CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Georges Cuvier - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"b80f0164-df42-4f4f-b391-1b8a51e14356","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Georges_Cuvier","wgTitle":"Georges Cuvier","wgCurRevisionId":1265185742,"wgRevisionId":1265185742,"wgArticleId":162282,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1 French-language sources (fr)","CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list","Articles with French-language sources (fr)","CS1 maint: location missing publisher","Webarchive template wayback links","Articles with short description","Short description matches Wikidata","Use dmy dates from November 2023","Articles with hCards","Zoologists with author abbreviations","Pages with French IPA","Articles needing additional references from April 2017", "All articles needing additional references","Botanists with author abbreviations","All articles with dead external links","Articles with dead external links from November 2023","Articles with permanently dead external links","Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference","Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica","CS1: long volume value","Commons link from Wikidata","Articles with Internet Archive links","Articles with LibriVox links","French naturalists","19th-century French geologists","French paleontologists","1769 births","1832 deaths","19th-century French anthropologists","French ichthyologists","French malacologists","French ornithologists","French science writers","French taxonomists","Paleozoologists","Teuthologists","French barons","Catastrophism","Critics of Lamarckism","Grand Officers of the Legion of Honour","Members of the French Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Académie Française","Members of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres","Chancellors of the University of Paris","Academic staff of the Collège de France","Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences","Foreign members of the Royal Society","Honorary members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences","Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences","Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences","Members of the Chamber of Peers of the July Monarchy","French Lutherans","Scientists from Montbéliard","Deaths from cholera in France","Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery","French male non-fiction writers","18th-century French zoologists","19th-century French zoologists","National Museum of Natural History (France) people","People educated at the Karlsschule Stuttgart"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Georges_Cuvier","wgRelevantArticleId":162282, "wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":80000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q171969","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled": false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups", "ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.16"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Georges_Cuvier.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1501"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Georges_Cuvier.png/800px-Georges_Cuvier.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1000"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Georges_Cuvier.png/640px-Georges_Cuvier.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="800"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Georges Cuvier - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Georges_Cuvier rootpage-Georges_Cuvier skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages"><span>Special pages</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Georges+Cuvier" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Georges+Cuvier" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Georges+Cuvier" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Georges+Cuvier" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Biography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Biography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scientific_ideas_and_their_impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientific_ideas_and_their_impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Scientific ideas and their impact</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Scientific_ideas_and_their_impact-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Scientific ideas and their impact subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Scientific_ideas_and_their_impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Opposition_to_evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opposition_to_evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Opposition to evolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opposition_to_evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extinction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extinction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Extinction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extinction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Catastrophism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catastrophism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Catastrophism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catastrophism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stratigraphy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stratigraphy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Stratigraphy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stratigraphy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Age_of_reptiles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Age_of_reptiles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Age of reptiles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Age_of_reptiles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Principle_of_the_correlation_of_parts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Principle_of_the_correlation_of_parts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Principle of the correlation of parts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Principle_of_the_correlation_of_parts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.1</span> <span>Applications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.2</span> <span>Impact</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scientific_work" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientific_work"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Scientific work</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Scientific_work-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Scientific work subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Scientific_work-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Comparative_anatomy_and_classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparative_anatomy_and_classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Comparative anatomy and classification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparative_anatomy_and_classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mollusks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mollusks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Mollusks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mollusks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fish" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fish"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Fish</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fish-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Palaeontology_and_osteology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Palaeontology_and_osteology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Palaeontology and osteology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Palaeontology_and_osteology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Animal_Kingdom_(Le_Règne_Animal)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Animal_Kingdom_(Le_Règne_Animal)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span><i>The Animal Kingdom</i> (<i>Le Règne Animal</i>)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Animal_Kingdom_(Le_Règne_Animal)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Racial_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Racial_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Racial studies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Racial_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sarah_Baartman" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sarah_Baartman"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6.1</span> <span>Sarah Baartman</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sarah_Baartman-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taxa_described_by_him" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taxa_described_by_him"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Taxa described by him</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taxa_described_by_him-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Official_and_public_work" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Official_and_public_work"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Official and public work</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Official_and_public_work-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commemorations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commemorations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Commemorations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commemorations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taxon_named_in_his_honour" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taxon_named_in_his_honour"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Taxon named in his honour</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taxon_named_in_his_honour-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Footnotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Georges Cuvier</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 69 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-69" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">69 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AC_%D9%83%D9%88%D9%81%D9%8A%D9%8A%D9%87" title="جورج كوفييه – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جورج كوفييه" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jorj_K%C3%BCvye" title="Jorj Küvye – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Jorj Küvye" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D8%B1%DA%98_%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%87" title="ژرژ کوویه – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ژرژ کوویه" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B6_%D0%9A%D1%8E%D1%9E%D0%B5" title="Жорж Кюўе – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Жорж Кюўе" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B6_%D0%9A%D1%8E%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Жорж Кювие – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Жорж Кювие" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%96%CF%89%CF%81%CE%B6_%CE%9A%CF%85%CE%B2%CE%B9%CE%AD" title="Ζωρζ Κυβιέ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ζωρζ Κυβιέ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D8%B1%DA%98_%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%87" title="ژرژ کوویه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ژرژ کوویه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A1%B0%EB%A5%B4%EC%A3%BC_%ED%80%B4%EB%B9%84%EC%97%90" title="조르주 퀴비에 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="조르주 퀴비에" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BA%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%AA_%D4%BF%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BE%D5%AB%D5%A5" title="Ժորժ Կյուվիե – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ժորժ Կյուվիե" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%96%27%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%96%27_%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%99%D7%94" title="ז'ורז' קיווייה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ז'ורז' קיווייה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9F%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9F_%E1%83%99%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%94" title="ჟორჟ კიუვიე – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჟორჟ კიუვიე" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B6_%D0%9A%D1%8E%D0%B2%D1%8C%D0%B5" title="Жорж Кювье – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Жорж Кювье" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgius_Cuvier" title="Georgius Cuvier – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Georgius Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDor%C5%BEs_Kivj%C4%93" title="Žoržs Kivjē – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Žoržs Kivjē" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B6_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D0%B2%D1%98%D0%B5" title="Жорж Кивје – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Жорж Кивје" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9F%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9F_%E1%83%99%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%94" title="ჟორჟ კიუვიე – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ჟორჟ კიუვიე" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AC_%D9%83%D9%88%D9%81%D9%8A%D9%8A%D9%87" title="جورج كوفييه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جورج كوفييه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%82%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B7%E1%80%9B%E1%80%BE%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%80%E1%80%B0%E1%80%B8%E1%80%97%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9A%E1%80%B1" title="ဂျော့ရှ် ကူးဗီယေ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဂျော့ရှ် ကူးဗီယေ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A7%E3%83%AB%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A5%E3%83%BB%E3%82%AD%E3%83%A5%E3%83%B4%E3%82%A3%E3%82%A8" title="ジョルジュ・キュヴィエ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ジョルジュ・キュヴィエ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D8%B1%DA%98_%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%87" title="ژرژ کوویه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ژرژ کوویه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%8E%D0%B2%D1%8C%D0%B5,_%D0%96%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B6_%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B4" title="Кювье, Жорж Леопольд – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Кювье, Жорж Леопольд" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%87" title="जार्ज् क्युव्ये – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="जार्ज् क्युव्ये" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B6_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D0%B2%D1%98%D0%B5" title="Жорж Кивје – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Жорж Кивје" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B6_%D0%9B%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B4_%D0%9A%D1%8E%D0%B2%27%D1%94" title="Жорж Леопольд Кюв'є – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Жорж Леопольд Кюв'є" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B9%94%E6%B2%BB%C2%B7%E5%B1%85%E7%BB%B4%E5%8F%B6" title="乔治·居维叶 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="乔治·居维叶" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="Georges Cuvier" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%96%AC%E6%B2%BB%C2%B7%E5%B1%85%E7%B6%AD%E8%91%89" title="喬治·居維葉 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="喬治·居維葉" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q171969#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Georges_Cuvier" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Georges_Cuvier"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Georges_Cuvier"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Georges_Cuvier" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Georges_Cuvier" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&oldid=1265185742" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Georges_Cuvier&id=1265185742&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FGeorges_Cuvier"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FGeorges_Cuvier"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Georges_Cuvier&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-species mw-list-item"><a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" hreflang="en"><span>Wikispecies</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" hreflang="en"><span>Wikiquote</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikisource mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Georges_Cuvier" hreflang="en"><span>Wikisource</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q171969" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">French naturalist, zoologist and paleontologist (1769–1832)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Cuvier" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Cuvier_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Cuvier (disambiguation)">Cuvier (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Georges Cuvier</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Georges_Cuvier.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Georges_Cuvier.png/220px-Georges_Cuvier.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Georges_Cuvier.png/330px-Georges_Cuvier.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Georges_Cuvier.png/440px-Georges_Cuvier.png 2x" data-file-width="814" data-file-height="1018" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Jean Léopold Nicolas Frédéric Cuvier</div><br /><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1769-08-23</span>)</span>23 August 1769<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Montb%C3%A9liard" title="Montbéliard">Montbéliard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Duchy of Württemberg">Duchy of Württemberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">13 May 1832<span style="display:none">(1832-05-13)</span> (aged 62)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, <a href="/wiki/July_Monarchy" title="July Monarchy">Kingdom of France</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Nationality</th><td class="infobox-data category">French</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><i><a href="/wiki/Le_R%C3%A8gne_Animal" title="Le Règne Animal">Le Règne Animal</a></i>; establishing the fields of <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">stratigraphy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Comparative_anatomy" title="Comparative anatomy">comparative anatomy</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_faunal_succession" title="Principle of faunal succession">principle of faunal succession</a> in the fossil record; making <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinction</a> an accepted scientific phenomenon; opposing theories of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>; popularizing <a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">catastrophism</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">Natural history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">paleontology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">anatomy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9um_national_d%27histoire_naturelle" class="mw-redirect" title="Muséum national d'histoire naturelle">Muséum national d'histoire naturelle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_de_France" title="Collège de France">Collège de France</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Author_citation_(botany)" title="Author citation (botany)">Author abbrev. (botany)</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><b>Cuvier</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Author_citation_(zoology)" title="Author citation (zoology)">Author abbrev. (zoology)</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><b>Cuvier</b></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Jean Léopold Nicolas Frédéric, baron Cuvier</b> (23 August 1769 – 13 May 1832), known as <b>Georges Cuvier</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/j/: 'y' in 'yes'">j</span><span title="/uː/: 'oo' in 'goose'">uː</span><span title="'v' in 'vie'">v</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span><span title="/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'">eɪ</span></span>/</a></span></span>;<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">French:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="fr-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/French" title="Help:IPA/French">[ʒɔʁʒ(ə)<span class="wrap"> </span>kyvje]</a></span>), was a French <a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">naturalist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">zoologist</a>, sometimes referred to as the "founding father of paleontology".<sup id="cite_ref-Reybrouck2012_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reybrouck2012-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cuvier was a major figure in natural sciences research in the early 19th century and was instrumental in establishing the fields of <a href="/wiki/Comparative_anatomy" title="Comparative anatomy">comparative anatomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">paleontology</a> through his work in comparing living animals with fossils. </p><p>Cuvier's work is considered the foundation of <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate_paleontology" title="Vertebrate paleontology">vertebrate paleontology</a>, and he expanded <a href="/wiki/Linnaean_taxonomy" title="Linnaean taxonomy">Linnaean taxonomy</a> by grouping classes into <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phyla</a> and incorporating both fossils and living species into the classification.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cuvier is also known for establishing <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinction</a> as a fact—at the time, extinction was considered by many of Cuvier's contemporaries to be merely controversial speculation. In his <i>Essay on the Theory of the Earth</i> (1813) Cuvier proposed that now-extinct species had been wiped out by periodic catastrophic flooding events. In this way, Cuvier became the most influential proponent of <a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">catastrophism</a> in <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a> in the early 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His study of the <a href="/wiki/Stratum" title="Stratum">strata</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Paris_basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris basin">Paris basin</a> with <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Brongniart" title="Alexandre Brongniart">Alexandre Brongniart</a> established the basic principles of <a href="/wiki/Biostratigraphy" title="Biostratigraphy">biostratigraphy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among his other accomplishments, Cuvier established that elephant-like bones found in North America belonged to an extinct animal he later would name as a "<a href="/wiki/Mastodon" title="Mastodon">mastodon</a>", and that a large skeleton dug up in present-day <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a> was of a giant, prehistoric <a href="/wiki/Ground_sloth" title="Ground sloth">ground sloth</a>, which he named <i><a href="/wiki/Megatherium" title="Megatherium">Megatherium</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also established two ungulate genera from the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Basin" title="Paris Basin">Paris Basin</a> named <i><a href="/wiki/Palaeotherium" title="Palaeotherium">Palaeotherium</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Anoplotherium" title="Anoplotherium">Anoplotherium</a></i> based on fragmentary remains alone, although more complete remains were later uncovered. He named the pterosaur <i><a href="/wiki/Pterodactylus" title="Pterodactylus">Pterodactylus</a></i>, described (but did not discover or name) the aquatic reptile <i><a href="/wiki/Mosasaurus" title="Mosasaurus">Mosasaurus</a></i>, and was one of the first people to suggest the earth had been dominated by reptiles, rather than mammals, in prehistoric times. </p><p>Cuvier is also remembered for strongly opposing theories of evolution, which at the time (before <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin</a>'s theory) were mainly proposed by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck">Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Geoffroy_Saint-Hilaire" title="Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire">Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire</a>. Cuvier believed there was no evidence for <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>, but rather evidence for cyclical creations and destructions of life forms by global extinction events such as <a href="/wiki/Outburst_flood" title="Outburst flood">deluges</a>. In 1830, Cuvier and Geoffroy engaged in <a href="/wiki/Cuvier%E2%80%93Geoffroy_debate" title="Cuvier–Geoffroy debate">a famous debate</a>, which is said to exemplify the two major deviations in biological thinking at the time – whether animal structure was due to function or (evolutionary) morphology.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cuvier supported function and rejected Lamarck's thinking. </p><p>Cuvier also conducted racial studies which provided part of the foundation for <a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">scientific racism</a>, and published work on the supposed differences between racial groups' physical properties and mental abilities.<sup id="cite_ref-Jackson_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jackson-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cuvier subjected <a href="/wiki/Sarah_Baartman" title="Sarah Baartman">Sarah Baartman</a> to examinations alongside other French naturalists during a period in which she was held captive in a state of neglect. Cuvier examined Baartman shortly before her death, and conducted a dissection following her death that disparagingly compared her physical features to those of monkeys.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cuvier's most famous work is <i><a href="/wiki/Le_R%C3%A8gne_Animal" title="Le Règne Animal">Le Règne Animal</a></i> (1817; English: <i>The Animal Kingdom</i>). In 1819, he was created a <a href="/wiki/Peerage_of_France" title="Peerage of France">peer</a> for life in honour of his scientific contributions.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thereafter, he was known as Baron Cuvier. He died in Paris during an epidemic of <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a>. Some of Cuvier's most influential followers were <a href="/wiki/Louis_Agassiz" title="Louis Agassiz">Louis Agassiz</a> on the continent and in the United States, and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Owen" title="Richard Owen">Richard Owen</a> in Britain. His name is one of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_the_72_names_on_the_Eiffel_Tower" title="List of the 72 names on the Eiffel Tower">72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biography">Biography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Biography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Georges_Cuvier_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Georges_Cuvier_3.jpg/170px-Georges_Cuvier_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Georges_Cuvier_3.jpg/255px-Georges_Cuvier_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Georges_Cuvier_3.jpg/340px-Georges_Cuvier_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1674" data-file-height="2059" /></a><figcaption>Portrait by <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Andr%C3%A9_Vincent" title="François-André Vincent">François-André Vincent</a>, 1795</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Jean Léopold Nicolas Frédéric Cuvier</b> was born in <a href="/wiki/Montb%C3%A9liard" title="Montbéliard">Montbéliard</a>, where his Protestant ancestors had lived since the time of the Reformation.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee_1833,_p._8_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee_1833,_p._8-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His mother was Anne Clémence Chatel; his father, Jean-Georges Cuvier, was a lieutenant in the Swiss Guards and a bourgeois of the town of Montbéliard.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the time, the town, which would be annexed to France on 10 October 1793, belonged to the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Duchy of Württemberg">Duchy of Württemberg</a>. His mother, who was much younger than his father, tutored him diligently throughout his early years, so he easily surpassed the other children at school.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee_1833,_p._8_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee_1833,_p._8-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During his <a href="/wiki/Gymnasium_(school)" title="Gymnasium (school)">gymnasium</a> years, he had little trouble acquiring Latin and Greek, and was always at the head of his class in mathematics, history, and geography.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee_1833,_p._11_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee_1833,_p._11-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Lee,<sup id="cite_ref-Lee_1833,_p._11_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee_1833,_p._11-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "The history of mankind was, from the earliest period of his life, a subject of the most indefatigable application; and long lists of sovereigns, princes, and the driest chronological facts, once arranged in his memory, were never forgotten." </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maison_natale.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Maison_natale.jpg/130px-Maison_natale.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Maison_natale.jpg/195px-Maison_natale.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Maison_natale.jpg/260px-Maison_natale.jpg 2x" data-file-width="272" data-file-height="533" /></a><figcaption>Birthplace of Georges Cuvier in <a href="/wiki/Montb%C3%A9liard" title="Montbéliard">Montbéliard</a><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>At the age of 10, soon after entering the <a href="/wiki/Gymnasium_(school)" title="Gymnasium (school)">gymnasium</a>, he encountered a copy of <a href="/wiki/Conrad_Gessner" title="Conrad Gessner">Conrad Gessner</a>'s <i>Historiae Animalium</i>, the work that first sparked his interest in <a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">natural history</a>. He then began frequent visits to the home of a relative, where he could borrow volumes of <a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">the Comte de Buffon</a>'s massive <i><a href="/wiki/Histoire_Naturelle" title="Histoire Naturelle">Histoire Naturelle</a>.</i> All of these he read and reread, retaining so much of the information, that by the age of 12, "he was as familiar with quadrupeds and birds as a first-rate naturalist."<sup id="cite_ref-Lee_1833,_p._11_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee_1833,_p._11-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He remained at the gymnasium for four years. </p><p>Cuvier spent an additional four years at the Caroline Academy in <a href="/wiki/Stuttgart" title="Stuttgart">Stuttgart</a>, where he excelled in all of his coursework. Although he knew no German on his arrival, after only nine months of study, he managed to win the school prize for that language. Cuvier's German education exposed him to the work of the geologist <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Gottlob_Werner" title="Abraham Gottlob Werner">Abraham Gottlob Werner</a> (1750–1817), whose <a href="/wiki/Neptunism" title="Neptunism">Neptunism</a> and emphasis on the importance of rigorous, direct observation of three-dimensional, structural relationships of rock formations to geological understanding provided models for Cuvier's scientific theories and methods.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Upon graduation, he had no money on which to live as he awaited an appointment to an academic office. So in July 1788, he took a job at Fiquainville chateau in Normandy as tutor to the only son of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Comte_d%27H%C3%A9ricy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Comte d'Héricy (page does not exist)">Comte d'Héricy</a>, a Protestant noble. There, during the early 1790s, he began his comparisons of fossils with extant forms. Cuvier regularly attended meetings held at the nearby town of <a href="/wiki/Valmont,_Seine-Maritime" title="Valmont, Seine-Maritime">Valmont</a> for the discussion of agricultural topics. There, he became acquainted with Henri Alexandre Tessier (1741–1837), who had assumed a false identity. Previously, he had been a physician and well-known agronomist, who had fled the <a href="/wiki/Reign_of_Terror" title="Reign of Terror">Terror</a> in Paris. After hearing Tessier speak on agricultural matters, Cuvier recognized him as the author of certain articles on agriculture in the <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die_M%C3%A9thodique" title="Encyclopédie Méthodique">Encyclopédie Méthodique</a></i> and addressed him as M. Tessier. </p><p>Tessier replied in dismay, "I am known, then, and consequently lost."—"Lost!" replied M. Cuvier, "no; you are henceforth the object of our most anxious care."<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They soon became intimate and Tessier introduced Cuvier to his colleagues in Paris"I have just found a pearl in the dunghill of Normandy", he wrote his friend <a href="/wiki/Antoine-Augustin_Parmentier" title="Antoine-Augustin Parmentier">Antoine-Augustin Parmentier</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, Cuvier entered into correspondence with several leading naturalists of the day and was invited to Paris. Arriving in the spring of 1795, at the age of 26, he soon became the assistant of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Claude_Mertrud&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean-Claude Mertrud (page does not exist)">Jean-Claude Mertrud</a> (1728–1802), who had been appointed to the chair of <a href="/wiki/Animal_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal anatomy">Animal Anatomy</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Jardin_des_Plantes" class="mw-redirect" title="Jardin des Plantes">Jardin des Plantes</a>. When Mertrud died in 1802, Cuvier replaced him in office and the Chair changed its name to Chair of <a href="/wiki/Comparative_anatomy" title="Comparative anatomy">Comparative Anatomy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Institut_de_France" title="Institut de France">Institut de France</a> was founded in the same year, and he was elected a member of its <a href="/wiki/French_Academy_of_Sciences" title="French Academy of Sciences">Academy of Sciences</a>. On 4 April 1796 he began to lecture at the <a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89cole_Centrale_du_Pantheon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="École Centrale du Pantheon (page does not exist)">École Centrale du Pantheon</a> and, at the opening of the National Institute in April, he read his first paleontological paper, which subsequently was published in 1800 under the title <i>Mémoires sur les espèces d'éléphants vivants et fossiles</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this paper, he analyzed skeletal remains of Indian and African <a href="/wiki/Elephant" title="Elephant">elephants</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Mammoth" title="Mammoth">mammoth</a> <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossils</a>, and a fossil skeleton known at that time as the "Ohio animal". In his second paper in 1796, he described and analyzed a large skeleton found in <a href="/wiki/Paraguay" title="Paraguay">Paraguay</a>, which he would name <i><a href="/wiki/Megatherium" title="Megatherium">Megatherium</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He concluded this skeleton represented yet another extinct animal and, by comparing its skull with living species of tree-dwelling sloths, that it was a kind of ground-dwelling <a href="/wiki/Ground_sloth" title="Ground sloth">giant sloth</a>. </p><p>Together, these two 1796 papers were a seminal or landmark event, becoming a turning point in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">history of paleontology</a>, and in the development of <a href="/wiki/Comparative_anatomy" title="Comparative anatomy">comparative anatomy</a>, as well. They also greatly enhanced Cuvier's personal reputation and they essentially ended what had been a long-running debate about the reality of <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinction</a>. </p><p>In 1799, he succeeded <a href="/wiki/Louis-Jean-Marie_Daubenton" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis-Jean-Marie Daubenton">Daubenton</a> as professor of natural history in the <i><a href="/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_de_France" title="Collège de France">Collège de France</a></i>. In 1802, he became titular professor at the <i><a href="/wiki/Jardin_des_Plantes" class="mw-redirect" title="Jardin des Plantes">Jardin des Plantes</a></i>; and in the same year, he was appointed commissary of the institute to accompany the inspectors general of public instruction. In this latter capacity, he visited the south of France, but in the early part of 1803, he was chosen permanent secretary of the department of physical sciences of the Academy, and he consequently abandoned the earlier appointment and returned to Paris.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1806, he became a foreign member of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a>, and in 1812, a foreign member of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Swedish_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences">Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences</a>. In 1812, he became a correspondent for the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences">Royal Institute of the Netherlands</a>, and became a member in 1827.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cuvier was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="American Academy of Arts and Sciences">American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a> in 1822.<sup id="cite_ref-AAAS_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AAAS-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tombe_Cuvier.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Tombe_Cuvier.jpg/170px-Tombe_Cuvier.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Tombe_Cuvier.jpg/255px-Tombe_Cuvier.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Tombe_Cuvier.jpg/340px-Tombe_Cuvier.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2850" /></a><figcaption>Cuvier's tomb in the <a href="/wiki/P%C3%A8re_Lachaise_Cemetery" title="Père Lachaise Cemetery">Père Lachaise Cemetery</a>, Paris</figcaption></figure> <p>Cuvier then devoted himself more especially to three lines of inquiry: (i) the structure and classification of the <i><a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">Mollusca</a></i>; (ii) the comparative anatomy and systematic arrangement of the fishes; (iii) fossil mammals and reptiles and, secondarily, the <a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">osteology</a> of living forms belonging to the same groups.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1812, Cuvier made what the cryptozoologist <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Heuvelmans" title="Bernard Heuvelmans">Bernard Heuvelmans</a> called his "Rash dictum": he remarked that it was unlikely that any large animal remained undiscovered. Ten years after his death, the word "dinosaur" would be coined by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Owen" title="Richard Owen">Richard Owen</a> in 1842. </p><p>During his lifetime, Cuvier served as an imperial councillor under <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a>, president of the Council of Public Instruction and chancellor of the university under the <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">restored Bourbons</a>, Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour, a Peer of France, Minister of the Interior, and president of the Council of State under <a href="/wiki/Louis_Philippe_I" title="Louis Philippe I">Louis Philippe</a>. He was eminent in all these capacities, and yet the dignity given by such high administrative positions was as nothing compared to his leadership in natural science.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cuvier was by birth, education, and conviction a devout <a href="/wiki/Lutheran" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran">Lutheran</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and remained Protestant throughout his life while regularly attending <a href="/wiki/Church_service" title="Church service">church services</a>. Despite this, he regarded his personal faith as a private matter; he evidently identified himself with his confessional minority group when he supervised governmental educational programs for <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestants</a>. He also was very active in founding the Parisian <a href="/wiki/Bible_society" title="Bible society">Biblical Society</a> in 1818, where he later served as a vice president.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1822 until his death in 1832, Cuvier was Grand Master of the Protestant Faculties of Theology of the French University.<sup id="cite_ref-Taquet_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taquet-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scientific_ideas_and_their_impact">Scientific ideas and their impact</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Scientific ideas and their impact"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Opposition_to_evolution">Opposition to evolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Opposition to evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cuvier was critical of theories of evolution, in particular those proposed by his contemporaries Lamarck and Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, which involved the gradual transmutation of one form into another. He repeatedly emphasized that his extensive experience with fossil material indicated one fossil form does not, as a rule, gradually change into a succeeding, distinct fossil form. A deep-rooted source of his opposition to the gradual transformation of species was his goal of creating an accurate taxonomy based on principles of comparative anatomy.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such a project would become impossible if species were mutable, with no clear boundaries between them. According to the University of California Museum of Paleontology, "Cuvier did not believe in organic evolution, for any change in an organism's anatomy would have rendered it unable to survive. He studied the mummified cats and ibises that Geoffroy had brought back from Napoleon's invasion of Egypt, and showed they were no different from their living counterparts; Cuvier used this to support his claim that life forms did not evolve over time."<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Baron_Georges_Cuvier_Wellcome_L0016365_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Portrait_of_Baron_Georges_Cuvier_Wellcome_L0016365_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-Portrait_of_Baron_Georges_Cuvier_Wellcome_L0016365_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Portrait_of_Baron_Georges_Cuvier_Wellcome_L0016365_%28cropped%29.jpg/255px-Portrait_of_Baron_Georges_Cuvier_Wellcome_L0016365_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Portrait_of_Baron_Georges_Cuvier_Wellcome_L0016365_%28cropped%29.jpg/340px-Portrait_of_Baron_Georges_Cuvier_Wellcome_L0016365_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1102" data-file-height="1418" /></a><figcaption>Cuvier with a fish fossil</figcaption></figure> <p>He also observed that Napoleon's expedition to Egypt had retrieved animals mummified thousands of years previously that seemed no different from their modern counterparts.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Certainly", Cuvier wrote, "one cannot detect any greater difference between these creatures and those we see, than between the human mummies and the skeletons of present-day men."<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lamarck dismissed this conclusion, arguing that evolution happened much too slowly to be observed over just a few thousand years. Cuvier, however, in turn criticized how Lamarck and other naturalists conveniently introduced hundreds of thousands of years "with a stroke of a pen" to uphold their theory. Instead, he argued that one may judge what a long time would produce only by multiplying what a lesser time produces. Since a lesser time produced no organic changes, neither, he argued, would a much longer time.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, his commitment to the <a href="#Principle_of_the_correlation_of_parts">principle of the correlation of parts</a> caused him to doubt that any mechanism could ever gradually modify any part of an animal in isolation from all the other parts (in the way Lamarck proposed), without rendering the animal unable to survive.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his <i>Éloge de M. de Lamarck</i> (<i>Praise for M. de Lamarck</i>),<sup id="cite_ref-Praise_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Praise-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cuvier wrote that Lamarck's theory of evolution </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>rested on two arbitrary suppositions; the one, that it is the seminal vapour which organizes the embryo; the other, that efforts and desires may engender organs. A system established on such foundations may amuse the imagination of a poet; a metaphysician may derive from it an entirely new series of systems; but it cannot for a moment bear the examination of anyone who has dissected a hand, a viscus, or even a feather.<sup id="cite_ref-Praise_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Praise-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Instead, he said, the typical form makes an abrupt appearance in the fossil record, and persists unchanged to the time of its extinction. Cuvier attempted to explain this paleontological phenomenon he envisioned (which would be readdressed more than a century later by "<a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">punctuated equilibrium</a>") and to harmonize it with the <i>Bible</i>. He attributed the different time periods he was aware of as intervals between major catastrophes, the last of which is found in <i>Genesis</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cuvier's claim that new fossil forms appear abruptly in the geological record and then continue without alteration in overlying strata was used by later critics of evolution to support creationism,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to whom the abruptness seemed consistent with special divine creation (although Cuvier's finding that different types made their paleontological debuts in different geological strata clearly did not). The lack of change was consistent with the supposed sacred immutability of "species", but, again, the idea of extinction, of which Cuvier was the great proponent, obviously was not. </p><p>Many writers have unjustly accused Cuvier of obstinately maintaining that fossil human beings could never be found. In his <i>Essay on the Theory of the Earth</i>, he did say, "no human bones have yet been found among fossil remains", but he made it clear exactly what he meant: "When I assert that human bones have not been hitherto found among extraneous fossils, I must be understood to speak of fossils, or petrifactions, properly so called".<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Petrified bones, which have had time to mineralize and turn to stone, are typically far older than bones found to that date. Cuvier's point was that all human bones found that he knew of, were of relatively recent age because they had not been petrified and had been found only in superficial strata.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was not dogmatic in this claim, however; when new evidence came to light, he included in a later edition an appendix describing a skeleton that he freely admitted was an "instance of a fossil human petrifaction".<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The harshness of his criticism and the strength of his reputation, however, continued to discourage naturalists from speculating about the gradual transmutation of species, until <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> published <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i> more than two decades after Cuvier's death.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extinction">Extinction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Extinction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Georges_Cuvier" title="Special:EditPage/Georges Cuvier">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2017</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anoplotherium_1812_Skeleton_Sketch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Anoplotherium_1812_Skeleton_Sketch.jpg/220px-Anoplotherium_1812_Skeleton_Sketch.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Anoplotherium_1812_Skeleton_Sketch.jpg/330px-Anoplotherium_1812_Skeleton_Sketch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Anoplotherium_1812_Skeleton_Sketch.jpg/440px-Anoplotherium_1812_Skeleton_Sketch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="240" /></a><figcaption>Georges Cuvier's 1812 skeletal reconstruction of <i><a href="/wiki/Anoplotherium" title="Anoplotherium">Anoplotherium</a> commune</i>. The stratigraphy and lack of modern analogue in the extinct mammal was proof of extinction and ecological succession.</figcaption></figure> <p>Early in his tenure at the National Museum in Paris, Cuvier published studies of fossil bones in which he argued that they belonged to large, extinct quadrupeds. His first two such publications were those identifying mammoth and mastodon fossils as belonging to extinct species rather than modern elephants and the study in which he identified the <i>Megatherium</i> as a giant, extinct species of sloth.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His primary evidence for his identifications of mammoths and mastodons as separate, extinct species was the structure of their jaws and teeth.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His primary evidence that the <i>Megatherium</i> fossil had belonged to a massive sloth came from his comparison of its skull with those of extant sloth species.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cuvier wrote of his paleontological method that "the form of the tooth leads to the form of the <a href="/wiki/Condyle" title="Condyle">condyle</a>, that of the <a href="/wiki/Scapula" title="Scapula">scapula</a> to that of the nails, just as an equation of a curve implies all of its properties; and, just as in taking each property separately as the basis of a special equation we are able to return to the original equation and other associated properties, similarly, the nails, the scapula, the condyle, the femur, each separately reveal the tooth or each other; and by beginning from each of them the thoughtful professor of the laws of organic economy can reconstruct the entire animal."<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, Cuvier's actual method was heavily dependent on the comparison of fossil specimens with the anatomy of extant species in the necessary context of his vast knowledge of animal anatomy and access to unparalleled natural history collections in Paris.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This reality, however, did not prevent the rise of a popular legend that Cuvier could reconstruct the entire bodily structures of extinct animals given only a few fragments of bone.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the time Cuvier presented his 1796 paper on living and fossil elephants, it was still widely believed that no species of animal had ever become extinct. Authorities such as Buffon had claimed that fossils found in Europe of animals such as the <a href="/wiki/Woolly_rhinoceros" title="Woolly rhinoceros">woolly rhinoceros</a> and the mammoth were remains of animals still living in the tropics (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Rhinoceros" title="Rhinoceros">rhinoceros</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elephant" title="Elephant">elephants</a>), which had shifted out of Europe and Asia as the earth became cooler. </p><p>Thereafter, Cuvier performed a pioneering research study on some elephant fossils excavated around Paris. The bones he studied, however, were remarkably different from the bones of elephants currently thriving in India and Africa. This discovery led Cuvier to denounce the idea that fossils came from those that are currently living. The idea that these bones belonged to elephants living – but hiding – somewhere on Earth seemed ridiculous to Cuvier, because it would be nearly impossible to miss them due to their enormous size. The <i>Megatherium</i> provided another compelling data point for this argument. Ultimately, his repeated identification of fossils as belonging to species unknown to man, combined with mineralogical evidence from his stratigraphical studies in Paris, drove Cuvier to the proposition that the abrupt changes the Earth underwent over a long period of time caused some species to go extinct.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cuvier's theory on extinction has met opposition from other notable natural scientists like Darwin and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Lyell" title="Charles Lyell">Charles Lyell</a>. Unlike Cuvier, they didn't believe that extinction was a sudden process; they believed that like the Earth, animals collectively undergo gradual change as a species. This differed widely from Cuvier's theory, which seemed to propose that animal extinction was catastrophic. </p><p>However, Cuvier's theory of extinction is still justified in the case of mass extinctions that occurred in the last 600 million years, when approximately half of all living species went completely extinct within a short geological span of two million years, due in part by volcanic eruptions, asteroids, and rapid fluctuations in sea level. At this time, new species rose and others fell, precipitating the arrival of human beings. Cuvier's early work demonstrated conclusively that extinction was indeed a credible natural global process.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cuvier's thinking on extinctions was influenced by his extensive readings in Greek and Latin literature; he gathered every ancient report known in his day relating to discoveries of petrified bones of remarkable size in the Mediterranean region.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Influence on Cuvier's theory of extinction was his collection of specimens from the New World, many of them obtained from Native Americans. He also maintained an archive of Native American observations, legends, and interpretations of immense fossilized skeletal remains, sent to him by informants and friends in the Americas. He was impressed that most of the Native American accounts identified the enormous bones, teeth, and tusks as animals of the deep past that had been destroyed by catastrophe.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Catastrophism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Georges_Cuvier" title="Special:EditPage/Georges Cuvier">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2017</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cuvier_elephant_jaw.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Cuvier_elephant_jaw.jpg/170px-Cuvier_elephant_jaw.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Cuvier_elephant_jaw.jpg/255px-Cuvier_elephant_jaw.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Cuvier_elephant_jaw.jpg/340px-Cuvier_elephant_jaw.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2661" data-file-height="2038" /></a><figcaption>These <a href="/wiki/Indian_elephant" title="Indian elephant">Indian elephant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mammoth" title="Mammoth">mammoth</a> jaws were included in 1799 when Cuvier's 1796 paper on living and fossil elephants was printed.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></div> <p>Cuvier came to believe that most, if not all, the animal fossils he examined were remains of species that had become extinct. Near the end of his 1796 paper on living and fossil elephants, he said: </p> <dl><dd><i>All of these facts, consistent among themselves, and not opposed by any report, seem to me to prove the existence of a world previous to ours, destroyed by some kind of catastrophe.</i></dd></dl> <p>Contrary to many natural scientists' beliefs at the time, Cuvier believed that animal extinction was not a product of <a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">anthropogenic</a> causes. Instead, he proposed that humans were around long enough to indirectly maintain the fossilized records of ancient Earth. He also attempted to verify the water catastrophe by analyzing records of various cultural backgrounds. Though he found many accounts of the water catastrophe unclear, he did believe that such an event occurred at the brink of human history nonetheless. </p><p>This led Cuvier to become an active proponent of the geological school of thought called <a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">catastrophism</a>, which maintained that many of the geological features of the earth and the history of life could be explained by catastrophic events that had caused the extinction of many species of animals. Over the course of his career, Cuvier came to believe there had not been a single catastrophe, but several, resulting in a succession of different faunas. He wrote about these ideas many times, in particular, he discussed them in great detail in the preliminary discourse (an introduction) to a collection of his papers, <i>Recherches sur les ossements fossiles de quadrupèdes</i> (<i>Researches on quadruped fossil bones</i>), on <a href="/wiki/Quadrupedalism" title="Quadrupedalism">quadruped</a> fossils published in 1812. </p><p>Cuvier's own explanation for such a catastrophic event is derived from two different sources, including those from <a href="/wiki/Jean-Andr%C3%A9_Deluc" title="Jean-André Deluc">Jean-André Deluc</a> and <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9odat_Gratet_de_Dolomieu" title="Déodat Gratet de Dolomieu">Déodat de Dolomieu</a>. The former proposed that the continents existing ten millennia ago collapsed, allowing the ocean floors to rise higher than the continental plates and become the continents that now exist today. The latter proposed that a massive <a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">tsunami</a> hit the globe, leading to mass extinction. Whatever the case was, he believed that the deluge happened quite recently in human history. In fact, he believed that Earth's existence was limited and not as extended as many natural scientists, like <a href="/wiki/Lamarck" class="mw-redirect" title="Lamarck">Lamarck</a>, believed it to be. </p><p>Much of the evidence he used to support his catastrophist theories has been taken from his fossil records. He strongly suggested that the fossils he found were evidence of the world's first reptiles, followed <a href="/wiki/Chronologically" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronologically">chronologically</a> by mammals and humans. Cuvier didn't wish to delve much into the causation of all the extinction and introduction of new animal species but rather focused on the sequential aspects of animal history on Earth. In a way, his <a href="/wiki/Chronological_dating" title="Chronological dating">chronological dating</a> of Earth's history somewhat reflected Lamarck's transformationist theories. </p><p>Cuvier also worked alongside <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Brongniart" title="Alexandre Brongniart">Alexandre Brongniart</a> in analyzing the Parisian rock cycle. Using <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphical" class="mw-redirect" title="Stratigraphical">stratigraphical</a> methods, they were both able to extrapolate key information regarding Earth history from studying these rocks. These rocks contained remnants of molluscs, bones of mammals, and shells. From these findings, Cuvier and Brongniart concluded that many environmental changes occurred in quick catastrophes, though Earth itself was often placid for extended periods of time in between sudden disturbances. </p><p>The 'Preliminary Discourse' became very well known and, unauthorized translations were made into English, German, and Italian (and in the case of those in English, not entirely accurately). In 1826, Cuvier published a revised version under the name, <i>Discours sur les révolutions de la surface du globe</i> (<i>Discourse on the upheavals of the surface of the globe</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After Cuvier's death, the catastrophic school of geological thought lost ground to <a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">uniformitarianism</a>, as championed by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Lyell" title="Charles Lyell">Charles Lyell</a> and others, which claimed that the geological features of the earth were best explained by currently observable forces, such as erosion and volcanism, acting gradually over an extended period of time. The increasing interest in the topic of <a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">mass extinction</a> starting in the late twentieth century, however, has led to a resurgence of interest among historians of science and other scholars in this aspect of Cuvier's work.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stratigraphy">Stratigraphy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Stratigraphy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cuvier collaborated for several years with <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Brongniart" title="Alexandre Brongniart">Alexandre Brongniart</a>, an instructor at the Paris mining school, to produce a monograph on the geology of the region around Paris. They published a preliminary version in 1808 and the final version was published in 1811. </p><p>In this monograph, they identified characteristic fossils of different rock layers that they used to analyze the geological column, the ordered layers of sedimentary rock, of the Paris basin. They concluded that the layers had been laid down over an extended period during which there clearly had been <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_faunal_succession" title="Principle of faunal succession">faunal succession</a> and that the area had been submerged under sea water at times and at other times under fresh water. Along with <a href="/wiki/William_Smith_(geologist)" title="William Smith (geologist)">William Smith</a>'s work during the same period on a geological map of England, which also used characteristic fossils and the principle of faunal succession to correlate layers of sedimentary rock, the monograph helped establish the scientific discipline of <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">stratigraphy</a>. It was a major development in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">history of paleontology</a> and the <a href="/wiki/History_of_geology" title="History of geology">history of geology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Age_of_reptiles">Age of reptiles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Age of reptiles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rozprawa_o_p%C5%99ewratech_k%C5%AFry_zemnj,_Ichthyosaurus_and_Plesiosaurus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Rozprawa_o_p%C5%99ewratech_k%C5%AFry_zemnj%2C_Ichthyosaurus_and_Plesiosaurus.jpg/260px-Rozprawa_o_p%C5%99ewratech_k%C5%AFry_zemnj%2C_Ichthyosaurus_and_Plesiosaurus.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Rozprawa_o_p%C5%99ewratech_k%C5%AFry_zemnj%2C_Ichthyosaurus_and_Plesiosaurus.jpg/390px-Rozprawa_o_p%C5%99ewratech_k%C5%AFry_zemnj%2C_Ichthyosaurus_and_Plesiosaurus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Rozprawa_o_p%C5%99ewratech_k%C5%AFry_zemnj%2C_Ichthyosaurus_and_Plesiosaurus.jpg/520px-Rozprawa_o_p%C5%99ewratech_k%C5%AFry_zemnj%2C_Ichthyosaurus_and_Plesiosaurus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2307" data-file-height="1248" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Ichthyosaurus" title="Ichthyosaurus">Ichthyosaurus</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Plesiosaurus" title="Plesiosaurus">Plesiosaurus</a></i> from the 1834 Czech edition of Cuvier's <i>Discours sur les revolutions de la surface du globe</i></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1800 and working only from a drawing, Cuvier was the first to correctly identify in print, a fossil found in Bavaria as a small flying reptile,<sup id="cite_ref-cuvier1801_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cuvier1801-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which he named the <i>Ptero-Dactyle</i> in 1809,<sup id="cite_ref-cuvier1809_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cuvier1809-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (later Latinized as <i><a href="/wiki/Pterodactylus" title="Pterodactylus">Pterodactylus</a> antiquus</i>)—the first known member of the diverse order of <a href="/wiki/Pterosaur" title="Pterosaur">pterosaurs</a>. In 1808 Cuvier identified a fossil found in <a href="/wiki/Maastricht" title="Maastricht">Maastricht</a> as a giant marine lizard, the first known <a href="/wiki/Mosasaur" title="Mosasaur">mosasaur</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cuvier1808_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cuvier1808-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cuvier speculated correctly that there had been a time when <a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">reptiles</a> rather than <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a> had been the dominant fauna.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This speculation was confirmed over the two decades following his death by a series of spectacular finds, mostly by English geologists and fossil collectors such as <a href="/wiki/Mary_Anning" title="Mary Anning">Mary Anning</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Conybeare_(geologist)" title="William Conybeare (geologist)">William Conybeare</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Buckland" title="William Buckland">William Buckland</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gideon_Mantell" title="Gideon Mantell">Gideon Mantell</a>, who found and described the first <a href="/wiki/Ichthyosaur" class="mw-redirect" title="Ichthyosaur">ichthyosaurs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plesiosaur" title="Plesiosaur">plesiosaurs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">dinosaurs</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Principle_of_the_correlation_of_parts">Principle of the correlation of parts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Principle of the correlation of parts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a 1798 paper on the fossil remains of an animal found in some plaster quarries near Paris, Cuvier states what is known as the principle of the correlation of parts. He writes:<sup id="cite_ref-:0_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><i>If an animal's teeth are such as they must be, in order for it to nourish itself with flesh, we can be sure without further examination that the whole system of its digestive organs is appropriate for that kind of food, and that its whole skeleton and locomotive organs, and even its sense organs, are arranged in such a way as to make it skilful at pursuing and catching its prey. For these relations are the necessary conditions of existence of the animal; if things were not so, it would not be able to subsist.</i></dd></dl> <p>This idea is referred to as Cuvier's principle of correlation of parts, which states that all organs in an animal's body are deeply interdependent. Species' existence relies on the way in which these organs interact. For example, a species whose digestive tract is best suited to digesting flesh but whose body is best suited to foraging for plants cannot survive. Thus in all species, the functional significance of each body part must be correlated to the others, or else the species cannot sustain itself.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Applications">Applications</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cuvier believed that the power of his principle came in part from its ability to aid in the reconstruction of fossils. In most cases, fossils of quadrupeds were not found as complete, assembled skeletons, but rather as scattered pieces that needed to be put together by anatomists. To make matters worse, deposits often contained the fossilized remains of several species of animals mixed together. Anatomists reassembling these skeletons ran the risk of combining remains of different species, producing imaginary composite species. However, by examining the functional purpose of each bone and applying the principle of correlation of parts, Cuvier believed that this problem could be avoided. </p><p>This principle's ability to aid in the reconstruction of fossils was also helpful to Cuvier's work in providing evidence in favour of extinction. The strongest evidence Cuvier could provide in favour of extinction would be to prove that the fossilized remains of an animal belonged to a species that no longer existed. By applying Cuvier's principle of correlation of parts, it would be easier to verify that a fossilized skeleton had been authentically reconstructed, thus validating any observations drawn from comparing it to skeletons of existing species. </p><p>In addition to helping anatomists reconstruct fossilized remains, Cuvier believed that his principle also held enormous predictive power. For example, when he discovered a fossil that resembled a marsupial in the gypsum quarries of Montmartre, he correctly predicted that the fossil would contain bones commonly found in marsupials in its pelvis as well.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Impact">Impact</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Impact"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Georges-L%C3%A9opold-Chr%C3%A9tien-Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric-Dagobert,_Baron_Cuvier._Li_Wellcome_V0001428.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Georges-L%C3%A9opold-Chr%C3%A9tien-Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric-Dagobert%2C_Baron_Cuvier._Li_Wellcome_V0001428.jpg/170px-Georges-L%C3%A9opold-Chr%C3%A9tien-Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric-Dagobert%2C_Baron_Cuvier._Li_Wellcome_V0001428.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Georges-L%C3%A9opold-Chr%C3%A9tien-Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric-Dagobert%2C_Baron_Cuvier._Li_Wellcome_V0001428.jpg/255px-Georges-L%C3%A9opold-Chr%C3%A9tien-Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric-Dagobert%2C_Baron_Cuvier._Li_Wellcome_V0001428.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Georges-L%C3%A9opold-Chr%C3%A9tien-Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric-Dagobert%2C_Baron_Cuvier._Li_Wellcome_V0001428.jpg/340px-Georges-L%C3%A9opold-Chr%C3%A9tien-Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric-Dagobert%2C_Baron_Cuvier._Li_Wellcome_V0001428.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2754" data-file-height="3150" /></a><figcaption>Line engraving of Cuvier, 1832</figcaption></figure> <p>Cuvier hoped that his principles of anatomy would provide the law-based framework that would elevate natural history to the truly scientific level occupied by physics and chemistry thanks to the laws established by Isaac Newton (1643 – 1727) and Antoine Lavoisier (1743 – 1794), respectively. He expressed confidence in the introduction to <i><a href="/wiki/Le_R%C3%A8gne_Animal" title="Le Règne Animal">Le Règne Animal</a></i> that someday anatomy would be expressed as laws as simple, mathematical, and predictive as Newton's laws of physics, and he viewed his principle as an important step in that direction.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To him, the predictive capabilities of his principles demonstrated in his prediction of the existence of marsupial pelvic bones in the gypsum quarries of Montmartre demonstrated that these goals were not only in reach, but imminent.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The principle of correlation of parts was also Cuvier's way of understanding function in a non-evolutionary context, without invoking a divine creator.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the same 1798 paper on the fossil remains of an animal found in plaster quarries near Paris, Cuvier emphasizes the predictive power of his principle, writing,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>Today comparative anatomy has reached such a point of perfection that, after inspecting a single bone, one can often determine the class, and sometimes even the genus of the animal to which it belonged, above all if that bone belonged to the head or the limbs ... This is because the number, direction, and shape of the bones that compose each part of an animal's body are always in a necessary relation to all the other parts, in such a way that—up to a point—one can infer the whole from any one of them and vice versa.</p></blockquote> <p>Though Cuvier believed that his principle's major contribution was that it was a rational, mathematical way to reconstruct fossils and make predictions, in reality, it was difficult for Cuvier to use his principle. The functional significance of many body parts was still unknown at the time, and so relating those body parts to other body parts using Cuvier's principle was impossible. Though Cuvier was able to make accurate predictions about fossil finds, in practice, the accuracy of his predictions came not from application of his principle, but rather from his vast knowledge of comparative anatomy. However, despite Cuvier's exaggerations of the power of his principle, the basic concept is central to comparative anatomy and paleontology.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_60-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scientific_work">Scientific work</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Scientific work"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparative_anatomy_and_classification">Comparative anatomy and classification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Comparative anatomy and classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Le_r%C3%A8gne_animal_distribu%C3%A9_d%27apr%C3%A8s_son_organisation_-_pour_servir_de_base_a_l%27histoire_naturelle_des_animaux_et_d%27introduction_a_l%27anatomie_compar%C3%A9e_(1817)_(14759503606).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Le_r%C3%A8gne_animal_distribu%C3%A9_d%27apr%C3%A8s_son_organisation_-_pour_servir_de_base_a_l%27histoire_naturelle_des_animaux_et_d%27introduction_a_l%27anatomie_compar%C3%A9e_%281817%29_%2814759503606%29.jpg/170px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Le_r%C3%A8gne_animal_distribu%C3%A9_d%27apr%C3%A8s_son_organisation_-_pour_servir_de_base_a_l%27histoire_naturelle_des_animaux_et_d%27introduction_a_l%27anatomie_compar%C3%A9e_%281817%29_%2814759503606%29.jpg/255px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Le_r%C3%A8gne_animal_distribu%C3%A9_d%27apr%C3%A8s_son_organisation_-_pour_servir_de_base_a_l%27histoire_naturelle_des_animaux_et_d%27introduction_a_l%27anatomie_compar%C3%A9e_%281817%29_%2814759503606%29.jpg/340px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1860" data-file-height="3088" /></a><figcaption>Plate from <i>Le Règne Animal</i>, 1817 edition</figcaption></figure> <p>At the Paris Museum, Cuvier furthered his studies on the anatomical classification of animals. He believed that classification should be based on how organs collectively function, a concept he called <a href="/wiki/Functional_integration_(neurobiology)" title="Functional integration (neurobiology)">functional integration</a>. Cuvier reinforced the idea of subordinating less vital body parts to more critical organ systems as part of anatomical classification. He included these ideas in his 1817 book, <i><a href="/wiki/Le_R%C3%A8gne_Animal" title="Le Règne Animal">The Animal Kingdom</a></i>. </p><p>In his anatomical studies, Cuvier believed function played a bigger role than form in the field of taxonomy. His scientific beliefs rested in the idea of the principles of the correlation of parts and of the conditions of existence. The former principle accounts for the connection between organ function and its practical use for an organism to survive. The latter principle emphasizes the animal's physiological function in relation to its surrounding environment. These findings were published in his scientific readings, including <i>Leçons d'anatomie comparée</i> (<i>Lessons on Comparative Anatomy</i>) between 1800 and 1805,<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i>The Animal Kingdom</i> in 1817. </p><p>Ultimately, Cuvier developed four embranchements, or branches, through which he classified animals based on his taxonomical and anatomical studies. He later performed groundbreaking work in classifying animals in vertebrate and invertebrate groups by subdividing each category. For instance, he proposed that the invertebrates could be segmented into three individual categories, including <i>Mollusca</i>, <i>Radiata</i>, and <i>Articulata</i>. He also articulated that species cannot move across these categories, a theory called <a href="/wiki/Transmutation_of_species" title="Transmutation of species">transmutation</a>. He reasoned that organisms cannot acquire or change their physical traits over time and still retain optimal survival. As a result, he often conflicted with Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's theories of transmutation. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cuvier-131-Machaon-Tha%C3%AFs-Arjuna.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Cuvier-131-Machaon-Tha%C3%AFs-Arjuna.jpg/170px-Cuvier-131-Machaon-Tha%C3%AFs-Arjuna.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Cuvier-131-Machaon-Tha%C3%AFs-Arjuna.jpg/255px-Cuvier-131-Machaon-Tha%C3%AFs-Arjuna.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Cuvier-131-Machaon-Tha%C3%AFs-Arjuna.jpg/340px-Cuvier-131-Machaon-Tha%C3%AFs-Arjuna.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1606" data-file-height="2640" /></a><figcaption>Plate from <i>Le Règne Animal</i>, 1828 edition</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1798, Cuvier published his first independent work, the <i>Tableau élémentaire de l'histoire naturelle des animaux</i>, which was an abridgement of his course of lectures at the École du Pantheon and may be regarded as the foundation and first statement of his natural classification of the animal kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mollusks">Mollusks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Mollusks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cuvier categorized snails, cockles, and cuttlefish into one category he called molluscs (<i><a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">Mollusca</a></i>), an embranchment. Though he noted how all three of these animals were outwardly different in terms of shell shape and diet, he saw a noticeable pattern pertaining to their overall physical appearance. </p><p>Cuvier began his intensive studies of molluscs during his time in <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a> – the first time he had ever seen the sea – and his papers on the so-called <i>Mollusca</i> began appearing as early as 1792.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, most of his memoirs on this branch were published in the <i>Annales du museum</i> between 1802 and 1815; they were subsequently collected as <i>Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire et à l'anatomie des mollusques</i>, published in one volume at Paris in 1817.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676_19-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fish">Fish</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Fish"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cuvier's researches on <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a>, begun in 1801, finally culminated in the publication of the <i>Histoire naturelle des poissons</i>, which contained descriptions of 5,000 species of fishes, and was a joint production with <a href="/wiki/Achille_Valenciennes" title="Achille Valenciennes">Achille Valenciennes</a>. Cuvier's work on this project extended over the years 1828–1831.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676_19-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Palaeontology_and_osteology">Palaeontology and osteology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Palaeontology and osteology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cuvier-63-Coq_de_bruy%C3%A8re_et_Ganga_cata.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Cuvier-63-Coq_de_bruy%C3%A8re_et_Ganga_cata.jpg/170px-Cuvier-63-Coq_de_bruy%C3%A8re_et_Ganga_cata.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Cuvier-63-Coq_de_bruy%C3%A8re_et_Ganga_cata.jpg/255px-Cuvier-63-Coq_de_bruy%C3%A8re_et_Ganga_cata.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Cuvier-63-Coq_de_bruy%C3%A8re_et_Ganga_cata.jpg/340px-Cuvier-63-Coq_de_bruy%C3%A8re_et_Ganga_cata.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="1731" /></a><figcaption>Plate from <i>Le Règne Animal</i>, 1828 edition</figcaption></figure> <p>In palaeontology, Cuvier published a long list of memoirs, partly relating to the bones of extinct animals, and partly detailing the results of observations on the skeletons of living animals, specially examined with a view toward throwing light upon the structure and affinities of the fossil forms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676_19-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among living forms he published papers relating to the osteology of the <i><a href="/wiki/Rhinoceros" title="Rhinoceros">Rhinoceros</a> indicus</i>, the <a href="/wiki/Tapir" title="Tapir">tapir</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Hyrax" title="Hyrax">Hyrax</a> capensis</i>, the <a href="/wiki/Hippopotamus" title="Hippopotamus">hippopotamus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sloth" title="Sloth">sloths</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Manatee" title="Manatee">manatee</a>, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676_19-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He produced an even larger body of work on fossils, dealing with the extinct mammals of the <a href="/wiki/Eocene" title="Eocene">Eocene</a> beds of <a href="/wiki/Montmartre" title="Montmartre">Montmartre</a> and other localities near <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Buttes_Chaumont" class="mw-redirect" title="Buttes Chaumont">Buttes Chaumont</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the fossil species of <a href="/wiki/Hippopotamus" title="Hippopotamus">hippopotamus</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Palaeotherium" title="Palaeotherium">Palaeotherium</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Anoplotherium" title="Anoplotherium">Anoplotherium</a></i>, a <a href="/wiki/Marsupial" title="Marsupial">marsupial</a> (which he called <i>Didelphys gypsorum</i>), the <i><a href="/wiki/Megalonyx" title="Megalonyx">Megalonyx</a></i>, the <i><a href="/wiki/Megatherium" title="Megatherium">Megatherium</a></i>, the <a href="/wiki/Cave_hyena" title="Cave hyena">cave-hyena</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Pterodactylus" title="Pterodactylus">pterodactyl</a>, the extinct species of <a href="/wiki/Rhinoceros" title="Rhinoceros">rhinoceros</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Cave_bear" title="Cave bear">cave bear</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mastodon" title="Mastodon">mastodon</a>, the extinct species of <a href="/wiki/Elephant" title="Elephant">elephant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossil</a> species of manatee and <a href="/wiki/Pinniped" title="Pinniped">seals</a>, fossil forms of <a href="/wiki/Crocodile" title="Crocodile">crocodilians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turtle" title="Turtle">chelonians</a>, fish, birds, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676_19-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If his identification of fossil animals was dependent upon comparison with the osteology of extant animals whose anatomy was poorly known, Cuvier would often publish a thorough documentation of the relevant extant species' anatomy before publishing his analyses of the fossil specimens.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The department of palaeontology dealing with the <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">Mammalia</a> may be said to have been essentially created and established by Cuvier.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676_19-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The results of Cuvier's principal palaeontological and geological investigations ultimately were given to the world in the form of two separate works: <i>Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles de quadrupèdes</i> (Paris, 1812; later editions in 1821 and 1825); and <i>Discours sur les revolutions de la surface du globe</i> (Paris, 1825).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676_19-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this latter work he expounded a scientific theory of <a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Animal_Kingdom_(Le_Règne_Animal)"><span id="The_Animal_Kingdom_.28Le_R.C3.A8gne_Animal.29"></span><i>The Animal Kingdom</i> (<i>Le Règne Animal</i>)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: The Animal Kingdom (Le Règne Animal)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Le_R%C3%A8gne_Animal" title="Le Règne Animal">Le Règne Animal</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cuvier-115-Aiguillat.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Cuvier-115-Aiguillat.jpg/220px-Cuvier-115-Aiguillat.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Cuvier-115-Aiguillat.jpg/330px-Cuvier-115-Aiguillat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Cuvier-115-Aiguillat.jpg/440px-Cuvier-115-Aiguillat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1658" data-file-height="1179" /></a><figcaption>Plate from <i>Le Règne Animal</i>, 1828 edition</figcaption></figure> <p>Cuvier's most admired work was his <i><a href="/wiki/Le_R%C3%A8gne_Animal" title="Le Règne Animal">Le Règne Animal</a></i>. It appeared in four octavo volumes in 1817; a second edition in five volumes was brought out in 1829–1830. In this classic work, Cuvier presented the results of his life's research into the structure of living and fossil animals. With the exception of the section on <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a>, in which he was assisted by his friend <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Andr%C3%A9_Latreille" title="Pierre André Latreille">Latreille</a>, the whole of the work was his own.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676_19-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was translated into English many times, often with substantial notes and supplementary material updating the book in accordance with the expansion of knowledge. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Racial_studies">Racial studies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Racial studies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cuvier was a <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> and a believer in <a href="/wiki/Monogenism" title="Monogenism">monogenism</a>, who held that all men descended from the biblical Adam, although his position usually was confused as <a href="/wiki/Polygenist" class="mw-redirect" title="Polygenist">polygenist</a>. Some writers who have studied his racial work have dubbed his position as "quasi-polygenist", and most of his racial studies have influenced <a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">scientific racism</a>. Cuvier believed there were three distinct races: the <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_race" title="Caucasian race">Caucasian</a> (white), <a href="/wiki/Mongoloid_race" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongoloid race">Mongolian</a> (yellow), and the <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopian</a> (black). Cuvier claimed that <a href="/wiki/Adam_and_Eve" title="Adam and Eve">Adam and Eve</a> were Caucasian, the original race of mankind. The other two races originated from survivors escaping in different directions after a major <a href="/wiki/Disaster" title="Disaster">catastrophe</a> hit the earth 5,000 years ago, with those survivors then living in complete isolation from each other.<sup id="cite_ref-Jackson_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jackson-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cuvier categorized these divisions he identified into races according to his perception of the beauty or ugliness of their skulls and the quality of their civilizations. Cuvier's racial studies held the supposed features of <a href="/wiki/Polygenism" title="Polygenism">polygenism</a>, namely fixity of species; limits on environmental influence; unchanging underlying type; anatomical and cranial measurement differences in races; and physical and mental differences between distinct races.<sup id="cite_ref-Jackson_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jackson-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sarah_Baartman">Sarah Baartman</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Sarah Baartman"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Alongside other French naturalists, Cuvier subjected <a href="/wiki/Sarah_Baartman" title="Sarah Baartman">Sarah Baartman</a>, a South African Khokhoi woman exhibited in European <a href="/wiki/Freak_show" title="Freak show">freak shows</a> as the "Hottentot Venus", to examinations. At the time that Cuvier interacted with Baartman, Baartman's "existence was really quite miserable and extraordinarily poor. Sara was literally [sic] treated like an animal."<sup id="cite_ref-crais_scully_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-crais_scully-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1815, while Baartman was very ill, Cuvier commissioned a nude painting of her. She died shortly afterward, aged 26.<sup id="cite_ref-:young01_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:young01-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following Baartman's death, Cuvier sought out and received permission to dissect her body, focusing on her genitalia, buttocks and skull shape. In his examination, Cuvier concluded that many of Baartman's features more closely resembled the anatomy of a monkey than a human.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Her remains were displayed in the <a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_de_l%27Homme" title="Musée de l'Homme">Musée de l’Homme</a> in Paris until 1970, then were put into storage.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Her remains were returned to South Africa in 2002.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Taxa_described_by_him">Taxa described by him</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Taxa described by him"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>See <a href="/wiki/Category:Taxa_named_by_Georges_Cuvier" title="Category:Taxa named by Georges Cuvier">Category:Taxa named by Georges Cuvier</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Official_and_public_work">Official and public work</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Official and public work"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Georges_Cuvier_large.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Georges_Cuvier_large.jpg/170px-Georges_Cuvier_large.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Georges_Cuvier_large.jpg/255px-Georges_Cuvier_large.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Georges_Cuvier_large.jpg/340px-Georges_Cuvier_large.jpg 2x" data-file-width="857" data-file-height="1093" /></a><figcaption>Engraving by <a href="/wiki/James_Thomson_(engraver)" title="James Thomson (engraver)">James Thomson</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Apart from his own original investigations in zoology and <a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">paleontology</a> Cuvier carried out a vast amount of work as perpetual secretary of the National Institute, and as an official connected with public education generally; and much of this work appeared ultimately in a published form. Thus, in 1808 he was placed by <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon I">Napoleon</a> upon the council of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_France" title="University of France">Imperial University</a>, and in this capacity he presided (in the years 1809, 1811, and 1813) over commissions charged to examine the state of the higher educational establishments in the districts beyond the <a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a> that had been annexed to France, and to report upon the means by which these could be affiliated with the central university. He published three separate reports on this subject.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676–677_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676–677-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his capacity, again, of perpetual secretary of the Institute, he not only prepared a number of <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89loges_historiques&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Éloges historiques (page does not exist)">éloges historiques</a></i> on deceased members of the Academy of Sciences, but was also the author of a number of reports on the history of the physical and natural sciences, the most important of these being the <i>Rapport historique sur le progrès des sciences physiques depuis 1789</i>, published in 1810.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911677_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911677-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prior to the fall of Napoleon (1814) he had been admitted to the council of state, and his position remained unaffected by the restoration of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">Bourbons</a>. He was elected <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_the_University_of_Paris" title="Chancellor of the University of Paris">chancellor of the university</a>, in which capacity he acted as interim president of the council of public instruction, while he also, as a <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a>, superintended the faculty of Protestant theology. In 1819 he was appointed president of the committee of the interior, an office he retained until his death.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911677_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911677-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1826 he was made grand officer of the <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9gion_d%27honneur" class="mw-redirect" title="Légion d'honneur">Legion of Honour</a>; he subsequently was appointed president of the council of state. He served as a member of the <a href="/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Inscriptions_et_Belles-Lettres" title="Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres">Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres</a> from 1830 to his death. A member of the <a href="/wiki/Doctrinaires" title="Doctrinaires">Doctrinaires</a>, he was nominated to the ministry of the interior in the beginning of 1832.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911677_74-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911677-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Commemorations">Commemorations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Commemorations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:David_d%27Angers_-_Georges_Cuvier.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/David_d%27Angers_-_Georges_Cuvier.jpg/170px-David_d%27Angers_-_Georges_Cuvier.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/David_d%27Angers_-_Georges_Cuvier.jpg/255px-David_d%27Angers_-_Georges_Cuvier.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/David_d%27Angers_-_Georges_Cuvier.jpg/340px-David_d%27Angers_-_Georges_Cuvier.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3202" data-file-height="4835" /></a><figcaption>Statue of Cuvier by <a href="/wiki/David_d%27Angers" title="David d'Angers">David d'Angers</a>, 1838</figcaption></figure> <p>Cuvier is commemorated in the naming of several animals; they include <a href="/wiki/Cuvier%27s_beaked_whale" title="Cuvier's beaked whale">Cuvier's beaked whale</a> (which he first thought to be extinct), <a href="/wiki/Cuvier%27s_gazelle" title="Cuvier's gazelle">Cuvier's gazelle</a>, <a href="/wiki/White-throated_toucan" title="White-throated toucan">Cuvier's toucan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polypterus_senegalus" title="Polypterus senegalus">Cuvier's bichir</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cuvier%27s_dwarf_caiman" title="Cuvier's dwarf caiman">Cuvier's dwarf caiman</a>, and <i>Galeocerdo cuvier</i> (<a href="/wiki/Tiger_shark" title="Tiger shark">tiger shark</a>). Cuvier is commemorated in the <a href="/wiki/Binomial_nomenclature" title="Binomial nomenclature">scientific name</a> of the following reptiles: <i><a href="/wiki/Anolis_cuvieri" title="Anolis cuvieri">Anolis cuvieri</a></i> (a lizard from Puerto Rico), <i>Bachia cuvieri</i> (a synonym of <i><a href="/wiki/Bachia_alleni" title="Bachia alleni">Bachia alleni</a>)</i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Oplurus_cuvieri" title="Oplurus cuvieri">Oplurus cuvieri</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The fish <i><a href="/wiki/Hepsetus_cuvieri" title="Hepsetus cuvieri">Hepsetus cuvieri</a></i>, sometimes known as the African pike or Kafue pike characin, which is a predatory freshwater fish found in southern Africa was named after him.<sup id="cite_ref-ETYFish1_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ETYFish1-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There also are some extinct animals named after Cuvier, such as the South American giant sloth <i>Catonyx cuvieri</i>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cuvier_Island" title="Cuvier Island">Cuvier Island</a> in New Zealand was named after Cuvier by <a href="/wiki/Jules_Dumont_d%27Urville" title="Jules Dumont d'Urville">D'Urville</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The professor of English Wayne Glausser argues at length that the <a href="/wiki/Aubrey-Maturin_series" class="mw-redirect" title="Aubrey-Maturin series">Aubrey-Maturin series</a> of 21 novels (1970–2004) by <a href="/wiki/Patrick_O%27Brian" title="Patrick O'Brian">Patrick O'Brian</a> make the character <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Maturin" title="Stephen Maturin">Stephen Maturin</a> "an advocate of the neo-classical paradigm articulated .. by Georges Cuvier."<sup id="cite_ref-Glausser_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glausser-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cuvier is referenced in <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe" title="Edgar Allan Poe">Edgar Allan Poe's</a> short story <i><a href="/wiki/The_Murders_in_the_Rue_Morgue" title="The Murders in the Rue Morgue">The Murders in the Rue Morgue</a></i> as having written a description of the <a href="/wiki/Orangutan" title="Orangutan">orangutan</a>. <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Conan_Doyle" title="Arthur Conan Doyle">Arthur Conan Doyle</a> also refers to Cuvier in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Five_Orange_Pips" title="The Five Orange Pips">The Five Orange Pips</a></i>, in which <a href="/wiki/Sherlock_Holmes" title="Sherlock Holmes">Sherlock Holmes</a> compares Cuvier's methods to his own. </p><p>There is a statue of Cuvier standing in front of the <a href="/wiki/H%C3%B4tel_de_Ville,_Montb%C3%A9liard" title="Hôtel de Ville, Montbéliard">Hôtel de Ville</a> in <a href="/wiki/Montb%C3%A9liard" title="Montbéliard">Montbéliard</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works">Works</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cuvier,_Georges_%E2%80%93_Tableau_%C3%A9l%C3%A9mentaire_de_l%27histoire_naturelle_des_animaux,_1797_%E2%80%93_BEIC_7855351.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Cuvier%2C_Georges_%E2%80%93_Tableau_%C3%A9l%C3%A9mentaire_de_l%27histoire_naturelle_des_animaux%2C_1797_%E2%80%93_BEIC_7855351.jpg/220px-Cuvier%2C_Georges_%E2%80%93_Tableau_%C3%A9l%C3%A9mentaire_de_l%27histoire_naturelle_des_animaux%2C_1797_%E2%80%93_BEIC_7855351.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="372" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Cuvier%2C_Georges_%E2%80%93_Tableau_%C3%A9l%C3%A9mentaire_de_l%27histoire_naturelle_des_animaux%2C_1797_%E2%80%93_BEIC_7855351.jpg/330px-Cuvier%2C_Georges_%E2%80%93_Tableau_%C3%A9l%C3%A9mentaire_de_l%27histoire_naturelle_des_animaux%2C_1797_%E2%80%93_BEIC_7855351.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Cuvier%2C_Georges_%E2%80%93_Tableau_%C3%A9l%C3%A9mentaire_de_l%27histoire_naturelle_des_animaux%2C_1797_%E2%80%93_BEIC_7855351.jpg/440px-Cuvier%2C_Georges_%E2%80%93_Tableau_%C3%A9l%C3%A9mentaire_de_l%27histoire_naturelle_des_animaux%2C_1797_%E2%80%93_BEIC_7855351.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1665" data-file-height="2817" /></a><figcaption><i>Tableau élémentaire de l'histoire naturelle des animaux</i>, 1797</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Category:Taxa_named_by_Georges_Cuvier" title="Category:Taxa named by Georges Cuvier">Category:Taxa named by Georges Cuvier</a></div> <ul><li><i>Tableau élémentaire de l'histoire naturelle des animaux</i> (1797–1798)</li> <li><i>Leçons d'anatomie comparée</i> (5 volumes, 1800–1805)</li> <li><i>Essais sur la géographie minéralogique des environs de Paris, avec une carte géognostique et des coupes de terrain</i>, with <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Brongniart" title="Alexandre Brongniart">Alexandre Brongniart</a> (1811)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Le_R%C3%A8gne_Animal" title="Le Règne Animal">Le Règne animal distribué d'après son organisation, pour servir de base à l'histoire naturelle des animaux et d'introduction à l'anatomie comparée</a></i> (4 volumes, 1817)</li> <li><i>Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles de quadrupèdes, où l'on rétablit les caractères de plusieurs espèces d'animaux que les révolutions du globe paroissent avoir détruites</i> (4 volumes, 1812) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k38572.pdf">(text in French) 2</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3858c.pdf">3</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3859p.pdf">4</a></li> <li><i>Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire et à l'anatomie des mollusques</i> (1817)</li> <li><i>Éloges historiques des membres de l'Académie royale des sciences, lus dans les séances de l'Institut royal de France par M. Cuvier</i> (3 volumes, 1819–1827) <a class="external text" href="https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Cuvier_-_Recueil_des_éloges_historiques_vol_1">Vol. 1</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k862478.r=.langEN">Vol. 2</a>, and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k86249z.r=.langEN">Vol. 3</a></li> <li><i>Théorie de la terre</i> (1821)</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>--- <i>Essay on the theory of the earth</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/earththeory/id/4231">1813</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/earththeory/id/57339">1815</a>, trans. Robert Kerr.</dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/search/collection/earththeory/searchterm/ossemens!cuvier/field/title!creato/mode/all!all/conn/and!and/order/nosort"><i>Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles</i></a>, 1821–1823 (5 vols).</li> <li><i>Discours sur les révolutions de la surface du globe et sur les changements qu'elles ont produits dans le règne animal</i> (1822). New edition: Christian Bourgeois, Paris, 1985. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k1106958.pdf">(text in French)</a></li> <li><i>Histoire des progrès des sciences naturelles depuis 1789 jusqu'à ce jour</i> (5 volumes, 1826–1836)</li> <li><i>Histoire naturelle des poissons</i> (11 volumes, 1828–1848), continued by <a href="/wiki/Achille_Valenciennes" title="Achille Valenciennes">Achille Valenciennes</a></li> <li><i>Histoire des sciences naturelles depuis leur origine jusqu'à nos jours, chez tous les peuples connus, professée au Collège de France</i> (5 volumes, 1841–1845), edited, annotated, and published by Magdeleine de Saint-Agit</li> <li><i>Cuvier's History of the Natural Sciences: twenty-four lessons from Antiquity to the Renaissance</i> [edited and annotated by Theodore W. Pietsch, translated by Abby S. Simpson, foreword by Philippe Taquet], Paris: Publications scientifiques du Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, 2012, 734 p. (coll. Archives; 16) <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-85653-684-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-85653-684-1">978-2-85653-684-1</a></li> <li><i>Variorum of the works of Georges Cuvier: Preliminary Discourse of the Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles 1812, containing the Memory on the ibis of the ancient Egyptians, and the Discours sur les révolutions de la surface du Globe 1825, containing the Determination of the birds called ibis by the ancient Egyptians</i><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Cuvier also collaborated on the <i>Dictionnaire des sciences naturelles</i> (61 volumes, 1816–1845) and on the <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=R%C3%A9f%C3%A9rence:Biographie_universelle_ancienne_et_moderne_:_histoire_par_ordre_alphab%C3%A9tique_de_la_vie_publique_et_priv%C3%A9e_de_tous_les_hommes_(Michaud)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Référence:Biographie universelle ancienne et moderne : histoire par ordre alphabétique de la vie publique et privée de tous les hommes (Michaud) (page does not exist)">Biographie universelle</a></i> (45 volumes, 1843–18??) </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1213917922">.mw-parser-output .botanist-bordered{border:0 solid #ddd;border-width:2px 0;padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .botanist .nickname{font-weight:bold}</style><div class="metadata botanist-bordered"><span class="botanist">The standard <a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists_by_author_abbreviation_(A)" title="List of botanists by author abbreviation (A)">author abbreviation</a> <span class="vcard"><span class="fn n"><span class="nickname">Cuvier</span></span></span> is used to indicate this person as the author when <a href="/wiki/Author_citation_(botany)" title="Author citation (botany)">citing</a> a <a href="/wiki/Botanical_name" title="Botanical name">botanical name</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Taxon_named_in_his_honour">Taxon named in his honour</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Taxon named in his honour"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><b><a href="/wiki/Anampses_cuvier" title="Anampses cuvier">Anampses cuvier</a></b></i>, commonly known as the <b>Pearl wrasse</b>, is a fish found in the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ETYFish_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ETYFish-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/28px-P_vip.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/41px-P_vip.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/55px-P_vip.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1911" data-file-height="1944" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biography" title="Portal:Biography">Biography portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/32px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/48px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/64px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="445" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biology" title="Portal:Biology">Biology portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Baartman" title="Sarah Baartman">Saartjie Baartman</a>, the "Hottentot Venus" whose body Cuvier examined</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Cuvier" title="Frédéric Cuvier">Frédéric Cuvier</a>, also a naturalist, was Georges Cuvier's younger brother.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">History of paleontology</a> for more on the impact of Cuvier's scientific ideas</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_works_by_James_Pradier" title="List of works by James Pradier">List of works by James Pradier</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Footnotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cuvier was assisted by <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Marie_Constant_Dum%C3%A9ril" title="André Marie Constant Duméril">A. M. C. Duméril</a> for the first two volumes and <a href="/wiki/Georges_Louis_Duvernoy" title="Georges Louis Duvernoy">Georges Louis Duvernoy</a> for the three later ones.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionary.com/browse/cuvier">"Cuvier"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Random_House_Webster%27s_Unabridged_Dictionary" title="Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary">Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Reybrouck2012-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Reybrouck2012_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReybrouck2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Van_Reybrouck" title="David Van Reybrouck">Reybrouck, David Van</a> (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fNGEReM3LaQC&pg=PA54"><i>From Primitives to Primates: A History of Ethnographic and Primatological Analogies in the Study of Prehistory</i></a>. Sidestone Press. p. 54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-8890-095-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-8890-095-2"><bdi>978-90-8890-095-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Primitives+to+Primates%3A+A+History+of+Ethnographic+and+Primatological+Analogies+in+the+Study+of+Prehistory&rft.pages=54&rft.pub=Sidestone+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-90-8890-095-2&rft.aulast=Reybrouck&rft.aufirst=David+Van&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfNGEReM3LaQC%26pg%3DPA54&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFelipe_Faria2013" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Felipe Faria (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ville-ge.ch/mhng/paleo/paleo-pdf/32-2/pal_32_2_02.pdf">"Georges Cuvier et le premier paradigme de la paléontologie"</a> [Georges Cuvier and the first paradigm of paleontology] <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Revue de Paléobiologie</i> (in French). <b>32</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0253-6730">0253-6730</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revue+de+Pal%C3%A9obiologie&rft.atitle=Georges+Cuvier+et+le+premier+paradigme+de+la+pal%C3%A9ontologie&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2013&rft.issn=0253-6730&rft.au=Felipe+Faria&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ville-ge.ch%2Fmhng%2Fpaleo%2Fpaleo-pdf%2F32-2%2Fpal_32_2_02.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaria2012">Faria 2012</a>, pp. 64–74</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ.2009" class="citation book cs1">J., Bowler, Peter (2009). <i>Evolution : the history of an idea</i> (25th anniversary ed.). Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">112–</span>113. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520261280" title="Special:BookSources/9780520261280"><bdi>9780520261280</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/426118505">426118505</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution+%3A+the+history+of+an+idea&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+Calif.&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E112-%3C%2Fspan%3E113&rft.edition=25th+anniversary&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F426118505&rft.isbn=9780520261280&rft.aulast=J.&rft.aufirst=Bowler%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBabcock2024" class="citation journal cs1">Babcock, Loren E. (18 March 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zookeys.pensoft.net/article/117999/">"Nomenclatural history of Megalonyx Jefferson, 1799 (Mammalia, Xenarthra, Pilosa, Megalonychidae)"</a>. <i>ZooKeys</i> (1195): <span class="nowrap">297–</span>308. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2024ZooK.1195..297B">2024ZooK.1195..297B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3897%2Fzookeys.1195.117999">10.3897/zookeys.1195.117999</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1313-2970">1313-2970</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10964019">10964019</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38532771">38532771</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ZooKeys&rft.atitle=Nomenclatural+history+of+Megalonyx+Jefferson%2C+1799+%28Mammalia%2C+Xenarthra%2C+Pilosa%2C+Megalonychidae%29&rft.issue=1195&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E297-%3C%2Fspan%3E308&rft.date=2024-03-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10964019%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2024ZooK.1195..297B&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F38532771&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3897%2Fzookeys.1195.117999&rft.issn=1313-2970&rft.aulast=Babcock&rft.aufirst=Loren+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzookeys.pensoft.net%2Farticle%2F117999%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAppel1987" class="citation book cs1">Appel, Toby (1987). <i>The Cuvier-Geoffroy Debate: French Biology in the Decades Before Darwin</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-504138-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-504138-5"><bdi>978-0-19-504138-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cuvier-Geoffroy+Debate%3A+French+Biology+in+the+Decades+Before+Darwin&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-19-504138-5&rft.aulast=Appel&rft.aufirst=Toby&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jackson-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jackson_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jackson_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jackson_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJacksonWeidman2005">Jackson & Weidman 2005</a>, pp. 41–42</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTerry1995" class="citation book cs1">Terry, Jennifer (1995). <i>Deviant Bodies: critical perspectives on difference in science and popular culture</i>. Bloomington, Indiana: Bloomington: Indiana University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">19–</span>39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0253209757" title="Special:BookSources/0253209757"><bdi>0253209757</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deviant+Bodies%3A+critical+perspectives+on+difference+in+science+and+popular+culture&rft.place=Bloomington%2C+Indiana&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E19-%3C%2Fspan%3E39&rft.pub=Bloomington%3A+Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0253209757&rft.aulast=Terry&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLee1833">Lee 1833</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lee_1833,_p._8-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_1833,_p._8_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_1833,_p._8_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLee1833">Lee 1833</a>, p. 8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">'Extrait du 7.e Registre des Enfants baptises dans l'Eglise françoise de Saint Martin de la Ville de Montbéliard deposé aux Archives de l'Hôtel de Ville', <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.culture.gouv.fr/Wave/savimage/leonore/LH059/PG/FRDAFAN83_OL0643010V003.htm">Culture.gouv.fr</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lee_1833,_p._11-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_1833,_p._11_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_1833,_p._11_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_1833,_p._11_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLee1833">Lee 1833</a>, p. 11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaquet2006" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Taquet, Philippe (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160306235415/http://montbeliard-emulation.fr/documents/pdf/bulletin34.pdf">"Les années de jeunesse de Georges Cuvier"</a> [Georges Cuvier's early years] <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (in French). Société d'émulation de Montbéliard. p. 217. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.montbeliard-emulation.fr/documents/pdf/bulletin34.pdf?PHPSESSID=3efe14e6c26b963c20e11daecb2ced01">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 6 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Les+ann%C3%A9es+de+jeunesse+de+Georges+Cuvier&rft.pages=217&rft.pub=Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9+d%27%C3%A9mulation+de+Montb%C3%A9liard&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Taquet&rft.aufirst=Philippe&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.montbeliard-emulation.fr%2Fdocuments%2Fpdf%2Fbulletin34.pdf%3FPHPSESSID%3D3efe14e6c26b963c20e11daecb2ced01&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFS.1998" class="citation book cs1">S., Rudwick, M. J. (1998). <i>Georges Cuvier, fossil bones, and geological catastrophes : new translations & interpretations of the primary texts</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 4, 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226731063" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226731063"><bdi>978-0226731063</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/45730036">45730036</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Georges+Cuvier%2C+fossil+bones%2C+and+geological+catastrophes+%3A+new+translations+%26+interpretations+of+the+primary+texts&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=4%2C+7&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F45730036&rft.isbn=978-0226731063&rft.aulast=S.&rft.aufirst=Rudwick%2C+M.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLee1833">Lee 1833</a>, p. 22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLee1833">Lee 1833</a>, p. 22, footnote</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thierry Malvésy, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mnhn.fr/sites/mnhn.fr/files/documents/242_publication_sam_juin2010.pdf">Georges Cuvier : Montbéliard 1769 – Paris 1832</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Friends_of_the_Natural_History_Museum_Paris" title="Friends of the Natural History Museum Paris">Les Amis du Muséum national d'histoire naturelle - Publication trimestrielle</a></i> (quarterly publication). N° 242, June 2010; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1161-9104">1161-9104</a>, p. 18 <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676_19-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676_19-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676_19-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676_19-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676_19-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676_19-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676_19-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676_19-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676_19-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChisholm1911">Chisholm 1911</a>, p. 676.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dwc.knaw.nl/biografie/pmknaw/?pagetype=authorDetail&aId=PE00004738">"Georges Léopold Chrétien Frédéric Dagobert Cuvier (1769–1832)"</a>. Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Georges+L%C3%A9opold+Chr%C3%A9tien+Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric+Dagobert+Cuvier+%281769%E2%80%931832%29&rft.pub=Royal+Netherlands+Academy+of+Arts+and+Sciences&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dwc.knaw.nl%2Fbiografie%2Fpmknaw%2F%3Fpagetype%3DauthorDetail%26aId%3DPE00004738&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AAAS-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AAAS_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterB.pdf">"Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter C"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. American Academy of Arts and Sciences<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 September</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Book+of+Members%2C+1780%E2%80%932010%3A+Chapter+C&rft.pub=American+Academy+of+Arts+and+Sciences&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.amacad.org%2Fpublications%2FBookofMembers%2FChapterB.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andrew Dickson White, <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Warfare_of_Science_with_Theology_in_Christendom" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom"><i>A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom</i></a> Appleton (1922) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8EXID2XVPzEC&">Vol. 1</a> p. 64</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFColeman1962">Coleman 1962</a>, p. 16</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLarson2004">Larson 2004</a>, p. 8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Taquet-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Taquet_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaquet2006">Taquet 2006</a>, p. 127</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColeman,_William1964" class="citation book cs1">Coleman, William (1964). <i>Georges Cuvier, zoologist a study in the history of evolution theory</i>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">141–</span>169. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674283701" title="Special:BookSources/9780674283701"><bdi>9780674283701</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/614625731">614625731</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Georges+Cuvier%2C+zoologist+a+study+in+the+history+of+evolution+theory.&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E141-%3C%2Fspan%3E169&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F614625731&rft.isbn=9780674283701&rft.au=Coleman%2C+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWaggoner1996">Waggoner 1996</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurtisMillarLambert2018" class="citation journal cs1">Curtis, Caitlin; Millar, Craig; Lambert, David (27 September 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6159855">"The Sacred Ibis debate: The first test of evolution"</a>. <i>PLOS Biology</i>. <b>16</b> (9): e2005558. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.2005558">10.1371/journal.pbio.2005558</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6159855">6159855</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30260949">30260949</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Biology&rft.atitle=The+Sacred+Ibis+debate%3A+The+first+test+of+evolution&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=e2005558&rft.date=2018-09-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6159855%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30260949&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.2005558&rft.aulast=Curtis&rft.aufirst=Caitlin&rft.au=Millar%2C+Craig&rft.au=Lambert%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6159855&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZimmer2006">Zimmer 2006</a>, p. 19</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRudwick1997">Rudwick 1997</a>, p. 229</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRudwick1997">Rudwick 1997</a>, pp. 228–229</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHall1999">Hall 1999</a>, p. 62</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Praise-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Praise_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Praise_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150507075003/http://www.lamarck.cnrs.fr/ice/ice_page_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&bdd=lamarck&table=bio_lamarck&typeofbookDes=T%C3%A9moignages%20et%20biographies&bookId=3&title=&pageChapter=%C3%89LOGE%20DE%20M.%20DE%20LAMARCK,PAR%20M.%20LE%20BARON%20CUVIER&pageOrder=1&facsimile=off&search=no&num=&nav=1">"Eloge de M. de Lamarck, par le Baron Georges Cuvier"</a> [In Praise of M. de Lamarck, by Baron Georges Cuvier]. <i>cnrs.fr</i> (in French). 27 June 1831. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lamarck.cnrs.fr/ice/ice_page_detail.php?lang=fr&type=text&bdd=lamarck&table=bio_lamarck&typeofbookDes=T%C3%A9moignages%20et%20biographies&bookId=3&title=&pageChapter=%C3%89LOGE%20DE%20M.%20DE%20LAMARCK,PAR%20M.%20LE%20BARON%20CUVIER&pageOrder=1&facsimile=off&search=no&num=&nav=1">the original</a> on 7 May 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cnrs.fr&rft.atitle=Eloge+de+M.+de+Lamarck%2C+par+le+Baron+Georges+Cuvier&rft.date=1831-06-27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lamarck.cnrs.fr%2Fice%2Fice_page_detail.php%3Flang%3Dfr%26type%3Dtext%26bdd%3Dlamarck%26table%3Dbio_lamarck%26typeofbookDes%3DT%25C3%25A9moignages%2520et%2520biographies%26bookId%3D3%26title%3D%26pageChapter%3D%25C3%2589LOGE%2520DE%2520M.%2520DE%2520LAMARCK%2CPAR%2520M.%2520LE%2520BARON%2520CUVIER%26pageOrder%3D1%26facsimile%3Doff%26search%3Dno%26num%3D%26nav%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.victorianweb.org/science/science_texts/cuvier/cuvier_on_lamarck.htm">"Cuvier's elegy of Lamarck"</a>. <i>victorianweb.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=victorianweb.org&rft.atitle=Cuvier%27s+elegy+of+Lamarck&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.victorianweb.org%2Fscience%2Fscience_texts%2Fcuvier%2Fcuvier_on_lamarck.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTurner1984">Turner 1984</a>, p. 35</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKuznar2008">Kuznar 2008</a>, p. 37</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGillispie1996">Gillispie 1996</a>, p. 103</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCuvier1818">Cuvier 1818</a>, p. 130</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCuvier1818">Cuvier 1818</a>, pp. 133–134; English translation quoted from <a href="#CITEREFCuvier1827">Cuvier 1827</a>, p. 121</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCuvier1827">Cuvier 1827</a>, p. 407</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLarson2004">Larson 2004</a>, pp. 9–10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandler.1993" class="citation book cs1">Chandler., Smith, Jean (1993). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/georgescuvierann00smit"><i>Georges Cuvier : an annotated bibliography of his published works</i></a></span>. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1560981992" title="Special:BookSources/978-1560981992"><bdi>978-1560981992</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/25367530">25367530</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Georges+Cuvier+%3A+an+annotated+bibliography+of+his+published+works&rft.place=Washington&rft.pub=Smithsonian+Institution+Press&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F25367530&rft.isbn=978-1560981992&rft.aulast=Chandler.&rft.aufirst=Smith%2C+Jean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgeorgescuvierann00smit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCuvier1998" class="citation book cs1">Cuvier, Georges (1998) [1796]. "Memoir on the Species of Elephants, Both Living and Fossil". <i>Fossil Bones, and Geological Catastrophes</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7208%2Fchicago%2F9780226731087.001.0001">10.7208/chicago/9780226731087.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226731070" title="Special:BookSources/9780226731070"><bdi>9780226731070</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Memoir+on+the+Species+of+Elephants%2C+Both+Living+and+Fossil&rft.btitle=Fossil+Bones%2C+and+Geological+Catastrophes&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7208%2Fchicago%2F9780226731087.001.0001&rft.isbn=9780226731070&rft.aulast=Cuvier&rft.aufirst=Georges&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCuvier1796" class="citation journal cs1">Cuvier, Georges (1796). "Note on the skeleton of a very large species of quadruped, hitherto unknown, found in Paraguay and deposited in the Cabinet of Natural History in Madrid". <i>Magasin Encyclopédique</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Magasin+Encyclop%C3%A9dique&rft.atitle=Note+on+the+skeleton+of+a+very+large+species+of+quadruped%2C+hitherto+unknown%2C+found+in+Paraguay+and+deposited+in+the+Cabinet+of+Natural+History+in+Madrid.&rft.date=1796&rft.aulast=Cuvier&rft.aufirst=Georges&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorges_Cuvier1818" class="citation book cs1">Georges Cuvier, Robert Jameson (1818). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/essayontheoryea00mitcgoog"><i>Essay on the Theory of the Earth</i></a>. University of California. Kirk & Mercein. pp. <span class="nowrap">98–</span>99.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essay+on+the+Theory+of+the+Earth&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E98-%3C%2Fspan%3E99&rft.pub=Kirk+%26+Mercein&rft.date=1818&rft.aulast=Georges+Cuvier&rft.aufirst=Robert+Jameson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fessayontheoryea00mitcgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColeman,_William1964" class="citation book cs1">Coleman, William (1964). <i>Georges Cuvier, zoologist a study in the history of evolution theory</i>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">119–</span>122. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674283701" title="Special:BookSources/9780674283701"><bdi>9780674283701</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/614625731">614625731</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Georges+Cuvier%2C+zoologist+a+study+in+the+history+of+evolution+theory.&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E119-%3C%2Fspan%3E122&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F614625731&rft.isbn=9780674283701&rft.au=Coleman%2C+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGowan2016" class="citation book cs1">Gowan, Dawson (21 April 2016). <i>Show me the bone : reconstructing prehistoric monsters in nineteenth-century Britain and America</i>. Chicago. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226332734" title="Special:BookSources/9780226332734"><bdi>9780226332734</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/913164287">913164287</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Show+me+the+bone+%3A+reconstructing+prehistoric+monsters+in+nineteenth-century+Britain+and+America&rft.place=Chicago&rft.date=2016-04-21&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F913164287&rft.isbn=9780226332734&rft.aulast=Gowan&rft.aufirst=Dawson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorges_Cuvier1818" class="citation book cs1">Georges Cuvier, Robert Jameson (1818). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/essayontheoryea00mitcgoog"><i>Essay on the Theory of the Earth</i></a>. University of California. Kirk & Mercein.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essay+on+the+Theory+of+the+Earth&rft.pub=Kirk+%26+Mercein&rft.date=1818&rft.aulast=Georges+Cuvier&rft.aufirst=Robert+Jameson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fessayontheoryea00mitcgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRudwick1997">Rudwick 1997</a>, pp. 22–24</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMayor2011">Mayor 2011</a>, pp. 6, 8, 202–207</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMayor2005">Mayor 2005</a>, pp. 2, 61–63, 94–95 and <a href="#CITEREFMayor2008">Mayor 2008</a>, pp. 163–82</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baron Georges Cuvier <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://geology.19thcenturyscience.org/books/1831-Cuvier-Revolutions/htm/doc.html">A Discourse on the Revolutions of the Surface of the Globe.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303201258/http://geology.19thcenturyscience.org/books/1831-Cuvier-Revolutions/htm/doc.html">Archived</a> 3 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/people/science-and-technology/geology-and-oceanography-biographies/georges-cuvier">"Georges Cuvier facts, information, pictures - Encyclopedia.com articles about Georges Cuvier"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 June</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia.com&rft.atitle=Georges+Cuvier+facts%2C+information%2C+pictures+-+Encyclopedia.com+articles+about+Georges+Cuvier&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fpeople%2Fscience-and-technology%2Fgeology-and-oceanography-biographies%2Fgeorges-cuvier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRudwick1997">Rudwick 1997</a>, pp. 129–133</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cuvier1801-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cuvier1801_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCuvier1801">Cuvier 1801</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cuvier1809-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cuvier1809_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCuvier1809">Cuvier 1809</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cuvier1808-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cuvier1808_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorges_Cuvier1808" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Georges Cuvier (1808). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/91672#page/148/mode/1up">"Sur le grand animal fossile des carrières de Maestricht"</a> [On the great fossil animal of the quarries of Maastricht]. <i>Annales du Muséum d'Histoire naturelle</i> (in French). <b>12</b>: <span class="nowrap">145–</span>176.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annales+du+Mus%C3%A9um+d%27Histoire+naturelle&rft.atitle=Sur+le+grand+animal+fossile+des+carri%C3%A8res+de+Maestricht&rft.volume=12&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E145-%3C%2Fspan%3E176&rft.date=1808&rft.au=Georges+Cuvier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biodiversitylibrary.org%2Fitem%2F91672%23page%2F148%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRudwick1997">Rudwick 1997</a>, p. 158</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRudwick1997">Rudwick 1997</a>, p. 36</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_60-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRudwick1972" class="citation book cs1">Rudwick, Martin (1972). <i>The Meaning of Fossils: Episodes in the History of Palaeontology</i>. New York, NY: Elsevier Publishing Company, Inc. pp. <span class="nowrap">104–</span>115. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0444-19576-9" title="Special:BookSources/0444-19576-9"><bdi>0444-19576-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Meaning+of+Fossils%3A+Episodes+in+the+History+of+Palaeontology&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E104-%3C%2Fspan%3E115&rft.pub=Elsevier+Publishing+Company%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=0444-19576-9&rft.aulast=Rudwick&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCuvierMcMurtrie1834" class="citation book cs1">Cuvier, Georges; McMurtrie, Henry (1834). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cuviersanimalkin00cuviiala"><i>Cuvier's animal kingdom : arranged according to its organization</i></a>. Orr and Smith. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5962%2Fbhl.title.28915">10.5962/bhl.title.28915</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fncs1.ark%3A%2F13960%2Ft9280ss6c">2027/ncs1.ark:/13960/t9280ss6c</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cuvier%27s+animal+kingdom+%3A+arranged+according+to+its+organization&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.pub=Orr+and+Smith&rft.date=1834&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fncs1.ark%3A%2F13960%2Ft9280ss6c&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5962%2Fbhl.title.28915&rft.aulast=Cuvier&rft.aufirst=Georges&rft.au=McMurtrie%2C+Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcuviersanimalkin00cuviiala&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFS.1998" class="citation book cs1">S., Rudwick, M. J. (1998). <i>Georges Cuvier, fossil bones, and geological catastrophes : new translations & interpretations of the primary texts</i> ([Pbk. ed., 1998] ed.). Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">69–</span>73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226731063" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226731063"><bdi>978-0226731063</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/45730036">45730036</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Georges+Cuvier%2C+fossil+bones%2C+and+geological+catastrophes+%3A+new+translations+%26+interpretations+of+the+primary+texts&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Ill.&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E69-%3C%2Fspan%3E73&rft.edition=%5BPbk.+ed.%2C+1998%5D&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F45730036&rft.isbn=978-0226731063&rft.aulast=S.&rft.aufirst=Rudwick%2C+M.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See discussion in <a href="#CITEREFReiss2009">Reiss 2009</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColeman,_William1964" class="citation book cs1">Coleman, William (1964). <i>Georges Cuvier, zoologist a study in the history of evolution theory</i>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674283701" title="Special:BookSources/9780674283701"><bdi>9780674283701</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/614625731">614625731</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Georges+Cuvier%2C+zoologist+a+study+in+the+history+of+evolution+theory.&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F614625731&rft.isbn=9780674283701&rft.au=Coleman%2C+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_WeverBaudinPereiraCornée2010" class="citation journal cs1">De Wever, Patrick; Baudin, F.; Pereira, D.; Cornée, A.; Egoroff, G.; Page, K. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hal.science/hal-01437445/file/Page_The_importance_of.pdf">"The importance of geosites and heritage stones in cities—A review"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Geoheritage</i>. <b>9</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">561–</span>575. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12371-016-0210-3">10.1007/s12371-016-0210-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10026.1%2F8308">10026.1/8308</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164769996">164769996</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geoheritage&rft.atitle=The+importance+of+geosites+and+heritage+stones+in+cities%E2%80%94A+review&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E561-%3C%2Fspan%3E575&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10026.1%2F8308&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A164769996%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs12371-016-0210-3&rft.aulast=De+Wever&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft.au=Baudin%2C+F.&rft.au=Pereira%2C+D.&rft.au=Corn%C3%A9e%2C+A.&rft.au=Egoroff%2C+G.&rft.au=Page%2C+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhal.science%2Fhal-01437445%2Ffile%2FPage_The_importance_of.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRUDWICK2010" class="citation journal cs1">RUDWICK, MARTIN (6 July 2010). "Georges Cuvier's paper museum of fossil bones". <i>Archives of Natural History</i>. <b>27</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">51–</span>68. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3366%2Fanh.2000.27.1.51">10.3366/anh.2000.27.1.51</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archives+of+Natural+History&rft.atitle=Georges+Cuvier%27s+paper+museum+of+fossil+bones&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E51-%3C%2Fspan%3E68&rft.date=2010-07-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3366%2Fanh.2000.27.1.51&rft.aulast=RUDWICK&rft.aufirst=MARTIN&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKidd2006">Kidd 2006</a>, p. 28</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-crais_scully-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-crais_scully_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClifton_C._CraisPamela_Scully2009" class="citation book cs1">Clifton C. Crais; Pamela Scully (2009). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sarabaartmanhott00crai"><i>Sara Baartman and the Hottentot Venus: A ghost story and a biography</i></a></span>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13580-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13580-9"><bdi>978-0-691-13580-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sara+Baartman+and+the+Hottentot+Venus%3A+A+ghost+story+and+a+biography&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-691-13580-9&rft.au=Clifton+C.+Crais&rft.au=Pamela+Scully&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsarabaartmanhott00crai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:young01-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:young01_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoung1997" class="citation journal cs1">Young, Jean (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/3042338">"The Re-Objectification and Re-Commodification of Saartjie Baartman in Suzan-Lori Parks's Venus"</a>. <i>African American Review</i>. <b>31</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">699–</span>708. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3042338">10.2307/3042338</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1062-4783">1062-4783</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3042338">3042338</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=African+American+Review&rft.atitle=The+Re-Objectification+and+Re-Commodification+of+Saartjie+Baartman+in+Suzan-Lori+Parks%27s+Venus&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E699-%3C%2Fspan%3E708&rft.date=1997&rft.issn=1062-4783&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3042338%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3042338&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=Jean&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3042338&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon-Chipembere2011" class="citation book cs1">Gordon-Chipembere, Natasha (2011). <i>Representation and Black Womanhood: The Legacy of Sarah Baartman</i>. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-29798-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-349-29798-6"><bdi>978-1-349-29798-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Representation+and+Black+Womanhood%3A+The+Legacy+of+Sarah+Baartman&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-349-29798-6&rft.aulast=Gordon-Chipembere&rft.aufirst=Natasha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2002/08/09/international/remains-of-abused-south-african-woman-given-final-resting.html">"Remains of Abused South African Woman Given Final Resting Place"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. Reuters. 9 August 2002<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 March</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Remains+of+Abused+South+African+Woman+Given+Final+Resting+Place&rft.date=2002-08-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2002%2F08%2F09%2Finternational%2Fremains-of-abused-south-african-woman-given-final-resting.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676–677-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911676–677_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChisholm1911">Chisholm 1911</a>, pp. 676–677.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911677-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911677_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911677_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911677_74-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChisholm1911">Chisholm 1911</a>, p. 677.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Bo_Beolens" class="extiw" title="species:Bo Beolens">Beolens, Bo</a>; <a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Michael_Watkins" class="extiw" title="species:Michael Watkins">Watkins, Michael</a>; Grayson, Michael (2011). <i>The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles</i>. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. xiii + 296 pp. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-0135-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-0135-5">978-1-4214-0135-5</a>. ("Cuvier", p. 63).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ETYFish1-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ETYFish1_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristopher_ScharpfKenneth_J._Lazara2018" class="citation web cs1">Christopher Scharpf & Kenneth J. Lazara (22 September 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191015052827/http://www.etyfish.org/characiformes1/">"Order CHARACIFORMES: Families DISTICHODONTIDAE, CITHARINIDAE, CRENUCHIDAE, ALESTIDAE and HEPSETIDAE"</a>. <i>The ETYFish Project Fish Name Etymology Database</i>. Christopher Scharpf and Kenneth J. Lazara. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etyfish.org/characiformes1/">the original</a> on 15 October 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+ETYFish+Project+Fish+Name+Etymology+Database&rft.atitle=Order+CHARACIFORMES%3A+Families+DISTICHODONTIDAE%2C+CITHARINIDAE%2C+CRENUCHIDAE%2C+ALESTIDAE+and+HEPSETIDAE&rft.date=2018-09-22&rft.au=Christopher+Scharpf&rft.au=Kenneth+J.+Lazara&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etyfish.org%2Fcharaciformes1%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020317064931/http://www.newzealandlighthouses.com/cuvier_island.htm">"New Zealand Lighthouses: Cuvier Island"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newzealandlighthouses.com/cuvier_island.htm">the original</a> on 17 March 2002.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=New+Zealand+Lighthouses%3A+Cuvier+Island&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newzealandlighthouses.com%2Fcuvier_island.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Glausser-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Glausser_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlausser2003" class="citation journal cs1">Glausser, Wayne (March 2003). "Stephen Maturin in the Age of Lamarck: A Fictional Restoration of Cuvier". <i>Mosaic (Winnipeg)</i>. <b>36</b> (1).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mosaic+%28Winnipeg%29&rft.atitle=Stephen+Maturin+in+the+Age+of+Lamarck%3A+A+Fictional+Restoration+of+Cuvier&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2003-03&rft.aulast=Glausser&rft.aufirst=Wayne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKete2012" class="citation book cs1">Kete, Kathleen (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X-w5f7yDx4sC&pg=PT181"><i>Making Way for Genius The Irish Aristocracy in the Seventeenth Century</i></a>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300183436" title="Special:BookSources/978-0300183436"><bdi>978-0300183436</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Making+Way+for+Genius+The+Irish+Aristocracy+in+the+Seventeenth+Century&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0300183436&rft.aulast=Kete&rft.aufirst=Kathleen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX-w5f7yDx4sC%26pg%3DPT181&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaria" class="citation journal cs1">Faria, Felipe. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200317000000/https://www.academia.edu/42387622">"Variorum of the works of Georges Cuvier: Preliminary Discourse of the Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles 1812, containing the Memory on the ibis of the ancient Egyptians, and the Discours sur les révolutions de la surface du Globe 1825, containing the Determination of the birds called ibis by the ancient Egyptian"</a>. <i>Variorum of the Works of Georges Cuvier: Preliminary Discourse of the Recherches Sur les Ossemens Fossiles 1812, Containing the Memory on the Ibis of the Ancient Egyptians, and the Discours Sur les Révolutions de la Surface du Globe 1825</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/42387622">the original</a> on 17 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Variorum+of+the+Works+of+Georges+Cuvier%3A+Preliminary+Discourse+of+the+Recherches+Sur+les+Ossemens+Fossiles+1812%2C+Containing+the+Memory+on+the+Ibis+of+the+Ancient+Egyptians%2C+and+the+Discours+Sur+les+R%C3%A9volutions+de+la+Surface+du+Globe+1825&rft.atitle=Variorum+of+the+works+of+Georges+Cuvier%3A+Preliminary+Discourse+of+the+Recherches+sur+les+ossemens+fossiles+1812%2C+containing+the+Memory+on+the+ibis+of+the+ancient+Egyptians%2C+and+the+Discours+sur+les+r%C3%A9volutions+de+la+surface+du+Globe+1825%2C+containing+the+Determination+of+the+birds+called+ibis+by+the+ancient+Egyptian&rft.aulast=Faria&rft.aufirst=Felipe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F42387622&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInternational_Plant_Names_Index" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/International_Plant_Names_Index" title="International Plant Names Index">International Plant Names Index</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ipni.org/ipni/advAuthorSearch.do?find_abbreviation=Cuvier"><i> Cuvier</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=+Cuvier&rft.au=International+Plant+Names+Index&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ipni.org%2Fipni%2FadvAuthorSearch.do%3Ffind_abbreviation%3DCuvier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ETYFish-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ETYFish_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristopher_ScharpfKenneth_J._Lazara2018" class="citation web cs1">Christopher Scharpf & Kenneth J. Lazara (22 September 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etyfish.org/labriformes1/">"Order LABRIFORMES: Family LABRIDAE (a-h)"</a>. <i>The ETYFish Project Fish Name Etymology Database</i>. Christopher Scharpf and Kenneth J. Lazara<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 February</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+ETYFish+Project+Fish+Name+Etymology+Database&rft.atitle=Order+LABRIFORMES%3A+Family+LABRIDAE+%28a-h%29&rft.date=2018-09-22&rft.au=Christopher+Scharpf&rft.au=Kenneth+J.+Lazara&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etyfish.org%2Flabriformes1%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaria2012" class="citation book cs1">Faria, F. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SgH2ugAACAAJ"><i>Georges Cuvier: do estudo dos fósseis à paleontologia</i></a>. São Paulo: Scientiae Studia & Editora 34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788573264876" title="Special:BookSources/9788573264876"><bdi>9788573264876</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Georges+Cuvier%3A+do+estudo+dos+f%C3%B3sseis+%C3%A0+paleontologia&rft.place=S%C3%A3o+Paulo&rft.pub=Scientiae+Studia+%26+Editora+34&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9788573264876&rft.aulast=Faria&rft.aufirst=F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSgH2ugAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColeman1962" class="citation book cs1">Coleman, W. (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jaEvAAAAIAAJ&q=Georges+Cuvier+Zoologist%3A+A+study+in+the+history+of+evolutionary+thought"><i>Georges Cuvier, Zoologist</i></a>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674349766" title="Special:BookSources/9780674349766"><bdi>9780674349766</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Georges+Cuvier%2C+Zoologist&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1962&rft.isbn=9780674349766&rft.aulast=Coleman&rft.aufirst=W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjaEvAAAAIAAJ%26q%3DGeorges%2BCuvier%2BZoologist%253A%2BA%2Bstudy%2Bin%2Bthe%2Bhistory%2Bof%2Bevolutionary%2Bthought&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCuvier1801" class="citation journal cs1">Cuvier, G. (1801). "Reptile volant". <i>Journal de Physique, de Chimie et d'Histoire Naturelle</i>. <b>52</b>: <span class="nowrap">253–</span>267. <q>Extrait d'un ouvrage sur les espèces de quadrupèdes dont on a trouvé les ossemens dans l'intérieur de la terre</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+de+Physique%2C+de+Chimie+et+d%27Histoire+Naturelle&rft.atitle=Reptile+volant&rft.volume=52&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E253-%3C%2Fspan%3E267&rft.date=1801&rft.aulast=Cuvier&rft.aufirst=G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCuvier1809" class="citation journal cs1">Cuvier, G. (1809). "Mémoire sur le squelette fossile d'un reptile volant des environs d'Aichstedt, que quelques naturalistes ont pris pour un oiseau, et dont nous formons un genre de Sauriens, sous le nom de Ptero-Dactyle". <i>Annales du Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris</i>. <b>13</b>: <span class="nowrap">424–</span>437.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annales+du+Mus%C3%A9um+National+d%27Histoire+Naturelle%2C+Paris&rft.atitle=M%C3%A9moire+sur+le+squelette+fossile+d%27un+reptile+volant+des+environs+d%27Aichstedt%2C+que+quelques+naturalistes+ont+pris+pour+un+oiseau%2C+et+dont+nous+formons+un+genre+de+Sauriens%2C+sous+le+nom+de+Ptero-Dactyle&rft.volume=13&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E424-%3C%2Fspan%3E437&rft.date=1809&rft.aulast=Cuvier&rft.aufirst=G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCuvier1818" class="citation book cs1">Cuvier, G. (Baron) (1818). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/2548040R.nlm.nih.gov"><i>Essay on the Theory of the Earth</i></a>. New York: Kirk & Mercein.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essay+on+the+Theory+of+the+Earth&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Kirk+%26+Mercein&rft.date=1818&rft.aulast=Cuvier&rft.aufirst=G.+%28Baron%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F2548040R.nlm.nih.gov&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCuvier1827" class="citation book cs1">Cuvier, G. (Baron) (1827). <i>Essay on the Theory of the Earth</i> (5th ed.). London: T. Cadell.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essay+on+the+Theory+of+the+Earth&rft.place=London&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=T.+Cadell&rft.date=1827&rft.aulast=Cuvier&rft.aufirst=G.+%28Baron%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGillispie1996" class="citation book cs1">Gillispie, Charles Coulson (1996). <i>Genesis and Geology</i>. Harvard historical studies. Vol. 58. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-34481-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-34481-5"><bdi>978-0-674-34481-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genesis+and+Geology&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.series=Harvard+historical+studies&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-674-34481-5&rft.aulast=Gillispie&rft.aufirst=Charles+Coulson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall1999" class="citation book cs1">Hall, Brian Keith (1999). <i>Evolutionary Developmental Biology</i> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-412-78590-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-412-78590-0"><bdi>978-0-412-78590-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolutionary+Developmental+Biology&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-412-78590-0&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Brian+Keith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsaac2006" class="citation book cs1">Isaac, Benjamin H. (2006). <i>The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity</i>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12598-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12598-5"><bdi>978-0-691-12598-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Invention+of+Racism+in+Classical+Antiquity&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-691-12598-5&rft.aulast=Isaac&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacksonWeidman2005" class="citation book cs1">Jackson, John P.; Weidman, Nadine M. (2005). <i>Race, Racism, and Science: Social Impact and Interaction</i>. <a href="/wiki/Rutgers_University_Press" title="Rutgers University Press">Rutgers University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-3736-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-3736-8"><bdi>978-0-8135-3736-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Race%2C+Racism%2C+and+Science%3A+Social+Impact+and+Interaction&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8135-3736-8&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=John+P.&rft.au=Weidman%2C+Nadine+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKidd2006" class="citation book cs1">Kidd, Colin (2006). <i>The Forging of Races: Race and Scripture in the Protestant Atlantic World, 1600–2000</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-79324-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-79324-7"><bdi>978-0-521-79324-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Forging+of+Races%3A+Race+and+Scripture+in+the+Protestant+Atlantic+World%2C+1600%E2%80%932000&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-521-79324-7&rft.aulast=Kidd&rft.aufirst=Colin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuznar2008" class="citation book cs1">Kuznar, Lawrence A. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rWt_HxC7zgsC&pg=PA3"><i>Reclaiming a Scientific Anthropology</i></a>. Rowman Altamira. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-1109-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-1109-7"><bdi>978-0-7591-1109-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 November</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reclaiming+a+Scientific+Anthropology&rft.pub=Rowman+Altamira&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7591-1109-7&rft.aulast=Kuznar&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrWt_HxC7zgsC%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLarson2004" class="citation book cs1">Larson, Edward J. (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolutionremarka00lars"><i>Evolution: The Remarkable History of a Scientific Theory</i></a></span>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Modern_Library" title="Modern Library">Modern Library</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-64288-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-679-64288-6"><bdi>978-0-679-64288-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution%3A+The+Remarkable+History+of+a+Scientific+Theory&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Modern+Library&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-679-64288-6&rft.aulast=Larson&rft.aufirst=Edward+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fevolutionremarka00lars&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee1833" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Bowdich_Lee" title="Sarah Bowdich Lee">Lee, Mrs. R.</a> (1833). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T4_fG_XF5tYC"><i>Memoirs of Baron Cuvier</i></a>. London: Longman, Reese, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780795012709" title="Special:BookSources/9780795012709"><bdi>9780795012709</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Memoirs+of+Baron+Cuvier&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Longman%2C+Reese%2C+Orme%2C+Brown%2C+Green%2C+and+Longman&rft.date=1833&rft.isbn=9780795012709&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Mrs.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DT4_fG_XF5tYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcClellan2001" class="citation journal cs1">McClellan, C. (2001). "The legacy of Georges Cuvier in Auguste Comte's natural philosophy". <i>Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A</i>. <b>32</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>29. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001SHPSA..32....1M">2001SHPSA..32....1M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0039-3681%2800%2900041-8">10.1016/S0039-3681(00)00041-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+History+and+Philosophy+of+Science+Part+A&rft.atitle=The+legacy+of+Georges+Cuvier+in+Auguste+Comte%27s+natural+philosophy&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E29&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0039-3681%2800%2900041-8&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001SHPSA..32....1M&rft.aulast=McClellan&rft.aufirst=C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayor2011" class="citation book cs1">Mayor, Adrienne (2011) [2000]. <i>The First Fossil Hunters: Dinosaurs, Mammoths, and Myths in Greek and Roman Times</i>. Princeton: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-15013-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-15013-0"><bdi>978-0-691-15013-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Fossil+Hunters%3A+Dinosaurs%2C+Mammoths%2C+and+Myths+in+Greek+and+Roman+Times&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-691-15013-0&rft.aulast=Mayor&rft.aufirst=Adrienne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayor2005" class="citation book cs1">Mayor, Adrienne (2005). <i>Fossil Legends of the First Americans</i>. Princeton: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13049-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13049-1"><bdi>978-0-691-13049-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fossil+Legends+of+the+First+Americans&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-691-13049-1&rft.aulast=Mayor&rft.aufirst=Adrienne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayor2008" class="citation book cs1">Mayor, Adrienne (2008). <i>"Suppression of Indigenous Fossil Knowledge" in Agnology, ed R. Proctor and L. Schiebinger</i>. Stanford CA: <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-5901-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-5901-4"><bdi>978-0-8047-5901-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22Suppression+of+Indigenous+Fossil+Knowledge%22+in+Agnology%2C+ed+R.+Proctor+and+L.+Schiebinger&rft.place=Stanford+CA&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-5901-4&rft.aulast=Mayor&rft.aufirst=Adrienne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNordsieck2008" class="citation web cs1">Nordsieck, Robert (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.molluscs.at/mollusca/index.html?%2Fmollusca%2Fmain.html">"Molluscs (<i>Mollusca</i>)"</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Molluscs.at&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Molluscs.at (page does not exist)">Molluscs.at</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 August</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Molluscs+%28Mollusca%29&rft.pub=Molluscs.at&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Nordsieck&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.molluscs.at%2Fmollusca%2Findex.html%3F%252Fmollusca%252Fmain.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Neil2012" class="citation web cs1">O'Neil, Dennis (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160813171249/http://anthro.palomar.edu/evolve/evolve_1.htm">"Early Theories of Evolution: Pre-Darwinian Theories"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dennis_O%27Neil" title="Dennis O'Neil">Dennis O'Neil</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://anthro.palomar.edu/evolve/evolve_1.htm">the original</a> on 13 August 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 August</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Early+Theories+of+Evolution%3A+Pre-Darwinian+Theories&rft.pub=Dennis+O%27Neil&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=O%27Neil&rft.aufirst=Dennis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fanthro.palomar.edu%2Fevolve%2Fevolve_1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRacine2013" class="citation web cs1">Racine, Valeria (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/georges-cuvier-1769-1832">"Georges Cuvier (1769–1832)"</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Arizona_Board&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arizona Board (page does not exist)">Arizona Board</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 August</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Georges+Cuvier+%281769%E2%80%931832%29&rft.pub=Arizona+Board&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Racine&rft.aufirst=Valeria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fembryo.asu.edu%2Fpages%2Fgeorges-cuvier-1769-1832&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReiss2009" class="citation book cs1">Reiss, John O. (2009). <i>Not by Design: Retiring Darwin's Watchmaker</i>. Berkeley, California: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Not+by+Design%3A+Retiring+Darwin%27s+Watchmaker&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+California&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Reiss&rft.aufirst=John+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRudwick1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martin_J._S._Rudwick" title="Martin J. S. Rudwick">Rudwick, Martin J. S.</a> (1997). <i>Georges Cuvier, Fossil Bones, and Geological Catastrophes</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-73106-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-73106-3"><bdi>978-0-226-73106-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Georges+Cuvier%2C+Fossil+Bones%2C+and+Geological+Catastrophes&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-226-73106-3&rft.aulast=Rudwick&rft.aufirst=Martin+J.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell1982" class="citation journal cs1">Russell, E. S. (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archive.org/download/formfunctioncont00russ/formfunctioncont00russ.pdf">"Form and Function: a Contribution to the History of Animal Morphology"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>98</b> (2460): <span class="nowrap">306–</span>307. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1916Natur..98R.306.">1916Natur..98R.306.</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F098306b0">10.1038/098306b0</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fmdp.39015005647725">2027/mdp.39015005647725</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3955438">3955438</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Form+and+Function%3A+a+Contribution+to+the+History+of+Animal+Morphology&rft.volume=98&rft.issue=2460&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E306-%3C%2Fspan%3E307&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fmdp.39015005647725&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A3955438%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F098306b0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1916Natur..98R.306.&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=E.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archive.org%2Fdownload%2Fformfunctioncont00russ%2Fformfunctioncont00russ.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartina_Kölbl-Ebert2009" class="citation book cs1">Martina Kölbl-Ebert (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=w1NUHmio_jEC&pg=PA127"><i>Geology and Religion: A History of Harmony and Hostility</i></a>. Geological Society of London. p. 127. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86239-269-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86239-269-4"><bdi>978-1-86239-269-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geology+and+Religion%3A+A+History+of+Harmony+and+Hostility&rft.pages=127&rft.pub=Geological+Society+of+London&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-86239-269-4&rft.au=Martina+K%C3%B6lbl-Ebert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dw1NUHmio_jEC%26pg%3DPA127&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurner1984" class="citation cs2">Turner, John (9 February 1984), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6idhDboGmZoC&pg=PA34">"Why we need evolution by jerks"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/New_Scientist" title="New Scientist">New Scientist</a></i>, vol. 101, no. 1396, pp. <span class="nowrap">34–</span>35<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 November</span> 2012</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Scientist&rft.atitle=Why+we+need+evolution+by+jerks&rft.volume=101&rft.issue=1396&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E34-%3C%2Fspan%3E35&rft.date=1984-02-09&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6idhDboGmZoC%26pg%3DPA34&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged November 2023">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaggoner1996" class="citation web cs1">Waggoner, Ben (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/cuvier.html">"Georges Cuvier (1769–1832)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 July</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Georges+Cuvier+%281769%E2%80%931832%29&rft.pub=University+of+California%2C+Berkeley&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Waggoner&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucmp.berkeley.edu%2Fhistory%2Fcuvier.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZimmer2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Zimmer" title="Carl Zimmer">Zimmer, Carl</a> (2006). <i>Evolution: the Triumph of an Idea</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Harper_Perennial" title="Harper Perennial">Harper Perennial</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-113840-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-113840-9"><bdi>978-0-06-113840-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution%3A+the+Triumph+of+an+Idea&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+Perennial&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-06-113840-9&rft.aulast=Zimmer&rft.aufirst=Carl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><span class="noprint"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span> </span>This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChisholm1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. (1911). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Cuvier,_Georges_Leopold_Chretien_Frederic_Dagobert,_Baron" class="extiw" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cuvier, Georges Leopold Chretien Frederic Dagobert, Baron">Cuvier, Georges Leopold Chretien Frederic Dagobert, Baron</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">676–</span>677.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cuvier%2C+Georges+Leopold+Chretien+Frederic+Dagobert%2C+Baron&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E676-%3C%2Fspan%3E677&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Histoire des travaux de Georges Cuvier</i> (3rd ed.). Paris. 1858.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Histoire+des+travaux+de+Georges+Cuvier&rft.place=Paris&rft.edition=3rd&rft.date=1858&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Candolle1832" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Augustin_Pyramus_de_Candolle" title="Augustin Pyramus de Candolle">de Candolle, A. P.</a> (1832). "Mort de G. Cuvier". <i>Bibliothique universelle</i>. Vol. 59. p. 442.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mort+de+G.+Cuvier&rft.btitle=Bibliothique+universelle&rft.pages=442&rft.date=1832&rft.aulast=de+Candolle&rft.aufirst=A.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlourens1834" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jean_Pierre_Flourens" title="Jean Pierre Flourens">Flourens, P. J. M.</a> (1834). <i>Éloge historique de G. Cuvier</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%C3%89loge+historique+de+G.+Cuvier&rft.date=1834&rft.aulast=Flourens&rft.aufirst=P.+J.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span> Published as an introduction to the <i>Éloges historiques</i> of Cuvier.</li> <li>Kolbert, Elizabeth. (16 December 2013). "Annals of Extinction Part One: The Lost World." <i>The New Yorker.</i> p. 28. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2013/12/16/the-lost-world-2">[1]</a> Profile of Cuvier and his work on extinction and taxonomy.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaurillard1836" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Laurillard, C. L. (1836). "Cuvier". <i>Biographie universelle</i>. Vol. Supp. vol. 61.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cuvier&rft.btitle=Biographie+universelle&rft.date=1836&rft.aulast=Laurillard&rft.aufirst=C.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOutram1984" class="citation book cs1">Outram, Dorinda (1984). <i>Georges Cuvier: Vocation, Science and Authority in Post-Revolutionary France</i>. Palgrave Macmillan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Georges+Cuvier%3A+Vocation%2C+Science+and+Authority+in+Post-Revolutionary+France&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Outram&rft.aufirst=Dorinda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCorsi2005" class="citation book cs1">Corsi, Pietro (2005). <i>Rapport historique sur les progrès des sciences naturelles depuis 1789, et sur leur état actuel, présenté à Sa Majesté l'Empereur et Roi, en son Conseil d'État, le 6 février 1808, par la classe des sciences physiques et mathématiques de l'Institut... conformément à l'arrêté du gouvernement du 13 ventôse an X</i>. Paris.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rapport+historique+sur+les+progr%C3%A8s+des+sciences+naturelles+depuis+1789%2C+et+sur+leur+%C3%A9tat+actuel%2C+pr%C3%A9sent%C3%A9+%C3%A0+Sa+Majest%C3%A9+l%27Empereur+et+Roi%2C+en+son+Conseil+d%27%C3%89tat%2C+le+6+f%C3%A9vrier+1808%2C+par+la+classe+des+sciences+physiques+et+math%C3%A9matiques+de+l%27Institut...+conform%C3%A9ment+%C3%A0+l%27arr%C3%AAt%C3%A9+du+gouvernement+du+13+vent%C3%B4se+an+X&rft.place=Paris&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Corsi&rft.aufirst=Pietro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Taquet, Philippe (2006). <i>Georges Cuvier, Naissance d'un Génie</i>. Paris: Odile jacob. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7381-0969-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7381-0969-9"><bdi>978-2-7381-0969-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Georges+Cuvier%2C+Naissance+d%27un+G%C3%A9nie&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Odile+jacob&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-2-7381-0969-9&rft.aulast=Taquet&rft.aufirst=Philippe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorges+Cuvier" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" class="extiw" title="commons:Georges Cuvier"><span style="font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;">Georges Cuvier</span></a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Georges_Cuvier" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Georges Cuvier">Georges Cuvier</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original works by or about:<br /><b style="text-align: center;"><i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Georges_Cuvier" class="extiw" title="s:Author:Georges Cuvier">Georges Cuvier</a></i></b></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Cuvier%2C%20Georges%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Georges%20Cuvier%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Cuvier%2C%20Georges%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Georges%20Cuvier%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Cuvier%2C%20G%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Georges%20Cuvier%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Cuvier%2C%20Georges%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Georges%20Cuvier%22%29%20OR%20%28%221769-1832%22%20AND%20Cuvier%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Georges Cuvier</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/author/15292">Works by Georges Cuvier</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://victorianweb.org/science/cuvier.html">Victorian Web Bio</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010427234459/http://www.infoscience.fr/histoire/biograph/biograph.php3?Ref=18">Infoscience</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20000818181650/http://www.mala.bc.ca/~johnstoi/cuvier/cuvier.htm">English translation of Discourses</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cosmovisions.com/Williams040501.htm">Cuvier's principle of the correlation of parts</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.victorianweb.org/science/science_texts/cuvier/cuvier_on_lamarck.htm">Cuvier's <i>Elegy of Lamarck</i></a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Natural_history50" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Natural_history" title="Template:Natural history"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Natural_history" title="Template talk:Natural history"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Natural_history" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Natural history"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Natural_history50" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">Natural history</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pioneering<br />naturalists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical<br />antiquity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Animals" title="History of Animals">History of Animals</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Historia_Plantarum_(Theophrastus_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus book)">Historia Plantarum</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a> (<i>De Natura Animalium</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" title="Natural History (Pliny)">Natural History</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/De_Materia_Medica" class="mw-redirect" title="De Materia Medica">De Materia Medica</a></i>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ulisse_Aldrovandi" title="Ulisse Aldrovandi">Ulisse Aldrovandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspard_Bauhin" title="Gaspard Bauhin">Gaspard Bauhin</a> (<i>Pinax theatri botanici</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Brunfels" title="Otto Brunfels">Otto Brunfels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieronymus_Bock" title="Hieronymus Bock">Hieronymus Bock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrea_Cesalpino" title="Andrea Cesalpino">Andrea Cesalpino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Cordus" title="Valerius Cordus">Valerius Cordus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonhart_Fuchs" title="Leonhart Fuchs">Leonhart Fuchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conrad_Gessner" title="Conrad Gessner">Conrad Gessner</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Historia_animalium_(Gessner_book)" title="Historia animalium (Gessner book)">Historia animalium</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederik_Ruysch" title="Frederik Ruysch">Frederik Ruysch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Turner_(naturalist)" title="William Turner (naturalist)">William Turner</a> (<i>Avium Praecipuarum</i>, <i>New Herball</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Gerard" title="John Gerard">John Gerard</a> (<i>Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes</i>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Micrographia" title="Micrographia">Micrographia</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcello_Malpighi" title="Marcello Malpighi">Marcello Malpighi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Antonie van Leeuwenhoek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Derham" title="William Derham">William Derham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Sloane" title="Hans Sloane">Hans Sloane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Swammerdam" title="Jan Swammerdam">Jan Swammerdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regnier_de_Graaf" title="Regnier de Graaf">Regnier de Graaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Systema_Naturae" title="Systema Naturae">Systema Naturae</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Steller" title="Georg Wilhelm Steller">Georg Steller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Banks" title="Joseph Banks">Joseph Banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johan_Christian_Fabricius" title="Johan Christian Fabricius">Johan Christian Fabricius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">James Hutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ray" title="John Ray">John Ray</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Historia_Plantarum_(Ray_book)" title="Historia Plantarum (Ray book)">Historia Plantarum</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Comte de Buffon</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Histoire_Naturelle" title="Histoire Naturelle">Histoire Naturelle</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Germain_de_Lac%C3%A9p%C3%A8de" title="Bernard Germain de Lacépède">Bernard Germain de Lacépède</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_White" title="Gilbert White">Gilbert White</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Natural_History_and_Antiquities_of_Selborne" title="The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne">The Natural History of Selborne</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Bewick" title="Thomas Bewick">Thomas Bewick</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/A_History_of_British_Birds" title="A History of British Birds">A History of British Birds</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck">Jean-Baptiste Lamarck</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Philosophie_zoologique" title="Philosophie zoologique">Philosophie zoologique</a></i>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Montagu_(naturalist)" title="George Montagu (naturalist)">George Montagu</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Ornithological_Dictionary" title="Ornithological Dictionary">Ornithological Dictionary</a></i>)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Georges Cuvier</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Le_R%C3%A8gne_Animal" title="Le Règne Animal">Le Règne Animal</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Smith_(geologist)" title="William Smith (geologist)">William Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Malay_Archipelago" title="The Malay Archipelago">The Malay Archipelago</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Walter_Bates" title="Henry Walter Bates">Henry Walter Bates</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons" title="The Naturalist on the River Amazons">The Naturalist on the River Amazons</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_James_Audubon" title="John James Audubon">John James Audubon</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Birds_of_America" title="The Birds of America">The Birds of America</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Buckland" title="William Buckland">William Buckland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Lyell" title="Charles Lyell">Charles Lyell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Anning" title="Mary Anning">Mary Anning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Henri_Fabre" title="Jean-Henri Fabre">Jean-Henri Fabre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Agassiz" title="Louis Agassiz">Louis Agassiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Henry_Gosse" title="Philip Henry Gosse">Philip Henry Gosse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asa_Gray" title="Asa Gray">Asa Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Jackson_Hooker" title="William Jackson Hooker">William Jackson Hooker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dalton_Hooker" title="Joseph Dalton Hooker">Joseph Dalton Hooker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_William_Jardine,_7th_Baronet" title="Sir William Jardine, 7th Baronet">William Jardine</a> (<i>The Naturalist's Library</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Kunstformen_der_Natur" title="Kunstformen der Natur">Kunstformen der Natur</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Lydekker" title="Richard Lydekker">Richard Lydekker</a> (<i>The Royal Natural History</i>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martinus_Beijerinck" title="Martinus Beijerinck">Martinus Beijerinck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbott_Handerson_Thayer" title="Abbott Handerson Thayer">Abbott Thayer</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Concealing-Coloration_in_the_Animal_Kingdom" title="Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom">Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_B._Cott" title="Hugh B. Cott">Hugh B. Cott</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_Coloration_in_Animals" title="Adaptive Coloration in Animals">Adaptive Coloration in Animals</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolaas_Tinbergen" title="Nikolaas Tinbergen">Niko Tinbergen</a> (<i>The Study of Instinct</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Lorenz" title="Konrad Lorenz">Konrad Lorenz</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/On_Aggression" title="On Aggression">On Aggression</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Frisch" title="Karl von Frisch">Karl von Frisch</a> (<i>The Dancing Bees</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Lockley" title="Ronald Lockley">Ronald Lockley</a> (<i>Shearwaters</i>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Sceliphron wasp building nest"><img alt="Sceliphron wasp building nest" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png/85px-Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png/128px-Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png/170px-Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png 2x" data-file-width="887" data-file-height="1280" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_history_museum" title="Natural history museum">Natural history museums</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums" title="List of natural history museums">List</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parson-naturalist" title="Parson-naturalist">Parson-naturalists</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_parson-naturalists" title="List of parson-naturalists">List</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Natural_history_societies" title="Category:Natural history societies">Natural History Societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_history_dealers" title="List of natural history dealers">List of natural history dealers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Obsolete_definitions_of_race279" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Historical_definitions_of_race" title="Template:Historical definitions of race"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Historical_definitions_of_race" title="Template talk:Historical definitions of race"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Historical_definitions_of_race" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Historical definitions of race"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Obsolete_definitions_of_race279" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Historical_race_concepts" title="Historical race concepts">Obsolete definitions of race</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Color_terminology_for_race" title="Color terminology for race">Color terminology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_people" title="Black people">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_(racial_classification)" title="Bronze (racial classification)">Bronze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_(racial_classification)" title="Brown (racial classification)">Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olive_skin" title="Olive skin">Olive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redskin" title="Redskin">Red</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_people" title="White people">White</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historical_race_concepts" title="Historical race concepts">Concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australo-Melanesian" title="Australo-Melanesian">Australoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Capoid">Capoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_race" title="Caucasian race">Caucasoid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpine_race" title="Alpine race">Alpine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabid_race" title="Arabid race">Arabid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenoid_race" title="Armenoid race">Armenoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aryan_race" title="Aryan race">Aryan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantid_race" title="Atlantid race">Atlantid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caspian_race" title="Caspian race">Caspian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinaric_race" title="Dinaric race">Dinaric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Baltic_race" title="East Baltic race">East Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopid_race" title="Ethiopid race">Ethiopid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamites" title="Hamites">Hamites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indid_race" title="Indid race">Indid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irano-Afghan_race" title="Irano-Afghan race">Iranid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_race" title="Mediterranean race">Mediterranean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_race" title="Nordic race">Nordic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semites" class="mw-redirect" title="Semites">Semites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turanid_race" title="Turanid race">Turanid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malay_race" title="Malay race">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongoloid" title="Mongoloid">Mongoloid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Mongoloid" title="Proto-Mongoloid">Proto-Mongoloid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinodonty_and_Sundadonty" title="Sinodonty and Sundadonty">Sinodonty and Sundadonty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negroid" title="Negroid">Negroid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negrito" title="Negrito">Negrito</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_race_and_ethnic_relations" title="Sociology of race and ethnic relations">Sociological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_definitions_of_races_in_India" title="Historical definitions of races in India">in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passing_(racial_identity)" title="Passing (racial identity)">Passing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_discrimination" title="Racial discrimination">Racial discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_stereotype" title="Ethnic stereotype">Racial stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorism" class="mw-redirect" title="Colorism">Colorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_race" title="Master race">Master race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism_and_race" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazism and race">Nazism and race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_hygiene" title="Racial hygiene">Racial hygiene</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whiteness_studies" title="Whiteness studies">Whiteness studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%A9gritude" title="Négritude">Négritude</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Agassiz" title="Louis Agassiz">Louis Agassiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Baker_(biologist)" title="John Baker (biologist)">John Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erwin_Baur" title="Erwin Baur">Erwin Baur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Beddoe" title="John Beddoe">John Beddoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bennett_Bean" title="Robert Bennett Bean">Robert Bennett Bean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Bernier" title="François Bernier">François Bernier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renato_Biasutti" title="Renato Biasutti">Renato Biasutti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Blumenbach" title="Johann Friedrich Blumenbach">Johann Friedrich Blumenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Franz Boas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Garrison_Brinton" title="Daniel Garrison Brinton">Daniel Garrison Brinton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Broca" title="Paul Broca">Paul Broca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Mossie_Brues" title="Alice Mossie Brues">Alice Mossie Brues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halfdan_Bryn" title="Halfdan Bryn">Halfdan Bryn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Caldwell_(physician)" title="Charles Caldwell (physician)">Charles Caldwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrus_Camper" title="Petrus Camper">Petrus Camper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_A._Cartwright" title="Samuel A. Cartwright">Samuel A. Cartwright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Houston_Stewart_Chamberlain" title="Houston Stewart Chamberlain">Houston Stewart Chamberlain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonia_Mary_Cole" title="Sonia Mary Cole">Sonia Mary Cole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carleton_S._Coon" title="Carleton S. Coon">Carleton S. Coon</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Georges Cuvier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Czekanowski" title="Jan Czekanowski">Jan Czekanowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Davenport" title="Charles Davenport">Charles Davenport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Deniker" title="Joseph Deniker">Joseph Deniker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egon_Freiherr_von_Eickstedt" title="Egon Freiherr von Eickstedt">Egon Freiherr von Eickstedt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%A9nor_Firmin" title="Anténor Firmin">Anténor Firmin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_Fischer" title="Eugen Fischer">Eugen Fischer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Galton" title="Francis Galton">Francis Galton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Marion_Garn" title="Stanley Marion Garn">Stanley Marion Garn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reginald_Ruggles_Gates" title="Reginald Ruggles Gates">Reginald Ruggles Gates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Gliddon" title="George Gliddon">George Gliddon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_de_Gobineau" title="Arthur de Gobineau">Arthur de Gobineau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madison_Grant" title="Madison Grant">Madison Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Grattan_(naturalist)" title="John Grattan (naturalist)">John Grattan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_F._K._G%C3%BCnther" title="Hans F. K. Günther">Hans F. K. Günther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Ludwig_Hoffman" title="Frederick Ludwig Hoffman">Frederick Ludwig Hoffman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earnest_Hooton" title="Earnest Hooton">Earnest Hooton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Huxley" title="Julian Huxley">Julian Huxley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Henry_Huxley" title="Thomas Henry Huxley">Thomas Henry Huxley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Ira_Kephart" title="Calvin Ira Kephart">Calvin Ira Kephart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Knox_(surgeon)" title="Robert Knox (surgeon)">Robert Knox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Kuttner" title="Robert E. Kuttner">Robert E. Kuttner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Vacher_de_Lapouge" title="Georges Vacher de Lapouge">Georges Vacher de Lapouge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Lenz" title="Fritz Lenz">Fritz Lenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Lombroso" title="Cesare Lombroso">Cesare Lombroso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertil_Lundman" title="Bertil Lundman">Bertil Lundman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felix_von_Luschan" title="Felix von Luschan">Felix von Luschan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominick_McCausland" title="Dominick McCausland">Dominick McCausland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Mitchell_(geographer)" title="John Mitchell (geographer)">John Mitchell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashley_Montagu" title="Ashley Montagu">Ashley Montagu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_H._Morgan" title="Lewis H. Morgan">Lewis H. Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_George_Morton" title="Samuel George Morton">Samuel George Morton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_C._Nott" title="Josiah C. Nott">Josiah C. Nott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Pearson_(anthropologist)" title="Roger Pearson (anthropologist)">Roger Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Peschel" title="Oscar Peschel">Oscar Peschel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_La_Peyr%C3%A8re" title="Isaac La Peyrère">Isaac La Peyrère</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Pickering_(naturalist)" title="Charles Pickering (naturalist)">Charles Pickering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Hermann_Plate" title="Ludwig Hermann Plate">Ludwig Hermann Plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Ploetz" title="Alfred Ploetz">Alfred Ploetz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Cowles_Prichard" title="James Cowles Prichard">James Cowles Prichard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Reche" title="Otto Reche">Otto Reche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustaf_Retzius" title="Gustaf Retzius">Gustaf Retzius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Z._Ripley" title="William Z. Ripley">William Z. Ripley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Rosenberg" title="Alfred Rosenberg">Alfred Rosenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Rush" title="Benjamin Rush">Benjamin Rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henric_Sanielevici" title="Henric Sanielevici">Henric Sanielevici</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Schmidt_(philosopher)" title="Heinrich Schmidt (philosopher)">Heinrich Schmidt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilse_Schwidetzky" title="Ilse Schwidetzky">Ilse Schwidetzky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Gabriel_Seligman" title="Charles Gabriel Seligman">Charles Gabriel Seligman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Sergi" title="Giuseppe Sergi">Giuseppe Sergi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Stanhope_Smith" title="Samuel Stanhope Smith">Samuel Stanhope Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morris_Steggerda" title="Morris Steggerda">Morris Steggerda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lothrop_Stoddard" title="Lothrop Stoddard">Lothrop Stoddard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Graham_Sumner" title="William Graham Sumner">William Graham Sumner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Griffith_Taylor" title="Thomas Griffith Taylor">Thomas Griffith Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Topinard" title="Paul Topinard">Paul Topinard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_H._Van_Evrie" title="John H. Van Evrie">John H. Van Evrie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otmar_Freiherr_von_Verschuer" title="Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer">Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Winchell" title="Alexander Winchell">Alexander Winchell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Woltmann" title="Ludwig Woltmann">Ludwig Woltmann</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Publications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Mitchell_(geographer)" title="John Mitchell (geographer)"><i>An Essay upon the Causes of the Different Colours of People<wbr /> in Different Climates</i> (1744)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christoph_Meiners" title="Christoph Meiners"><i>The Outline of History of Mankind</i> (1785)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occasional_Discourse_on_the_Negro_Question" title="Occasional Discourse on the Negro Question"><i>Occasional Discourse on the Negro Question</i> (1849)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Essay_on_the_Inequality_of_the_Human_Races" title="An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races"><i>An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races</i> (1855)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Races_of_Europe_(Ripley_book)" title="The Races of Europe (Ripley book)"><i>The Races of Europe</i> (Ripley, 1899)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Foundations_of_the_Nineteenth_Century" title="The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century"><i>The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century</i> (1899)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_Life_of_the_Aryan_Peoples" title="Race Life of the Aryan Peoples"><i>Race Life of the Aryan Peoples</i> (1907)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heredity_in_Relation_to_Eugenics" title="Heredity in Relation to Eugenics"><i>Heredity in Relation to Eugenics</i> (1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castes_in_India:_Their_Mechanism,_Genesis_and_Development" title="Castes in India: Their Mechanism, Genesis and Development"><i>Castes in India</i> (1916)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Passing_of_the_Great_Race" title="The Passing of the Great Race"><i>The Passing of the Great Race</i> (1916)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Rising_Tide_of_Color_Against_White_World-Supremacy" title="The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy"><i>The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy</i> (1920)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Myth_of_the_Twentieth_Century" title="The Myth of the Twentieth Century"><i>The Myth of the Twentieth Century</i> (1930)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annihilation_of_Caste" title="Annihilation of Caste"><i>Annihilation of Caste</i> (1936)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Investigation_of_Global_Policy_with_the_Yamato_Race_as_Nucleus" title="An Investigation of Global Policy with the Yamato Race as Nucleus"><i>An Investigation of Global Policy with the Yamato Race as Nucleus</i> (1943)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Race_Question" class="mw-redirect" title="The Race Question"><i>The Race Question</i> (1950)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnogenesis" title="Ethnogenesis">Ethnogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_chain_of_being" title="Great chain of being">Great chain of being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anthropometry" title="History of anthropometry">History of anthropometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miscegenation" title="Miscegenation">Miscegenation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monogenism" title="Monogenism">Monogenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiracial" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiracial">Multiracial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygenism" title="Polygenism">Polygenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Adamite" title="Pre-Adamite">Pre-Adamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-modern_conceptions_of_whiteness" title="Pre-modern conceptions of whiteness">Pre-modern conceptions of whiteness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Académie_française_seat_3580" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Acad%C3%A9mie_fran%C3%A7aise_Seat_35" title="Template:Académie française Seat 35"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Acad%C3%A9mie_fran%C3%A7aise_Seat_35" title="Template talk:Académie française Seat 35"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Acad%C3%A9mie_fran%C3%A7aise_Seat_35" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Académie française Seat 35"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Académie_française_seat_3580" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_fran%C3%A7aise" class="mw-redirect" title="Académie française">Académie française</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_Acad%C3%A9mie_fran%C3%A7aise" title="List of members of the Académie française">seat 35</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Henri_Louis_Habert_de_Montmor" title="Henri Louis Habert de Montmor">Henri Louis Habert de Montmor</a> (1634)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Lavau" title="Louis de Lavau">Louis de Lavau</a> (1679)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Lefebvre_de_Caumartin" title="François Lefebvre de Caumartin">François Lefebvre de Caumartin</a> (1694)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Augustin_de_Paradis_de_Moncrif" title="François-Augustin de Paradis de Moncrif">François-Augustin de Paradis de Moncrif</a> (1733)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jean-Armand_de_Bessu%C3%A9jouls_Roquelaure" title="Jean-Armand de Bessuéjouls Roquelaure">Jean-Armand de Bessuéjouls Roquelaure</a> (1771)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Georges Cuvier</a> (1818)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Marie_Jean_Jacques_Dupin" title="André Marie Jean Jacques Dupin">André Marie Jean Jacques Dupin</a> (1832)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alfred-Auguste_Cuvillier-Fleury" title="Alfred-Auguste Cuvillier-Fleury">Alfred-Auguste Cuvillier-Fleury</a> (1866)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jules_Ars%C3%A8ne_Arnaud_Claretie" title="Jules Arsène Arnaud Claretie">Jules Arsène Arnaud Claretie</a> (1888)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Joffre" title="Joseph Joffre">Joseph Joffre</a> (1918)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Maxime_Weygand" title="Maxime Weygand">Maxime Weygand</a> (1931)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Leprince-Ringuet" title="Louis Leprince-Ringuet">Louis Leprince-Ringuet</a> (1966)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Yves_Pouliquen" title="Yves Pouliquen">Yves Pouliquen</a> (2001)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Compagnon" title="Antoine Compagnon">Antoine Compagnon</a> (2022)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Zoology332" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Zoology" title="Template:Zoology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Zoology" title="Template talk:Zoology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Zoology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Zoology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Zoology332" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_zoology" title="Outline of zoology">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:;width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthropodology" title="Arthropodology">Arthropodology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Arachnology" title="Arachnology">Arachnology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Acarology" title="Acarology">Acarology</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carcinology" title="Carcinology">Carcinology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entomology" title="Entomology">Entomology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Coleopterology" title="Coleopterology">Coleopterology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lepidopterology" title="Lepidopterology">Lepidopterology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melittology" title="Melittology">Melittology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myrmecology" title="Myrmecology">Myrmecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthopterology" title="Orthopterology">Orthopterology</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myriapodology" title="Myriapodology">Myriapodology</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryozoology" title="Bryozoology">Bryozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnidariology" class="mw-redirect" title="Cnidariology">Cnidariology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnozoology" title="Ethnozoology">Ethnozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helminthology" title="Helminthology">Helminthology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herpetology" title="Herpetology">Herpetology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Batrachology" title="Batrachology">Batrachology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Ophiology">Ophiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testudinology" class="mw-redirect" title="Testudinology">Testudinology</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyology" title="Ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malacology" title="Malacology">Malacology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Conchology" title="Conchology">Conchology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teuthology" title="Teuthology">Teuthology</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammalogy" title="Mammalogy">Mammalogy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cetology" title="Cetology">Cetology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynology" title="Cynology">Cynology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felinology" title="Felinology">Felinology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippology" title="Hippology">Hippology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nematology" title="Nematology">Nematology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroethology" title="Neuroethology">Neuroethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleozoology" title="Paleozoology">Paleozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planktology" title="Planktology">Planktology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zooarchaeology" title="Zooarchaeology">Zooarchaeology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animal</a> groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">Porifera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ctenophora" title="Ctenophora">Ctenophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placozoa" title="Placozoa">Placozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">Cnidaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenacoelomorpha" title="Xenacoelomorpha">Xenacoelomorpha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambulacraria" title="Ambulacraria">Ambulacraria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">Chordata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aschelminthes" class="mw-redirect" title="Aschelminthes">Aschelminthes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flatworm" title="Flatworm">Platyhelminthes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">Mollusca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annelid" title="Annelid">Annelida</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Animal anatomy</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">Animal morphology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">Histology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)#Animal_tissue" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epithelium" title="Epithelium">Epithelial tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscle_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="Muscle tissue">Muscular tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervous_tissue" title="Nervous tissue">Nervous tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connective_tissue" title="Connective tissue">Connective tissues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineralized_tissues" title="Mineralized tissues">Mineralized tissues</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_anatomy" title="Molecular anatomy">Molecular anatomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Comparative_anatomy" title="Comparative anatomy">Anatomy <br /> and morphology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mammal#Anatomy" title="Mammal">Mammalian anatomy and morphology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_anatomy" title="Human anatomy">Human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_anatomy" title="Dog anatomy">Dog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elephant#Anatomy_and_morphology" title="Elephant">Elephant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_anatomy" title="Cat anatomy">Cat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_anatomy" title="Bird anatomy">Bird anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_anatomy" title="Fish anatomy">Fish anatomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shark_anatomy" title="Shark anatomy">Shark anatomy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spider_anatomy" title="Spider anatomy">Spider anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insect_morphology" title="Insect morphology">Insect morphology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Physiology#Animals" title="Physiology">Animal physiology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General physiology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Respiration_(physiology)" title="Respiration (physiology)">Respiration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">Respiratory system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breathing" title="Breathing">Breathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_exchange" title="Gas exchange">Gas exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_pigment" title="Respiratory pigment">Respiratory pigment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Vascular system">Vascular system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">Blood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymph" title="Lymph">Lymph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_vessel" title="Blood vessel">Blood vessels</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Arteries">Arteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vein" title="Vein">Veins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capillaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Capillaries">Capillaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">Heart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_vascular_system" title="Water vascular system">Water vascular system</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By species</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Insect_physiology" title="Insect physiology">Insect physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_physiology" title="Fish physiology">Fish physiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_zoologists" class="mw-redirect" title="List of zoologists">Zoologists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ernst_von_Baer" title="Karl Ernst von Baer">Karl Ernst von Baer</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Georges Cuvier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Henri_Fabre" title="Jean-Henri Fabre">Jean-Henri Fabre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Kirby_(entomologist)" title="William Kirby (entomologist)">William Kirby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Lorenz" title="Konrad Lorenz">Konrad Lorenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Say" title="Thomas Say">Thomas Say</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakob_von_Uexk%C3%BCll" class="mw-redirect" title="Jakob von Uexküll">Jakob von Uexküll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:;width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_zoology_through_1859" title="History of zoology through 1859">Pre-Darwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_zoology_(1859%E2%80%93present)" title="History of zoology (1859–present)">Post-Darwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_zoology" title="Timeline of zoology">Timeline of zoology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Zoology" title="Category:Zoology">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q171969#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata4360" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q171969#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata4360" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q171969#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000120987912">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/4981028">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/47236/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJptY6yjbPMQvBPFfjPfbd">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118677578">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79144758">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12215786p">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12215786p">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00620547">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Cuvier, Georges"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/UFIV072207">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35032897">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn20000601238&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX896482">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/36629">Portugal</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p068388136">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90205342">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000115689&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000513352&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bncatalogo.cl/F?func=direct&local_base=red10&doc_number=000327172">Chile</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=212369">Greece</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/sq4663lb3zdrk4x">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810586668405606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/92664">Vatican</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007260091705171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058511661306706">Catalonia</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA02579944?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ipni.org/ipni/advAuthorSearch.do?find_abbreviation=Cuvier">International Plant Names Index</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.leopoldina.org/mitgliederverzeichnis/mitglieder/member/Member/show/georges-cuvier/">Leopoldina</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500255890">ULAN</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uni-stuttgart.de/hi/gnt/dsi2/index.php?table_name=dsi&function=details&where_field=id&where_value=7752">Scientific illustrators</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/805517">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/118677578.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118677578">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/030819121">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6dg7hm9">SNAC</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w61j9cn4">2</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/agent/55206">Te Papa (New Zealand)</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&oldid=1265185742">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&oldid=1265185742</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:French_naturalists" title="Category:French naturalists">French naturalists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:19th-century_French_geologists" title="Category:19th-century French geologists">19th-century French geologists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:French_paleontologists" title="Category:French paleontologists">French paleontologists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1769_births" title="Category:1769 births">1769 births</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1832_deaths" title="Category:1832 deaths">1832 deaths</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:19th-century_French_anthropologists" title="Category:19th-century French anthropologists">19th-century French anthropologists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:French_ichthyologists" title="Category:French ichthyologists">French ichthyologists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:French_malacologists" title="Category:French malacologists">French malacologists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:French_ornithologists" title="Category:French ornithologists">French ornithologists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:French_science_writers" title="Category:French science writers">French science writers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:French_taxonomists" title="Category:French taxonomists">French taxonomists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Paleozoologists" title="Category:Paleozoologists">Paleozoologists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Teuthologists" title="Category:Teuthologists">Teuthologists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:French_barons" title="Category:French barons">French barons</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Catastrophism" title="Category:Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Critics_of_Lamarckism" title="Category:Critics of Lamarckism">Critics of Lamarckism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Grand_Officers_of_the_Legion_of_Honour" title="Category:Grand Officers of the Legion of Honour">Grand Officers of the Legion of Honour</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Members_of_the_French_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Category:Members of the French Academy of Sciences">Members of the French Academy of Sciences</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Members_of_the_Acad%C3%A9mie_Fran%C3%A7aise" title="Category:Members of the Académie Française">Members of the Académie Française</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Members_of_the_Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Inscriptions_et_Belles-Lettres" title="Category:Members of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres">Members of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Chancellors_of_the_University_of_Paris" title="Category:Chancellors of the University of Paris">Chancellors of the University of Paris</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Academic_staff_of_the_Coll%C3%A8ge_de_France" title="Category:Academic staff of the Collège de France">Academic staff of the Collège de France</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Fellows_of_the_American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences">Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Foreign_members_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Category:Foreign members of the Royal Society">Foreign members of the Royal Society</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Honorary_members_of_the_Saint_Petersburg_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Category:Honorary members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences">Honorary members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Members_of_the_Royal_Netherlands_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="Category:Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences">Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Members_of_the_Royal_Swedish_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Category:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences">Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Members_of_the_Chamber_of_Peers_of_the_July_Monarchy" title="Category:Members of the Chamber of Peers of the July Monarchy">Members of the Chamber of Peers of the July Monarchy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:French_Lutherans" title="Category:French Lutherans">French Lutherans</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Scientists_from_Montb%C3%A9liard" title="Category:Scientists from Montbéliard">Scientists from Montbéliard</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Deaths_from_cholera_in_France" title="Category:Deaths from cholera in France">Deaths from cholera in France</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Burials_at_P%C3%A8re_Lachaise_Cemetery" title="Category:Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery">Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:French_male_non-fiction_writers" title="Category:French male non-fiction writers">French male non-fiction writers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:18th-century_French_zoologists" title="Category:18th-century French zoologists">18th-century French zoologists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:19th-century_French_zoologists" title="Category:19th-century French zoologists">19th-century French zoologists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:National_Museum_of_Natural_History_(France)_people" title="Category:National Museum of Natural History (France) people">National Museum of Natural History (France) people</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:People_educated_at_the_Karlsschule_Stuttgart" title="Category:People educated at the Karlsschule Stuttgart">People educated at the Karlsschule Stuttgart</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_French-language_sources_(fr)" title="Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)">CS1 French-language sources (fr)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_French-language_sources_(fr)" title="Category:Articles with French-language sources (fr)">Articles with French-language sources (fr)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">CS1 maint: location missing publisher</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_November_2023" title="Category:Use dmy dates from November 2023">Use dmy dates from November 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_hCards" title="Category:Articles with hCards">Articles with hCards</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Zoologists_with_author_abbreviations" title="Category:Zoologists with author abbreviations">Zoologists with author abbreviations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_French_IPA" title="Category:Pages with French IPA">Pages with French IPA</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_April_2017" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from April 2017">Articles needing additional references from April 2017</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_additional_references" title="Category:All articles needing additional references">All articles needing additional references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Botanists_with_author_abbreviations" title="Category:Botanists with author abbreviations">Botanists with author abbreviations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_November_2023" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from November 2023">Articles with dead external links from November 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_permanently_dead_external_links" title="Category:Articles with permanently dead external links">Articles with permanently dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_incorporating_a_citation_from_the_1911_Encyclopaedia_Britannica_with_Wikisource_reference" title="Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference">Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_incorporating_text_from_the_1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica">Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1:_long_volume_value" title="Category:CS1: long volume value">CS1: long volume value</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_link_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons link from Wikidata">Commons link from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_Internet_Archive_links" title="Category:Articles with Internet Archive links">Articles with Internet Archive links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_LibriVox_links" title="Category:Articles with LibriVox links">Articles with LibriVox links</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 25 December 2024, at 15:52<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Georges_Cuvier&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" width="88" height="31"><img src="/w/resources/assets/mediawiki_compact.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="25" height="25" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="mw-page-title-main">Georges Cuvier</span></div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbles mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbles"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-article mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-article"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-history mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-history"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-star mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-star"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikiText mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-wikiText"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-edit mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-edit"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>69 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-fzwz8","wgBackendResponseTime":172,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.685","walltime":"1.990","ppvisitednodes":{"value":9633,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":283666,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":8650,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":11,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":310364,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1721.321 1 -total"," 19.73% 339.547 2 Template:Reflist"," 13.96% 240.224 45 Template:Cite_book"," 13.01% 224.009 1 Template:Infobox_scientist"," 7.76% 133.623 1 Template:IPA"," 6.25% 107.503 5 Template:Navbox"," 5.46% 94.056 16 Template:Sfn"," 5.04% 86.734 1 Template:Botanist"," 4.95% 85.219 1 Template:Natural_history"," 4.89% 84.211 2 Template:Citation"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.142","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":23920813,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAppel1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBabcock2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChandler.1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChisholm1911\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChristopher_ScharpfKenneth_J._Lazara2018\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFClifton_C._CraisPamela_Scully2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFColeman,_William1964\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFColeman1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCorsi2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCurtisMillarLambert2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCuvier1796\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCuvier1801\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCuvier1809\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCuvier1818\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCuvier1827\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCuvier1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCuvierMcMurtrie1834\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_WeverBaudinPereiraCornée2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFaria\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFaria2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFelipe_Faria2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlourens1834\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeorges_Cuvier1808\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeorges_Cuvier1818\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFGillispie1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlausser2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGordon-Chipembere2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGowan2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHall1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIsaac2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJ.2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacksonWeidman2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKete2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKidd2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuznar2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLarson2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaurillard1836\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee1833\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartina_Kölbl-Ebert2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayor2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayor2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayor2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcClellan2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNordsieck2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Neil2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOutram1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRUDWICK2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRacine2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReiss2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReybrouck2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRudwick1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRudwick1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRussell1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFS.1998\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFTaquet2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTerry1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurner1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaggoner1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoung1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZimmer2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_Candolle1832\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Académie française Seat 35\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Birth date\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Botanist\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 45,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 14,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 13,\n [\"Commons\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Cuvier, Georges\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Death date and age\"] = 1,\n [\"EB1911\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 34,\n [\"Historical definitions of race\"] = 1,\n [\"IPA\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 2,\n [\"ISSN\"] = 1,\n [\"In lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox scientist\"] = 1,\n [\"Internet Archive author\"] = 1,\n [\"Librivox author\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 2,\n [\"More citations needed section\"] = 2,\n [\"Natural history\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 16,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikisource author\"] = 1,\n [\"Zoology\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","260","23.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","240","21.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","100","8.9"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","60","5.4"],["type","60","5.4"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","40","3.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getEntity","40","3.6"],["tostring","40","3.6"],["safe_join \u003CModule:Citation/CS1:900\u003E","40","3.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","40","3.6"],["[others]","200","17.9"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-int.codfw.main-5b65fffc7d-bwqs9","timestamp":"20250214041303","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Georges Cuvier","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Georges_Cuvier","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q171969","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q171969","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-12-28T17:13:52Z","dateModified":"2024-12-25T15:52:04Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/f\/f3\/Georges_Cuvier.png","headline":"French naturalist, zoologist and paleontologist (1769\u20131832)"}</script> </body> </html>