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id="toc-Oil_and_natural_gas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Growth_of_market" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Growth_of_market"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Growth of market</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Growth_of_market-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Construction_and_operation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Construction_and_operation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Construction and operation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Construction_and_operation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ammonia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ammonia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Ammonia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ammonia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alcohol_fuels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alcohol_fuels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Alcohol fuels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alcohol_fuels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coal_and_ore" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coal_and_ore"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Coal and ore</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coal_and_ore-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hydrogen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hydrogen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Hydrogen</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hydrogen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Water" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Water</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Other systems</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_systems-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Other systems subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Other_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-District_heating" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#District_heating"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>District heating</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-District_heating-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Beer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Beer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Brine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Milk" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Milk"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Milk</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Milk-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pneumatic_transport" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pneumatic_transport"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Pneumatic transport</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pneumatic_transport-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marine_pipelines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine_pipelines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Marine pipelines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine_pipelines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Functions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Functions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Functions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Functions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development_and_planning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_and_planning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Development and planning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development_and_planning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Operation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Operation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Operation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Operation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Technology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Technology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Technology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Components" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Components"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Components</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Components-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Leak_detection_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leak_detection_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Leak detection systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leak_detection_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Implementation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Implementation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Implementation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Implementation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maintenance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maintenance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Maintenance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maintenance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Regulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pipelines_and_geopolitics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pipelines_and_geopolitics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Pipelines and geopolitics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pipelines_and_geopolitics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hazard_identification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hazard_identification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>Hazard identification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hazard_identification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exposure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exposure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18</span> <span>Exposure</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Exposure-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Exposure subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Exposure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Spill_frequency-volume" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spill_frequency-volume"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18.1</span> <span>Spill frequency-volume</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spill_frequency-volume-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Benzene_fate_and_transport" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Benzene_fate_and_transport"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18.2</span> <span>Benzene fate and transport</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Benzene_fate_and_transport-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Previous_dilbit_spill_remediation_difficulties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Previous_dilbit_spill_remediation_difficulties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18.3</span> <span>Previous dilbit spill remediation difficulties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Previous_dilbit_spill_remediation_difficulties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Accidents_and_dangers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accidents_and_dangers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">19</span> <span>Accidents and dangers</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Accidents_and_dangers-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Accidents and dangers subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Accidents_and_dangers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Accidents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accidents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">19.1</span> <span>Accidents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Accidents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-As_targets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_targets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">19.2</span> <span>As targets</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_targets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">20</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">21</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">22</span> 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class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Pumping fluids or gas through pipes</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Pipeline_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Pipeline (disambiguation)">Pipeline (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HDPE_Pipeline_in_a_harsh_Australian_environment.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/HDPE_Pipeline_in_a_harsh_Australian_environment.jpg/264px-HDPE_Pipeline_in_a_harsh_Australian_environment.jpg" decoding="async" width="264" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/HDPE_Pipeline_in_a_harsh_Australian_environment.jpg/396px-HDPE_Pipeline_in_a_harsh_Australian_environment.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/HDPE_Pipeline_in_a_harsh_Australian_environment.jpg/528px-HDPE_Pipeline_in_a_harsh_Australian_environment.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/HDPE_pipe" title="HDPE pipe">HDPE pipeline</a> on a mine site in Australia</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>pipeline</b> is a system of <a href="/wiki/Pipe_(fluid_conveyance)" title="Pipe (fluid conveyance)">pipes</a> for long-distance <a href="/wiki/Transportation" class="mw-redirect" title="Transportation">transportation</a> of a liquid or gas, typically to a market area for consumption. The latest data from 2014 gives a total of slightly less than 2,175,000 miles (3,500,000 km) of pipeline in 120 countries around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-cia_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cia-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The United States had 65%, Russia had 8%, and Canada had 3%, thus 76% of all pipeline were in these three countries.<sup id="cite_ref-cia_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cia-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main attribute to pollution from pipelines is caused by corrosion and leakage.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Pipeline and Gas Journal</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s worldwide survey figures indicate that 118,623 miles (190,905 km) of pipelines are planned and under construction. Of these, 88,976 miles (143,193 km) represent projects in the planning and design phase; 29,647 miles (47,712 km) reflect pipelines in various stages of construction. Liquids and gases are transported in pipelines, and any chemically stable substance can be sent through a pipeline.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Pipelines exist for the transport of crude and refined petroleum, <a href="/wiki/Fuel" title="Fuel">fuels</a> – such as oil, natural gas and biofuels – and other fluids including <a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">sewage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slurry" title="Slurry">slurry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beer" title="Beer">beer</a>, hot water or <a href="/wiki/Steam" title="Steam">steam</a> for shorter distances and even <a href="/wiki/Pneumatic_tube" title="Pneumatic tube">pneumatic</a> systems which allow for the generation of suction pressure for useful work and in transporting solid objects.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pipelines are useful for transporting water for <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">drinking</a> or <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> over long distances when it needs to move over <a href="/wiki/Hill" title="Hill">hills</a>, or where <a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">canals</a> or <a href="/wiki/Channel_(geography)" title="Channel (geography)">channels</a> are poor choices due to considerations of <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">pollution</a>, or environmental impact. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style></p><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Transport" title="Transport">Transport</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Transports_icon.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Transports_icon.png/120px-Transports_icon.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="59" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Transports_icon.png/180px-Transports_icon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Transports_icon.png/240px-Transports_icon.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="446" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eee"> <a href="/wiki/Mode_of_transport" title="Mode of transport">Modes</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aviation" title="Aviation">Air</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airplane" title="Airplane">Airplane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helicopter" title="Helicopter">Helicopter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bicycle" title="Bicycle">Bicycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bus" title="Bus">Bus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_bus" title="School bus">School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trolleybus" title="Trolleybus">Trolleybus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Car" title="Car">Car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cable_transport" title="Cable transport">Cable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycle_rickshaw" title="Cycle rickshaw">Cycle rickshaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armoured_fighting_vehicle" title="Armoured fighting vehicle">Fighting vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human-powered_transport" title="Human-powered transport">Human-powered</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/People_Powered_Vehicle" title="People Powered Vehicle">Vehicle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kick_scooter" title="Kick scooter">Kick scooter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_transport" title="Land transport">Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_transport" title="Maritime transport">Water</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boat" title="Boat">Boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferry" title="Ferry">Ferry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship" title="Ship">Ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">Submarine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_animal-powered_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Outline of animal-powered transport">Animal-powered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_rapid_transit" title="Personal rapid transit">Personal rapid transit</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pipeline transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_transit" title="Rapid transit">Rapid transit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_transport" title="Road transport">Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spaceflight" title="Spaceflight">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supersonic_transport" title="Supersonic transport">Supersonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Train" title="Train">Train</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High-speed_rail" title="High-speed rail">High-speed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maglev" title="Maglev">Maglev</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tram" title="Tram">Tram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncrewed_vehicle" title="Uncrewed vehicle">Uncrewed vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velomobile" title="Velomobile">Velomobile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walking" title="Walking">Walking</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eee"> Overview</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_transport" title="History of transport">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_transportation_technology" title="Timeline of transportation technology">Timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_transport" title="Outline of transport">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_planning" title="Transportation planning">Planning</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eee"> Topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_source_air_pollution" title="Mobile source air pollution">Air pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accessibility_(transport)" title="Accessibility (transport)">Accessibility</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_transport_accessibility_level" title="Public transport accessibility level">Level</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bicycle_transportation_planning_and_engineering" title="Bicycle transportation planning and engineering">Bicycle transportation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyclability" title="Cyclability">Cyclability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycling_infrastructure" title="Cycling infrastructure">Infrastructure</a></li></ul></li> <li>Car <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternatives_to_car_use" title="Alternatives to car use">Alternatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Car_costs" title="Car costs">Costs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Externalities_of_cars" title="Externalities of cars">Externalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_effects_of_cars" title="Societal effects of cars">Societal effects</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_engineering" title="Transportation engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_transport" title="Sustainable transport">Green transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Green_transport_hierarchy" title="Green transport hierarchy">Hierarchy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_and_environmental_impact_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Health and environmental impact of transport">Health and environmental impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_transport" title="Public transport">Public</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transport_divide" title="Transport divide">Exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_public_transport" title="Personal public transport">Personal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_public_transport" title="Free public transport">Free fare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_transport_timetable" title="Public transport timetable">Timetable</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_transport" title="Private transport">Private</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Personal_transporter" title="Personal transporter">Personal</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:#aaa 1px solid; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_ksysv_square.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Nuvola_apps_ksysv_square.svg/20px-Nuvola_apps_ksysv_square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Nuvola_apps_ksysv_square.svg/40px-Nuvola_apps_ksysv_square.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Transport" title="Portal:Transport">Transport portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Transport" title="Template:Transport"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Transport" title="Template talk:Transport"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Transport" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Transport"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><p>Oil pipelines are made from <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> or <a href="/wiki/HDPE_pipe" title="HDPE pipe">plastic tubes</a> which are usually buried. The oil is moved through the pipelines by <a href="/wiki/Pump" title="Pump">pump</a> stations along the pipeline. Natural gas (and similar gaseous fuels) are pressurized into liquids known as <a href="/wiki/Natural-gas_condensate" title="Natural-gas condensate">natural gas liquids</a> (NGLs).<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Natural gas pipelines are constructed of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_steel" title="Carbon steel">carbon steel</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_pipeline_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen pipeline transport">Hydrogen pipeline transport</a> is the transportation of hydrogen through a pipe. Pipelines are one of the safest ways of transporting materials as compared to road or rail, and hence in war, pipelines are often the target of military attacks.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Oil_and_natural_gas">Oil and natural gas</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Oil and natural gas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_oil_pipelines" title="List of oil pipelines">List of oil pipelines</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_gas_pipelines" title="List of natural gas pipelines">List of natural gas pipelines</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-move" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/50px-Split-arrows.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/75px-Split-arrows.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/100px-Split-arrows.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="60" data-file-height="20" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">It has been suggested that this section be <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Splitting" title="Wikipedia:Splitting">split</a> out into another article titled <i><a href="/wiki/Oil_pipeline" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil pipeline">Oil pipeline</a></i>. (<a href="/wiki/Talk:Pipeline_transport#Giving_the_oil_and_gas_pipeline_their_own_articles" class="mw-redirect" title="Talk:Pipeline transport">Discuss</a>) <small><i>(June 2019)</i></small></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pipeline_device.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Pipeline_device.jpg/250px-Pipeline_device.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Pipeline_device.jpg/330px-Pipeline_device.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Pipeline_device.jpg/500px-Pipeline_device.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1537" data-file-height="1030" /></a><figcaption>A "<a href="/wiki/Pipeline_inspection_gauge" class="mw-redirect" title="Pipeline inspection gauge">Pig</a>" launcher/receiver, on the natural gas pipeline in Switzerland</figcaption></figure> <p>It is well documented when the first <a href="/wiki/Crude_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Crude oil">crude oil</a> pipeline was built. Credit for the development of pipeline transport belongs indisputably to the Oil Transport Association, which first constructed a 2-inch (51 mm) wrought iron pipeline over a 6-mile (9.7 km) track from an oil field in Pennsylvania to a railroad station in <a href="/wiki/Oil_Creek_State_Park#History" title="Oil Creek State Park">Oil Creek</a>, in the 1860s. Some of the first major <a href="/wiki/Submarine_pipeline" title="Submarine pipeline">submarine pipelines</a> were constructed across the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">English Channel</a> in 1944 during <a href="/wiki/Operation_Pluto" title="Operation Pluto">Operation Pluto</a>. These provided an estimated 8 per cent of all petroleum products used by the Allies on the <a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Western Front (World War II)">Western Front</a> between the Normandy landings and the end of Second World War. </p><p>Pipelines are generally the most economical way to transport large quantities of oil, <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_product" title="Petroleum product">refined oil products</a> or <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a> over land. For example, in 2014, pipeline transport of crude oil cost about $5 per barrel, while rail transport cost about $10 to $15 per barrel.<sup id="cite_ref-forbes_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-forbes-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Trucking has even higher costs due to the additional labor required; employment on completed pipelines represents only "1% of that of the trucking industry.".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the United States, 70% of crude oil and petroleum products are shipped by pipeline. (23% are by ship, 4% by truck, and 3% by rail) In Canada for natural gas and petroleum products, 97% are shipped by pipeline.<sup id="cite_ref-forbes_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-forbes-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Natural gas (and similar gaseous fuels) are lightly pressurized into liquids known as Natural Gas Liquids (NGLs). Small NGL processing facilities can be located in oil fields so the butane and propane liquid under light pressure of 125 pounds per square inch (860 kPa), can be shipped by rail, truck or pipeline. Propane can be used as a fuel in oil fields to heat various facilities used by the oil drillers or equipment and trucks used in the oil patch. EG: Propane will convert from a gas to a liquid under light pressure, 100 psi, give or take depending on temperature, and is pumped into cars and trucks at less than 125 psi (860 kPa) at retail stations. Pipelines and rail cars use about double that pressure to pump at 250 psi (1,700 kPa). </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pipeline-small_image,_seen_from_below.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Pipeline-small_image%2C_seen_from_below.jpeg/250px-Pipeline-small_image%2C_seen_from_below.jpeg" decoding="async" width="200" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Pipeline-small_image%2C_seen_from_below.jpeg/330px-Pipeline-small_image%2C_seen_from_below.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Pipeline-small_image%2C_seen_from_below.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="330" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>An elevated section of the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Alaska_Pipeline_System" title="Trans-Alaska Pipeline System">Trans-Alaska Pipeline System</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The distance to ship propane to markets is much shorter, as thousands of <a href="/wiki/Natural-gas_processing" title="Natural-gas processing">natural-gas processing</a> plants are located in or near oil fields. Many <a href="/wiki/Bakken_Formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bakken Formation">Bakken</a> Basin oil companies in North Dakota, Montana, Manitoba and Saskatchewan gas fields separate the NGLs in the field, allowing the drillers to sell propane directly to small wholesalers, eliminating the large refinery control of product and prices for propane or butane. </p><p>The most recent major pipeline to start operating in North America is a TransCanada natural gas line going north across the Niagara region bridges. This gas line carries Marcellus shale gas from Pennsylvania and other tied in methane or natural gas sources into the Canadian province of Ontario. It began operations in the fall of 2012, supplying 16 percent of all the natural gas used in Ontario.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Major_russian_gas_pipelines_to_europe.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Major_russian_gas_pipelines_to_europe.png/330px-Major_russian_gas_pipelines_to_europe.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="324" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Major_russian_gas_pipelines_to_europe.png/500px-Major_russian_gas_pipelines_to_europe.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Major_russian_gas_pipelines_to_europe.png/620px-Major_russian_gas_pipelines_to_europe.png 2x" data-file-width="771" data-file-height="807" /></a><figcaption>Major Russian gas pipelines to Europe in 2009.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The date of the event predicted near this tag has passed. (April 2022)">needs update</span></a></i>]</sup> Deliveries on some pipelines were disrupted by or became controversial after the <a href="/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine">2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/2022_Russia%E2%80%93European_Union_gas_dispute" class="mw-redirect" title="2022 Russia–European Union gas dispute">2022 Russia–European Union gas dispute</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>This new US-supplied natural gas displaces the natural gas formerly shipped to Ontario from western Canada in Alberta and Manitoba, thus dropping the government regulated pipeline shipping charges because of the significantly shorter distance from gas source to consumer. To avoid delays and US government regulation, many small, medium and large oil producers in North Dakota have decided to run an oil pipeline north to Canada to meet up with a Canadian oil pipeline shipping oil from west to east. This allows the Bakken Basin and Three Forks oil producers to get higher negotiated prices for their oil because they will not be restricted to just one wholesale market in the US. The distance from the biggest oil patch in North Dakota, in <a href="/wiki/Williston,_North_Dakota" title="Williston, North Dakota">Williston, North Dakota</a>, is only about 85 miles or 137 kilometers to the Canada–US border and <a href="/wiki/Manitoba" title="Manitoba">Manitoba</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mutual_fund" title="Mutual fund">Mutual funds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joint_venture" title="Joint venture">joint ventures</a> are the largest investors in new oil and gas pipelines. In the fall of 2012, the US began exporting <a href="/wiki/Propane" title="Propane">propane</a> to Europe, known as LPG, as wholesale prices there are much higher than in North America. Additionally, a pipeline is currently being constructed from North Dakota to Illinois, commonly known as the <a href="/wiki/Dakota_Access_Pipeline" title="Dakota Access Pipeline">Dakota Access Pipeline</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As more North American pipelines are built, even more exports of LNG, propane, butane, and other natural gas products occur on all three US coasts. To give insight, North Dakota Bakken region's oil production has grown by 600% from 2007 to 2015.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> North Dakota oil companies are shipping huge amounts of oil by tanker rail car as they can direct the oil to the market that gives the best price, and rail cars can be used to avoid a congested oil pipeline to get the oil to a different pipeline in order to get the oil to market faster or to a different less busy oil refinery. However, pipelines provide a cheaper means to transport by volume. </p><p>Enbridge in Canada is applying to reverse an oil pipeline going from east-to-west (Line 9) and expanding it and using it to ship western Canadian bitumen oil eastward.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From a presently rated 250,000 barrels equivalent per day pipeline, it will be expanded to between 1.0 and 1.3 million barrels per day. It will bring western oil to refineries in Ontario, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Quebec and New York by early 2014. New Brunswick will also refine some of this western Canadian crude and export some crude and refined oil to Europe from its deep water oil ULCC loading port. </p><p>Although pipelines can be built under the sea, that process is economically and technically demanding, so the majority of oil at sea is transported by <a href="/wiki/Tanker_(ship)" title="Tanker (ship)">tanker ships</a>. Similarly, it is often more economically feasible to transport natural gas in the form of LNG, however the break-even point between LNG and pipelines would depend on the volume of natural gas and the distance it travels.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Growth_of_market">Growth of market</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Growth of market"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gasoducto_junto_a_la_B-145,_Chile,_2016-02-09,_DD_36.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Gasoducto_junto_a_la_B-145%2C_Chile%2C_2016-02-09%2C_DD_36.JPG/220px-Gasoducto_junto_a_la_B-145%2C_Chile%2C_2016-02-09%2C_DD_36.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Gasoducto_junto_a_la_B-145%2C_Chile%2C_2016-02-09%2C_DD_36.JPG/330px-Gasoducto_junto_a_la_B-145%2C_Chile%2C_2016-02-09%2C_DD_36.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Gasoducto_junto_a_la_B-145%2C_Chile%2C_2016-02-09%2C_DD_36.JPG/440px-Gasoducto_junto_a_la_B-145%2C_Chile%2C_2016-02-09%2C_DD_36.JPG 2x" data-file-width="8688" data-file-height="5792" /></a><figcaption>Gas pipe in the dry region of Antofagasta, Chile</figcaption></figure> <p>The market size for oil and gas pipeline construction experienced tremendous growth prior to the economic downturn in 2008. After faltering in 2009, demand for pipeline expansion and updating increased the following year as energy production grew.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 2012, almost 32,000 miles (51500 km) of North American pipeline were being planned or under construction.<sup id="cite_ref-pipelineandgasjournal.com_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pipelineandgasjournal.com-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When pipelines are constrained, additional pipeline product transportation options may include the use of drag reducing agents, or by transporting product via truck or rail. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Construction_and_operation">Construction and operation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Construction and operation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Oil pipelines are made from <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> or <a href="/wiki/HDPE_pipe" title="HDPE pipe">plastic tubes</a> with inner diameter typically from 4 to 48 inches (100 to 1,220 mm). Most pipelines are typically buried at a depth of about 3 to 6 feet (0.91 to 1.83 m). To protect pipes from <a href="/wiki/Impact_(mechanics)" title="Impact (mechanics)">impact</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abrasion_(mechanical)" title="Abrasion (mechanical)">abrasion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">corrosion</a>, a variety of methods are used. These can include <a href="/wiki/Wood_lagging" title="Wood lagging">wood lagging</a> (wood slats), <a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</a> coating, rockshield, <a href="/wiki/HDPE_pipe" title="HDPE pipe">high-density polyethylene</a>, imported sand padding, sacrificial cathodes and padding machines.<sup id="cite_ref-asme_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-asme-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Crude oil contains varying amounts of <a href="/wiki/Paraffin_wax" title="Paraffin wax">paraffin wax</a> and in colder climates wax buildup may occur within a pipeline. Often these pipelines are inspected and cleaned using <a href="/wiki/Pigging" title="Pigging">pigging</a>, the practice of using devices known as "pigs" to perform various maintenance operations on a pipeline. The devices are also known as "scrapers" or "Go-devils". "Smart pigs" (also known as "intelligent" or "intelligence" pigs) are used to detect anomalies in the pipe such as dents, metal loss caused by corrosion, cracking or other mechanical damage.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These devices are launched from pig-launcher stations and travel through the pipeline to be received at any other station down-stream, either cleaning wax deposits and material that may have accumulated inside the line or inspecting and recording the condition of the line. </p><p>For natural gas, pipelines are constructed of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_steel" title="Carbon steel">carbon steel</a> and vary in size from 2 to 60 inches (51 to 1,524 mm) in diameter, depending on the type of pipeline. The gas is pressurized by <a href="/wiki/Compressor_station" title="Compressor station">compressor stations</a> and is odorless unless mixed with a <a href="/wiki/Thiol" title="Thiol">mercaptan odorant</a> where required by a regulating authority. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ammonia">Ammonia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Ammonia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/The_Togliattiazot_affair" title="The Togliattiazot affair">The Togliattiazot affair</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ammiakoprovod_NS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Ammiakoprovod_NS.jpg/250px-Ammiakoprovod_NS.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="337" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Ammiakoprovod_NS.jpg/330px-Ammiakoprovod_NS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Ammiakoprovod_NS.jpg/500px-Ammiakoprovod_NS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="522" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>The world's longest ammonia pipeline, from Russia to <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Until damaged during the <a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russian</a>–<a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukrainian</a> <i>Transammiak</i> line was the longest ammonia pipeline in the world, at 2,500<span class="nowrap"> </span>km.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It connected the <a href="/wiki/TogliattiAzot" title="TogliattiAzot">TogliattiAzot</a> facility in Russia to the exporting <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>-port of <a href="/wiki/Odesa" title="Odesa">Odesa</a> in Ukraine. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alcohol_fuels">Alcohol fuels</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Alcohol fuels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Biobutanol" class="mw-redirect" title="Biobutanol">Biobutanol</a></div> <p>Pipelines have been used for transportation of <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a> in Brazil, and there are several ethanol pipeline projects in Brazil and the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-ustoday_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ustoday-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main problems related to the transport of ethanol by pipeline are its corrosive nature and tendency to absorb water and impurities in pipelines, which are not problems with oil and natural gas.<sup id="cite_ref-ustoday_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ustoday-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-whims_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-whims-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Insufficient volumes and cost-effectiveness are other considerations limiting construction of ethanol pipelines.<sup id="cite_ref-whims_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-whims-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-iowa_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iowa-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the US minimal amounts of ethanol are transported by pipeline. Most ethanol is shipped by rail, the main alternatives being truck and barge. Delivering ethanol by pipeline is the most desirable option, but ethanol's affinity for water and solvent properties require the use of a dedicated pipeline, or significant cleanup of existing pipelines. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Coal_and_ore">Coal and ore</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Coal and ore"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Slurry_pipeline" title="Slurry pipeline">Slurry pipelines</a> are sometimes used to transport coal or ore from mines. The material to be transported is closely mixed with water before being introduced to the pipeline; at the far end, the material must be dried. One example is a 525-kilometre (326 mi) slurry pipeline which is planned to transport iron ore from the <a href="/wiki/Minas-Rio" title="Minas-Rio">Minas-Rio</a> mine (producing 26.5 million tonnes per year) to the <a href="/wiki/Superporto_do_A%C3%A7u" title="Superporto do Açu">Port of Açu</a> in Brazil.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An existing example is the 85-kilometre (53 mi) Savage River Slurry pipeline in <a href="/wiki/Tasmania" title="Tasmania">Tasmania</a>, Australia, possibly the world's first when it was built in 1967. It includes a 366-metre (1,201 ft) bridge span at 167 metres (548 ft) above the Savage River.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hydrogen">Hydrogen</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Hydrogen"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_pipeline_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen pipeline transport">Hydrogen pipeline transport</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_pipeline_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen pipeline transport">Hydrogen pipeline transport</a> is a transportation of hydrogen through a <a href="/wiki/Pipe_(material)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pipe (material)">pipe</a> as part of the <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_infrastructure" title="Hydrogen infrastructure">hydrogen infrastructure</a>. Hydrogen pipeline transport is used to connect the point of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_production" title="Hydrogen production">hydrogen production</a> or delivery of hydrogen with the point of demand, with transport costs similar to <a href="/wiki/Compressed_natural_gas" title="Compressed natural gas">CNG</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the technology is proven.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> is produced at the place of demand with every 50 to 100 miles (160 km) an industrial production facility.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 1938 <a href="/wiki/Rhine-Ruhr" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhine-Ruhr">Rhine-Ruhr</a> 240-kilometre (150 mi) hydrogen pipeline is still in operation.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 2004<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, there are 900 miles (1,400 km) of low pressure hydrogen pipelines in the US and 930 miles (1,500 km) in Europe. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Water">Water</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Water"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Water_transportation" title="Water transportation">Water transportation</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_(watercourse)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aqueduct (watercourse)">Aqueduct (watercourse)</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_water_supply_and_sanitation" title="History of water supply and sanitation">History of water supply and sanitation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LA_Aqueduct_Antelope_Valley.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/LA_Aqueduct_Antelope_Valley.jpg/220px-LA_Aqueduct_Antelope_Valley.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/LA_Aqueduct_Antelope_Valley.jpg/330px-LA_Aqueduct_Antelope_Valley.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/LA_Aqueduct_Antelope_Valley.jpg/440px-LA_Aqueduct_Antelope_Valley.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Aqueduct" title="Los Angeles Aqueduct">Los Angeles Aqueduct</a> in <a href="/wiki/Antelope_Valley" title="Antelope Valley">Antelope Valley</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Two millennia ago, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">ancient Romans</a> made use of large <a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">aqueducts</a> to transport water from higher elevations by building the aqueducts in graduated segments that allowed <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a> to push the water along until it reached its destination. Hundreds of these were built throughout Europe and elsewhere, and along with <a href="/wiki/Flour_mill" class="mw-redirect" title="Flour mill">flour mills</a> were considered the lifeline of the Roman Empire. The <a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">ancient Chinese</a> also made use of channels and pipe systems for public works. The famous <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> court <a href="/wiki/Eunuch_(court_official)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eunuch (court official)">eunuch</a> <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Rang" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhang Rang">Zhang Rang</a> (d. 189 AD) once ordered the engineer Bi Lan to construct a series of square-pallet <a href="/wiki/Chain_pump" title="Chain pump">chain pumps</a> outside the capital city of <a href="/wiki/Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyang</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_33_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_33-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These chain pumps serviced the imperial <a href="/wiki/Palace" title="Palace">palaces</a> and living quarters of the capital city as the water lifted by the chain pumps was brought in by a <a href="/wiki/Stoneware" title="Stoneware">stoneware</a> <a href="/wiki/Pipe_(material)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pipe (material)">pipe</a> system.<sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_33_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_33-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-needham_volume_4_part_2_345_346_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_4_part_2_345_346-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pipelines are useful for transporting water for <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">drinking</a> or <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> over long distances when it needs to move over <a href="/wiki/Hill" title="Hill">hills</a>, or where <a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">canals</a> or <a href="/wiki/Channel_(geography)" title="Channel (geography)">channels</a> are poor choices due to considerations of <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">pollution</a>, or environmental impact. </p><p>The 530 km (330 miles) <a href="/wiki/Goldfields_Water_Supply_Scheme" title="Goldfields Water Supply Scheme">Goldfields Water Supply Scheme</a> in <a href="/wiki/Western_Australia" title="Western Australia">Western Australia</a> using 750 mm (30 inch) pipe and completed in 1903 was the largest water supply scheme of its time.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Examples of significant water pipelines in <a href="/wiki/South_Australia" title="South Australia">South Australia</a> are the <a href="/wiki/Morgan_Whyalla_pipeline" title="Morgan Whyalla pipeline">Morgan-Whyalla pipeline</a> (completed 1944) and <a href="/wiki/Mannum-Adelaide_pipeline" class="mw-redirect" title="Mannum-Adelaide pipeline">Mannum-Adelaide pipeline</a> (completed 1955) pipelines, both part of the larger <a href="/wiki/Snowy_Mountains_scheme" class="mw-redirect" title="Snowy Mountains scheme">Snowy Mountains scheme</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="Los Angeles, California">Los Angeles, California</a> aqueducts, the <a href="/wiki/Owens_Valley_aqueduct" class="mw-redirect" title="Owens Valley aqueduct">Owens Valley aqueduct</a> (completed 1913) and the <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_aqueduct#Second_Los_Angeles_Aqueduct" class="mw-redirect" title="Los Angeles aqueduct">Second Los Angeles Aqueduct</a> (completed 1970), include extensive use of pipelines. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Great_Manmade_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Manmade River">Great Manmade River</a> of Libya supplies 3,680,000 cubic metres (4,810,000 cu yd) of water each day to Tripoli, Benghazi, Sirte, and several other cities in Libya. The pipeline is over 2,800 kilometres (1,700 mi) long, and is connected to wells tapping an aquifer over 500 metres (1,600 ft) underground.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_systems">Other systems</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Other systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="District_heating">District heating</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: District heating"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fernw%C3%A4rmeleitung_D%C3%BC_StP%C3%B6_mit_Kraftwerk_D%C3%BCrnrohr.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Fernw%C3%A4rmeleitung_D%C3%BC_StP%C3%B6_mit_Kraftwerk_D%C3%BCrnrohr.jpg/250px-Fernw%C3%A4rmeleitung_D%C3%BC_StP%C3%B6_mit_Kraftwerk_D%C3%BCrnrohr.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="301" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Fernw%C3%A4rmeleitung_D%C3%BC_StP%C3%B6_mit_Kraftwerk_D%C3%BCrnrohr.jpg/330px-Fernw%C3%A4rmeleitung_D%C3%BC_StP%C3%B6_mit_Kraftwerk_D%C3%BCrnrohr.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Fernw%C3%A4rmeleitung_D%C3%BC_StP%C3%B6_mit_Kraftwerk_D%C3%BCrnrohr.jpg/500px-Fernw%C3%A4rmeleitung_D%C3%BC_StP%C3%B6_mit_Kraftwerk_D%C3%BCrnrohr.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1414" data-file-height="2129" /></a><figcaption>District heating pipeline in Austria with a length of 31 km<sup id="cite_ref-Wärmetransportleitung_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wärmetransportleitung-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/District_heating" title="District heating">District heating</a></div> <p>District heating or <i>teleheating</i> systems consist of a network of <a href="/wiki/Insulated_pipe" title="Insulated pipe">insulated</a> feed and return pipes which transport heated water, <a href="/wiki/Pressurized_hot_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressurized hot water">pressurized hot water</a>, or sometimes <a href="/wiki/Steam" title="Steam">steam</a> to the customer. While steam is hottest and may be used in <a href="/wiki/Industrial_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial process">industrial processes</a> due to its higher temperature, it is less <a href="/wiki/Thermal_efficiency" title="Thermal efficiency">efficient</a> to produce and transport due to greater heat losses. Heat transfer oils are generally not used for economic and ecological reasons. The typical annual loss of thermal energy through distribution is around 10%, as seen in Norway's district heating network.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>District heating pipelines are normally installed underground, with some exceptions. Within the system, <a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy_storage" title="Thermal energy storage">heat storage</a> may be installed to even out peak load demands. Heat is transferred into the <a href="/wiki/Central_heating" title="Central heating">central heating</a> of the dwellings through <a href="/wiki/Heat_exchanger" title="Heat exchanger">heat exchangers</a> at <a href="/wiki/District_heating_substation" title="District heating substation">heat substations</a>, without mixing of the fluids in either system. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beer">Beer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Beer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thor_pipeline.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Thor Pipeline in Randers, Denmark" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Thor_pipeline.jpg/220px-Thor_pipeline.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Thor_pipeline.jpg/330px-Thor_pipeline.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Thor_pipeline.jpg/440px-Thor_pipeline.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Thor Pipeline in <a href="/wiki/Randers" title="Randers">Randers</a>, Denmark</figcaption></figure> <p>Bars in the <a href="/wiki/Veltins-Arena" class="mw-redirect" title="Veltins-Arena">Veltins-Arena</a>, a major <a href="/wiki/Association_football" title="Association football">football</a> ground in <a href="/wiki/Gelsenkirchen" title="Gelsenkirchen">Gelsenkirchen</a>, Germany, are interconnected by a 5-kilometre (3.1 mi) long beer pipeline. In <a href="/wiki/Randers" title="Randers">Randers</a> city in Denmark, the so-called Thor Beer pipeline was operated. Originally, copper pipes ran directly from the brewery, but when the brewery moved out of the city in the 1990s, Thor Beer replaced it with a giant tank. </p><p>A three-kilometer beer pipeline was completed in <a href="/wiki/Bruges" title="Bruges">Bruges</a>, Belgium in September 2016 to reduce truck traffic on the city streets.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brine">Brine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Brine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The village of <a href="/wiki/Hallstatt" title="Hallstatt">Hallstatt</a> in Austria, which is known for its long history of <a href="/wiki/Salt_mine" class="mw-redirect" title="Salt mine">salt mining</a>, claims to contain "the oldest industrial pipeline in the world", dating back to 1595.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was constructed from 13,000 hollowed-out tree <a href="/wiki/Trunk_(botany)" title="Trunk (botany)">trunks</a> to transport <a href="/wiki/Brine" title="Brine">brine</a> 40 kilometres (25 mi) from Hallstatt to <a href="/wiki/Ebensee" class="mw-redirect" title="Ebensee">Ebensee</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Milk">Milk</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Milk"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Between 1978 and 1994, a 15 km milk pipeline ran between the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a> island of <a href="/wiki/Ameland" title="Ameland">Ameland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Holwerd" class="mw-redirect" title="Holwerd">Holwerd</a> on the mainland, of which 8 km was beneath the <a href="/wiki/Wadden_Sea" title="Wadden Sea">Wadden Sea</a>. Every day, 30,000 litres of milk produced on the island were transported to be processed on the mainland. In 1994, the pipeline was abandoned.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pneumatic_transport">Pneumatic transport</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Pneumatic transport"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Washington,_D.C._Miss_Helen_Ringwald_works_with_the_pneumatic_tubes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Washington%2C_D.C._Miss_Helen_Ringwald_works_with_the_pneumatic_tubes.jpg/220px-Washington%2C_D.C._Miss_Helen_Ringwald_works_with_the_pneumatic_tubes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Washington%2C_D.C._Miss_Helen_Ringwald_works_with_the_pneumatic_tubes.jpg/330px-Washington%2C_D.C._Miss_Helen_Ringwald_works_with_the_pneumatic_tubes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Washington%2C_D.C._Miss_Helen_Ringwald_works_with_the_pneumatic_tubes.jpg/440px-Washington%2C_D.C._Miss_Helen_Ringwald_works_with_the_pneumatic_tubes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4122" data-file-height="4191" /></a><figcaption>A pneumatic tube system in Washington, D.C., in 1943</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pneumatic_tube" title="Pneumatic tube">Pneumatic tube</a></div> <p>Rather than transporting fluids, pneumatic tubes are usually used to transport solids in a cylindrical container by compressed air or by partial vacuum. They were most popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and were used to transport small solid objects within a building, e.g. documents in an office or money in a bank. By the 21st century, pneumatic tube transport had been mostly superseded by digital solutions for transporting information, but is still used in cases where convenience and speed in a local environment are important. Hospitals, for example, use them to deliver drugs and specimens.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Marine_pipelines">Marine pipelines</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Marine pipelines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Submarine_pipeline" title="Submarine pipeline">Submarine pipeline</a></div> <p>In places, a pipeline may have to cross water expanses, such as small seas, straits and rivers.<sup id="cite_ref-Palmer&KingP.2_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Palmer&KingP.2-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In many instances, they lie entirely on the seabed. These pipelines are referred to as "marine" pipelines (also, "submarine" or "offshore" pipelines). They are used primarily to carry oil or gas, but transportation of water is also important.<sup id="cite_ref-Palmer&KingP.2_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Palmer&KingP.2-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In offshore projects, a distinction is made between a "flowline" and a pipeline.<sup id="cite_ref-Palmer&KingP.2_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Palmer&KingP.2-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DeanP.338_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeanP.338-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bai&BaiP.24_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bai&BaiP.24-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The former is an <i>intrafield</i> pipeline, in the sense that it is used to connect subsea <a href="/wiki/Wellhead" title="Wellhead">wellheads</a>, manifolds and the <a href="/wiki/Oil_platform" title="Oil platform">platform</a> <i>within</i> a particular development field. The latter, sometimes referred to as an "export pipeline", is used to bring the resource to shore.<sup id="cite_ref-DeanP.338_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeanP.338-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The construction and maintenance of marine pipelines imply logistical challenges that are different from those onland, mainly because of wave and current dynamics, along with other <a href="/wiki/Geohazard" class="mw-redirect" title="Geohazard">geohazards</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Functions">Functions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Functions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:How_it_Works_Refined_Petroleum_Product_Pipelines.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/How_it_Works_Refined_Petroleum_Product_Pipelines.png/250px-How_it_Works_Refined_Petroleum_Product_Pipelines.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/How_it_Works_Refined_Petroleum_Product_Pipelines.png/330px-How_it_Works_Refined_Petroleum_Product_Pipelines.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/How_it_Works_Refined_Petroleum_Product_Pipelines.png/500px-How_it_Works_Refined_Petroleum_Product_Pipelines.png 2x" data-file-width="673" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Refined petroleum product pipelines may carry multiple products at the same time, in batches that are drawn off as they reach consumers some hours or days after injection.</figcaption></figure> <p>In general, pipelines can be classified in three categories depending on purpose: </p> <dl><dt>Gathering pipelines</dt> <dd>Group of smaller interconnected pipelines forming complex networks with the purpose of bringing crude oil or natural gas from several nearby wells to a treatment plant or processing facility. In this group, pipelines are usually short- a couple hundred metres- and with small diameters. Sub-sea pipelines for collecting product from deep water production platforms are also considered gathering systems.</dd> <dt>Transportation pipelines</dt> <dd>Mainly long pipes with large diameters, moving products (oil, gas, refined products) between cities, countries and even continents. These transportation networks include several compressor stations in gas lines or pump stations for crude and multi-products pipelines.</dd> <dt>Distribution pipelines</dt> <dd>Composed of several interconnected pipelines with small diameters, used to take the products to the final consumer. Feeder lines to distribute gas to homes and businesses downstream. Pipelines at terminals for distributing products to tanks and storage facilities are included in this groups.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development_and_planning">Development and planning</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Development and planning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When a pipeline is built, the construction project not only covers the <a href="/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">civil engineering</a> work to lay the pipeline and build the pump/compressor stations, it also has to cover all the work related to the installation of the field devices that will support remote operation. </p><p>The pipeline is routed along what is known as a "right of way". Pipelines are generally developed and built using the following stages: </p> <ol><li>Open season to determine market interest: Potential customers are given the chance to sign up for part of the new pipeline's capacity rights.</li> <li>Route (right of way) selection including land acquisition (<a href="/wiki/Eminent_domain" title="Eminent domain">eminent domain</a>)</li> <li>Pipeline design: The pipeline project may take a number of forms, including the construction of a new pipeline, conversion of existing pipeline from one fuel type to another, or improvements to facilities on a current pipeline route.</li> <li>Obtaining approval: Once the design is finalized and the first pipeline customers have purchased their share of capacity, the project must be approved by the relevant regulatory agencies.</li> <li>Surveying the route</li> <li>Clearing the route</li> <li>Trenching – Main Route and Crossings (roads, rail, other pipes, etc.)</li> <li>Installing the pipe</li> <li>Installing valves, intersections, etc.</li> <li>Covering the pipe and trench</li> <li>Testing: Once construction is completed, the new pipeline is subjected to tests to ensure its structural integrity. These may include hydrostatic testing and line packing.<sup id="cite_ref-eia.gov_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eia.gov-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>Russia has "Pipeline Troops" as part of the <a href="/wiki/Rear_Services" class="mw-redirect" title="Rear Services">Rear Services</a>, who are trained to build and repair pipelines. Russia is the only country to have Pipeline Troops.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The U.S. government, mainly through the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">EPA</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Energy_Regulatory_Commission" title="Federal Energy Regulatory Commission">FERC</a> and others, reviews proposed pipeline projects in order to comply with the <a href="/wiki/Clean_Water_Act" title="Clean Water Act">Clean Water Act</a>, the <a href="/wiki/National_Environmental_Policy_Act" title="National Environmental Policy Act">National Environmental Policy Act</a>, other laws and, in some cases, municipal laws.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Biden administration has sought to permit the respective states and tribal groups to appraise and potentially block the proposed projects.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Operation">Operation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Operation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Field devices are instrumentation, data gathering units and communication systems. The field <a href="/wiki/Instrumentation" title="Instrumentation">instrumentation</a> includes flow, pressure, and temperature gauges/transmitters, and other devices to measure the relevant data required. These instruments are installed along the pipeline on some specific locations, such as injection or delivery stations, pump stations (liquid pipelines) or compressor stations (gas pipelines), and block valve stations. </p><p>The information measured by these field instruments is then gathered in local <a href="/wiki/Remote_terminal_unit" title="Remote terminal unit">remote terminal units</a> (RTU) that transfer the field data to a central location in real time using communication systems, such as satellite channels, microwave links, or cellular phone connections. </p><p>Pipelines are controlled and operated remotely, from what is usually known as the "Main Control Room". In this center, all the data related to field measurement is consolidated in one central database. The data is received from multiple RTUs along the pipeline. It is common to find RTUs installed at every station along the pipeline. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pipeline-Scada.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/46/Pipeline-Scada.jpg/500px-Pipeline-Scada.jpg" decoding="async" width="500" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/46/Pipeline-Scada.jpg/750px-Pipeline-Scada.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/46/Pipeline-Scada.jpg 2x" data-file-width="826" data-file-height="313" /></a><figcaption>The SCADA System for pipelines</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/SCADA" title="SCADA">SCADA</a> system at the Main Control Room receives all the field data and presents it to the pipeline operator through a set of screens or <a href="/wiki/SCADA#Human_Machine_Interface" title="SCADA">Human Machine Interface</a>, showing the operational conditions of the pipeline. The operator can monitor the hydraulic conditions of the line, as well as send operational commands (open/close valves, turn on/off compressors or pumps, change setpoints, etc.) through the SCADA system to the field. </p><p>To optimize and secure the operation of these assets, some pipeline companies are using what is called "Advanced Pipeline Applications", which are software tools installed on top of the SCADA system, that provide extended functionality to perform leak detection, leak location, batch tracking (liquid lines), pig tracking, composition tracking, predictive modeling, look ahead modeling, and operator training. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technology">Technology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Technology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Components">Components</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Components"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trans-Alaska_Pipeline_crossing_a_ridge_by_Tanana_River.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Trans-Alaska_Pipeline_crossing_a_ridge_by_Tanana_River.jpg/250px-Trans-Alaska_Pipeline_crossing_a_ridge_by_Tanana_River.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Trans-Alaska_Pipeline_crossing_a_ridge_by_Tanana_River.jpg/330px-Trans-Alaska_Pipeline_crossing_a_ridge_by_Tanana_River.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Trans-Alaska_Pipeline_crossing_a_ridge_by_Tanana_River.jpg/500px-Trans-Alaska_Pipeline_crossing_a_ridge_by_Tanana_River.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1232" data-file-height="1632" /></a><figcaption>The Trans Alaska Pipeline crossing under the <a href="/wiki/Delta_River" title="Delta River">Delta River</a> and over ridge of the <a href="/wiki/Alaska_Range" title="Alaska Range">Alaska Range</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Pipeline networks are composed of several pieces of equipment that operate together to move products from location to location. The main elements of a pipeline system are: </p> <dl><dt>Initial injection station</dt> <dd>Known also as "supply" or "inlet" station, is the beginning of the system, where the product is injected into the line. Storage facilities, pumps or compressors are usually located at these locations.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Compressor/pump stations</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Pump" title="Pump">Pumps</a> for liquid pipelines and <a href="/wiki/Compressors" class="mw-redirect" title="Compressors">compressors</a> for gas pipelines, are located along the line to move the product through the pipeline. The location of these stations is defined by the topography of the terrain, the type of product being transported, or operational conditions of the network.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Partial delivery station</dt> <dd>Known also as "intermediate stations", these facilities allow the pipeline operator to deliver part of the product being transported.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Block valve station</dt> <dd>These are the first line of protection for pipelines. With these valves the operator can isolate any segment of the line for maintenance work or isolate a rupture or leak. Block valve stations are usually located every 20 to 30 miles (48 km), depending on the type of pipeline. Even though it is not a design rule, it is a very usual practice in liquid pipelines. The location of these stations depends exclusively on the nature of the product being transported, the trajectory of the pipeline and/or the operational conditions of the line.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Regulator station</dt> <dd>This is a special type of valve station, where the operator can release some of the pressure from the line. Regulators are usually located at the downhill side of a peak.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Final delivery station</dt> <dd>Known also as "outlet" stations or terminals, this is where the product will be distributed to the consumer. It could be a tank terminal for liquid pipelines or a connection to a distribution network for gas pipelines.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Leak_detection_systems">Leak detection systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Leak detection systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since oil and gas pipelines are an important asset of the economic development of almost any country, it has been required either by government regulations or internal policies to ensure the safety of the assets, and the population and environment where these pipelines run. </p><p>Pipeline companies face government regulation, environmental constraints and social situations. Government regulations may define minimum staff to run the operation, operator training requirements, pipeline facilities, technology and applications required to ensure operational safety. For example, in the State of Washington it is mandatory for pipeline operators to be able to detect and locate leaks of 8 percent of maximum flow within fifteen minutes or less. Social factors also affect the operation of pipelines. Product theft is sometimes also a problem for pipeline companies. In this case, the detection levels should be under two percent of maximum flow, with a high expectation for location accuracy. </p><p>Various technologies and strategies have been implemented for monitoring pipelines, from physically walking the lines to satellite surveillance. The most common technology to protect pipelines from occasional leaks is Computational Pipeline Monitoring or CPM. CPM takes information from the field related to pressures, flows, and temperatures to estimate the hydraulic behavior of the product being transported. Once the estimation is completed, the results are compared to other field references to detect the presence of an anomaly or unexpected situation, which may be related to a leak. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/American_Petroleum_Institute" title="American Petroleum Institute">American Petroleum Institute</a> has published several articles related to the performance of CPM in liquids pipelines. The API Publications are: </p> <ul><li>RAM 1130 – Computational pipeline monitoring for liquids pipelines</li> <li>API 1149 – Pipeline variable uncertainties & their effects on leak detectability</li></ul> <p>Where a pipeline containing passes under a road or railway, it is usually enclosed in a protective casing. This casing is vented to the atmosphere to prevent the build-up of flammable gases or corrosive substances, and to allow the air inside the casing to be sampled to detect leaks. The <i>casing vent</i>, a pipe protruding from the ground, often doubles as a warning marker called a <i>casing vent marker</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Implementation">Implementation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Implementation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pipelines are generally laid underground because temperature is less variable. Because pipelines are usually metal, this helps to reduce the expansion and shrinkage that can occur with weather changes.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in some cases it is necessary to cross a valley or a river on a <a href="/wiki/Pipeline_bridge" title="Pipeline bridge">pipeline bridge</a>. Pipelines for centralized heating systems are often laid on the ground or overhead. Pipelines for petroleum running through permafrost areas as Trans-Alaska-Pipeline are often run overhead in order to avoid melting the frozen ground by hot petroleum which would result in sinking the pipeline in the ground. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Maintenance">Maintenance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Maintenance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Maintenance of pipelines includes checking <a href="/wiki/Cathodic_protection" title="Cathodic protection">cathodic protection</a> levels for the proper range, surveillance for construction, erosion, or leaks by foot, land vehicle, boat, or air, and running cleaning pigs when there is anything carried in the pipeline that is corrosive. </p><p>US pipeline maintenance rules are covered in <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Federal_Regulations" title="Code of Federal Regulations">Code of Federal Regulations</a>(CFR) sections, 49 CFR 192 for natural gas pipelines, and 49 CFR 195 for petroleum liquid pipelines. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Regulation">Regulation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Regulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BlendonWoodsPipeline.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/BlendonWoodsPipeline.JPG/220px-BlendonWoodsPipeline.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/BlendonWoodsPipeline.JPG/330px-BlendonWoodsPipeline.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/BlendonWoodsPipeline.JPG/440px-BlendonWoodsPipeline.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2616" data-file-height="3488" /></a><figcaption>An underground petroleum pipeline running through a park</figcaption></figure> <p>In the US, onshore and offshore pipelines used to transport oil and gas are regulated by the <a href="/wiki/Pipeline_and_Hazardous_Materials_Safety_Administration" title="Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration">Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration</a> (PHMSA). Certain offshore pipelines used to produce oil and gas are regulated by the <a href="/wiki/Minerals_Management_Service" title="Minerals Management Service">Minerals Management Service</a> (MMS). In Canada, pipelines are regulated by either the provincial regulators or, if they cross provincial boundaries or the Canada–US border, by the <a href="/wiki/National_Energy_Board" title="National Energy Board">National Energy Board</a> (NEB). Government regulations in Canada and the United States require that buried fuel pipelines must be protected from <a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">corrosion</a>. Often, the most economical method of corrosion control is by use of pipeline <a href="/wiki/Industrial_coating" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial coating">coating</a> in conjunction with <a href="/wiki/Cathodic_protection" title="Cathodic protection">cathodic protection</a> and technology to monitor the pipeline. Above ground, cathodic protection is not an option. The coating is the only external protection. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pipelines_and_geopolitics">Pipelines and geopolitics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Pipelines and geopolitics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Pipeline" title="Special:EditPage/Pipeline">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics_(USSR)_Area_Maps_of_Oil_and_Gas_fields,_Prospects,_Structural_Axes,_and_Petroleum_Facilities_--_1951_-_DPLA_-_bfbf332b09ce6186590cf6158a869bab.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics_%28USSR%29_Area_Maps_of_Oil_and_Gas_fields%2C_Prospects%2C_Structural_Axes%2C_and_Petroleum_Facilities_--_1951_-_DPLA_-_bfbf332b09ce6186590cf6158a869bab.jpg/250px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics_%28USSR%29_Area_Maps_of_Oil_and_Gas_fields%2C_Prospects%2C_Structural_Axes%2C_and_Petroleum_Facilities_--_1951_-_DPLA_-_bfbf332b09ce6186590cf6158a869bab.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics_%28USSR%29_Area_Maps_of_Oil_and_Gas_fields%2C_Prospects%2C_Structural_Axes%2C_and_Petroleum_Facilities_--_1951_-_DPLA_-_bfbf332b09ce6186590cf6158a869bab.jpg/500px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8458" data-file-height="5682" /></a><figcaption>United States <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">CIA</a> map of pipeline infrastructure in the Soviet Union (1951)</figcaption></figure> <p>Pipelines for major energy resources (petroleum and natural gas) are not merely an element of trade. They connect to issues of <a href="/wiki/Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">geopolitics</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_security" title="International security">international security</a> as well, and the construction, placement, and control of oil and gas pipelines often figure prominently in <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">state</a> interests and actions. A notable example of pipeline politics occurred at the beginning of the year 2009, wherein <a href="/wiki/2009_Russia%E2%80%93Ukraine_gas_dispute" title="2009 Russia–Ukraine gas dispute">a dispute</a> between Russia and <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a> ostensibly over pricing led to a major political crisis. Russian state-owned gas company <a href="/wiki/Gazprom" title="Gazprom">Gazprom</a> cut off natural gas supplies to Ukraine after talks between it and the Ukrainian government fell through. In addition to cutting off supplies to Ukraine, Russian gas flowing through Ukraine—which included nearly all supplies to <a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Southeastern Europe">Southeastern Europe</a> and some supplies to <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a>—was cut off, creating a major crisis in several countries heavily dependent on Russian gas as fuel. Russia was accused of using the dispute as leverage in its attempt to keep other powers, and particularly the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>, from interfering in its "<a href="/wiki/Near_abroad" title="Near abroad">near abroad</a>". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hazard_identification">Hazard identification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Hazard identification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Because the <a href="/wiki/Solvent" title="Solvent">solvent</a> fraction of <a href="/wiki/Dilbit" title="Dilbit">dilbit</a> typically comprises <a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound" title="Volatile organic compound">volatile</a> <a href="/wiki/Aromatics" class="mw-redirect" title="Aromatics">aromatics</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Naptha" class="mw-redirect" title="Naptha">naptha</a> and <a href="/wiki/Benzene" title="Benzene">benzene</a>, reasonably rapid carrier <a href="/wiki/Vaporization" title="Vaporization">vaporization</a> can be expected to follow an above-ground spill—ostensibly enabling timely intervention by leaving only a <a href="/wiki/Viscous" class="mw-redirect" title="Viscous">viscous</a> residue that is slow to migrate. Effective protocols to minimize exposure to <a href="/wiki/Petrochemical" title="Petrochemical">petrochemical</a> vapours are well-established, and oil spilled from the pipeline would be unlikely to reach the <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifer</a> unless incomplete remediation were followed by the introduction of another carrier (e.g. a series of torrential downpours). </p><p>The introduction of <a href="/wiki/Benzene" title="Benzene">benzene</a> and other volatile organic compounds (collectively <a href="/wiki/BTEX" class="mw-redirect" title="BTEX">BTEX</a>) to the subterranean environment compounds the threat posed by a pipeline leak. Particularly if followed by rain, a pipeline breach would result in BTEX <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissolution (chemistry)">dissolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chemical_equilibrium" title="Chemical equilibrium">equilibration</a> of benzene in water, followed by <a href="/wiki/Percolation" title="Percolation">percolation</a> of the admixture into the aquifer. Benzene can cause many <a href="/wiki/Benzene#Health_effects" title="Benzene">health problems</a> and is <a href="/wiki/Carcinogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Carcinogenic">carcinogenic</a> with EPA <a href="/wiki/Maximum_Contaminant_Level" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximum Contaminant Level">Maximum Contaminant Level</a> (MCL) set at 5 μg/L for <a href="/wiki/Potable_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Potable water">potable water</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although it is not well studied, single benzene exposure events have been linked to acute carcinogenesis.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, the exposure of livestock, mainly cattle, to benzene has been shown to cause many health issues, such as <a href="/wiki/Neurotoxicity" title="Neurotoxicity">neurotoxicity</a>, fetal damage and fatal poisoning.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The entire surface of an above-ground pipeline can be directly examined for material breach. Pooled petroleum is unambiguous, readily spotted, and indicates the location of required repairs. Because the effectiveness of remote inspection is limited by the cost of monitoring equipment, gaps between <a href="/wiki/Sensor" title="Sensor">sensors</a>, and data that requires interpretation, small leaks in buried pipe can sometimes go undetected. </p><p>Pipeline developers do not always prioritize effective surveillance against leaks. Buried pipes draw fewer complaints. They are <a href="/wiki/Thermal_insulation" title="Thermal insulation">insulated</a> from extremes in <a href="/wiki/Ambient_temperature" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambient temperature">ambient temperature</a>, they are shielded from <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet rays">ultraviolet rays</a>, and they are less exposed to <a href="/wiki/Photodegradation" title="Photodegradation">photodegradation</a>. Buried pipes are isolated from airborne debris, <a href="/wiki/Electrical_storms" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical storms">electrical storms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tornadoes" class="mw-redirect" title="Tornadoes">tornadoes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hurricanes" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurricanes">hurricanes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hail" title="Hail">hail</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">acid rain</a>. They are protected from nesting birds, <a href="/wiki/Rut_(mammalian_reproduction)" title="Rut (mammalian reproduction)">rutting</a> mammals, and stray buckshot. Buried pipe is less vulnerable to accident damage (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Automobile_accidents" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile accidents">automobile collisions</a>) and less accessible to <a href="/wiki/Vandalism" title="Vandalism">vandals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saboteurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Saboteurs">saboteurs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Terrorists" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrorists">terrorists</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Exposure">Exposure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Exposure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Keystone_jan08_DSC_0173.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Keystone_jan08_DSC_0173.jpg/250px-Keystone_jan08_DSC_0173.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Keystone_jan08_DSC_0173.jpg/330px-Keystone_jan08_DSC_0173.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Keystone_jan08_DSC_0173.jpg/500px-Keystone_jan08_DSC_0173.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1803" /></a><figcaption>Protest against the <a href="/wiki/Keystone_Pipeline" title="Keystone Pipeline">Keystone Pipeline</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Previous work<sup id="cite_ref-stansbury_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stansbury-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has shown that a 'worst-case exposure scenario' can be limited to a specific set of conditions. Based on the advanced detection methods and pipeline shut-off <a href="/wiki/Standard_operating_procedure" title="Standard operating procedure">SOP</a> developed by TransCanada, the risk of a substantive or large release over a short period of time contaminating groundwater with benzene is unlikely.<sup id="cite_ref-potential_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-potential-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Detection, shutoff, and remediation procedures would limit the dissolution and transport of benzene. Therefore, the exposure of benzene would be limited to leaks that are below the <a href="/wiki/Detection_limit" title="Detection limit">limit of detection</a> and go unnoticed for extended periods of time.<sup id="cite_ref-stansbury_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stansbury-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leak detection is monitored through a <a href="/wiki/SCADA" title="SCADA">SCADA</a> system that assesses pressure and volume flow every 5 seconds. A pinhole leak that releases small quantities that cannot be detected by the SCADA system (<1.5% flow) could accumulate into a substantive spill.<sup id="cite_ref-potential_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-potential-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Detection of pinhole leaks would come from a visual or <a href="/wiki/Olfactory" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfactory">olfactory</a> inspection, aerial surveying, or mass-balance inconsistencies.<sup id="cite_ref-potential_56-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-potential-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is assumed that pinhole leaks are discovered within the 14-day inspection interval, however snow cover and location (e.g. remote, deep) could delay detection. Benzene typically makes up 0.1 – 1.0% of oil and will have varying degrees of <a href="/wiki/Volatility_(chemistry)" title="Volatility (chemistry)">volatility</a> and dissolution based on environmental factors. </p><p>Even with pipeline leak volumes within SCADA detection limits, sometimes pipeline leaks are misinterpreted by pipeline operators to be pump malfunctions, or other problems. The <a href="/wiki/Enbridge" title="Enbridge">Enbridge</a> Line 6B <a href="/wiki/Kalamazoo_River_oil_spill" title="Kalamazoo River oil spill">crude oil pipeline failure</a> in <a href="/wiki/Marshall,_Michigan" title="Marshall, Michigan">Marshall, Michigan</a>, on July 25, 2010, was thought by operators in Edmonton to be from column separation of the <a href="/wiki/Dilbit" title="Dilbit">dilbit</a> in that pipeline. The leak in wetlands along the <a href="/wiki/Kalamazoo_River" title="Kalamazoo River">Kalamazoo River</a> was only confirmed 17 hours after it happened by a local gas company employee. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spill_frequency-volume">Spill frequency-volume</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Spill frequency-volume"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although the <a href="/wiki/Pipeline_and_Hazardous_Materials_Safety_Administration" title="Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration">Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration</a> (PHMSA) has standard baseline incident frequencies to estimate the number of spills, TransCanada altered these assumptions based on improved pipeline design, operation, and safety.<sup id="cite_ref-potential_56-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-potential-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whether these adjustments are justified is debatable as these assumptions resulted in a nearly 10-fold decrease in spill estimates.<sup id="cite_ref-stansbury_55-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stansbury-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Given that the pipeline crosses 247 miles of the Ogallala Aquifer,<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or 14.5% of the entire pipeline length, and the 50-year life of the entire pipeline is expected to have between 11 – 91 spills,<sup id="cite_ref-stansbury_55-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stansbury-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> approximately 1.6 – 13.2 spills can be expected to occur over the aquifer. An estimate of 13.2 spills over the aquifer, each lasting 14 days, results in 184 days of potential exposure over the 50 year lifetime of the pipeline. In the reduced-scope worst-case exposure scenario, the volume of a pinhole leak at 1.5% of max flow-rate for 14 days has been estimated at 189,000 barrels or 7.9 million gallons of oil.<sup id="cite_ref-stansbury_55-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stansbury-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to PHMSA's incident database,<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> only 0.5% of all spills in the last 10 years were >10,000 barrels. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Benzene_fate_and_transport">Benzene fate and transport</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Benzene fate and transport"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benzene_Transport_to_Groundwater_from_Oil_Spill.pdf" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Benzene_Transport_to_Groundwater_from_Oil_Spill.pdf/page1-300px-Benzene_Transport_to_Groundwater_from_Oil_Spill.pdf.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Benzene_Transport_to_Groundwater_from_Oil_Spill.pdf/page1-450px-Benzene_Transport_to_Groundwater_from_Oil_Spill.pdf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Benzene_Transport_to_Groundwater_from_Oil_Spill.pdf/page1-600px-Benzene_Transport_to_Groundwater_from_Oil_Spill.pdf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1125" /></a><figcaption>Scenario for benzene leaching to groundwater</figcaption></figure> <p>Benzene is considered a light <a href="/wiki/Aromatic_hydrocarbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Aromatic hydrocarbon">aromatic hydrocarbon</a> with high solubility and high volatility.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Benzene has a solubility of 1.79 g/L in water at 15 °C. Is this considered high? (August 2014)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> It is unclear how temperature and depth would impact the volatility of benzene, so assumptions have been made that benzene in oil (1% weight by volume) would not volatilize before equilibrating with water.<sup id="cite_ref-stansbury_55-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stansbury-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Using the <a href="/wiki/Octanol-water_partition_coefficient" title="Octanol-water partition coefficient">octanol-water partition coefficient</a> and a 100-year precipitation event for the area, a worst-case estimate of 75 mg/L of benzene is anticipated to flow toward the aquifer.<sup id="cite_ref-stansbury_55-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stansbury-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The actual movement of the <a href="/wiki/Plume_(hydrodynamics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Plume (hydrodynamics)">plume</a> through <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> systems is not well described, although one estimate is that up to 4.9 billion gallons of water in the Ogallala Aquifer could become contaminated with benzene at concentrations above the MCL.<sup id="cite_ref-stansbury_55-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stansbury-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Final Environmental Impact Statement from the State Department does not include a quantitative analysis because it assumed that most benzene will volatilize.<sup id="cite_ref-potential_56-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-potential-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Previous_dilbit_spill_remediation_difficulties">Previous dilbit spill remediation difficulties</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Previous dilbit spill remediation difficulties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the major concerns over <a href="/wiki/Dilbit" title="Dilbit">dilbit</a> is the difficulty in cleaning it up.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the aforementioned Enbridge Line 6B crude oil pipeline ruptured in Marshall, Michigan in 2010, at least 843,000 gallons of dilbit were spilled.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After detection of the leak, <a href="/wiki/Telescopic_handler" title="Telescopic handler">booms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_truck" title="Vacuum truck">vacuum trucks</a> were deployed. Heavy rains caused the river to <a href="/wiki/Overtop" class="mw-redirect" title="Overtop">overtop</a> existing dams, and carried dilbit 30 miles downstream before the spill was contained. Remediation work collected over 1.1 million gallons of oil and almost 200,000 cubic yards of oil-contaminated sediment and debris from the Kalamazoo River system. However, oil was still being found in affected waters in October 2012.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Accidents_and_dangers">Accidents and dangers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Accidents and dangers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pipelines can help ensure a country's economic well-being and as such present a likely target of terrorists or wartime adversaries. Fossil fuels can be transported by pipeline, rail, truck or ship, though natural gas requires compression or <a href="/wiki/Liquefaction" title="Liquefaction">liquefaction</a> to make vehicle transport economical. For transport of crude oil via these four modes, various reports rank pipelines as proportionately causing less human death and property damage than rail and truck and <a href="/wiki/Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">spilling less oil</a> than truck.<sup id="cite_ref-forbes_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-forbes-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Accidents">Accidents</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Accidents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a more comprehensive list, see <a href="/wiki/List_of_pipeline_accidents" title="List of pipeline accidents">List of pipeline accidents</a>.</div> <p>Pipelines conveying flammable or explosive material, such as natural gas or oil, pose special safety concerns. While corrosion, pressure, and equipment failure are common causes, excavation damage is also a leading accident type that can be avoided by calling 811 before digging near pipelines.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>1965 – A 32-inch gas transmission pipeline, north of Natchitoches, Louisiana, belonging to the Tennessee Gas Pipeline exploded and burned from <a href="/wiki/Stress_corrosion_cracking" title="Stress corrosion cracking">stress corrosion cracking</a> failure on March 4, killing 17 people. At least 9 others were injured, and 7 homes 450 feet from the rupture were destroyed. This accident, and others of the era, led then-President Lyndon B. Johnson to call for the formation of a national pipeline safety agency in 1967. The same pipeline had also had an explosion on May 9, 1955, just 930 feet (280 m) from the 1965 failure.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>June 16, 1976 – A gasoline pipeline was ruptured by a road construction crew in <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a>, California. Gasoline sprayed across the area, and soon ignited, killing 9, and injuring at least 14 others. Confusion over the depth of the pipeline in the construction area seemed to be a factor in the accident.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>June 4, 1989 – The <a href="/wiki/Ufa_train_disaster" title="Ufa train disaster">Ufa train disaster</a>: Sparks from two passing trains detonated gas leaking from a <a href="/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gas" title="Liquefied petroleum gas">LPG</a> pipeline near <a href="/wiki/Ufa" title="Ufa">Ufa</a>, Russia. At least 575 people were reported killed.</li> <li>October 17, 1998 – <a href="/wiki/1998_Jesse_pipeline_explosion" title="1998 Jesse pipeline explosion">1998 Jesse pipeline explosion</a>: A <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a> pipeline exploded at Jesse on the <a href="/wiki/Oil_Rivers" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil Rivers">Niger Delta</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>, killing about 1,200 villagers, some of whom were scavenging <a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">gasoline</a>.</li> <li>June 10, 1999 – A pipeline rupture in a <a href="/wiki/Bellingham,_Washington" title="Bellingham, Washington">Bellingham, Washington</a> park led to the release of 277,200 gallons of gasoline. The gasoline was ignited, causing an explosion that killed two children and one adult. Misoperation of the pipeline and a previously damaged section of the pipe that was not detected before were identified as causing the failure.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>August 19, 2000 – A natural gas pipeline rupture and fire near <a href="/wiki/Carlsbad,_New_Mexico" title="Carlsbad, New Mexico">Carlsbad, New Mexico</a>; this explosion and fire killed 12 members of an extended family. The cause was due to severe internal corrosion of the pipeline.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>July 30, 2004 – A major <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a> pipeline exploded in <a href="/wiki/Ghislenghien" title="Ghislenghien">Ghislenghien</a>, Belgium near <a href="/wiki/Ath" title="Ath">Ath</a> (thirty kilometres southwest of <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a>), killing at least 24 people and leaving 132 wounded, some critically.</li> <li>May 12, 2006 – An oil pipeline ruptured outside <a href="/wiki/Lagos" title="Lagos">Lagos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>. Up to 200 people may have been killed. See <a href="/wiki/Nigeria_oil_blast" class="mw-redirect" title="Nigeria oil blast">Nigeria oil blast</a>.</li> <li>November 1, 2007 – A propane pipeline exploded near Carmichael, Mississippi, about 30 miles (48 km) south of <a href="/wiki/Meridian,_Mississippi" title="Meridian, Mississippi">Meridian, Mississippi</a>. Two people were killed instantly and an additional four were injured. Several homes were destroyed and sixty families were displaced. The pipeline is owned by Enterprise Products Partners LP, and runs from <a href="/wiki/Mont_Belvieu,_Texas" title="Mont Belvieu, Texas">Mont Belvieu, Texas</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Apex,_North_Carolina" title="Apex, North Carolina">Apex, North Carolina</a>. Inability to find flaws in pre-1971 ERW seam welded pipe flaws was a contributing factor to the accident.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>September 9, 2010 – <a href="/wiki/2010_San_Bruno_pipeline_explosion" class="mw-redirect" title="2010 San Bruno pipeline explosion">2010 San Bruno pipeline explosion</a>: A 30-inch diameter high pressure natural gas pipeline owned by the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Gas_and_Electric_Company" title="Pacific Gas and Electric Company">Pacific Gas and Electric Company</a> exploded in the Crestmoor residential neighborhood 2 mi (3.2 km) west of San Francisco International Airport, killing 8, injuring 58, and destroying 38 homes. Poor quality control of the pipe used & of the construction were cited as factors in the accident.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>June 27, 2014 – An explosion occurred after a natural gas pipe line ruptured in Nagaram village, East Godavari district, <a href="/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh" title="Andhra Pradesh">Andhra Pradesh</a>, India causing 16 deaths and destroying "scores of homes".<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>July 31, 2014 – On the night of July 31, <a href="/wiki/2014_Kaohsiung_gas_explosions" title="2014 Kaohsiung gas explosions">a series of explosions</a> originating in underground gas pipelines occurred in the city of <a href="/wiki/Kaohsiung" title="Kaohsiung">Kaohsiung</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>. Leaking gas filled the sewers along several major thoroughfares and the resulting explosions turned several kilometers of road surface into deep trenches, sending vehicles and debris high into the air and igniting fires over a large area. At least 32 people were killed and 321 injured.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="As_targets">As targets</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: As targets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pipelines can be the target of <a href="/wiki/Vandalism" title="Vandalism">vandalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sabotage" title="Sabotage">sabotage</a>, or even <a href="/wiki/Terrorist_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrorist attack">terrorist attacks</a>. For example, between early 2011 and July 2012, a natural gas pipeline connecting Egypt to Israel and Jordan was attacked 15 times.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2019, <a href="/wiki/Tlahuelilpan_pipeline_explosion" title="Tlahuelilpan pipeline explosion">a fuel pipeline north of Mexico City exploded</a> after fuel thieves tapped into the line. At least sixty-six people were reported to have been killed.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In war, pipelines are often the target of military attacks, as destruction of pipelines can seriously disrupt enemy <a href="/wiki/Logistics" title="Logistics">logistics</a>. On 26 September 2022, a <a href="/wiki/2022_Nord_Stream_pipeline_sabotage" class="mw-redirect" title="2022 Nord Stream pipeline sabotage">series of explosions and subsequent major gas leaks</a> occurred on the <a href="/wiki/Nord_Stream_1" title="Nord Stream 1">Nord Stream 1</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nord_Stream_2" title="Nord Stream 2">Nord Stream 2</a> pipelines that run to Europe from Russia under the Baltic Sea. The leaks are believed to have been caused by an act of sabotage.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_pipelines" title="Lists of pipelines">Lists of pipelines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogas#Biogas_gas-grid_injection" title="Biogas">Biogas § Biogas gas-grid injection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_powder_in_gas_pipelines" title="Black powder in gas pipelines">Black powder in gas pipelines</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_gas_system&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Central gas system (page does not exist)">Central gas system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coal_pipeline" title="Coal pipeline">Coal pipeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_heating" title="District heating">District heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomagnetically_induced_current" title="Geomagnetically induced current">Geomagnetically induced current</a> (GIC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/HCNG_dispenser" title="HCNG dispenser">HCNG dispenser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HDPE_pipe" title="HDPE pipe">HDPE pipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_tapping" title="Hot tapping">Hot tapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulically_activated_pipeline_pigging" title="Hydraulically activated pipeline pigging">Hydraulically activated pipeline pigging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_pipeline_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen pipeline transport">Hydrogen pipeline transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrostatic_test" title="Hydrostatic test">Hydrostatic test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inland_Petroleum_Distribution_System" title="Inland Petroleum Distribution System">Inland Petroleum Distribution System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_total_length_of_pipelines" title="List of countries by total length of pipelines">List of countries by total length of pipelines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_gas_pipelines" title="List of natural gas pipelines">List of natural gas pipelines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pipeline_accidents" title="List of pipeline accidents">List of pipeline accidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_gas_pipeline_system_in_the_United_States" title="Natural gas pipeline system in the United States">Natural gas pipeline system in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_networks_simulation" title="Gas networks simulation">Gas networks simulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Pluto" title="Operation Pluto">Operation Pluto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_transport" title="Petroleum transport">Petroleum transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigging" title="Pigging">Pigging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pipeline_bridge" title="Pipeline bridge">Pipeline bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumatic_tube" title="Pneumatic tube">Pneumatic tube</a>, a method for sending documents and other solid materials in capsules through a tube</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_pipework" title="Plastic pipework">Plastic pipework</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforced_thermoplastic_pipe" title="Reinforced thermoplastic pipe">Reinforced thermoplastic pipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russia%E2%80%93Ukraine_gas_disputes" title="Russia–Ukraine gas disputes">Russia–Ukraine gas disputes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slurry_pipeline" title="Slurry pipeline">Slurry pipeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sprayed_in_place_pipe" title="Sprayed in place pipe">Sprayed in place pipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Alaska_Pipeline_Authorization_Act" title="Trans-Alaska Pipeline Authorization Act">Trans-Alaska Pipeline Authorization Act</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pipeline&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-cia-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cia_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cia_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.water-technology.net/projects/gmr/">the original</a> on August 16, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">Apr 15,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=GMR+%28Great+Man-Made+River%29+Water+Supply+Project%2C+Libya&rft.pub=water-technology.net&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.water-technology.net%2Fprojects%2Fgmr%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APipeline" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wärmetransportleitung-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wärmetransportleitung_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gaswaerme.at/de/pdf/10-1/oberhammer.pdf">Andreas Oberhammer; The longest heat transfer pipeline in Austria</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110706092155/http://www.gaswaerme.at/de/pdf/10-1/oberhammer.pdf">Archived</a> 2011-07-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Paper in German. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-10-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bruges%27+Beer+Pipeline+Becomes+Reality&rft.date=2016-09-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.euronews.com%2F2016%2F09%2F15%2Fbruges-beer-pipeline-becomes-reality&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APipeline" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBillie_Ann_Lopez" class="citation web cs1">Billie Ann Lopez. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070210142713/http://www.virtualvienna.net/columns/billie/hallstatt/hallstatt.html">"Hallstatt's White Gold – Salt"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.virtualvienna.net/columns/billie/hallstatt/hallstatt.html">the original</a> on 2007-02-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-05-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hallstatt%27s+White+Gold+%E2%80%93+Salt&rft.au=Billie+Ann+Lopez&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.virtualvienna.net%2Fcolumns%2Fbillie%2Fhallstatt%2Fhallstatt.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APipeline" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See the article <a href="/wiki/Hallstatt" title="Hallstatt">Hallstatt</a> for details and references.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digibron.nl/search/detail/012df08e8a4ffc97d1a4d1a1/amelandse-melk-niet-meer-door-wkddenzeepijp">Amelandse melk niet meer door Waddenzeepijp</a>, Reformatorisch Dagblad 20 January 1994.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWykes2010" class="citation web cs1">Wykes, Sara (2010-01-11). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://med.stanford.edu/news/all-news/2010/01/gone-with-the-wind-tubes-are-whisking-samples-across-hospital.html">"Gone with the wind: Tubes are whisking samples across hospital"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_School_of_Medicine" title="Stanford University School of Medicine">Stanford University School of Medicine</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Herberg et al. (<a href="/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Asian_Research" title="National Bureau of Asian Research">National Bureau of Asian Research</a>, 2010)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080216014638/http://www.oxfordenergy.org/pdfs/NG22.pdf">The Dolphin Project: The Development of a Gulf Gas Initiative</a>, by Justin Dargin, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_Institute_for_Energy_Studies" title="Oxford Institute for Energy Studies">Oxford Institute for Energy Studies</a> Jan 2008 Working Paper NG #22</li> <li>UK – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090512155221/http://www.linewatch.co.uk/">Linewatch</a> – a joint awareness initiative between 14 oil and gas pipeline operators</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=diEDAAAAMBAJ&pg=RA1-PA65"><i>Submarine Gas Pipe Line Taps Undersea Wealth</i></a>. November 1951.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Submarine+Gas+Pipe+Line+Taps+Undersea+Wealth&rft.date=1951-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdiEDAAAAMBAJ%26pg%3DRA1-PA65&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APipeline" class="Z3988"></span> Article about first undersea gas pipeline constructed in the US and the problems encountered</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WSgDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA19">"The Marvels Of Underground Oil Railroads"</a>. <i>Popular Science</i>. April 1937.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Science&rft.atitle=The+Marvels+Of+Underground+Oil+Railroads&rft.date=1937-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWSgDAAAAMBAJ%26pg%3DPA19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APipeline" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tqanBk2lEos">Construction and delivery of compressor stations for a gas pipeline in the Soviet Union by AEG</a> (company video from the 1970s with subtitles)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo38496">Gas Pipeline Safety: Guidance and More Information Needed before Using Risk-Based Reassessment Intervals: Report to Congressional Committees</a> <a href="/wiki/Government_Accountability_Office" title="Government Accountability Office">Government Accountability Office</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.petroleumworld.com/eveditorial-op18102901.htm">[3]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430131844/http://www.petroleumworld.com/eveditorial-op18102901.htm">Archived</a> 2021-04-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Petroleum_industry431" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Petroleum_industry" title="Template:Petroleum industry"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Petroleum_industry" title="Template talk:Petroleum industry"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Petroleum_industry" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Petroleum industry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Petroleum_industry431" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry" title="Petroleum industry">Petroleum industry</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_energy" title="Primary energy">Primary energy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Benchmark_(crude_oil)" title="Benchmark (crude oil)">Benchmarks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argus_Sour_Crude_Index" title="Argus Sour Crude Index">Argus Sour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonny_Light_oil" title="Bonny Light oil">Bonny Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brent_Crude" title="Brent Crude">Brent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dubai_Crude" title="Dubai Crude">Dubai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Basket" title="Indian Basket">Indian Basket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_Crude_Price" title="Indonesian Crude Price">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isthmus-34_Light" title="Isthmus-34 Light">Isthmus-34 Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japan_Crude_Cocktail" title="Japan Crude Cocktail">Japan Cocktail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OPEC_Reference_Basket" title="OPEC Reference Basket">OPEC Reference Basket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapis_crude" title="Tapis crude">Tapis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urals_oil" title="Urals oil">Urals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Texas_Intermediate" title="West Texas Intermediate">West Texas Intermediate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Canadian_Select" title="Western Canadian Select">Western Canadian Select</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Data</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; font-weight:normal;">Natural gas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_natural_gas_consumption" title="List of countries by natural gas consumption">Consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_natural_gas_production" title="List of countries by natural gas production">Production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_natural_gas_proven_reserves" title="List of countries by natural gas proven reserves">Reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_natural_gas_imports" title="List of countries by natural gas imports">Imports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_natural_gas_exports" title="List of countries by natural gas exports">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_gas_prices" title="Natural gas prices">Price</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; font-weight:normal;">Petroleum</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_oil_consumption" title="List of countries by oil consumption">Consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_oil_production" title="List of countries by oil production">Production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_proven_oil_reserves" title="List of countries by proven oil reserves">Reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_oil_imports" title="List of countries by oil imports">Imports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_oil_exports" title="List of countries by oil exports">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posted_oil_price" title="Posted oil price">Posted oil price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_of_oil" title="Price of oil">Price</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gasoline_and_diesel_usage_and_pricing" title="Gasoline and diesel usage and pricing">of gasoline and diesel</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon_exploration" title="Hydrocarbon exploration">Exploration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Core_sample" title="Core sample">Core sampling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_geophysics" title="Exploration geophysics">Geophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_asset_modelling" title="Integrated asset modelling">Integrated asset modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_engineering" title="Petroleum engineering">Petroleum engineering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reservoir_simulation" title="Reservoir simulation">Reservoir simulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservoir_modeling" title="Reservoir modeling">Reservoir modeling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_geology" title="Petroleum geology">Petroleum geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrophysics" title="Petrophysics">Petrophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflection_seismology" title="Reflection seismology">Reflection seismology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seismic_inversion" title="Seismic inversion">Seismic inversion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismic_source" title="Seismic source">Seismic source</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Oil_well" title="Oil well">Drilling</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blowout_(well_drilling)" title="Blowout (well drilling)">Blowout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Completion_(oil_and_gas_wells)" title="Completion (oil and gas wells)">Completion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Squeeze_job" title="Squeeze job">Squeeze job</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_sticking" title="Differential sticking">Differential sticking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directional_drilling" title="Directional drilling">Directional drilling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geosteering" title="Geosteering">Geosteering</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drill_stem_test" title="Drill stem test">Drill stem test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drilling_engineering" title="Drilling engineering">Drilling engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drilling_fluid" title="Drilling fluid">Drilling fluid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drilling_fluid_invasion" title="Drilling fluid invasion">invasion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lost_circulation" title="Lost circulation">Lost circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Measurement_while_drilling" title="Measurement while drilling">Measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shale_oil_extraction" title="Shale oil extraction">Shale oil extraction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fredrik_Ljungstr%C3%B6m#Shale_oil_extraction" title="Fredrik Ljungström">Ljungström method</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tracer_use_in_the_oil_industry" title="Tracer use in the oil industry">Tracers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underbalanced_drilling" title="Underbalanced drilling">Underbalanced drilling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well_logging" title="Well logging">Well logging</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Extraction_of_petroleum" title="Extraction of petroleum">Production</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_fiscal_regime" title="Petroleum fiscal regime">Petroleum fiscal regime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_licensing" title="Petroleum licensing">Concessions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Production_sharing_agreement" title="Production sharing agreement">Production sharing agreements</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_lift" title="Artificial lift">Artificial lift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_lift" title="Gas lift">Gas lift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumpjack" title="Pumpjack">Pumpjack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submersible_pump" title="Submersible pump">Submersible pump (ESP)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downstream_(petroleum_industry)" title="Downstream (petroleum industry)">Downstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enhanced_oil_recovery" title="Enhanced oil recovery">Enhanced oil recovery (EOR)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_reinjection" title="Gas reinjection">Gas reinjection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam_injection_(oil_industry)" title="Steam injection (oil industry)">Steam injection</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midstream" title="Midstream">Midstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_product" title="Petroleum product">Petroleum product</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pipeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery">Refining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upstream_(petroleum_industry)" title="Upstream (petroleum industry)">Upstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_injection_(oil_production)" title="Water injection (oil production)">Water injection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well_intervention" title="Well intervention">Well intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christmas_tree_(oil_well)" title="Christmas tree (oil well)">XT</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry" title="History of the petroleum industry">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1967_Oil_Embargo" title="1967 Oil Embargo">1967 Oil Embargo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973 oil crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_oil_crisis" title="1979 oil crisis">1979 oil crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980s_oil_glut" title="1980s oil glut">1980s oil glut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990_oil_price_shock" title="1990 oil price shock">1990 oil price shock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2000s_energy_crisis" title="2000s energy crisis">2000s energy crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010s_oil_glut" title="2010s oil glut">2010s oil glut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_Russia%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_oil_price_war" title="2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war">2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalization_of_oil_supplies" title="Nationalization of oil supplies">Nationalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_Exporting_Countries_Forum" title="Gas Exporting Countries Forum">GECF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OPEC" title="OPEC">OPEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Sisters_(oil_companies)" class="mw-redirect" title="Seven Sisters (oil companies)">Seven Sisters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Oil" title="Standard Oil">Standard Oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_Canada" title="History of the petroleum industry in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_France" title="History of the petroleum industry in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_oil_industry_in_India" title="History of the oil industry in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Iraq" title="Petroleum industry in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_Norway" title="History of the petroleum industry in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_oil_industry_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="History of the oil industry in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_petroleum_industry_in_the_United_States" title="History of the petroleum industry in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Venezuelan_oil_industry" title="History of the Venezuelan oil industry">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Provinces<br />and fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_gas_fields" title="List of natural gas fields">List of natural gas fields</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oil_fields" title="List of oil fields">List of oil fields</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Midlands_Oil_Province" title="East Midlands Oil Province">East Midlands Oil Province</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Texas_Oil_Field" title="East Texas Oil Field">East Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niger_Delta#Nigerian_oil" title="Niger Delta">Niger Delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_oil" title="North Sea oil">North Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permian_Basin_(North_America)" title="Permian Basin (North America)">Permian Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prudhoe_Bay_Oil_Field" title="Prudhoe Bay Oil Field">Prudhoe Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_reserves_in_Russia" title="Oil reserves in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_reserves_in_Venezuela" title="Oil reserves in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Canadian_Sedimentary_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin">Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abbreviations_in_oil_and_gas_exploration_and_production" title="List of abbreviations in oil and gas exploration and production">Abbreviations</a></li> <li>Classification <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sweet_crude_oil" title="Sweet crude oil">sweet oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sour_crude_oil" title="Sour crude oil">sour oil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_shale_gas" title="Oil shale gas">Oil shale gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphan_wells" title="Orphan wells">Orphan wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_oil" title="Peak oil">Peak oil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">fossil fuel phase-out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predicting_the_timing_of_peak_oil" title="Predicting the timing of peak oil">timing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrocurrency" title="Petrocurrency">Petrocurrency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrodollar_recycling" title="Petrodollar recycling">Petrodollar recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrofiction" title="Petrofiction">Petrofiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shale_band" title="Shale band">Shale band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shale_gas" title="Shale gas">Shale gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swing_producer" title="Swing producer">Swing producer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unconventional_(oil_and_gas)_reservoir" title="Unconventional (oil and gas) reservoir">Unconventional (oil and gas) reservoir</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_crude_oil" title="Heavy crude oil">heavy crude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_sands" title="Oil sands">oil sands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_shale" title="Oil shale">oil shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tight_oil" title="Tight oil">tight oil</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Companies and<br />organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Major<br /><a href="/wiki/List_of_oil_exploration_and_production_companies" title="List of oil exploration and production companies">petroleum<br />companies</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Big_Oil" title="Big Oil">Supermajors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BP" title="BP">BP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chevron_Corporation" title="Chevron Corporation">Chevron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eni" title="Eni">Eni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ExxonMobil" title="ExxonMobil">ExxonMobil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shell_plc" title="Shell plc">Shell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TotalEnergies" title="TotalEnergies">TotalEnergies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; font-weight:normal;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/National_oil_company" title="National oil company">National oil<br />companies</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Dhabi_National_Oil_Company" title="Abu Dhabi National Oil Company">Abu Dhabi National Oil Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANCAP_(Uruguay)" title="ANCAP (Uruguay)">ANCAP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bharat_Petroleum" title="Bharat Petroleum">Bharat Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_National_Offshore_Oil_Corporation" title="China National Offshore Oil Corporation">China National Offshore Oil Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_National_Petroleum_Corporation" title="China National Petroleum Corporation">China National Petroleum Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopetrol" title="Ecopetrol">Ecopetrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equinor" title="Equinor">Equinor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gazprom" title="Gazprom">Gazprom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindustan_Petroleum" title="Hindustan Petroleum">Hindustan Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Oil_Corporation" title="Indian Oil Corporation">Indian Oil Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_National_Oil_Company" title="Iraq National Oil Company">Iraq National Oil Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KazMunayGas" title="KazMunayGas">KazMunayGas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwait_Petroleum_Corporation" title="Kuwait Petroleum Corporation">Kuwait Petroleum Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grupa_Lotos" title="Grupa Lotos">Lotos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naftogaz" title="Naftogaz">Naftogaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Iranian_Oil_Company" title="National Iranian Oil Company">National Iranian Oil Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Iranian_South_Oil_Company" title="National Iranian South Oil Company">National Iranian South Oil Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NNPC_Limited" title="NNPC Limited">NNPC Limited</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_%26_Gas_Development_Company" title="Oil & Gas Development Company">Oil & Gas Development Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_and_Natural_Gas_Corporation" title="Oil and Natural Gas Corporation">Oil and Natural Gas Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orlen" title="Orlen">Orlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PDVSA" title="PDVSA">PDVSA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pemex" title="Pemex">Pemex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pertamina" title="Pertamina">Pertamina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrobangla" title="Petrobangla">Petrobangla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrobras" title="Petrobras">Petrobras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PetroChina" title="PetroChina">PetroChina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronas" title="Petronas">Petronas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrovietnam" title="Petrovietnam">Petrovietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PTT_Public_Company_Limited" title="PTT Public Company Limited">PTT Public Company Limited</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QatarEnergy" title="QatarEnergy">QatarEnergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosneft" title="Rosneft">Rosneft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Aramco" title="Saudi Aramco">Saudi Aramco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinopec" title="Sinopec">Sinopec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SOCAR" title="SOCAR">SOCAR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonangol_Group" title="Sonangol Group">Sonangol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonatrach" title="Sonatrach">Sonatrach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TPAO" title="TPAO">TPAO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/YPF" title="YPF">YPF</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Energy_trading" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy trading">Energy trading</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enron" title="Enron">Enron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glencore" title="Glencore">Glencore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunvor" title="Gunvor">Gunvor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercuria" title="Mercuria">Mercuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naftiran_Intertrade" title="Naftiran Intertrade">Naftiran Intertrade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trafigura" title="Trafigura">Trafigura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitol" title="Vitol">Vitol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left; font-weight:normal;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/APA_Corporation" title="APA Corporation">APA Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cenovus_Energy" title="Cenovus Energy">Cenovus Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cepsa" title="Cepsa">Cepsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ConocoPhillips" title="ConocoPhillips">ConocoPhillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devon_Energy" title="Devon Energy">Devon Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eneos_Holdings" title="Eneos Holdings">Eneos Holdings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galp_Energia" title="Galp Energia">Galp Energia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hess_Corporation" title="Hess Corporation">Hess Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Husky_Energy" title="Husky Energy">Husky Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Oil" title="Imperial Oil">Imperial Oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lukoil" title="Lukoil">Lukoil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marathon_Oil" title="Marathon Oil">Marathon Oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marathon_Petroleum" title="Marathon Petroleum">Marathon Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occidental_Petroleum" title="Occidental Petroleum">Occidental Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OMV" title="OMV">OMV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phillips_66" title="Phillips 66">Phillips 66</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_Harcourt_Refining_Company" title="Port Harcourt Refining Company">Port Harcourt Refining Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reliance_Industries" title="Reliance Industries">Reliance Industries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repsol" title="Repsol">Repsol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suncor_Energy" title="Suncor Energy">Suncor Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunoco" title="Sunoco">Sunoco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgutneftegas" title="Surgutneftegas">Surgutneftegas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TechnipFMC" title="TechnipFMC">TechnipFMC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TNK-BP" title="TNK-BP">TNK-BP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tullow_Oil" title="Tullow Oil">Tullow Oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCpra%C5%9F" title="Tüpraş">Tüpraş</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valero_Energy" title="Valero Energy">Valero Energy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Major<br /><a href="/wiki/List_of_oilfield_service_companies" title="List of oilfield service companies">services<br />companies</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amec_Foster_Wheeler" title="Amec Foster Wheeler">Amec Foster Wheeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baker_Hughes" title="Baker Hughes">Baker Hughes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cameron_International" title="Cameron International">Cameron International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CGG_(company)" class="mw-redirect" title="CGG (company)">CGG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CH2M" title="CH2M">CH2M</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Bridge_%26_Iron_Company" title="Chicago Bridge & Iron Company">Chicago Bridge & Iron Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Oilfield_Services" title="China Oilfield Services">China Oilfield Services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enbridge" title="Enbridge">Enbridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GE_Power" title="GE Power">GE Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halliburton" title="Halliburton">Halliburton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabors_Industries" title="Nabors Industries">Nabors Industries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naftiran_Intertrade" title="Naftiran Intertrade">Naftiran Intertrade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NOV_Inc." title="NOV Inc.">NOV Inc.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrofac" title="Petrofac">Petrofac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saipem" title="Saipem">Saipem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schlumberger" title="Schlumberger">Schlumberger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snam" title="Snam">Snam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsea_7" title="Subsea 7">Subsea 7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TC_Energy" title="TC Energy">TC Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transocean" title="Transocean">Transocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valaris_Limited" title="Valaris Limited">Valaris Limited</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weatherford_International" title="Weatherford International">Weatherford International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wood_Group" title="John Wood Group">John Wood Group</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Petroleum_Institute" title="American Petroleum Institute">American Petroleum Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_petroleum_companies" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian petroleum companies">Canadian petroleum companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercontinental_Exchange_Futures" title="Intercontinental Exchange Futures">Intercontinental Exchange Futures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_of_Oil_%26_Gas_Producers" title="International Association of Oil & Gas Producers">International Association of Oil & Gas Producers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Energy_Agency" title="International Energy Agency">International Energy Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Petroleum_Engineers" title="Society of Petroleum Engineers">Society of Petroleum Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Petroleum_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="World Petroleum Council">World Petroleum Council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Infrastructure" title="Template:Infrastructure"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Infrastructure" title="Template talk:Infrastructure"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Infrastructure" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Infrastructure"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Infrastructure222" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">Infrastructure</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bridge" title="Bridge">Bridge</a></li> <li><a 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title="Arena">Arena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction" title="Construction">Construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Playground" title="Playground">Playground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_infrastructure" class="mw-redirect" title="Public infrastructure">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stadium" title="Stadium">Stadium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theater_(structure)" title="Theater (structure)">Theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_park" title="Urban park">Urban park</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link 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id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q104841394#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1585" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q104841394#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, 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