.aspx#:~:text=Global%20Ratings%20of%20Russia's%20Leadership&text=Median%20disapproval%20hit%20a%20record%2057%25%20in%202022.&text=2.,2021%20to%2021%25%20in%202022.">"Russia Suffers Global Rebuke After Invasion"</a>. gallup.com. 25 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-01-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Russia+Suffers+Global+Rebuke+After+Invasion&rft.pub=gallup.com&rft.date=2023-04-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.gallup.com%2Fpoll%2F474596%2Frussia-suffers-global-rebuke-invasion.aspx%23%3A~%3Atext%3DGlobal%2520Ratings%2520of%2520Russia%27s%2520Leadership%26text%3DMedian%2520disapproval%2520hit%2520a%2520record%252057%2525%2520in%25202022.%26text%3D2.%2C2021%2520to%252021%2525%2520in%25202022.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermany%E2%80%93Russia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tagesschau.de/dtrend-747.pdf">"ARD-DeutschlandTREND März 2022"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. tagesschau.de. 2 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-01-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ARD-DeutschlandTREND+M%C3%A4rz+2022&rft.pub=tagesschau.de&rft.date=2022-03-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tagesschau.de%2Fdtrend-747.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermany%E2%80%93Russia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2023/07/10/confidence-in-putin-to-handle-world-affairs/gap_2023-07-10_russia-nato_1-01/">"Views of Putin around the world"</a>. pewresearch.org. 6 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-01-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Views+of+Putin+around+the+world&rft.pub=pewresearch.org&rft.date=2023-07-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewresearch.org%2Fglobal%2F2023%2F07%2F10%2Fconfidence-in-putin-to-handle-world-affairs%2Fgap_2023-07-10_russia-nato_1-01%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermany%E2%80%93Russia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220419061920/https://amp.dw.com/de/russland-und-die-spd-scherbenhaufen-der-ostpolitik/a-61204291">"Russland und die SPD: Scherbenhaufen der Ostpolitik"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://amp.dw.com/de/russland-und-die-spd-scherbenhaufen-der-ostpolitik/a-61204291/">the original</a> on 2022-04-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Russland+und+die+SPD%3A+Scherbenhaufen+der+Ostpolitik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Famp.dw.com%2Fde%2Frussland-und-die-spd-scherbenhaufen-der-ostpolitik%2Fa-61204291%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermany%E2%80%93Russia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. M. Douglas, <i>Orderly and Humane: The Expulsion of the Germans after the Second World War</i> (2013), the title is ironic</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henry Wend. "Review of MacDonogh, Giles, <i>After the Reich: The Brutal History of the Allied Occupation</i>" on H-German, H-Net Reviews. January, 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=25814">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arthur E. Flegel, "A Summary of German Migrations Eastward into Poland, Austria, Hungary, Romania, and Russia," <i>Journal of the American Historical Society of Germans from Russia</i> (1991) 14#4 pp 35-38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Philip G. Dwyer, "Self-Interest versus the Common Cause: Austria, Prussia and Russia against Napoleon," <i>Journal of Strategic Studies</i> (2008) 31#4 pp 605-632.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hugh Seton-Watson, <i>The Russian Empire 1801-1917</i> (Oxford History of Modern Europe) (1967), ch 9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_C._Fuller1998" class="citation book cs1">William C. Fuller (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BNF318Pgq9kC&pg=PA273"><i>Strategy and Power in Russia 1600-1914</i></a>. Simon and Schuster. p. 273. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781439105771" title="Special:BookSources/9781439105771"><bdi>9781439105771</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Strategy+and+Power+in+Russia+1600-1914&rft.pages=273&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9781439105771&rft.au=William+C.+Fuller&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBNF318Pgq9kC%26pg%3DPA273&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermany%E2%80%93Russia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Erich Brandenburg, <i>From Bismarck to the World War: A History of German Foreign Policy 1870-1914</i> (1927) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dli.ernet.in/handle/2015/12322">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170315175229/http://www.dli.ernet.in/handle/2015/12322">Archived</a> 2017-03-15 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">E. Malcolm Carroll, <i>Germany and the great powers, 1866-1914: A study in public opinion and foreign policy</i> (1938)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeitsman2004" class="citation cs2">Weitsman, Patricia A. (2004), <i>Dangerous alliances: proponents of peace, weapons of war</i>, p. 79</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dangerous+alliances%3A+proponents+of+peace%2C+weapons+of+war&rft.pages=79&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Weitsman&rft.aufirst=Patricia+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermany%E2%80%93Russia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bernadotte Schmitt, <i>Triple Alliance and Triple Entente</i> (1971)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVejas_Gabriel_Liulevicius2010" class="citation book cs1">Vejas Gabriel Liulevicius (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PZ-XM7SfAOcC&pg=PA145"><i>The German Myth of the East: 1800 to the Present</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 145–48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-960516-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-960516-3"><bdi>978-0-19-960516-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+German+Myth+of+the+East%3A+1800+to+the+Present&rft.pages=145-48&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-960516-3&rft.au=Vejas+Gabriel+Liulevicius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPZ-XM7SfAOcC%26pg%3DPA145&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermany%E2%80%93Russia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHans_Mommsen1998" class="citation book cs1">Hans Mommsen (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=My6VNpvQlYIC&pg=PA122"><i>The Rise and Fall of Weimar Democracy</i></a>. U of North Carolina Press. p. 122. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780807847213" title="Special:BookSources/9780807847213"><bdi>9780807847213</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Weimar+Democracy&rft.pages=122&rft.pub=U+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9780807847213&rft.au=Hans+Mommsen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMy6VNpvQlYIC%26pg%3DPA122&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermany%E2%80%93Russia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Hans_W._Gatzke" title="Hans W. Gatzke">Hans W. Gatzke</a>, "Russo-German military collaboration during the Weimar Republic." <i>American Historical Review</i> 63.3 (1958): 565-597. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www3.nccu.edu.tw/~lorenzo/Gatzke%201.pdf">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191209233545/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1848881">Archived</a> 2019-12-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lorna L. Waddington, "The Anti-Komintern and Nazi Anti-Bolshevik Propaganda in the 1930s," <i>Journal of Contemporary History,</i> (2007) 42#4 pp. 573-94 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30036470">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArchie_Brown2009" class="citation book cs1">Archie Brown (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xO5GZQiCKmUC&pg=PA88"><i>The Rise and Fall of Communism</i></a>. Doubleday Canada. pp. 88–89. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780307372246" title="Special:BookSources/9780307372246"><bdi>9780307372246</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Communism&rft.pages=88-89&rft.pub=Doubleday+Canada&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780307372246&rft.au=Archie+Brown&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxO5GZQiCKmUC%26pg%3DPA88&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermany%E2%80%93Russia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Alpert, <i>A New International History of the Spanish Civil War</i> (2nd ed. 2004)<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/International-History-Spanish-Civil-Second/dp/1403911711/">excerpt and text search</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Donald Cameron Watt, <i>How War Came, The Immediate Origins of the Second World War 1938-1939</i> (1989) ch 24-25</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aliaksandr Piahanau. Slovak-Hungarian relations in the mirror of the German-Soviet conflictive alliance. In: Prague Papers on the History of International Relations, No. 2, 2012, pp. 144-163. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01261457/document">https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01261457/document</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Mosier, <i>Hitler vs. Stalin: The Eastern Front, 1941-1945</i> (2011)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Timothy Snyder, <i>Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin</i> (2011)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatrick_SalmonKeith_HamiltonStephen_Robert_Twigge2009" class="citation book cs1">Patrick Salmon; Keith Hamilton; Stephen Robert Twigge, eds. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5bESQ1JEd6oC&pg=PA53"><i>German Unification 1989-90: Documents on British Policy Overseas, Series III</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. pp. 53–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780203866634" title="Special:BookSources/9780203866634"><bdi>9780203866634</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=German+Unification+1989-90%3A+Documents+on+British+Policy+Overseas%2C+Series+III&rft.pages=53-&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780203866634&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5bESQ1JEd6oC%26pg%3DPA53&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermany%E2%80%93Russia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_Mann2009" class="citation book cs1">James Mann (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BgZyXNIrvB4C&pg=PT279"><i>The Rebellion of Ronald Reagan: A History of the End of the Cold War</i></a>. Penguin. p. 279. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781440686399" title="Special:BookSources/9781440686399"><bdi>9781440686399</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rebellion+of+Ronald+Reagan%3A+A+History+of+the+End+of+the+Cold+War&rft.pages=279&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9781440686399&rft.au=James+Mann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBgZyXNIrvB4C%26pg%3DPT279&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermany%E2%80%93Russia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles_S._Maier2001" class="citation book cs1">Charles S. Maier (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R41nhLKynT4C&pg=PA281"><i>Dissolution: The Crisis of Communism and the End of East Germany</i></a>. Princeton University Press. pp. 281–2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1400822254" title="Special:BookSources/1400822254"><bdi>1400822254</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dissolution%3A+The+Crisis+of+Communism+and+the+End+of+East+Germany&rft.pages=281-2&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=1400822254&rft.au=Charles+S.+Maier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DR41nhLKynT4C%26pg%3DPA281&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermany%E2%80%93Russia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trenin, Dmitri V., “Post-Imperium: A Eurasian Story,” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2011, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://carnegieendowment.org/pdf/book/post-imperium.pdf">p.101</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140419100841/http://carnegieendowment.org/pdf/book/post-imperium.pdf">Archived</a> 2014-04-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.voanews.com/a/europe_looking-back-fall-east-germanys-feared-stasi-30-years-ago/6182647.html">"Looking Back: The Fall of East Germany's Feared Stasi 30 Years Ago"</a>. 15 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Looking+Back%3A+The+Fall+of+East+Germany%27s+Feared+Stasi+30+Years+Ago&rft.date=2020-01-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.voanews.com%2Fa%2Feurope_looking-back-fall-east-germanys-feared-stasi-30-years-ago%2F6182647.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermany%E2%80%93Russia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlatleyNicolaKrukowska2019" class="citation web cs1">Flatley, Daniel; Nicola, Stefan; Krukowska, Ewa (December 24, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldoil.com/news/2019/12/24/trump-s-sanctions-lead-allseas-to-halt-nord-stream-2-work">"Trump's sanctions lead Allseas to halt Nord Stream 2 work"</a>. <i>World Oil</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=www.bbc.co.uk&rft.atitle=Hundreds+of+expelled+Germans+set+to+leave+Russia&rft.date=2023-05-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld-europe-65731546&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermany%E2%80%93Russia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://interfax.com/newsroom/top-stories/97133/">"Germany closes its consulates general in Russia's Novosibirsk and Yekaterinburg"</a>. 1 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Germany+closes+its+consulates+general+in+Russia%27s+Novosibirsk+and+Yekaterinburg&rft.date=2023-12-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Finterfax.com%2Fnewsroom%2Ftop-stories%2F97133%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermany%E2%80%93Russia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dw.com/en/germany-no-asylum-for-russian-draft-dodgers/a-68863537">"Germany: No asylum for Russian draft dodgers?"</a>. <i>Deutsche Welle</i>. 19 April 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Deutsche+Welle&rft.atitle=Germany%3A+No+asylum+for+Russian+draft+dodgers%3F&rft.date=2024-04-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dw.com%2Fen%2Fgermany-no-asylum-for-russian-draft-dodgers%2Fa-68863537&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermany%E2%80%93Russia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lemonde.fr/en/international/article/2024/05/31/berlin-allows-ukraine-to-fire-german-weapons-at-targets-in-russia_6673279_4.html">"Berlin allows Ukraine to fire German weapons at targets in Russia"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Le_Monde" title="Le Monde">Le Monde</a></i>. 31 May 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Monde&rft.atitle=Berlin+allows+Ukraine+to+fire+German+weapons+at+targets+in+Russia&rft.date=2024-05-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lemonde.fr%2Fen%2Finternational%2Farticle%2F2024%2F05%2F31%2Fberlin-allows-ukraine-to-fire-german-weapons-at-targets-in-russia_6673279_4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermany%E2%80%93Russia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dw.com/en/a-new-arms-race-in-europe-us-long-range-weapons-in-germany/a-69648733">"A new arms race in Europe? US long-range weapons in Germany"</a>. <i>Deutsche Welle</i>. 13 July 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Deutsche+Welle&rft.atitle=A+new+arms+race+in+Europe%3F+US+long-range+weapons+in+Germany&rft.date=2024-07-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dw.com%2Fen%2Fa-new-arms-race-in-europe-us-long-range-weapons-in-germany%2Fa-69648733&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermany%E2%80%93Russia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-guardian-missiles-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-guardian-missiles_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-guardian-missiles_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-guardian-missiles_71-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/article/2024/jul/28/putin-warns-us-against-deploying-long-range-missiles-in-germany">"Putin warns US against deploying long-range missiles in Germany"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. 28 July 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Putin+warns+US+against+deploying+long-range+missiles+in+Germany&rft.date=2024-07-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2Farticle%2F2024%2Fjul%2F28%2Fputin-warns-us-against-deploying-long-range-missiles-in-germany&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermany%E2%80%93Russia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-aljazeera-cold_war-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-aljazeera-cold_war_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/7/11/russia-says-us-missiles-in-germany-signal-return-of-cold-war">"Russia says US missiles in Germany signal return of Cold War"</a>. <i>Al Jazeera</i>. 11 July 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Al+Jazeera&rft.atitle=Russia+says+US+missiles+in+Germany+signal+return+of+Cold+War&rft.date=2024-07-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Fnews%2F2024%2F7%2F11%2Frussia-says-us-missiles-in-germany-signal-return-of-cold-war&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermany%E2%80%93Russia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dw.com/en/germany-split-on-us-stationing-long-range-cruise-missiles/a-69638145">"Germany split on US stationing long-range cruise missiles"</a>. <i>Deutsche Welle</i>. 11 July 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Deutsche+Welle&rft.atitle=Germany+split+on+US+stationing+long-range+cruise+missiles&rft.date=2024-07-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dw.com%2Fen%2Fgermany-split-on-us-stationing-long-range-cruise-missiles%2Fa-69638145&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermany%E2%80%93Russia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thehill.com/opinion/national-security/4767369-thanks-to-putin-the-u-s-will-again-place-long-range-missiles-in-germany/">"Thanks to Putin, the U.S. will again place long-range missiles in Germany"</a>. <i>The Hill</i>. 12 July 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hill&rft.atitle=Thanks+to+Putin%2C+the+U.S.+will+again+place+long-range+missiles+in+Germany&rft.date=2024-07-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthehill.com%2Fopinion%2Fnational-security%2F4767369-thanks-to-putin-the-u-s-will-again-place-long-range-missiles-in-germany%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermany%E2%80%93Russia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ocjan-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ocjan_75-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ocjan_75-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oec.world/en/profile/bilateral-country/deu/partner/rus">"Germany/Russia"</a>. January 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Germany%2FRussia&rft.date=2022-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foec.world%2Fen%2Fprofile%2Fbilateral-country%2Fdeu%2Fpartner%2Frus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermany%E2%80%93Russia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWayne_CorneliusTakeyuki_TsudaPhilip_MartinJames_Hollifield2004" class="citation book cs1">Wayne Cornelius; Takeyuki Tsuda; Philip Martin; James Hollifield, eds. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=i0d10wbGkWEC&pg=PA235"><i>Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective</i></a> (2nd ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 235. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780804744904" title="Special:BookSources/9780804744904"><bdi>9780804744904</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Controlling+Immigration%3A+A+Global+Perspective&rft.pages=235&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780804744904&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Di0d10wbGkWEC%26pg%3DPA235&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermany%E2%80%93Russia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Mcgarry2006" class="citation book cs1">John Mcgarry (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lSukfE9folEC&pg=PA150"><i>European Integration and the Nationalities Question</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. pp. 150–51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780203088401" title="Special:BookSources/9780203088401"><bdi>9780203088401</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=European+Integration+and+the+Nationalities+Question&rft.pages=150-51&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780203088401&rft.au=John+Mcgarry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlSukfE9folEC%26pg%3DPA150&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermany%E2%80%93Russia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germany%E2%80%93Russia_relations&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Berkhoff, Karel C. <i>Harvest of Despair: Life and Death in Ukraine under Nazi Rule</i> (Belknap, 2004)</li> <li>Beyrau, Dietrich, and Mark Keck-Szajbel. "Mortal Embrace: Germans and (Soviet) Russians in the First Half of the 20th Century," <i>Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History,</i> Volume 10, Number 3, Summer 2009 pp. 423–439 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fkri.0.0113">10.1353/kri.0.0113</a></li> <li>Burleigh, Michael. <i>Germany turns eastwards: a study of Ostforschung in the Third Reich</i> (1988)</li> <li>David-Fox, Michael, Peter Holquist, and Alexander M. Martin, eds. <i>Fascination and Enmity: Russia and Germany as Entangled Histories, 1914-1945</i> (U. of Pittsburgh Press; 2012) 392 pages; considers the perceptions and misperceptions on both sides</li> <li>Dulian, A. "The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact: Historical Background," <i>International Affairs: A Russian Journal of World Politics, Diplomacy & International Relations,</i> 2009, Vol. 55 Issue 6, pp 181–187</li> <li>Dyck, Harvey L. <i>Weimar Germany and Soviet Russia, 1926-1933</i> (1984)</li> <li>Forsberg, Tuomas. "From Ostpolitik to ‘frostpolitik’? Merkel, Putin and German foreign policy towards Russia." <i>International Affairs</i> 92.1 (2016): 21-42 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/publications/ia/INTA92_1_02_Forsberg.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Geyer, Michael, and Sheila Fitzpatrick, eds. <i>Beyond Totalitarianism: Stalinism and Nazism Compared</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2009).</li> <li>Haslam, Jonathan. "Soviet-German Relations and the Origins of the Second World War: The Jury is Still Out," <i>Journal of Modern History,</i> 79 (1997), pp. 785–97 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/245594">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Jacobs, Jonathan. "Between Westbindung and Ostpolitik: Reconceptualising German-Russian Relations 2014-2017." (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dspace.cuni.cz/bitstream/handle/20.500.11956/112510/120349803.pdf?sequence=1">online</a></li> <li>Jelavich, Barbara. <i>St. Petersburg and Moscow: tsarist and Soviet foreign policy, 1814-1974</i> (1974).</li> <li>Kuklick, Bruce <i>American Policy and the Division of Germany: The Clash with Russia over Reparations</i> (Cornell U. Press, 1972)</li> <li>Laqueur, Walter. <i>Russia and Germany</i> (1965), covers what Russians and Germans thought of each other, 1860–1960.</li> <li>Leach, Barry A. <i>German Strategy Against Russia, 1939-41</i> (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973)</li> <li>Lieven, Dominic. <i>Russia against Napoleon: the battle for Europe, 1807 to 1814</i> (2009)</li> <li>Liulevicius, Vejas Gabriel. <i>War on the Eastern Front: Culture, National Identity, and German Occupation in World War I</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2000)</li> <li>Liulevicius, Vejas Gabriel. <i>The German myth of the East: 1800 to the present</i> (Oxford University Press, 2010)</li> <li>Naimark, Norman M. <i>The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945-1949</i> (1997)</li> <li>Nekrich, Aleksandr Moiseevich. <i>Pariahs, partners, predators: German-Soviet relations, 1922-1941</i> (Columbia University Press, 1997).</li> <li>Overy, Richard. <i>The Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia</i> (2005)</li> <li>Roberts, Geoffrey. <i>The Soviet Union and the Origins of the Second World War: Russo-German Relations and the Road to War, 1933-41</i> (1995)</li> <li>Salzmann, Stephanie. <i>Great Britain, Germany and the Soviet Union: Rapallo and after, 1922-1934</i> (2002)</li> <li>Schroeder, Paul W. <i>The transformation of European politics, 1763-1848</i> (1994) detailed diplomatic history covering Prusia and Russia (and the other major powers)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShkandrij2001" class="citation book cs1">Shkandrij, Myroslav (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s-8Xa2ch1Y0C&pg=PR7"><i>Russia and Ukraine: Literature and the Discourse of Empire from Napoleonic to Postcolonial Times</i></a>. McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780773569492" title="Special:BookSources/9780773569492"><bdi>9780773569492</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia+and+Ukraine%3A+Literature+and+the+Discourse+of+Empire+from+Napoleonic+to+Postcolonial+Times&rft.pub=McGill-Queen%27s+Press+-+MQUP&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780773569492&rft.aulast=Shkandrij&rft.aufirst=Myroslav&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ds-8Xa2ch1Y0C%26pg%3DPR7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermany%E2%80%93Russia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiddi2016" class="citation journal cs1">Siddi, Marco (20 April 2016). "German Foreign Policy towards Russia in the Aftermath of the Ukraine Crisis: A New Ostpolitik?". <i>Europe-Asia Studies</i>. <b>68</b> (4): 665–677. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09668136.2016.1173879">10.1080/09668136.2016.1173879</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:156187733">156187733</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Europe-Asia+Studies&rft.atitle=German+Foreign+Policy+towards+Russia+in+the+Aftermath+of+the+Ukraine+Crisis%3A+A+New+Ostpolitik%3F&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=665-677&rft.date=2016-04-20&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09668136.2016.1173879&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A156187733%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Siddi&rft.aufirst=Marco&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermany%E2%80%93Russia+relations" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Stent" title="Angela Stent">Stent, Angela</a>. <i>Russia and Germany Reborn</i> (2000) on 1990s</li> <li>Taylor, A.J.P. <i>The Struggle for Master in Europe: 1848-1918</i> (1954), a broad overview of the diplomacy of all the major powers</li> <li>Uldricks, Teddy J. "War, Politics and Memory: Russian Historians Reevaluate the Origins of World War II," <i>History and Memory</i> 21#2 (2009), pp. 60–2 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/his.2009.21.2.60">online</a>; historiography</li> <li>Watt, Donald Cameron. <i>How War Came: The Immediate Origins of the Second World War; 1938-1939</i> (1989), pp. 361–84, 447–61.</li> <li>Weinberg, Gerhard L. <i>Germany and the Soviet Union 1939-1941</i> (1972)</li> <li>Williamson, Jr., Samuel R. and Ernest R. May. "An Identity of Opinion: Historians and July 1914," <i>Journal of Modern History,</i> June 2007, Vol. 79 Issue 2, pp 335–387 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/519317">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Yoder, Jennifer A. "From Amity to Enmity: German-Russian Relations in the Post Cold War Period." <i>German Politics & Society</i> 33#3 (2015): 49–69.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germany%E2%80%93Russia_relations&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 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href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo–Germany relations">DR Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Egypt–Germany relations">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrea%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Eritrea–Germany relations">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopia%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Ethiopia–Germany relations">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Ghana_relations" title="Germany–Ghana relations">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Guinea_relations" title="Germany–Guinea relations">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Ivory_Coast_relations" title="Germany–Ivory Coast relations">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Kenya_relations" title="Germany–Kenya relations">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Liberia_relations" title="Germany–Liberia relations">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Libya_relations" title="Germany–Libya relations">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Madagascar_relations" title="Germany–Madagascar relations">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Mali_relations" title="Germany–Mali relations">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Mauritania_relations" title="Germany–Mauritania relations">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Morocco_relations" title="Germany–Morocco relations">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Mozambique_relations" title="Germany–Mozambique relations">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Namibia_relations" title="Germany–Namibia relations">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Niger_relations" title="Germany–Niger relations">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Nigeria_relations" title="Germany–Nigeria relations">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Rwanda_relations" 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relations">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany-Zimbabwe_relations" title="Germany-Zimbabwe relations">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Deutscher Bundesadler"><img alt="Deutscher Bundesadler" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg/90px-Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg/135px-Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg/180px-Coat_of_arms_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="396" data-file-height="510" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argentina%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Argentina–Germany relations">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbados%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Barbados–Germany relations">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolivia%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Bolivia–Germany relations">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazil%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Brazil–Germany relations">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canada%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Canada–Germany relations">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chile%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Chile–Germany relations">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombia%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Colombia–Germany relations">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuba%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Cuba–Germany relations">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecuador%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Ecuador–Germany relations">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Guyana_relations" title="Germany–Guyana relations">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Haiti_relations" title="Germany–Haiti relations">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Jamaica_relations" title="Germany–Jamaica relations">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Mexico_relations" title="Germany–Mexico relations">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Nicaragua_relations" title="Germany–Nicaragua relations">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Paraguay_relations" title="Germany–Paraguay relations">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Peru_relations" title="Germany–Peru relations">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Germany–United States relations">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Uruguay_relations" title="Germany–Uruguay relations">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Venezuela_relations" title="Germany–Venezuela relations">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Afghanistan–Germany relations">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahrain%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Bahrain–Germany relations">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Bangladesh–Germany relations">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Bhutan_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Germany–Bhutan relations">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brunei%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Brunei–Germany relations">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodia%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Cambodia–Germany relations">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="China–Germany relations">China</a> (<a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Hong_Kong_relations" title="Germany–Hong Kong relations">Hong Kong</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93India_relations" title="Germany–India relations">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Indonesia_relations" title="Germany–Indonesia relations">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Iran_relations" title="Germany–Iran relations">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Iraq_relations" title="Germany–Iraq relations">Iraq</a> (<a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Kurdistan_Region_relations" title="Germany–Kurdistan Region relations">Kurdistan Region</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Israel_relations" title="Germany–Israel relations">Israel</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_German_consuls_in_Jerusalem,_Jaffa,_Haifa_and_Eilat" title="List of German consuls in Jerusalem, Jaffa, Haifa and Eilat">Consuls in Haifa and Eilat</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Germany–Japan relations">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Jordan_relations" title="Germany–Jordan relations">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Kazakhstan_relations" title="Germany–Kazakhstan relations">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Kuwait_relations" title="Germany–Kuwait relations">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Laos_relations" title="Germany–Laos relations">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Lebanon_relations" title="Germany–Lebanon relations">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Malaysia_relations" title="Germany–Malaysia relations">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Maldives_relations" title="Germany–Maldives relations">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Mongolia_relations" title="Germany–Mongolia relations">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Myanmar_relations" title="Germany–Myanmar relations">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Nepal_relations" title="Germany–Nepal relations">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93North_Korea_relations" title="Germany–North Korea relations">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Oman_relations" title="Germany–Oman relations">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Pakistan_relations" title="Germany–Pakistan relations">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Palestine_relations" title="Germany–Palestine relations">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Philippines_relations" title="Germany–Philippines relations">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Qatar_relations" title="Germany–Qatar relations">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_relations" title="Germany–Saudi Arabia relations">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Singapore_relations" title="Germany–Singapore relations">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93South_Korea_relations" title="Germany–South Korea relations">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Sri_Lanka_relations" title="Germany–Sri Lanka relations">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Syria_relations" title="Germany–Syria relations">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Taiwan_relations" title="Germany–Taiwan relations">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Tajikistan_relations" title="Germany–Tajikistan relations">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Thailand_relations" title="Germany–Thailand relations">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Turkey_relations" title="Germany–Turkey relations">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93United_Arab_Emirates_relations" title="Germany–United Arab Emirates relations">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Uzbekistan_relations" title="Germany–Uzbekistan relations">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Vietnam_relations" title="Germany–Vietnam relations">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Yemen_relations" title="Germany–Yemen relations">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albania%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Albania–Germany relations">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenia%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Armenia–Germany relations">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Azerbaijan–Germany relations">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austria%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Austria–Germany relations">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarus%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Belarus–Germany relations">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgium%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Belgium–Germany relations">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina–Germany relations">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Bulgaria–Germany relations">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatia%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Croatia–Germany relations">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Cyprus–Germany relations">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Czech Republic–Germany relations">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Denmark–Germany relations">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonia%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Estonia–Germany relations">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finland%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Finland–Germany relations">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="France–Germany relations">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Georgia–Germany relations">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Greece_relations" title="Germany–Greece relations">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Holy_See_relations" title="Germany–Holy See relations">Holy See</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Hungary_relations" title="Germany–Hungary relations">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Iceland_relations" title="Germany–Iceland relations">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Ireland_relations" title="Germany–Ireland relations">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Italy_relations" title="Germany–Italy relations">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Kosovo_relations" title="Germany–Kosovo relations">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Lithuania_relations" title="Germany–Lithuania relations">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Liechtenstein_relations" title="Germany–Liechtenstein relations">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Luxembourg_relations" title="Germany–Luxembourg relations">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Malta_relations" title="Germany–Malta relations">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Moldova_relations" title="Germany–Moldova relations">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Montenegro_relations" title="Germany–Montenegro relations">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Netherlands_relations" title="Germany–Netherlands relations">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Norway_relations" title="Germany–Norway relations">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93North_Macedonia_relations" title="Germany–North Macedonia relations">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Poland_relations" title="Germany–Poland relations">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Portugal_relations" title="Germany–Portugal relations">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Romania_relations" title="Germany–Romania relations">Romania</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Serbia_relations" title="Germany–Serbia relations">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Slovakia_relations" title="Germany–Slovakia relations">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Slovenia_relations" title="Germany–Slovenia relations">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Spain_relations" title="Germany–Spain relations">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Sweden_relations" title="Germany–Sweden relations">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Switzerland_relations" title="Germany–Switzerland relations">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Ukraine_relations" title="Germany–Ukraine relations">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Germany–United Kingdom relations">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australia%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="Australia–Germany relations">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93New_Zealand_relations" title="Germany–New Zealand relations">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Tonga_relations" title="Germany–Tonga relations">Tonga</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Relations_between_Nazi_Germany_and_the_Arab_world" title="Relations between Nazi Germany and the Arab world">Arab world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_entry_into_World_War_I" title="German entry into World War I">German entry into World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munich_Agreement" title="Munich Agreement">Munich Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93Nazi_Germany_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="China–Nazi Germany relations">China before 1941</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations,_1918%E2%80%931941" title="Germany–Soviet Union relations, 1918–1941">Soviet Union before 1941</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_German_relations" title="Inner German relations">Inner German relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Germany%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="East Germany–United States relations">East Germany–United States relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostpolitik" title="Ostpolitik">Ostpolitik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Yugoslavia_relations" title="Germany–Yugoslavia relations">Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambassadors_of_Nazi_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambassadors of Nazi Germany">Ambassadors of Nazi Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Nazi_Germany" title="Foreign relations of Nazi Germany">Foreign relations of Nazi Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_East_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign policy of East Germany">Foreign relations of East Germany</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Foreign_Office" title="Federal Foreign Office">Federal Foreign Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minister_for_Foreign_Affairs_(Germany)" title="Minister for Foreign Affairs (Germany)">Foreign ministers of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_Germany" title="List of diplomatic missions of Germany">Diplomatic missions of</a> / <a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_in_Germany" title="List of diplomatic missions in Germany">in Germany</a> / <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_ambassadors_of_Germany" title="Lists of ambassadors of Germany">Ambassadors of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany_and_the_United_Nations" title="Germany and the United Nations">Germany and the United Nations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Russia&#124;link=Russia_Foreign_relations_of_Russia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Foreign_relations_of_Russia" title="Template:Foreign relations of Russia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Foreign_relations_of_Russia" title="Template talk:Foreign relations of Russia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Foreign_relations_of_Russia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Foreign relations of Russia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Russia&#124;link=Russia_Foreign_relations_of_Russia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia"><img alt="Russia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Russia" title="Foreign relations of Russia">Foreign relations of Russia</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="padding-left:70px;"><div id="Bilateral_relations" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Bilateral relations</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algeria%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Algeria–Russia relations">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angola%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Angola–Russia relations">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benin%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Benin–Russia relations">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botswana%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Botswana–Russia relations">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burkina_Faso%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Burkina Faso–Russia relations">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burundi%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Burundi–Russia relations">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cameroon%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Cameroon–Russia relations">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Republic%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Central African Republic–Russia relations">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo–Russia relations">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Republic of the Congo–Russia relations">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djibouti%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Djibouti–Russia relations">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Egypt–Russia relations">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_Guinea%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Equatorial Guinea–Russia relations">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrea%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Eritrea–Russia relations">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eswatini%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Eswatini–Russia relations">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopia%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Ethiopia–Russia relations">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambia%E2%80%93Russia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Gambia–Russia relations">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Ghana–Russia relations">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Guinea-Bissau–Russia relations">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Ivory Coast–Russia relations">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenya%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Kenya–Russia relations">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesotho%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Lesotho–Russia relations">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libya%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Libya–Russia relations">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madagascar%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Madagascar–Russia relations">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Mali–Russia relations">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauritania%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Mauritania–Russia relations">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauritius%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Mauritius–Russia relations">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morocco%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Morocco–Russia relations">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambique%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Mozambique–Russia relations">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namibia%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Namibia–Russia relations">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigeria%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Nigeria–Russia relations">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Rwanda_relations" title="Russia–Rwanda relations">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Senegal_relations" title="Russia–Senegal relations">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Seychelles_relations" title="Russia–Seychelles relations">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Somalia_relations" title="Russia–Somalia relations">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93South_Africa_relations" title="Russia–South Africa relations">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93South_Sudan_relations" title="Russia–South Sudan relations">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Sudan_relations" title="Russia–Sudan relations">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Tanzania_relations" title="Russia–Tanzania relations">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Tunisia_relations" title="Russia–Tunisia relations">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Uganda_relations" title="Russia–Uganda relations">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Zambia_relations" title="Russia–Zambia relations">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Zimbabwe_relations" title="Russia–Zimbabwe relations">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argentina%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Argentina–Russia relations">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolivia%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Bolivia–Russia relations">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazil%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Brazil–Russia relations">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canada%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Canada–Russia relations">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chile%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Chile–Russia relations">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombia%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Colombia–Russia relations">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Costa Rica–Russia relations">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuba%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Cuba–Russia relations">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecuador%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Ecuador–Russia relations">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guatemala%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Guatemala–Russia relations">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyana%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Guyana–Russia relations">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honduras%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Honduras–Russia relations">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexico%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Mexico–Russia relations">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicaragua%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Nicaragua–Russia relations">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panama%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Panama–Russia relations">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraguay%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Paraguay–Russia relations">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peru%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Peru–Russia relations">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Trinidad_and_Tobago_relations" title="Russia–Trinidad and Tobago relations">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Russia–United States relations">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Russian Empire–United States relations">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Soviet Union–United States relations">Soviet Union</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Uruguay_relations" title="Russia–Uruguay relations">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Venezuela_relations" title="Russia–Venezuela relations">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Afghanistan–Russia relations">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenia%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Armenia–Russia relations">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Azerbaijan–Russia relations">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahrain%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Bahrain–Russia relations">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Bangladesh–Russia relations">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhutan%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Bhutan–Russia relations">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brunei%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Brunei–Russia relations">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodia%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Cambodia–Russia relations">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="China–Russia relations">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Timor%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="East Timor–Russia relations">East Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Georgia–Russia relations">Georgia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhazia%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Abkhazia–Russia relations">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93South_Ossetia_relations" title="Russia–South Ossetia relations">South Ossetia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="India–Russia relations">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesia%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Indonesia–Russia relations">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Iran–Russia relations">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Iraq–Russia relations">Iraq</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurdistan_Region%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Kurdistan Region–Russia relations">Kurdistan Region</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Israel–Russia relations">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Japan–Russia relations">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Jordan–Russia relations">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Kazakhstan–Russia relations">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwait%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Kuwait–Russia relations">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyzstan%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Kyrgyzstan–Russia relations">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laos%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Laos–Russia relations">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanon%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Lebanon–Russia relations">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysia%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Malaysia–Russia relations">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldives%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Maldives–Russia relations">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolia%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Mongolia–Russia relations">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myanmar%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Myanmar–Russia relations">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepal%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Nepal–Russia relations">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Korea%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="North Korea–Russia relations">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oman%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Oman–Russia relations">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Pakistan–Russia relations">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestine%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Palestine–Russia relations">Palestine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Hamas_relations" title="Russia–Hamas relations">Hamas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippines%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Philippines–Russia relations">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatar%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Qatar–Russia relations">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_relations" title="Russia–Saudi Arabia relations">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Singapore_relations" title="Russia–Singapore relations">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93South_Korea_relations" title="Russia–South Korea relations">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Sri_Lanka_relations" title="Russia–Sri Lanka relations">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Syria_relations" title="Russia–Syria relations">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Taiwan_relations" title="Russia–Taiwan relations">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Tajikistan_relations" title="Russia–Tajikistan relations">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Thailand_relations" title="Russia–Thailand relations">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Turkey_relations" title="Russia–Turkey relations">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Turkmenistan_relations" title="Russia–Turkmenistan relations">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93United_Arab_Emirates_relations" title="Russia–United Arab Emirates relations">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Uzbekistan_relations" title="Russia–Uzbekistan relations">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Vietnam_relations" title="Russia–Vietnam relations">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Yemen_relations" title="Russia–Yemen relations">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albania%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Albania–Russia relations">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austria%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Austria–Russia relations">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarus%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Belarus–Russia relations">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgium%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Belgium–Russia relations">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina–Russia relations">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Bulgaria–Russia relations">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatia%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Croatia–Russia relations">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Cyprus–Russia relations">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Czech Republic–Russia relations">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Denmark–Russia relations">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonia%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Estonia–Russia relations">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finland%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Finland–Russia relations">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="France–Russia relations">France</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greece%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Greece–Russia relations">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungary%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Hungary–Russia relations">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iceland%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Iceland–Russia relations">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ireland%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Ireland–Russia relations">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italy%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Italy–Russia relations">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvia%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Latvia–Russia relations">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liechtenstein%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Liechtenstein–Russia relations">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuania%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Lithuania–Russia relations">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Luxembourg–Russia relations">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malta%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Malta–Russia relations">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moldova%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Moldova–Russia relations">Moldova</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Transnistria_relations" title="Russia–Transnistria relations">Transnistria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monaco%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Monaco–Russia relations">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montenegro%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Montenegro–Russia relations">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netherlands%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Netherlands–Russia relations">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Macedonia%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="North Macedonia–Russia relations">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norway%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Norway–Russia relations">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poland%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Poland–Russia relations">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portugal%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Portugal–Russia relations">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Romania–Russia relations">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Serbia_relations" title="Russia–Serbia relations">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Slovakia_relations" title="Russia–Slovakia relations">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Slovenia_relations" title="Russia–Slovenia relations">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Spain_relations" title="Russia–Spain relations">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Sweden_relations" title="Russia–Sweden relations">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Switzerland_relations" title="Russia–Switzerland relations">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Ukraine_relations" title="Russia–Ukraine relations">Ukraine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Donetsk_People%27s_Republic%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Donetsk People's Republic–Russia relations">Donetsk PR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luhansk_People%27s_Republic%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Luhansk People's Republic–Russia relations">Luhansk PR</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93United_Kingdom_relations" title="Russia–United Kingdom relations">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_See%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Holy See–Russia relations">Vatican City</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australia%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Australia–Russia relations">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiji%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Fiji–Russia relations">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nauru%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="Nauru–Russia relations">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand%E2%80%93Russia_relations" title="New Zealand–Russia relations">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Tonga_relations" title="Russia–Tonga relations">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Vanuatu_relations" title="Russia–Vanuatu relations">Vanuatu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="padding-left:70px;"><div id="Multilateral_relations" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Multilateral relations</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BRICS" title="BRICS">BRICS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93European_Union_relations" title="Russia–European Union relations">European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93NATO_relations" title="Russia–NATO relations">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia_and_the_United_Nations" title="Russia and the United Nations">United Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_policy_of_Russia" title="Arctic policy of Russia">Arctic policy of Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Russia_and_the_Antarctic" title="Category:Russia and the Antarctic">Russia and the Antarctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near_Abroad" class="mw-redirect" title="Near Abroad">Near Abroad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="padding-left:70px;"><div id="Diplomacy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Diplomacy</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Russia)" title="Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Russia)">Ministry of Foreign Affairs</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Russia)" title="Minister of Foreign Affairs (Russia)">Foreign Minister</a>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_Russia" title="List of diplomatic missions of Russia">Diplomatic missions of Russia</a> / <a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_in_Russia" title="List of diplomatic missions in Russia">in Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia_in_the_European_energy_sector" title="Russia in the European energy sector">European energy sector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation" title="Shanghai Cooperation Organisation">Shanghai Cooperation Organisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasian_Economic_Union" title="Eurasian Economic Union">Eurasian Economic Union</a></li> <li><a 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