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<li id="toc-History_of_evidence-based_medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_evidence-based_medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>History of evidence-based medicine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_evidence-based_medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_evidence-based_policy_making" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_evidence-based_policy_making"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>History of evidence-based policy making</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_evidence-based_policy_making-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methodology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methodology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Methodology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Methodology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types_of_evidence_in_evidence-based_policy_making" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_of_evidence_in_evidence-based_policy_making"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Types of evidence in evidence-based policy making</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types_of_evidence_in_evidence-based_policy_making-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types of evidence in evidence-based policy making subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types_of_evidence_in_evidence-based_policy_making-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Quantitative_evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quantitative_evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Quantitative evidence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quantitative_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Qualitative_evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qualitative_evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Qualitative evidence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qualitative_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scholarly_communication_in_policy-making" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scholarly_communication_in_policy-making"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Scholarly communication in policy-making</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scholarly_communication_in_policy-making-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evidence-based_policy_initiatives_by_non-governmental_organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evidence-based_policy_initiatives_by_non-governmental_organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Evidence-based policy initiatives by non-governmental organizations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Evidence-based_policy_initiatives_by_non-governmental_organizations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Evidence-based policy initiatives by non-governmental organizations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Evidence-based_policy_initiatives_by_non-governmental_organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Overseas_Development_Institute" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overseas_Development_Institute"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Overseas Development Institute</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overseas_Development_Institute-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Pew_Charitable_Trusts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Pew_Charitable_Trusts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>The Pew Charitable Trusts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Pew_Charitable_Trusts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cost-benefit_analysis_in_evidence-based_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cost-benefit_analysis_in_evidence-based_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Cost-benefit analysis in evidence-based policy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cost-benefit_analysis_in_evidence-based_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Critiques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critiques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Critiques</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Critiques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div 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</div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Evidence-based policy</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politika_zalo%C5%BEen%C3%A1_na_faktech" title="Politika založená na faktech – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Politika založená na faktech" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%B5%CE%BA%CE%BC%CE%B7%CF%81%CE%B9%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%AD%CE%BD%CE%B7_%CF%87%CE%AC%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BE%CE%B7_%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE%CF%82" title="Τεκμηριωμένη χάραξη πολιτικής – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τεκμηριωμένη χάραξη πολιτικής" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pol%C3%ADtica_basada_en_la_evidencia" title="Política basada en la evidencia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Política basada en la evidencia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B0%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%AA%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%B1_%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%AF" title="سیاست‌گذاری مبتنی بر شواهد – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سیاست‌گذاری مبتنی بر شواهد" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politique_fond%C3%A9e_sur_les_preuves" title="Politique fondée sur les preuves – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Politique fondée sur les preuves" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A6%9D%EA%B1%B0%EA%B8%B0%EB%B0%98%EC%A0%95%EC%B1%85" title="증거기반정책 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="증거기반정책" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A8%BC%E6%8B%A0%E3%81%AB%E5%9F%BA%E3%81%A5%E3%81%8F%E6%94%BF%E7%AD%96" title="証拠に基づく政策 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="証拠に基づく政策" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pol%C3%ADticas_baseadas_em_evid%C3%AAncias" title="Políticas baseadas em evidências – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Políticas baseadas em evidências" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Доказательная политика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Доказательная политика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A4ytt%C3%B6%C3%B6n_perustuva_politiikka" title="Näyttöön perustuva politiikka – Finnish" lang="fi" 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Approach to decision-making and policy based on empirical data and analysis</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Policy-based_evidence_making" title="Policy-based evidence making">Policy-based evidence making</a>, research conducted to support a pre-determined policy, or <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_policing" title="Evidence-based policing">Evidence-based policing</a>, an approach that utilizes evidence-based methods in police departments.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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.sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Evidence-based_practices" title="Category:Evidence-based practices">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">Evidence-based practices</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_assessment" title="Evidence-based assessment">Assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_design" title="Evidence-based design">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_management" title="Evidence-based management">Management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metascience" title="Metascience">Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_scheduling" title="Evidence-based scheduling">Scheduling</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_dentistry" title="Evidence-based dentistry">Dentistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_medical_ethics" title="Evidence-based medical ethics">Medical ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_medicine" title="Evidence-based medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_nursing" title="Evidence-based nursing">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_pharmacy_in_developing_countries" title="Evidence-based pharmacy in developing countries">Pharmacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_toxicology" title="Evidence-based toxicology">Toxicology</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_conservation" title="Evidence-based conservation">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_education" title="Evidence-based education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_legislation" title="Evidence-based legislation">Legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_library_and_information_practice" title="Evidence-based library and information practice">Library and information practice</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_policing" title="Evidence-based policing">Policing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_prosecution" title="Evidence-based prosecution">Prosecution</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Evidence-based_practices" title="Template:Evidence-based practices"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Evidence-based_practices" title="Template talk:Evidence-based practices"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Evidence-based_practices" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Evidence-based practices"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Evidence-based policy</b> (also known as <b>evidence-informed policy</b> or <b>evidence-based governance</b>) is a concept in <a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a> that advocates for policy decisions to be grounded on, or influenced by, rigorously established objective <a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">evidence</a>. This concept presents a stark contrast to policymaking predicated on ideology, 'common sense', anecdotes, or personal intuitions. The methodology employed in evidence-based policy often includes comprehensive research methods such as <a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Randomized controlled trials">randomized controlled trials</a> (RCT).<sup id="cite_ref-Baron18_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baron18-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Good data, analytical skills, and political support to the use of scientific information are typically seen as the crucial elements of an evidence-based approach.<sup id="cite_ref-Head10_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Head10-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An individual or organisation is justified in claiming that a specific policy is evidence-based if, and only if, three conditions are met. First, the individual or organisation possesses comparative evidence about the effects of the specific policy in comparison to the effects of at least one alternative policy. Second, the specific policy is supported by this evidence according to at least one of the individual's or organisation's preferences in the given policy area. Third, the individual or organisation can provide a sound account for this support by explaining the evidence and preferences that lay the foundation for the claim.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The effectiveness of evidence-based policy hinges upon the presence of quality data, proficient analytical skills, and political backing for the utilization of scientific information.<sup id="cite_ref-Head10_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Head10-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While proponents of evidence-based policy have identified certain types of evidence, such as scientifically rigorous evaluation studies like <a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">randomized controlled trials</a>, as optimal for policymakers to consider, others argue that not all policy-relevant areas are best served by quantitative research. This discrepancy has sparked debates about the types of evidence that should be utilized. For example, policies concerning human rights, public acceptability, or social justice may necessitate different forms of evidence than what randomized trials provide. Furthermore, evaluating policy often demands moral philosophical reasoning in addition to the assessment of intervention effects, which randomized trials primarily aim to provide.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In response to such complexities, some policy scholars have moved away from using the term <i>evidence-based</i> policy, adopting alternatives like <i>evidence-informed</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Boaz19_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boaz19-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This semantic shift allows for continued reflection on the need to elevate the rigor and quality of evidence used, while sidestepping some of the limitations or reductionist notions occasionally associated with the term <i>evidence-based</i>. Discussions on evidence-informed policy have considered, for example, the inclusion of policy, practice and public stakeholders in the production of evidence; the relevance, adaptability and acceptability of evidence, alongside issues of rigour and quality; and how power and politics permeate the production and use of evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-Boaz19_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boaz19-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite these nuances, the phrase "evidence-based policy" is still widely employed, generally signifying a desire for evidence to be used in a rigorous, high-quality, and unbiased manner, while avoiding its misuse for political ends.<sup id="cite_ref-Routledge_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Routledge-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidence-based_policy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">Evidence-based practice</a></div> <p>The shift towards contemporary evidence-based policy is deeply rooted in the broader movement towards <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">evidence-based practice</a>. This shift was largely influenced by the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_medicine" title="Evidence-based medicine">evidence-based medicine</a> during the 1980s.<sup id="cite_ref-Baron18_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baron18-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the term 'evidence-based policy' was not adopted in the medical field until the 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-Guyatt93_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guyatt93-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In social policy, the term was not employed until the early 2000s.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The initial instance of evidence-based policy was manifested in tariff-making in Australia. The legislation necessitated that tariffs be informed by a public report issued by the Tariff Board. This report would cover the tariff, industrial, and economic implications.<sup id="cite_ref-pc.gov.au_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pc.gov.au-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_of_evidence-based_medicine">History of evidence-based medicine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidence-based_policy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History of evidence-based medicine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_medicine" title="Evidence-based medicine">Evidence-based medicine (EBM)</a> is a term that was first introduced by Gordon Guyatt.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, examples of EBM can be traced back to the early 1900s. Some contend that the earliest instance of EBM dates back to the 11th century when Ben Cao Tu Jing from the Song dynasty suggested a method to evaluate the efficacy of ginseng.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many scholars regard <i>evidence-based policy</i> as an evolution from "<a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_medicine" title="Evidence-based medicine">evidence-based medicine</a>", where research findings are utilized to support clinical decisions. In this model, evidence is collected through randomized controlled trials (RCTs) which compare a treatment group with a placebo group to measure outcomes.<sup id="cite_ref-arpa.econ.usyd.edu.au_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arpa.econ.usyd.edu.au-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the earliest published RCTs in medicine date back to the 1940s and 1950s,<sup id="cite_ref-Baron18_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baron18-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the term 'evidence-based medicine' did not appear in published medical research until 1993.<sup id="cite_ref-Guyatt93_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guyatt93-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the same year, the <a href="/wiki/Cochrane_Collaboration" class="mw-redirect" title="Cochrane Collaboration">Cochrane Collaboration</a> was established in the UK. This organization works to keep all RCTs up-to-date and provides "Cochrane reviews", which present primary research in human health and health policy.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The usage of the keyword EBM has seen a significant increase since the 2000s, and the influence of EBM has substantially expanded within the field of medicine.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_of_evidence-based_policy_making">History of evidence-based policy making</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidence-based_policy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History of evidence-based policy making"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The application of <a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">randomized controlled trials</a> in social policy was notably later than in the medical field. Although elements of an evidence-based approach can be traced back as far as the fourteenth century, it was popularized more recently during the tenure of the <a href="/wiki/Premiership_of_Tony_Blair" title="Premiership of Tony Blair">Blair Government</a> in the United Kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-pc.gov.au_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pc.gov.au-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This government expressed a desire to shift away from ideological decision-making in policy formulation.<sup id="cite_ref-pc.gov.au_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pc.gov.au-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, a 1999 UK Government white paper, <i>Modernising Government</i>, emphasized the need for policies that "really deal with problems, are forward-looking and shaped by evidence rather than a response to short-term pressures; [and] tackle causes not symptoms."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This shift in policy formulation led to an upswing in research and activism advocating for more evidence-based policy-making. As a result, the <a href="/wiki/Campbell_Collaboration" title="Campbell Collaboration">Campbell Collaboration</a> was established in 1999 as a sibling organization to the Cochrane Collaboration.<sup id="cite_ref-arpa.econ.usyd.edu.au_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arpa.econ.usyd.edu.au-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Campbell Collaboration undertakes reviews of the most robust evidence, analyzing the impacts of social and educational policies and practices. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Economic_and_Social_Research_Council" title="Economic and Social Research Council">Economic and Social Research Council</a> (ESRC) furthered the drive for more evidence-based policymaking by granting £1.3 million to the Evidence Network in 1999. One outcome of this investment was the establishment of the first international, peer reviewed journal dedicated to the study of the field, <a href="/wiki/Evidence_and_Policy" class="mw-redirect" title="Evidence and Policy">Evidence and Policy</a> in 2005. Similar to both the Campbell and Cochrane Collaborations, the Evidence Network functioned as a hub for evidence-based policy and practice.<sup id="cite_ref-arpa.econ.usyd.edu.au_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arpa.econ.usyd.edu.au-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 2011 to 2022 the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.alliance4usefulevidence.org">Alliance for Useful Evidence</a> was established, funded by the ESRC, Big Lottery, and Nesta, to advocate for the use of evidence in social policy and practice. The Alliance, operating throughout the UK, promoted the use of high-quality evidence to inform decisions on strategy, policy, and practice through advocacy, research publication, idea sharing, advice, event hosting, and training. It also supported the development of the UK’s <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gov.uk/guidance/what-works-network"><i>What Works</i> network</a>. Current collaborations in the UK supporting the field include Transforming Evidence and the Transforming Evidence Network (TEN). </p><p>The application of evidence-based policy varies among practitioners. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Kremer" title="Michael Kremer">Michael Kremer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rachel_Glennerster" title="Rachel Glennerster">Rachel Glennerster</a>, curious about strategies to enhance students' test scores, conducted <a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">randomized controlled trials</a> in Kenya. They experimented with new textbooks and flip charts, and smaller class sizes, but they discovered that the only intervention that boosted school attendance was treating intestinal worms in children.<sup id="cite_ref-Thompson2015_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thompson2015-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their findings led to the establishment of the Deworm the World Initiative, a charity highly rated by <a href="/wiki/GiveWell" title="GiveWell">GiveWell</a> for its <a href="#Cost-effectiveness">cost-effectiveness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Thompson2015_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thompson2015-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recent discussions have emerged about the potential conflicts of interest in evidence-based decision-making applied to public policy development. In their analysis of vocational education in prisons run by the California Department of Corrections, researchers Andrew J. Dick, William Rich, and Tony Waters found that political factors inevitably influenced "evidence-based decisions," which were ostensibly neutral and technocratic. They argue that when policymakers, who have a vested interest in validating previous political judgments, fund evidence, there is a risk of corruption, leading to <a href="/wiki/Policy-based_evidence_making" title="Policy-based evidence making">policy-based evidence making</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methodology">Methodology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidence-based_policy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Methodology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Evidence-based policy employs various methodologies, but they all commonly share the following characteristics: </p> <ul><li>They test a theory as to why the policy will be effective and what the impacts of the policy will be if it is successful.</li> <li>They include a counterfactual: an analysis of what would have occurred if the policy had not been implemented.</li> <li>They incorporate some measurement of the impact.</li> <li>They examine both direct and indirect effects that occur because of the policy.</li> <li>They identify uncertainties and control for external influences outside of the policy that may affect the outcome.</li> <li>They can be tested and replicated by a third party.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <p>The methodology used in evidence-based policy aligns with the <a href="/wiki/Cost_benefit_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Cost benefit analysis">cost-benefit</a> framework. It is designed to estimate a net payoff if the policy is implemented. Due to the difficulty in quantifying some effects and outcomes of the policy, the focus is primarily on whether benefits will outweigh costs, rather than assigning specific values.<sup id="cite_ref-pc.gov.au_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pc.gov.au-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_evidence_in_evidence-based_policy_making">Types of evidence in evidence-based policy making</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidence-based_policy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Types of evidence in evidence-based policy making"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Various types of data can be considered evidence in evidence-based policy making.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> organizes this data into tests to validate or challenge specific beliefs or <a href="/wiki/Hypotheses" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypotheses">hypotheses</a>. The outcomes of various tests may hold varying degrees of credibility within the scientific community, influenced by factors such as the type of <a href="/wiki/Blind_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Blind experiment">blind experiment</a> (blind vs. double-blind), <a href="/wiki/Sample_size" class="mw-redirect" title="Sample size">sample size</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Reproducibility" title="Reproducibility">replication</a>. Advocates for evidence-based policy strive to align societal needs (as framed within <a href="/wiki/Maslow%27s_Hierarchy_of_needs" class="mw-redirect" title="Maslow's Hierarchy of needs">Maslow's Hierarchy of needs</a>) with outcomes that the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> indicates as most probable.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quantitative_evidence">Quantitative evidence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidence-based_policy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Quantitative evidence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Quantitative evidence for policymaking includes numerical data from <a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">peer-reviewed</a> journals, public surveillance systems, or individual programs. Quantitative data can also be collected by the government or <a href="/wiki/Policymakers" class="mw-redirect" title="Policymakers">policymakers</a> themselves through surveys.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both evidence-based medicine (EBM) and evidence-based public health policy constructions extensively utilize quantitative evidence. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Qualitative_evidence">Qualitative evidence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidence-based_policy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Qualitative evidence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Qualitative evidence comprises non-numerical data gathered through methods such as observations, interviews, or focus groups. It is often used to craft compelling narratives to influence decision-makers.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The distinction between qualitative and quantitative data does not imply a hierarchy; both types of evidence can be effective in different contexts. Policymaking often involves a combination of qualitative and quantitative evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scholarly_communication_in_policy-making">Scholarly communication in policy-making</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidence-based_policy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Scholarly communication in policy-making"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Policycycle.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Policycycle.png/300px-Policycycle.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Policycycle.png/450px-Policycycle.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Policycycle.png/600px-Policycycle.png 2x" data-file-width="919" data-file-height="861" /></a><figcaption>Example of the policy cycle concept</figcaption></figure> <p>Academics provide input to <a href="/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">policy</a> beyond the production of content relating to issues addressed via policy through various channels: </p> <ul><li>some studies investigate existing policies (<a href="/wiki/Policy_studies" title="Policy studies">policy studies</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>some studies include policy options with varying levels of specificity or detail<sup id="cite_ref-ipcc6syn_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ipcc6syn-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or compare possible rough pathway-options<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>some science-related organizations devise concrete policy proposals<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>some academics engage in <a href="/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">science communication</a> or activism in various ways such as by holding press conferences, actively engaging with <a href="/wiki/News_media" title="News media">news media</a>, engaging <a href="/wiki/Direct_action" title="Direct action">direct action</a> themselves to attract media <a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">attention</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> writing collectively-signed public documents,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> social media activities,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <a href="/wiki/List_of_open_letters_by_academics" title="List of open letters by academics">creating open letters</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evidence-based_policy_initiatives_by_non-governmental_organizations">Evidence-based policy initiatives by non-governmental organizations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidence-based_policy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Evidence-based policy initiatives by non-governmental organizations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Overseas_Development_Institute">Overseas Development Institute</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidence-based_policy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Overseas Development Institute"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Overseas_Development_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Overseas Development Institute">Overseas Development Institute</a> (ODI) asserts that research-based evidence can significantly influence policies that have profound impacts on lives. Illustrative examples mentioned in the UK's Department for International Development's (DFID) new research strategy include a 22% reduction in neonatal mortality in Ghana, achieved by encouraging women to initiate breastfeeding within one hour of childbirth, and a 43% decrease in mortality among HIV-positive children due to the use of a widely accessible antibiotic. </p><p>Following numerous policy initiatives, the ODI conducted an evaluation of their evidence-based policy efforts. This analysis identified several factors contributing to policy decisions that are only weakly informed by research-based evidence. Policy development processes are complex, seldom linear or logical, thus making the direct application of presented information by policy-makers an unlikely scenario. These factors encompass information gaps, secrecy, the necessity for rapid responses versus slow data availability, political expediency (what is popular), and a lack of interest among policy-makers in making policies more scientifically grounded. When a discrepancy is identified between the scientific process and political process, those seeking to reduce this gap face a choice: either to encourage politicians to adopt more scientific methods or to prompt scientists to employ more political strategies. </p><p>The ODI suggested that, in the face of limited progress in evidence-based policy, individuals and organizations possessing relevant data should leverage the emotional appeal and narrative power typically associated with politics and advertising to influence decision-makers. Instead of relying solely on tools like <a href="/wiki/Cost%E2%80%93benefit_analysis" title="Cost–benefit analysis">cost–benefit analysis</a> and logical frameworks,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the ODI recommended identifying key players, crafting compelling narratives, and simplifying complex research data into clear, persuasive stories. Rather than advocating for systemic changes to promote evidence-based policy, the ODI encouraged data holders to actively engage in the political process. </p><p>Furthermore, the ODI posited that transforming a person who merely 'finds' data into someone who actively 'uses' data within our current system necessitates a fundamental shift towards policy engagement over academic achievement. This shift implies greater involvement with the policy community, the development of a research agenda centered on policy issues instead of purely academic interests, the acquisition of new skills or the formation of multidisciplinary teams, the establishment of new internal systems and incentives, increased investment in communications, the production of a different range of outputs, and enhanced collaboration within partnerships and networks. </p><p>The Future Health Systems consortium, based on research undertaken in six countries across Asia and Africa, has identified several key strategies to enhance the incorporation of evidence into policy-making.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These strategies include enhancing the technical capacity of policy-makers; refining the presentation of research findings; leveraging social networks; and establishing forums to facilitate the connection between evidence and policy outcomes.<sup id="cite_ref-National_Policy-Makers_Speak_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-National_Policy-Makers_Speak-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Pew_Charitable_Trusts">The Pew Charitable Trusts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidence-based_policy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: The Pew Charitable Trusts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/The_Pew_Charitable_Trusts" title="The Pew Charitable Trusts">Pew Charitable Trusts</a> is a non-governmental organization dedicated to using data, science, and facts to serve the public good.<sup id="cite_ref-Pew14_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pew14-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of its initiatives, the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/projects/results-first-initiative">Results First</a>, collaborates with different US states to promote the use of evidence-based policymaking in the development of their laws.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The initiative has created a framework that serves as an example of how to implement evidence-based policy. </p><p>Pew's five key components of evidence-based policy are:<sup id="cite_ref-Pew14_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pew14-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><b>Program Assessment:</b> This involves systematic reviews of the available evidence on the effectiveness of public programs, the development of a comprehensive inventory of funded programs, categorization of these programs by their proven effectiveness, and identification of their potential return on investment.</li> <li><b>Budget Development:</b> This process incorporates the evidence of program effectiveness into budget and policy decisions, prioritizing funding for programs that deliver a high return on investment. It involves integrating program performance information into the budget development process, presenting information to policymakers in user-friendly formats, including relevant studies in budget hearings and committee meetings, establishing incentives for implementing evidence-based programs and practices, and building performance requirements into grants and contracts.</li> <li><b>Implementation Oversight:</b> This ensures that programs are effectively delivered and remain faithful to their intended design. Key aspects include establishing quality standards for program implementation, building and maintaining capacity for ongoing quality improvement and monitoring of fidelity to program design, balancing program fidelity requirements with local needs, and conducting data-driven reviews to improve program performance.</li> <li><b>Outcome Monitoring:</b> This involves routinely measuring and reporting outcome data to determine whether programs are achieving their desired results. It includes developing meaningful outcome measures for programs, agencies, and the community, conducting regular audits of systems for collecting and reporting performance data, and regularly reporting performance data to policymakers.</li> <li><b>Targeted Evaluation:</b> This process involves conducting rigorous evaluations of new and untested programs to ensure they warrant continued funding. This includes leveraging available resources to conduct evaluations, targeting evaluations to high-priority programs, making better use of administrative data for program evaluations, requiring evaluations as a condition for continued funding for new initiatives, and developing a centralized repository for program evaluations.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cost-benefit_analysis_in_evidence-based_policy">Cost-benefit analysis in evidence-based policy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidence-based_policy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Cost-benefit analysis in evidence-based policy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) is a method used in evidence-based policy. It is an economic tool used to assess the economic, social, and environmental impacts of policies. The aim is to guide policymakers toward decisions that increase societal welfare.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The use of cost-benefit analysis in policy-making was first mandated by President Ronald Reagan's Executive Order 12291 in 1981. This order stated that administrative decisions should use sufficient information regarding the potential impacts of regulation. Maximizing the net benefits to society was a primary focus among the five general requirements of the order.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Later presidents, including Bill Clinton and Barack Obama, modified but still emphasized the importance of cost-benefit analysis in their executive orders. For example, Clinton's Executive Order 12866 kept the need for cost-benefit analysis but also stressed the importance of flexibility, public involvement, and coordination among agencies.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During Obama's administration, Executive Order 13563 further strengthened the role of cost-benefit analysis in regulatory review. It encouraged agencies to consider values that are hard or impossible to quantify, like equity, human dignity, and fairness.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The use of cost-benefit analysis in these executive orders highlights its importance in evidence-based policy. By comparing the potential impacts of different policy options, cost-benefit analysis aids in making policy decisions that are based on empirical evidence and designed to maximize societal benefits. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Critiques">Critiques</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidence-based_policy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Critiques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Evidence-based policy has faced several critiques. Paul Cairney, a professor of politics and public policy at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Stirling" title="University of Stirling">University of Stirling</a> in Scotland, contends<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that proponents of the approach often underestimate the complexity of policy-making and misconstrue how policy decisions are typically made. Nancy Cartwright and Jeremy Hardie<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> question the emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Randomized controlled trials">randomized controlled trials</a> (RCTs), arguing that evidence from RCTs is not always sufficient for making decisions. They suggest that applying experimental evidence to a policy context requires an understanding of the conditions present within the experimental setting and an assertion that these conditions also exist in the target environment of the proposed intervention. Additionally, they argue that the prioritization of RCTs could lead to the criticism of evidence-based policy being overly focused on narrowly defined 'interventions', which implies surgical actions on one causal factor to influence its effect. </p><p>The concept of intervention within the evidence-based policy movement aligns with <a href="/wiki/James_F._Woodward" class="mw-redirect" title="James F. Woodward">James Woodward</a>'s interventionist theory of causality.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, policy-making also involves other types of decisions, such as institutional reforms and predictive actions. These other forms of evidence-based <a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">decision-making</a> do not necessitate evidence of an invariant causal relationship under intervention. Hence, mechanistic evidence and observational studies are often adequate for implementing institutional reforms and actions that do not alter the causes of a causal claim.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Furthermore, there have been reports<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of frontline public servants, such as hospital managers, making decisions that detrimentally affect patient care to meet predetermined targets. This argument was presented by Professor Jerry Muller of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_University_of_America" title="Catholic University of America">Catholic University of America</a> in his book <i>The Tyranny of Metrics</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidence-based_policy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_map" title="Argument map">Argument map</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_altruism" title="Effective altruism">Effective altruism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_legislation" title="Evidence-based legislation">Evidence-based legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_management" title="Evidence-based management">Evidence-based management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_policing" title="Evidence-based policing">Evidence-based policing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practices" class="mw-redirect" title="Evidence-based practices">Evidence-based practices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Evidence-based research">Evidence-based research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inverse_benefit_law" title="Inverse benefit law">Inverse benefit law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge-based_decision_making" title="Knowledge-based decision making">Knowledge-based decision making</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_paternalism" title="Libertarian paternalism">Libertarian paternalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_for_Science" title="March for Science">March for Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nudge_theory" title="Nudge theory">Nudge theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Policy-based_evidence_making" title="Policy-based evidence making">Policy-based evidence making</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politicization_of_science" title="Politicization of science">Politicization of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_policy" title="Science policy">Science policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientocracy" title="Scientocracy">Scientocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_Enforcement_Monitoring_System" title="Wildlife Enforcement Monitoring System">Wildlife Enforcement Monitoring System</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidence-based_policy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Baron18-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Baron18_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Baron18_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Baron18_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBaron2018" class="citation journal cs1">Baron, Jon (1 July 2018). "A Brief History of Evidence-Based Policy". <i>The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science</i>. <b>678</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">40–</span>50. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0002716218763128">10.1177/0002716218763128</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-7162">0002-7162</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149924800">149924800</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Annals+of+the+American+Academy+of+Political+and+Social+Science&rft.atitle=A+Brief+History+of+Evidence-Based+Policy&rft.volume=678&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E40-%3C%2Fspan%3E50&rft.date=2018-07-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A149924800%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0002-7162&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0002716218763128&rft.aulast=Baron&rft.aufirst=Jon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidence-based+policy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Head10-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Head10_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Head10_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHead2010" class="citation conference cs1">Head, Brian (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pc.gov.au/research/supporting/strengthening-evidence/roundtable-proceedings-volume1.pdf#page=21">"2 Evidence-based policy: principles and requirements"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Strengthening Evidence Based Policy in the Australian Federation: Roundtable Proceedings</i>. 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Reflections on evidence and preferences"</a>. <i>Evidence & Policy</i>. <b>20</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">244–</span>253. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1332%2F174426421X16905606522863">10.1332/174426421X16905606522863</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:261138726">261138726</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evidence+%26+Policy&rft.atitle=When+is+it+justified+to+claim+that+a+practice+or+policy+is+evidence-based%3F+Reflections+on+evidence+and+preferences&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E244-%3C%2Fspan%3E253&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1332%2F174426421X16905606522863&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A261138726%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Gade&rft.aufirst=Christian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1332%252F174426421X16905606522863&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidence-based+policy" class="Z3988"></span> <i><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="//creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" title="creativecommons:by/4.0/"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Creative_Commons_by_small.svg/80px-Creative_Commons_by_small.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Creative_Commons_by_small.svg/120px-Creative_Commons_by_small.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Creative_Commons_by_small.svg/160px-Creative_Commons_by_small.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="80" data-file-height="15" /></a></span> This article incorporates text available under the <a href="//creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" class="extiw" title="creativecommons:by/4.0/">CC BY 4.0</a> license.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPetticrew2003" class="citation journal cs1">Petticrew, M (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1732497">"Evidence, hierarchies, and typologies: Horses for courses"</a>. <i>Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health</i>. <b>57</b> (7): <span class="nowrap">527–</span>9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fjech.57.7.527">10.1136/jech.57.7.527</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1732497">1732497</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12821702">12821702</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Epidemiology+%26+Community+Health&rft.atitle=Evidence%2C+hierarchies%2C+and+typologies%3A+Horses+for+courses&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E527-%3C%2Fspan%3E9&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1732497%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12821702&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fjech.57.7.527&rft.aulast=Petticrew&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1732497&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidence-based+policy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Boaz19-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Boaz19_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Boaz19_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBoazDaviesFraserNutley2019" class="citation book cs1">Boaz, A; Davies, H; Fraser, A; Nutley, S (2019). <i>What works now? 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(April 2018)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Guyatt93-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Guyatt93_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Guyatt93_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGuyatt1993" class="citation journal cs1">Guyatt, G. H. (1 December 1993). "Users' guides to the medical literature. II. How to use an article about therapy or prevention. A. Are the results of the study valid? 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Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-51781-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-51781-4"><bdi>978-1-137-51781-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/946724638">946724638</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+politics+of+evidence-based+policy+making&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F946724638&rft.isbn=978-1-137-51781-4&rft.aulast=Cairney&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidence-based+policy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCartwrightHardie2012" class="citation book cs1">Cartwright, Nancy; Hardie, Jeremy (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JtsFOZRCY0EC&q=cartwright+and+hardie+evidence+based+policy"><i>Evidence-Based Policy: A Practical Guide to Doing It Better</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199986705" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199986705"><bdi>978-0199986705</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240430062355/https://books.google.com/books?id=JtsFOZRCY0EC&q=cartwright+and+hardie+evidence+based+policy#v=snippet&q=cartwright%20and%20hardie%20evidence%20based%20policy&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 30 April 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evidence-Based+Policy%3A+A+Practical+Guide+to+Doing+It+Better&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0199986705&rft.aulast=Cartwright&rft.aufirst=Nancy&rft.au=Hardie%2C+Jeremy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJtsFOZRCY0EC%26q%3Dcartwright%2Band%2Bhardie%2Bevidence%2Bbased%2Bpolicy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidence-based+policy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWoodward2005" class="citation book cs1">Woodward, James (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vvj7frYow6IC&q=james+woodward+causality"><i>Making Things Happen: A Theory of Causal Explanation</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198035336" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198035336"><bdi>978-0198035336</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Making+Things+Happen%3A+A+Theory+of+Causal+Explanation&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0198035336&rft.aulast=Woodward&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dvvj7frYow6IC%26q%3Djames%2Bwoodward%2Bcausality&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidence-based+policy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMaziarz2020" class="citation book cs1">Maziarz, Mariusz (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NGIPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR7"><i>The Philosophy of Causality in Economics: Causal Inferences and Policy Proposals</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-429-34642-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-429-34642-2"><bdi>978-0-429-34642-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1143838629">1143838629</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Philosophy+of+Causality+in+Economics%3A+Causal+Inferences+and+Policy+Proposals&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1143838629&rft.isbn=978-0-429-34642-2&rft.aulast=Maziarz&rft.aufirst=Mariusz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNGIPEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPR7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidence-based+policy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apolitical.co/solution_article/government-numbers-data-damaging-public-services/">"Government by numbers: how data is damaging our public services"</a>. <i>Apolitical</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180411030144/https://apolitical.co/solution_article/government-numbers-data-damaging-public-services/">Archived</a> from the original on 11 April 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Apolitical&rft.atitle=Government+by+numbers%3A+how+data+is+damaging+our+public+services&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapolitical.co%2Fsolution_article%2Fgovernment-numbers-data-damaging-public-services%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidence-based+policy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMuller2017" class="citation book cs1">Muller, Jerry Z. (2017). <i>The tyranny of metrics</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691174952" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691174952"><bdi>978-0691174952</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1005121833">1005121833</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+tyranny+of+metrics&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1005121833&rft.isbn=978-0691174952&rft.aulast=Muller&rft.aufirst=Jerry+Z.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidence-based+policy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidence-based_policy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCartwrightStegenga2011" class="citation conference cs1">Cartwright, Nancy; Stegenga, Jacob (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/2310181">"A theory of evidence for evidence-based policy"</a>. In Dawid, A.P.; Twining, W.; Vasilaki, M. (eds.). <i>Evidence, Inference and Enquiry</i>. Proceedings of the British Academy. Vol. 171. Oxford University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">290–</span>322. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5871%2Fbacad%2F9780197264843.003.0011">10.5871/bacad/9780197264843.003.0011</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-726484-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-726484-3"><bdi>978-0-19-726484-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=A+theory+of+evidence+for+evidence-based+policy&rft.btitle=Evidence%2C+Inference+and+Enquiry&rft.series=Proceedings+of+the+British+Academy&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E290-%3C%2Fspan%3E322&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5871%2Fbacad%2F9780197264843.003.0011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-726484-3&rft.aulast=Cartwright&rft.aufirst=Nancy&rft.au=Stegenga%2C+Jacob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F2310181&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidence-based+policy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDaviesNutleySmith2000" class="citation book cs1">Davies, H.T.O.; Nutley, S.M.; Smith, P.C. (2000). <i>What Works? Evidence-based Policy and Practice in the Public Services</i>. Bristol: Policy Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctt1t892t3">10.2307/j.ctt1t892t3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86134-191-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-86134-191-1"><bdi>1-86134-191-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/472670136">472670136</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Works%3F+Evidence-based+Policy+and+Practice+in+the+Public+Services&rft.place=Bristol&rft.pub=Policy+Press&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F472670136&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctt1t892t3&rft.isbn=1-86134-191-1&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=H.T.O.&rft.au=Nutley%2C+S.M.&rft.au=Smith%2C+P.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidence-based+policy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHammersley2002" class="citation book cs1">Hammersley, M. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wN7g5aAK_DQC&pg=PP6"><i>Educational Research, Policymaking and Practice</i></a>. Paul Chapman/Sage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84787-645-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84787-645-4"><bdi>978-1-84787-645-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Educational+Research%2C+Policymaking+and+Practice&rft.pub=Paul+Chapman%2FSage&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-84787-645-4&rft.aulast=Hammersley&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwN7g5aAK_DQC%26pg%3DPP6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidence-based+policy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHammersley2013" class="citation book cs1">Hammersley, M. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t29EAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT6"><i>The Myth of Research-Based Policy and Practice</i></a>. Sage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4462-9171-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4462-9171-9"><bdi>978-1-4462-9171-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Myth+of+Research-Based+Policy+and+Practice&rft.pub=Sage&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4462-9171-9&rft.aulast=Hammersley&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt29EAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidence-based+policy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMcKinnonChengGarsideMasuda2015" class="citation journal cs1">McKinnon, Madeleine C.; Cheng, Samantha H.; Garside, Ruth; Masuda, Yuta J.; Miller, Daniel C. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F528185a">"Sustainability: Map the evidence"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>528</b> (7581): <span class="nowrap">185–</span>7. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015Natur.528..185M">2015Natur.528..185M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F528185a">10.1038/528185a</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26659166">26659166</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Sustainability%3A+Map+the+evidence&rft.volume=528&rft.issue=7581&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E185-%3C%2Fspan%3E7&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26659166&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F528185a&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015Natur.528..185M&rft.aulast=McKinnon&rft.aufirst=Madeleine+C.&rft.au=Cheng%2C+Samantha+H.&rft.au=Garside%2C+Ruth&rft.au=Masuda%2C+Yuta+J.&rft.au=Miller%2C+Daniel+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F528185a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidence-based+policy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Evidence-based_policy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090810202035/http://www.archive.official-documents.co.uk/document/cm43/4310/4310.htm">"Modernising Government"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.archive.official-documents.co.uk/document/cm43/4310/4310.htm">the original</a> on 10 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Modernising+Government&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.archive.official-documents.co.uk%2Fdocument%2Fcm43%2F4310%2F4310.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidence-based+policy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.congress.gov/114/plaws/publ140/PLAW-114publ140.pdf">"U.S. Evidence-Based Policymaking Commission Act of 2016"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=U.S.+Evidence-Based+Policymaking+Commission+Act+of+2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.congress.gov%2F114%2Fplaws%2Fpubl140%2FPLAW-114publ140.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidence-based+policy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200117121647/https://www.cep.gov/">"U.S. Commission on Evidence-based Policy"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cep.gov/">the original</a> on 17 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=U.S.+Commission+on+Evidence-based+Policy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cep.gov%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidence-based+policy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/house-bill/4174">"U.S. House bill passed to enact some of CEP recommendations"</a>. November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=U.S.+House+bill+passed+to+enact+some+of+CEP+recommendations&rft.date=2017-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.congress.gov%2Fbill%2F115th-congress%2Fhouse-bill%2F4174&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEvidence-based+policy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Evidence-based_practice" title="Template:Evidence-based practice"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Evidence-based_practice" title="Template talk:Evidence-based practice"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Evidence-based_practice" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Evidence-based practice"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Evidence-based_practice106" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">Evidence-based practice</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Key terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">Evidence-based practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_evidence" title="Hierarchy of evidence">Hierarchy of evidence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effective_altruism" title="Effective altruism">Effective altruism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_assessment" title="Evidence-based assessment">Evidence-based assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_conservation" title="Evidence-based conservation">Evidence-based conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_dentistry" title="Evidence-based dentistry">Evidence-based dentistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_design" title="Evidence-based design">Evidence-based design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_education" title="Evidence-based education">Evidence-based education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_legislation" title="Evidence-based legislation">Evidence-based legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_library_and_information_practice" title="Evidence-based library and information practice">Evidence-based library and information practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_management" title="Evidence-based management">Evidence-based management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_medical_ethics" title="Evidence-based medical ethics">Evidence-based medical ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_medicine" title="Evidence-based medicine">Evidence-based medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_nursing" title="Evidence-based nursing">Evidence-based nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_pharmacy_in_developing_countries" title="Evidence-based pharmacy in developing countries">Evidence-based pharmacy in developing countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_policing" title="Evidence-based policing">Evidence-based policing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_prosecution" title="Evidence-based prosecution">Evidence-based prosecution</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Evidence-based policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_scheduling" title="Evidence-based scheduling">Evidence-based scheduling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_toxicology" title="Evidence-based toxicology">Evidence-based toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journalology" title="Journalology">Journalology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metascience" title="Metascience">Metascience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Clinical_study_design" title="Clinical study design">Methods</a> and concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">Clinical trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematic_review" title="Systematic review">Systematic review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">Meta-analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbrella_review" title="Umbrella review">Umbrella review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">Randomized controlled trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_technology_assessment" title="Health technology assessment">Health technology assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PICO_process" title="PICO process">PICO process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GRADE_approach" title="GRADE approach">GRADE approach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_clinical_trial" title="Pragmatic clinical trial">Pragmatic clinical trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spaced_repetition" title="Spaced repetition">Spaced repetition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_assessment" title="Risk assessment">Risk assessment</a></li> <li>Scientific <a href="/wiki/Uncertainty" title="Uncertainty">uncertainty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Policy-based_evidence_making" title="Policy-based evidence making">Policy-based evidence making</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archie_Cochrane" title="Archie Cochrane">Archie Cochrane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Sackett" title="David Sackett">David Sackett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iain_Chalmers" title="Iain Chalmers">Iain Chalmers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Harvey_(professor)" title="Ken Harvey (professor)">Ken Harvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ioannidis" title="John Ioannidis">John Ioannidis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-profit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Lind_Alliance" title="James Lind Alliance">James Lind Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochrane_(organisation)" title="Cochrane (organisation)">Cochrane Collaboration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campbell_Collaboration" title="Campbell Collaboration">Campbell Collaboration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science-Based_Medicine" title="Science-Based Medicine">Science-Based Medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Governmental</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agency_for_Healthcare_Research_and_Quality" title="Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality">Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Agency_for_Drugs_and_Technologies_in_Health" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health">Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health (CADTH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Network_for_Health_Technology_Assessment" title="European Network for Health Technology Assessment">EUnetHTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Agency_for_Quality_in_Medicine" title="German Agency for Quality in Medicine">German Agency for Quality in Medicine (AEZQ)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Health_and_Care_Excellence" title="National Institute for Health and Care Excellence">National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Agency_for_Health_Technology_Assessment_and_Assessment_of_Social_Services" title="Swedish Agency for Health Technology Assessment and Assessment of Social Services">Swedish Agency for Health Technology Assessment and Assessment of Social Services (SBU)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-Informed_Policy_Network" title="Evidence-Informed Policy Network">WHO Evidence-Informed Policy Network (EVIPNet)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centre_for_Reviews_and_Dissemination" title="Centre for Reviews and Dissemination">Centre for Reviews and Dissemination</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Examine.com" title="Examine.com">Examine.com</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Science_and_technology_studies704" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Science_and_technology_studies" title="Template:Science and technology studies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Science_and_technology_studies" title="Template talk:Science and technology studies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Science_and_technology_studies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Science and technology studies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Science_and_technology_studies704" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">Science and technology studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_science" title="Economics of science">Economics of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Economics of scientific knowledge">Economics of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology" title="History of science and technology">and technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_science" title="Languages of science">Languages of science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_language_(linguistic_classification)" title="Scientific language (linguistic classification)">Scientific language</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuzzy_logic" title="Fuzzy logic">Fuzzy logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Luddism" title="Neo-Luddism">Neo-Luddism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy of social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Philosophy of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructivism" title="Social constructivism">Social constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actor%E2%80%93network_theory" title="Actor–network theory">Actor–network theory</a></li> <li>Social <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_technology" title="Social construction of technology">construction of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_shaping_of_technology" title="Social shaping of technology">shaping of technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">Sociology of knowledge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">Sociology of the history of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnology" title="Sociotechnology">Sociotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strong_programme" title="Strong programme">Strong programme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science<br />studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_bias" title="Academic bias">Academic bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiscience" title="Antiscience">Antiscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliometrics" title="Bibliometrics">Bibliometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundary-work" title="Boundary-work">Boundary-work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_hermeneutic" title="Double hermeneutic">Double hermeneutic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logology_(science)" title="Logology (science)">Logology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapping_controversies" title="Mapping controversies">Mapping controversies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metascience" title="Metascience">Metascience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">Paradigm shift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_swan_events" class="mw-redirect" title="Black swan events">black swan events</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_science" title="Psychology of science">Psychology of science</a></li> <li>Science <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citizen_science" title="Citizen science">citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normal_science" title="Normal science">normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-colonial_science" title="Neo-colonial science">Neo-colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-normal_science" title="Post-normal science">post-normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_wars" title="Science wars">wars</a></li></ul></li> <li>Scientific <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus" title="Scientific consensus">consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_controversy" title="Scientific controversy">controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_dissent" title="Scientific dissent">dissent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_enterprise" title="Scientific enterprise">enterprise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_literacy" title="Scientific literacy">literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_misconduct" title="Scientific misconduct">misconduct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_priority" title="Scientific priority">priority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientocracy" title="Scientocracy">Scientocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientometrics" title="Scientometrics">Scientometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_of_team_science" title="Science of team science">Team science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_knowledge" title="Traditional knowledge">Traditional knowledge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_ecological_knowledge" title="Traditional ecological knowledge">ecological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_science" title="Women in science">Women in science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_STEM_fields" title="Women in STEM fields">STEM</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology<br />studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Co-production_(society)" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-production (society)">Co-production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyborg_anthropology" title="Cyborg anthropology">Cyborg anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design_studies" title="Design studies">Design studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dematerialization_(products)" title="Dematerialization (products)">Dematerialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_anthropology" title="Digital anthropology">Digital anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_adopter" title="Early adopter">Early adopter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_studies" title="Engineering studies">Engineering studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Financial technology">Financial technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hype_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Hype cycle">Hype cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">Innovation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">diffusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disruptive_innovation" title="Disruptive innovation">disruptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_model_of_innovation" title="Linear model of innovation">linear model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_innovation_system" title="Technological innovation system">system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/User_innovation" title="User innovation">user</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leapfrogging" title="Leapfrogging">Leapfrogging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normalization_process_theory" title="Normalization process theory">Normalization process theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_salient" title="Reverse salient">Reverse salient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skunkworks_project" title="Skunkworks project">Skunkworks project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnical_system" title="Sociotechnical system">Sociotechnical system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_change" title="Technical change">Technical change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technoscience" title="Technoscience">Technoscience</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_technoscience" title="Feminist technoscience">feminist</a></li></ul></li> <li>Technological <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technological_change" title="Technological change">change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_convergence" title="Technological convergence">convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_determinism" title="Technological determinism">determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_revolution" title="Technological revolution">revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_transitions" title="Technological transitions">transitions</a></li></ul></li> <li>Technology <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technology_and_society" title="Technology and society">and society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_technology" title="Criticism of technology">criticism of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_dynamics" title="Technology dynamics">dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_technology" title="Theories of technology">theories 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