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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Incitement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Incitement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Incitement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lynching" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lynching"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Lynching </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Lynching-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Lynching subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Lynching-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Victims" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Victims"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Victims </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Victims-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 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</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-coordinates" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">Coordinates</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=1891_New_Orleans_lynchings&params=29_57_47_N_90_4_14_W_">29°57′47″N 90°4′14″W / 29.96306°N 90.07056°W / 29.96306; -90.07056</a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=March_14,_1891_lynchings&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="March 14, 1891 lynchings">March 14, 1891 lynchings</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Murder of eleven Italian men by a mob</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=1891_New_Orleans_lynchings&params=29_57_47_N_90_4_14_W_">29°57′47″N 90°4′14″W / 29.96306°N 90.07056°W / 29.96306; -90.07056</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above summary" style="font-size:125%;">1891 New Orleans lynchings</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:1891_New_Orleans_Italian_lynching.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/1891_New_Orleans_Italian_lynching.jpg/220px-1891_New_Orleans_Italian_lynching.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/1891_New_Orleans_Italian_lynching.jpg/330px-1891_New_Orleans_Italian_lynching.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/1891_New_Orleans_Italian_lynching.jpg/440px-1891_New_Orleans_Italian_lynching.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1232" data-file-height="1730" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Rioters breaking into parish prison, as illustrated in History of the United States (1912, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Scribner%27s_Sons" title="Charles Scribner's Sons">Scribner</a>)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data location"><a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a>, Louisiana</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Date</th><td class="infobox-data">March 14, 1891</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Target</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Italian_American" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian American">Italian American</a> suspects of the murder of <a href="/wiki/David_Hennessy" title="David Hennessy">David Hennessy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Attack type</div></th><td class="infobox-data">Mass <a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">lynching</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mass_murder" title="Mass murder">mass murder</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Deaths</th><td class="infobox-data">11</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Perpetrators</th><td class="infobox-data">Leaders: William Parkerson, Walter Denegre, James D. Houston, and John C. Wickliffe; participants included <a href="/wiki/John_M._Parker" title="John M. Parker">John M. Parker</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_C._Flower" title="Walter C. Flower">Walter C. Flower</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Motive</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Anti-Italian_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Italian sentiment">Italophobia</a>, anti-Catholicism, <a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">xenophobia</a></td></tr></tbody></table> The 1891 New Orleans lynchings were the <a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">murders</a> of 11 <a href="/wiki/Italian_Americans" title="Italian Americans">Italian Americans</a>, immigrants in <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a>, by a mob for their alleged role in the murder of <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_Police_Department" title="New Orleans Police Department">police chief</a> <a href="/wiki/David_Hennessy" title="David Hennessy">David Hennessy</a> after some of them had been acquitted at trial. It was the largest single mass lynching in American history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELibrary_of_Congress-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino2000ix-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[note 1]</a> Most of the lynching victims accused in the murder had been rounded up and charged due to their Italian ethnicity.<a href="#cite_note-6">[5]</a> The lynching took place on March 14, the day after the trial of nine of the nineteen men indicted in Hennessy's murder. Six of these defendants were acquitted, and a mistrial was declared for the remaining three because the jury failed to agree on their verdicts. There was a widespread belief in the city that Italian American <a href="/wiki/Organized_crime" title="Organized crime">organized crime</a> was responsible for the killing of the police chief in a period of <a href="/wiki/Anti-Italianism" title="Anti-Italianism">anti-Italian sentiment</a> and rising crime. Italian American voters were also known to prefer the scandal-plagued city <a href="/wiki/Political_machine" title="Political machine">political machine</a> to the new <a href="/wiki/Reform_Democrat" title="Reform Democrat">Reform Democrat</a> mayor, whose own role in inciting the violence that followed may well have been an attempt to misuse government power for the <a href="/wiki/Political_repression" title="Political repression">repression</a> of his political opponents. Believing the jury had been fixed by organized crime, a mob broke into the jail where the men were being held and killed eleven of the prisoners, most by shooting. The mob outside the jail numbered in the thousands and included some of the city's most prominent citizens. American press coverage of the event was largely congratulatory, and those responsible for the lynching were never charged. The incident had serious national repercussions. The Italian consul Pasquale Corte in New Orleans registered a protest and left the city in May 1891 at his government's direction. The <a href="/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a> published his lengthy statement charging city politicians with responsibility for the lynching of the Italians.<a href="#cite_note-nyt524-7">[6]</a> Italy cut off diplomatic relations with the United States, sparking rumors of war. Increased <a href="/wiki/Anti-Italianism#Anti-Italianism_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-Italianism">anti-Italian</a> sentiment led to calls for restrictions on immigration. The word "<a href="/wiki/Mafia" title="Mafia">Mafia</a>" entered the American lexicon, and this incident increased awareness of the <a href="/wiki/American_Mafia" title="American Mafia">Italian mafioso</a>, establishing it in the popular imagination of Americans. The lynchings were the subject of the 1999 <a href="/wiki/HBO" title="HBO">HBO</a> film <a href="/wiki/Vendetta_(1999_film)" title="Vendetta (1999 film)">Vendetta</a>, starring <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Walken" title="Christopher Walken">Christopher Walken</a>. The film is based on a 1977 history book of the same name by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Gambino" title="Richard Gambino">Richard Gambino</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=1891_New_Orleans_lynchings&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anti-Italian_sentiment_in_New_Orleans">Anti-Italian sentiment in New Orleans</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=1891_New_Orleans_lynchings&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Anti-Italian sentiment in New Orleans">edit</a>]</div> In late 19th-century America, there was a growing number of Italians who had been brought in by the business community to replace black labor. Sugar planters, in particular, sought workers who were more efficient than formerly enslaved people; they hired immigrant recruiters to bring Italians to southern Louisiana. In the 1890s, thousands of Italians were arriving in New Orleans each year. Many settled in the <a href="/wiki/French_Quarter" title="French Quarter">French Quarter</a>, which by the early 20th century had a section known as "Little Sicily."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiles2017-8">[7]</a> Furthermore, during the whole of the 19th century and well into the 20th, Italian immigrants to the United States were often referred to as "<a href="/wiki/White_nigger" title="White nigger">White niggers</a>".<a href="#cite_note-9">[8]</a> In a letter responding to an inquiry about immigration in New Orleans, Mayor <a href="/wiki/Joseph_A._Shakspeare" title="Joseph A. Shakspeare">Joseph A. Shakspeare</a> expressed the common anti-Italian prejudice, complaining that the city had become attractive to "...the worst classes of Europe: Southern Italians and Sicilians...the most idle, vicious, and worthless people among us." He claimed they were "filthy in their persons and homes" and blamed them for the spread of disease, concluding that they were "without courage, honor, truth, pride, religion, or any quality that goes to make a good citizen."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELiles2017-8">[7]</a> According to professor of history Humbert Nelli, Mayor Shakspeare had been elected as a <a href="/wiki/Reform_Democrat" title="Reform Democrat">Reform Democrat</a> with the backing of the Louisiana <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican Party</a>, which had grown increasingly powerless following the end of the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a>. Mayor Shakspeare and the Republicans were united in opposition to the city's corrupt and scandal-plagued <a href="/wiki/Political_machine" title="Political machine">political machine</a>, which was called the <a href="/wiki/Regular_Democratic_Organization" title="Regular Democratic Organization">Regular Democratic Organization</a>, and remained firmly supported by the city's Italian-American voters. According to Nelli, this may well have been the real reason for the mayor's outspoken <a href="/wiki/Anti-Italianism" title="Anti-Italianism">anti-Italianism</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Assassination_of_David_Hennessy">Assassination of David Hennessy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=1891_New_Orleans_lynchings&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Assassination of David Hennessy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HennessySceneOfTheAssassination.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/HennessySceneOfTheAssassination.jpg/220px-HennessySceneOfTheAssassination.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/HennessySceneOfTheAssassination.jpg/330px-HennessySceneOfTheAssassination.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/HennessySceneOfTheAssassination.jpg/440px-HennessySceneOfTheAssassination.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="851" /></a><figcaption>Artist's conception of Hennessy's murder. "Scene of the Assassination", The Mascot, New Orleans, 1890.</figcaption></figure> On the evening of October 15, 1890, New Orleans police chief David Hennessy was shot by several gunmen as he walked home from work. Hennessy returned fire and chased his attackers before collapsing. When asked who had shot him, Hennessy reportedly whispered to Captain William O'Connor, "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dago" class="extiw" title="wikt:dago">dagos</a>" (a derogatory term for Italians and others of Mediterranean heritage). Hennessy was awake in the hospital for several hours after the shooting and spoke to friends but did not name the shooters. The next day complications set in, and he died.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino20004-10">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007xxiv-11">[10]</a> There had been an ongoing feud between the Provenzano and Matranga families, who were business rivals on the New Orleans waterfront. Hennessy had put several of the Provenzanos in prison, and their appeal trial was coming up. According to some reports, Hennessy had been planning to offer new evidence at the trial that would clear the Provenzanos and implicate the Matrangas. If true, this would mean that the Matrangas, and not the Provenzanos, had a motive for the murder.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotein1979264-12">[11]</a> A policeman who was a friend of Hennessy's later testified that Hennessy had told him he had no such plans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino200076-13">[12]</a> In any case, it was widely believed that Hennessy's killers were Italian. Local papers such as the Times-Democrat and the Daily Picayune freely blamed "Dagoes" for the murder.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotein1979267-14">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Investigation">Investigation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=1891_New_Orleans_lynchings&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Investigation">edit</a>]</div> The murder was quickly followed by mass arrests of local Italians. Mayor <a href="/wiki/Joseph_A._Shakspeare" title="Joseph A. Shakspeare">Joseph A. Shakspeare</a> (according to the Picayune) told the police to "scour the whole neighborhood. Arrest every Italian you come across." Within 24 hours, 45 people had been arrested.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotein1979265-15">[14]</a> By some accounts, as many as 250 Italians were rounded up.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaselliCandeloro200435-16">[15]</a> Most were eventually released for lack of evidence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotein1979266-17">[16]</a> Local Italians were afraid to leave their homes for several days after the murder, but eventually the furor died down and they returned to work.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotein1979267-14">[13]</a> Nineteen men were ultimately charged with the murder or as accessories and held without bail in the parish prison. These included Charles Matranga, who was charged with plotting the murder, and several of the Matrangas' friends and workers. Pietro Monasterio, a shoemaker, was arrested because he lived across the street from where Hennessy was standing when he was shot. (The assassins had allegedly laid in Monasterio's shop awaiting to attack Chief Hennessey on his way home.) Antonio Marchesi, a fruit peddler, was arrested because he was a friend of Monasterio's and "was known to frequent his shoe shop."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino2000150,_14-18">[17]</a> Emmanuele Polizzi was arrested when a policeman identified him as one of the men he had seen running from the scene of the crime.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotein1979266-17">[16]</a> A few days after Hennessy's death, Mayor Shakspeare gave a speech declaring that Hennessy had been "the victim of Sicilian vengeance" and calling upon the citizenry to "teach these people a lesson they will not forget."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino2000144-19">[18]</a> He appointed a Committee of Fifty to investigate "the existence of secret societies or bands of oath-bound assassins...and to devise necessary means and the most effectual and speedy measures for the uprooting and total annihilation" of any such organizations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotein1979266-17">[16]</a> On October 23, the committee published an open letter to the Italian community encouraging them to expose the criminals amongst them anonymously. The letter ended on a menacing note: <blockquote>We hope this appeal will be met by you in the same spirit in which we issue it, and that this community will not be driven to harsh and stringent methods outside of the law, which may involve the innocent and guilty alike...Upon you and your willingness to give information depends which of these courses shall be pursued.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007115-20">[19]</a></blockquote> The letter was signed by the committee's chairman, <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Howard_Farrar" title="Edgar Howard Farrar">Edgar H. Farrar</a>, who later served as president of the <a href="/wiki/American_Bar_Association" title="American Bar Association">American Bar Association</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino200021–22-21">[20]</a> Other prominent members of the Committee included General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Algernon_Sidney_Badger&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Algernon Sidney Badger (page does not exist)">Algernon S. Badger</a>, Judge <a href="/wiki/Robert_C._Davey" title="Robert C. Davey">Robert C. Davey</a>, politician <a href="/wiki/Walter_C._Flower" title="Walter C. Flower">Walter C. Flower</a>, Colonel <a href="/wiki/James_Lewis_(Louisiana_politician)" title="James Lewis (Louisiana politician)">James Lewis</a>, and architect <a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Sully_(architect)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thomas Sully (architect) (page does not exist)">Thomas Sully</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino2000146–147-22">[21]</a> The Committee of Fifty hired two private detectives to pose as prisoners and try to get the defendants to talk about the murder. Apparently the detectives did not obtain any useful information, because they were not asked to testify at the trial. Only Polizzi, who appeared to be mentally ill, said anything to incriminate himself, and his confession was deemed inadmissible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino200068-23">[22]</a> Meanwhile, the defendants were subject to extremely negative pretrial publicity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotein1979278-24">[23]</a> Across the country, newspapers ran headlines such as "Vast Mafia in New Orleans" and "1,100 Dago Criminals."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino200066-25">[24]</a> Several shotguns were found near the scene of the crime. One was a <a href="/wiki/Muzzleloader" title="Muzzleloader">muzzle-loading</a> shotgun of a type which was widely used throughout the <a href="/wiki/American_South" class="mw-redirect" title="American South">American South</a> but which the <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_Police_Department" title="New Orleans Police Department">New Orleans Police Department</a> claimed was a <a href="/wiki/Lupara" title="Lupara">lupara</a>, a "favorite" weapon of the <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Mafia" title="Sicilian Mafia">Sicilian Mafia</a>. Another shotgun found at the scene had a hinged <a href="/wiki/Stock_(firearms)" title="Stock (firearms)">stock</a>. Local newspapers alleged that the guns were imported from Sicily; in reality, they had been manufactured by the <a href="/w/index.php?title=W._Richards_Company&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="W. Richards Company (page does not exist)">W. Richards Company</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino200015–16-26">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotein1979265-15">[14]</a> Spurred to action by the popular accounts of Hennessy's murder, a 29-year-old newspaper salesman named Thomas Duffy walked into the prison on October 17, 1890, sought out Antonio Scaffidi, whom he had heard was a suspect, and shot him in the neck with a revolver. Scaffidi survived the attack, only to be lynched a few months later. Duffy was eventually convicted of assault and sentenced to six months in prison.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino200041–43-27">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007xiv-28">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Murder_trial">Murder trial</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=1891_New_Orleans_lynchings&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Murder trial">edit</a>]</div> A trial for nine of the suspects began on February 16, 1891, and concluded on March 13, 1891, with Judge Joshua G. Baker presiding.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007xii-29">[28]</a> The defendants were represented by Lionel Adams of the law firm Adams and O'Malley, and the state was represented by <a href="/wiki/Orleans_Parish" class="mw-redirect" title="Orleans Parish">Orleans Parish</a> <a href="/wiki/District_attorney" title="District attorney">district attorney</a> Charles A. Luzenberg. Jury selection was a time-consuming process: Hundreds of prospective jurors were rejected before 12 people were found who were not opposed to <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">capital punishment</a>, were not openly prejudiced against Italians, and were not of Italian descent themselves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino200072-30">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotein1979269-31">[30]</a> Much of the evidence presented at trial was weak or contradictory. The murder had taken place on a poorly lit street on a damp night<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007129-32">[31]</a> in a notoriously corrupt city<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotein1979264-12">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith200733-33">[32]</a> and the eyewitness testimony was unreliable. Suspects were identified by witnesses who had not seen their faces but only their clothing. Captain Bill O'Connor, the witness who claimed to have heard Hennessy blame "Dagoes" for the assassination, was not called to testify. There were numerous other discrepancies and improprieties. At one point, two employees of the defense law firm were arrested for attempting to bribe prospective jurors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotein1979269–270-34">[33]</a> Afterward, when federal district attorney William Grant looked into the case, he reported that the evidence against the men was "exceedingly unsatisfactory" and inconclusive. He could find no evidence linking any of the lynched men to <a href="/wiki/The_Mafia" class="mw-redirect" title="The Mafia">the Mafia</a> or to any attempts to bribe the jury.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino2000114-35">[34]</a> The bribery charges were eventually dismissed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007xv-36">[35]</a> Matranga and another man, Bastian Incardona, were found not guilty by directed verdict, as no evidence had been presented against them. The jury declared four of the defendants not guilty, and asked the judge to declare a mistrial for the other three, as they could not agree on a verdict.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007192,_208-37">[36]</a> The six who were acquitted were not released but were held pending an additional charge of "lying in wait" with intent to commit murder. Luzenberg admitted that without a murder conviction, he would be forced to drop the "lying in wait" charges. But all nineteen men were returned to the prison—a decision which would prove fatal for some of them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino200077-38">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007209-39">[38]</a> The jurors were given the option to leave by a side door but chose to walk out the front door and face the angry crowd. Several defended their decision to reporters, arguing that they had "reasonable doubt" and had done what they thought was right.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007209-39">[38]</a> Some were harassed, threatened, fired from their jobs, and otherwise penalized for failing to convict the Italians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino2000103,_154-40">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Incitement">Incitement</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=1891_New_Orleans_lynchings&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Incitement">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Speaker_inciting_the_mob_in_New_Orleans_on_March_14,_1891.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Speaker_inciting_the_mob_in_New_Orleans_on_March_14%2C_1891.jpg/220px-Speaker_inciting_the_mob_in_New_Orleans_on_March_14%2C_1891.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Speaker_inciting_the_mob_in_New_Orleans_on_March_14%2C_1891.jpg/330px-Speaker_inciting_the_mob_in_New_Orleans_on_March_14%2C_1891.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Speaker_inciting_the_mob_in_New_Orleans_on_March_14%2C_1891.jpg/440px-Speaker_inciting_the_mob_in_New_Orleans_on_March_14%2C_1891.jpg 2x" data-file-width="634" data-file-height="418" /></a><figcaption>William S. Parkerson inciting the mob. Harper's Weekly, March 28, 1891.</figcaption></figure> A group of about 150 people calling themselves the Committee on Safety (referring to the Revolutionary War era) met that evening to plan their response. The following morning, an ad appeared in local newspapers calling for a mass meeting at the statue of <a href="/wiki/Henry_Clay" title="Henry Clay">Henry Clay</a> near the prison. Citizens were told to "come prepared for action."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino200077-38">[37]</a> The Daily States editorialized: <blockquote>Rise, people of New Orleans! Alien hands of oath-bound assassins have set the blot of a martyr's blood upon your vaunted civilization! Your laws, in the very Temple of Justice, have been bought off, and suborners have caused to be turned loose upon your streets the midnight murderers of David C. Hennessy, in whose premature grave the very majesty of our American law lies buried with his mangled corpse—the corpse of him who in life was the representative, the conservator of your peace and dignity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007216-41">[40]</a></blockquote> As thousands of demonstrators gathered near the Parish Prison, Pasquale Corte, the Italian consul in New Orleans sought the help of Louisiana governor <a href="/wiki/Francis_T._Nicholls" title="Francis T. Nicholls">Francis T. Nicholls</a> to prevent an outbreak of violence. The governor declined to take any action without a request from Mayor Shakspeare, who had gone out to breakfast and could not be reached.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino200078–81-42">[41]</a> Meanwhile, at the Clay statue, attorney William S. Parkerson was exhorting the people of New Orleans to "set aside the verdict of that infamous jury, every one of whom is a perjurer and a scoundrel."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino2000157-43">[42]</a> When the speech was over, the multi-racial crowd <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino200081,_83-44">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007220-45">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENY_Times,_March_15,_1891-46">[45]</a> marched to the prison, chanting, "We want the Dagoes."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotein1979272-47">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lynching">Lynching</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=1891_New_Orleans_lynchings&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Lynching">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gathering_at_Parish_Prison_New_Orleans_14_March_1891.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Gathering_at_Parish_Prison_New_Orleans_14_March_1891.jpg/220px-Gathering_at_Parish_Prison_New_Orleans_14_March_1891.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Gathering_at_Parish_Prison_New_Orleans_14_March_1891.jpg/330px-Gathering_at_Parish_Prison_New_Orleans_14_March_1891.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Gathering_at_Parish_Prison_New_Orleans_14_March_1891.jpg/440px-Gathering_at_Parish_Prison_New_Orleans_14_March_1891.jpg 2x" data-file-width="665" data-file-height="461" /></a><figcaption>Rioters outside Parish Prison</figcaption></figure> Lynchings were not uncommon in the United States and the <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee Institute</a> recorded the lynchings of 3,446 blacks and 1,297 whites between 1882 and 1968, with the peak occurring in the 1890s.<a href="#cite_note-Tuskegeefigures-48">[47]</a> Inside the prison, as the mob was breaking down the door with a battering ram, prison warden Lemuel Davis let the 19 Italian prisoners out of their cells and told them to hide as best they could.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino200082-49">[48]</a> Although the thousands of demonstrators outside for the lynching were a spontaneous outburst, the killings were carried out by a relatively small, disciplined "execution squad" within the mob led by Parkerson and three other city leaders: Walter Denegre, lawyer; James D. Houston, politician and businessman; and John C. Wickliffe, editor of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=New_Delta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="New Delta (page does not exist)">New Delta</a> newspaper.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007xii-29">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino200083-50">[49]</a> Other members of the lynch mob included <a href="/wiki/John_M._Parker" title="John M. Parker">John M. Parker</a>, who was elected as Louisiana's 37th governor, and <a href="/wiki/Walter_C._Flower" title="Walter C. Flower">Walter C. Flower</a>, who was elected as the 44th mayor of New Orleans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino2000130-51">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECummins2014265-52">[51]</a> The mentally ill Polizzi was hauled outside, hanged from a lamppost, and shot. Antonio Bagnetto, a fruit peddler, was hanged from a tree and shot. Nine others were shot or clubbed to death inside the prison.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaselliCandeloro200435-16">[15]</a> The bullet-riddled bodies of Polizzi and Bagnetto were left hanging for hours.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino200083–86-53">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotein1979272-47">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Victims">Victims</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=1891_New_Orleans_lynchings&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Victims">edit</a>]</div> The following people were lynched:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007xi–xii-54">[53]</a> <ul><li>Antonio Bagnetto, fruit peddler: tried and acquitted.</li> <li>James Caruso, <a href="/wiki/Stevedore" class="mw-redirect" title="Stevedore">stevedore</a>: not tried.</li> <li>Loreto Comitis, tinsmith: not tried.</li> <li>Rocco Geraci, stevedore: not tried.</li> <li>Joseph Macheca, American-born former <a href="/wiki/Blockade_runner" title="Blockade runner">blockade runner</a>, fruit importer, and <a href="/wiki/Political_boss" title="Political boss">political boss</a> of the New Orleans Italian American community for the <a href="/wiki/Regular_Democratic_Organization" title="Regular Democratic Organization">Regular Democratic Organization</a>: tried and acquitted.</li> <li>Antonio Marchesi, fruit peddler: tried and acquitted.</li> <li>Pietro Monasterio, cobbler: mistrial declared.</li> <li>Emmanuele Polizzi, street vendor: mistrial declared.</li> <li>Frank Romero, <a href="/wiki/Ward_heeler" title="Ward heeler">ward heeler</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Regular_Democratic_Organization" title="Regular Democratic Organization">Regular Democratic Organization</a>: not tried.</li> <li>Antonio Scaffidi, fruit peddler: mistrial declared.</li> <li>Charles Traina, rice plantation laborer: not tried.</li></ul> The following people managed to escape lynching by hiding inside the prison: <ul><li>John Caruso, stevedore: not tried.</li> <li>Bastian Incardona, laborer: tried and acquitted.</li> <li>Gaspare Marchesi, 14, son of Antonio Marchesi: tried and acquitted.</li> <li>Charles Matranga, labor manager: tried and acquitted.</li> <li>Peter Natali, laborer: not tried.</li> <li>Charles Pietza (or Pietzo), grocer: not tried.</li> <li>Charles Patorno, merchant: not tried.</li> <li>Salvatore Sinceri, stevedore: not tried.</li></ul> The court and district attorney set the survivors free after the lynching and dropped the charges against the men who had not yet been tried.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino2000150–151-55">[54]</a> Only one of the lynching victims, Polizzi, had a police record in the US, having reportedly cut a man with a knife in <a href="/wiki/Austin,_Texas" title="Austin, Texas">Austin, Texas</a>, several years earlier. Two others had police records in Italy: Geraci had been accused of murder and had fled before he could be tried, and Comitz had been convicted of theft.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino2000186–193-56">[55]</a> Incardona was wanted in Italy as a petty criminal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino200014-57">[56]</a> Three of the men—Comitz, Monasterio, and Traina—had not applied for US citizenship and could still be considered Italian subjects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007260-58">[57]</a> All of those lynched were Sicilian immigrants except for Macheca, a Louisiana native of Sicilian descent, and Comitz, who was from the Rome area. Shortly after Hennessy's death, the Daily States informed readers that the suspects were "a villainous looking set" and described their appearance in ethnic terms, concluding, "They are not Italians, but Sicilians."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaiamonte1992124-59">[58]</a> Most <a href="/wiki/Anti-Italianism" title="Anti-Italianism">anti-Italianism</a> in the United States was directed at <a href="/wiki/Southern_Italy" title="Southern Italy">Southern Italians</a>, particularly Sicilians, who were often considered to be more racially suspect. The US Bureau of Immigration reinforced this distinction, following the Italian practice of classifying Northern and Southern Italians as two different races.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuleo200781-60">[59]</a> However, even though on a legal level both Northern and Southern Italians were considered to be white,<a href="#cite_note-61">[60]</a> between 1890 and 1910, <a href="/wiki/Sicilian-American" class="mw-redirect" title="Sicilian-American">Sicilian-Americans</a> made up less than 4 percent of the white male population, yet were roughly 40 percent of the white victims of Southern lynch mobs. Before that, many white victims were <a href="/wiki/Irish_Catholics" title="Irish Catholics">Irish Catholics</a>. Sicilians in the South often had menial positions, working on construction of levees and railroads and as farm workers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeLucia2003213–215-62">[61]</a> Macheca's personal history, however, is more complex. He was born in 1843 to Sicilian parents in Louisiana and adopted and raised by a <a href="/wiki/Maltese_people" title="Maltese people">Maltese</a> man named Macheca. During the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>, he served in the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Army" title="Confederate States Army">Confederate States Army</a>. In 1868, either Macheca or his adoptive father led a group of Sicilians in a violent, anti-black demonstration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino200044–45-63">[62]</a> Although not a member of the <a href="/wiki/White_League" title="White League">White League</a>, as a Captain of the 1st Louisiana Infantry Regiment, Macheca fought in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Liberty_Place" title="Battle of Liberty Place">Battle of Liberty Place</a> on the same side as the <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">Crescent City</a> <a href="/wiki/White_League" title="White League">White League</a> in 1874. Macheca was also the leader of a crew of Sicilian immigrants called "The Innocents". Depending on the source, "The Innocents" were either a <a href="/wiki/White_Supremacist" class="mw-redirect" title="White Supremacist">White Supremacist</a> <a href="/wiki/Street_gang" class="mw-redirect" title="Street gang">street gang</a> employed by the <a href="/wiki/Regular_Democratic_Organization" title="Regular Democratic Organization">Regular Democratic Organization</a> to commit <a href="/wiki/Voter_intimidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Voter intimidation">voter intimidation</a> and murder,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith200745-64">[63]</a> the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_crime_family" title="New Orleans crime family">New Orleans crime family</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Security_guard" title="Security guard">security guards</a> hired to protect Macheca and his various businesses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMargavioSalomone2014215-65">[64]</a> The racial politics are further complicated by the involvement in the 1891 riot of a large number of <a href="/wiki/African-American" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American">African-American</a> lynchers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino200081-66">[65]</a> For example, Colonel <a href="/wiki/James_Lewis_(Louisiana_politician)" title="James Lewis (Louisiana politician)">James Lewis</a>, a member of the elite Committee of Fifty, was a <a href="/wiki/Mixed-race" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixed-race">mixed-race</a> African-American man who had been an officer in the <a href="/wiki/1st_Louisiana_Native_Guard_(Union)" title="1st Louisiana Native Guard (Union)">Louisiana Native Guard</a> and leader of the New Orleans <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican Party</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENussbaum1977810-67">[66]</a> In fact, Lewis was one of the signatories of a letter to the Italian community, urging people to inform the Committee of Fifty about the suspects and threatening extrajudicial action.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENussbaum1977-68">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=1891_New_Orleans_lynchings&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Aftermath">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Press_coverage">Press coverage</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=1891_New_Orleans_lynchings&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Press coverage">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cartoon_that_appeared_in_Puck_on_March_25,_1891.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Cartoon_that_appeared_in_Puck_on_March_25%2C_1891.jpg/220px-Cartoon_that_appeared_in_Puck_on_March_25%2C_1891.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Cartoon_that_appeared_in_Puck_on_March_25%2C_1891.jpg/330px-Cartoon_that_appeared_in_Puck_on_March_25%2C_1891.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Cartoon_that_appeared_in_Puck_on_March_25%2C_1891.jpg/440px-Cartoon_that_appeared_in_Puck_on_March_25%2C_1891.jpg 2x" data-file-width="679" data-file-height="882" /></a><figcaption>Cartoon that appeared in Puck on March 25, 1891.</figcaption></figure> American newspaper accounts at the time were largely sympathetic to the lynchers and anti-Italian in tone.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWasserman199878-69">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeLucia2003217–218-70">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuleo200779-71">[70]</a> The victims were presumed to have been involved with <a href="/wiki/The_Mafia" class="mw-redirect" title="The Mafia">the Mafia</a>, a criminal organization that dealt in theft, terror and murder, and therefore deserving of their fate. A New York Times headline announced, "Chief Hennessy Avenged...Italian Murderers Shot Down."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENY_Times,_March_15,_1891-46">[45]</a> A Times editorial the next day vilified Sicilians in general: <blockquote>These sneaking and cowardly Sicilians, the descendants of bandits and assassins, who have transported to this country the lawless passions, the cut-throat practices, and the oath-bound societies of their native country, are to us a pest without mitigation. Our own rattlesnakes are as good citizens as they...Lynch law was the only course open to the people of New Orleans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENY_Times,_March_16,_1891-72">[71]</a></blockquote> Many commentators offered a <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pro_forma" class="extiw" title="wikt:pro forma">pro forma</a> condemnation of vigilantism before ultimately blaming the victims and defending the lynchers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuleo200779-71">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeach199228-73">[72]</a> Massachusetts representative <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge" title="Henry Cabot Lodge">Henry Cabot Lodge</a>, for example, claimed to deplore the mob's behavior and then proceeded to justify it while proposing new restrictions on Italian immigration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELodge1891-74">[73]</a> Even the London Times expressed approval.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino200096-75">[74]</a> Not all editors were convinced of the mob's innocence. The Charleston News and Courier argued that murder by vigilantes was no more acceptable than any other kind. The St. Louis Republic wrote that the men were killed "on proof of being 'dagoes' and on the merest suspicion of being guilty of any other crime."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino200096-75">[74]</a> Some Northern newspapers also condemned the lynchings. Many others, however, implicitly or explicitly condoned them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotein1979273-76">[75]</a> A Boston Globe front-page headline read, "STILETTO RULE: New Orleans Arose to Meet the Curse."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlobe18911-77">[76]</a> Boston was another industrial city that had been receiving many immigrants from Southern Italy. Following strong protests by the Italian government and the Italian-American community, the press eventually became less supportive of the lynchers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWasserman199878-69">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeLucia2003218–219-78">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criminal_charges">Criminal charges</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=1891_New_Orleans_lynchings&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Criminal charges">edit</a>]</div> A grand jury convened on March 17, 1891, to investigate the lynching. Judge Robert H. Marr, who presided over the jury, was a longtime personal friend of several of the lynch mob participants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotein1979275-79">[78]</a> On May 5, 1891, the grand jury published a report concluding that several jurors in the Hennessy case had been bribed to acquit the Italians. Yet, no proof was offered and no criminal charges were pursued. The grand jury claimed that it could not identify the participants in the lynching. In the same report, the lynching was described as a "gathering" of "several thousands of the first, best, and even the most law-abiding, of the citizens of this city." No one was indicted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino2000179-80">[79]</a> Only Thomas Duffy, the newspaper salesman who had shot Scaffidi in October, was penalized. Duffy was serving time in the parish prison at the time of the lynching.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007229-81">[80]</a> After the Hennessy case, at least eight more men of Italian descent were lynched in Louisiana during the 1890s. In each case, as was typical of lynchings, local authorities claimed to be unable to identify anyone involved and never prosecuted anyone for the murders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotein1979276-82">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_repercussions">Political repercussions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=1891_New_Orleans_lynchings&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Political repercussions">edit</a>]</div> The incident strained relations between the United States and Italy. The Italian consul Pasquale Corte left New Orleans in late May 1891 and the New York Times published his statement accusing the city politicians of responsibility for the lynchings.<a href="#cite_note-nyt524-7">[6]</a> The Italian government demanded that the lynch mob be brought to justice and that reparations be paid to the dead men's families. When the US declined to prosecute the mob leaders, Italy recalled its ambassador from Washington in protest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino200095-83">[82]</a> The US followed suit, recalling its legation from Rome. Diplomatic relations remained at an impasse for over a year, and there were rumors of a declaration of war on America as a result of the murders. As part of a wider effort to ease tensions with Italy and placate Italian Americans, President <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison" title="Benjamin Harrison">Benjamin Harrison</a> declared the first nationwide celebration of <a href="/wiki/Columbus_Day" title="Columbus Day">Columbus Day</a> in 1892, commemorating the 400th anniversary of the Italian explorer's landing in the New World.<a href="#cite_note-:1-84">[83]</a> When President Harrison agreed to pay a $25,000 indemnity to the victims' families, Congress tried unsuccessfully to intervene against the reparations, accusing him of "unconstitutional executive usurpation of Congressional powers."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino2000126–127-85">[84]</a> The United States paid $2,211.90 to each family of the eleven victims. The contrasting American and Italian attitudes toward the lynchings are perhaps best summarized by <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a>'s comment. Roosevelt, then serving on the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Civil_Service_Commission" title="United States Civil Service Commission">United States Civil Service Commission</a>, wrote to his sister <a href="/wiki/Anna_Roosevelt_Cowles" class="mw-redirect" title="Anna Roosevelt Cowles">Anna Roosevelt Cowles</a> on March 21, 1891: <blockquote>Monday we dined at the Camerons; various <a href="/wiki/Dago_(slur)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dago (slur)">dago</a> diplomats were present, all much wrought up by the lynching of the Italians in New Orleans. Personally I think it rather a good thing, and said so.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoosevelt18911–2-86">[85]</a></blockquote> The incident has been mostly forgotten in the US, relegated to the footnotes of American history texts. However, it is more widely known in <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonohue2012-87">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotein1979278-24">[23]</a> Mayor Shakspeare was narrowly defeated for reelection in 1892 by <a href="/wiki/Regular_Democratic_Organization" title="Regular Democratic Organization">Regular Democratic Organization</a> candidate <a href="/wiki/John_Fitzpatrick_(mayor_of_New_Orleans)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Fitzpatrick (mayor of New Orleans)">John Fitzpatrick</a>. The Italian-American vote, which remained even more firmly on the <a href="/wiki/Political_machine" title="Political machine">political machine</a>'s side for decades after the lynchings, was a decisive factor in Mayor Shakspeare's defeat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelli198165-88">[87]</a> Gaspare Marchesi, the boy who survived by hiding in the prison while his father was lynched, was awarded $5,000 in damages in 1893 after successfully suing the city of New Orleans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007xv-36">[35]</a> The death of Hennessy became a rallying cry for law enforcement and nativists to halt the immigration of Italians into America.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuleo200778–79-89">[88]</a> In an influential essay, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge" title="Henry Cabot Lodge">Henry Cabot Lodge</a> pointed out that "the paupers and criminals of Europe" were "pouring into the United States" and proposed a literacy test to weed out the least desirable immigrants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELodge1891611–612-90">[89]</a> The Hennessy case introduced the word "Mafia" to the American public.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaselliCandeloro200436-91">[90]</a> It first made widely known the now-familiar image of the Italian-American mafioso. Journalists of the time used the word "Mafia" loosely to sell newspapers, often linking the crimes of individual Italians to organized crime when no evidence of such a connection existed for that particular crime.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotein1979263–264,_277,_279-92">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurtz1983356–357,_366-93">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaiamonte1992140–141-94">[93]</a> After the lynching, newspapers circulated wild rumors that thousands of Italian Americans were plotting to attack New Orleans and were wrecking railroads in New York and Chicago.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotein1979273-76">[75]</a> The press reported that the defense lawyers in the Hennessy case were paid by the Mafia when Italian-language newspapers in cities across the country had raised funds for the men's legal defense.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelli198156-95">[94]</a> Soon historians were applying the "Mafia" label retroactively to crimes committed by Italians in the past.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaiamonte1992143–144-96">[95]</a> For decades after the lynching, New Orleans children of other ethnicities would taunt Italian Americans with the phrase, "Who killa da chief?"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007285-97">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books_and_films">Books and films</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=1891_New_Orleans_lynchings&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Books and films">edit</a>]</div> For the better part of a century, most historians relied on contemporary newspaper accounts as their primary sources of information about the lynching, seldom questioning the guilt of the lynched men or the popular assumption that Hennessy's murder was a <a href="/wiki/Contract_killing" title="Contract killing">contract killing</a> by the <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_crime_family" title="New Orleans crime family">New Orleans crime family</a>. In the 1970s, two studies by Italian Americans historians challenged the prevailing view.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007291-98">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaiamonte1992120-99">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurtz1983357-100">[99]</a> Humbert Nelli, a professor of history at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Kentucky" title="University of Kentucky">University of Kentucky</a>, examined the Hennessy case in a chapter of The Business of Crime (1976). Nelli demonstrated that the evidence against the defendants was weak and argued that the murder was too poorly planned and amateurish to have been a Mafia hit.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelli198159-101">[100]</a> In a chapter on crime in New Orleans, he claims that although crime flourished among the city's Southern Italians at the time, it could not accurately be attributed to mafiosi.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelli198136–37-102">[101]</a> In Vendetta: The True Story of the Largest Lynching in U.S. History (1977),<a href="#cite_note-103">[note 2]</a> Richard Gambino, a professor at <a href="/wiki/City_University_of_New_York" title="City University of New York">City University of New York</a>, raised numerous questions about the investigation and trial and proposes an alternative theory about Hennessy's murder. Among other things, Gambino notes that Hennessy had a "colorful" past that provided any number of possible motives to be subject to murder, none of which the police chose to investigate. He also notes that shortly after the lynching, the city passed an ordinance giving control of all New Orleans dock work to the newly formed Louisiana Construction and Improvement Corporation, a business headed by several of the lynch mob leaders. Italian waterfront merchants and workers, who had been making remarkable economic progress up to then, were thus eliminated as competitors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino2000103-104">[102]</a> The 1999 <a href="/wiki/HBO" title="HBO">HBO</a> movie <a href="/wiki/Vendetta_(1999_film)" title="Vendetta (1999 film)">Vendetta</a>, starring <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Walken" title="Christopher Walken">Christopher Walken</a> and directed by <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Meyer" title="Nicholas Meyer">Nicholas Meyer</a>, is based on Gambino's book.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWebb20001155–1156-105">[103]</a> It portrays Macheca and several of the other lynched men as innocent victims. It is narrated by the character of Gaspare Marchesi, the boy who escaped being lynched by hiding in the prison. Reviewers have criticized Gambino's language as sensational and partisan while acknowledging the book's merits.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotein1978505–506-106">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1977628–629-107">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWileyPozzetta1978378–379-108">[106]</a> Writing in the Journal of American History in 1977, Raymond Nussbaum (an alumnus of <a href="/wiki/Tulane_University" title="Tulane University">Tulane University</a>) suggested that historians looking for a balanced account of the lynching look elsewhere.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENussbaum1977810-67">[66]</a> In a film review that appeared in the same journal in 2000, Clive Webb calls the movie a "compelling portrait of prejudice" and recommends that historians consult the book for more information.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWebb20001155–1156-105">[103]</a> The lynching is discussed in the 2004 documentary, Linciati: Lynchings of Italians in America, directed by M. Heather Hartley.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonohue2012-87">[86]</a> Lynchings of Italians are also mentioned in various documentaries on the Italian-American experience. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=1891_New_Orleans_lynchings&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italians_in_New_Orleans" title="Italians in New Orleans">Italians in New Orleans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Italianism#Anti-Italianism_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-Italianism">Anti-Italianism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Americans#Discrimination_and_stereotyping" title="Italian Americans">Italian Americans: Discrimination and stereotyping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italy%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Italy–United States relations">Italy–United States relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacco_and_Vanzetti" title="Sacco and Vanzetti">Sacco and Vanzetti</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=1891_New_Orleans_lynchings&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Gambino notes lynching as distinct from a <a href="/wiki/Massacre" title="Massacre">massacre</a>, and that it was the largest "as measured by the number of people illegally killed in one place at one time, the victims' identities predetermined for some specific alleged offense." This classification would not include massacres, such as the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_massacre_of_1871" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese massacre of 1871">Chinese massacre of 1871</a>, in which victims are chosen "without regard to their individual identities and in which no specific offense on their part is alleged." See also <a href="/wiki/Porvenir_massacre_(1918)" title="Porvenir massacre (1918)">Porvenir massacre</a>. However, others (e.g. those referenced below) do not restrict the definition of "lynching" to exclude those described by other labels like "massacre" or "terrorism".<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> The original title was Vendetta: A True Story of the Worst Lynching in America, the Mass Murder of Italian-Americans in New Orleans in 1891, the Vicious Motivations Behind It, and the Tragic Repercussions that Linger to This Day. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=1891_New_Orleans_lynchings&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELibrary_of_Congress-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELibrary_of_Congress_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLibrary_of_Congress">Library of Congress</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino2000ix-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGambino2000ix_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGambino2000">Gambino 2000</a>, p. ix. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWood,_Amy_Louise2009" class="citation book cs1">Wood, Amy Louise (2009). Rough Justice: Lynching and American Society, 1874–1947. North Carolina University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780807878118" title="Special:BookSources/9780807878118"><bdi>9780807878118</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/701719807">701719807</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rough+Justice%3A+Lynching+and+American+Society%2C+1874%E2%80%931947&rft.pub=North+Carolina+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F701719807&rft.isbn=9780807878118&rft.au=Wood%2C+Amy+Louise&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1891+New+Orleans+lynchings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scpr.org/programs/offramp/2016/10/21/52801/commemorating-la-s-chinese-massacre-possibly-the-w/">"Commemorating LA's Chinese Massacre, possibly the worst lynching in US history"</a>, Robert Petersen, Off-Ramp, South Carolina Public Radio, 21 October 2016 </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarbata_Jackson" class="citation web cs1">Barbata Jackson, Jessica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://int.nyt.com/data/documenthelper/1337-jessica-barbata-jackson-italians-louisiana-lynching/b3828039d72036f8deef/optimized/full.pdf">"Before the Lynching: Reconsidering the Experience of Italians and Sicilians in Louisiana, 1870s-1890s"</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Before+the+Lynching%3A+Reconsidering+the+Experience+of+Italians+and+Sicilians+in+Louisiana%2C+1870s-1890s&rft.aulast=Barbata+Jackson&rft.aufirst=Jessica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fint.nyt.com%2Fdata%2Fdocumenthelper%2F1337-jessica-barbata-jackson-italians-louisiana-lynching%2Fb3828039d72036f8deef%2Foptimized%2Ffull.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1891+New+Orleans+lynchings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nyt524-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nyt524_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nyt524_7-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1891/05/24/103309443.html?pageNumber=1">"Signor Corte's Farewell/His Story of the Lynching of the Italians"</a>, New York Times, 24 May 1891; accessed 5 February 2018 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELiles2017-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiles2017_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELiles2017_8-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLiles2017">Liles 2017</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/10/12/opinion/columbus-day-italian-american-racism.html">"Opinion | How Italians Became 'White'"</a>. 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id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENY_Times,_March_15,_1891-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENY_Times,_March_15,_1891_46-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENY_Times,_March_15,_1891_46-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNY_Times,_March_15,_1891">NY Times, March 15, 1891</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotein1979272-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBotein1979272_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBotein1979272_47-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBotein1979">Botein 1979</a>, p. 272. </li> <li id="cite_note-Tuskegeefigures-48"><a href="#cite_ref-Tuskegeefigures_48-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160313030351/http://192.203.127.197/archive/bitstream/handle/123456789/511/Lyching%201882%201968.pdf">"Lynching, Whites and Negroes, 1882 – 1968"</a> (PDF). Tuskegee University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://192.203.127.197/archive/bitstream/handle/123456789/511/Lyching%201882%201968.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on March 13, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lynching%2C+Whites+and+Negroes%2C+1882+%E2%80%93+1968&rft.pub=Tuskegee+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2F192.203.127.197%2Farchive%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F123456789%2F511%2FLyching%25201882%25201968.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1891+New+Orleans+lynchings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino200082-49"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGambino200082_49-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGambino2000">Gambino 2000</a>, p. 82. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino200083-50"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGambino200083_50-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGambino2000">Gambino 2000</a>, p. 83. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino2000130-51"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGambino2000130_51-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGambino2000">Gambino 2000</a>, p. 130. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECummins2014265-52"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECummins2014265_52-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCummins2014">Cummins 2014</a>, p. 265. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino200083–86-53"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGambino200083–86_53-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGambino2000">Gambino 2000</a>, pp. 83–86. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007xi–xii-54"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2007xi–xii_54-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith2007">Smith 2007</a>, pp. xi–xii. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino2000150–151-55"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGambino2000150–151_55-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGambino2000">Gambino 2000</a>, pp. 150–151. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino2000186–193-56"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGambino2000186–193_56-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGambino2000">Gambino 2000</a>, pp. 186–193. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino200014-57"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGambino200014_57-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGambino2000">Gambino 2000</a>, pp. 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007260-58"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2007260_58-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith2007">Smith 2007</a>, p. 260. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaiamonte1992124-59"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaiamonte1992124_59-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaiamonte1992">Baiamonte 1992</a>, p. 124. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuleo200781-60"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuleo200781_60-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPuleo2007">Puleo 2007</a>, p. 81. </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernstein2017" class="citation news cs1">Bernstein, David (March 22, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/volokh-conspiracy/wp/2017/03/22/sorry-but-the-irish-were-always-white-and-so-were-the-italians-jews-and-so-on/">"Sorry, but the Irish Were Always "White" (and so were Italians, Jews and So On)"</a>. Retrieved March 1, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Sorry%2C+but+the+Irish+Were+Always+%22White%22+%28and+so+were+Italians%2C+Jews+and+So+On%29&rft.date=2017-03-22&rft.aulast=Bernstein&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fnews%2Fvolokh-conspiracy%2Fwp%2F2017%2F03%2F22%2Fsorry-but-the-irish-were-always-white-and-so-were-the-italians-jews-and-so-on%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1891+New+Orleans+lynchings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeLucia2003213–215-62"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeLucia2003213–215_62-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDeLucia2003">DeLucia 2003</a>, pp. 213–215. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino200044–45-63"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGambino200044–45_63-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGambino2000">Gambino 2000</a>, pp. 44–45. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith200745-64"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith200745_64-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith2007">Smith 2007</a>, p. 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMargavioSalomone2014215-65"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMargavioSalomone2014215_65-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMargavioSalomone2014">Margavio & Salomone 2014</a>, p. 215. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino200081-66"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGambino200081_66-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGambino2000">Gambino 2000</a>, p. 81. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENussbaum1977810-67">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENussbaum1977810_67-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENussbaum1977810_67-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNussbaum1977">Nussbaum 1977</a>, p. 810. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENussbaum1977-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENussbaum1977_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNussbaum1977">Nussbaum 1977</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWasserman199878-69">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWasserman199878_69-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWasserman199878_69-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWasserman1998">Wasserman 1998</a>, p. 78. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeLucia2003217–218-70"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeLucia2003217–218_70-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDeLucia2003">DeLucia 2003</a>, pp. 217–218. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuleo200779-71">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuleo200779_71-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuleo200779_71-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPuleo2007">Puleo 2007</a>, p. 79. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENY_Times,_March_16,_1891-72"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENY_Times,_March_16,_1891_72-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNY_Times,_March_16,_1891">NY Times, March 16, 1891</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeach199228-73"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeach199228_73-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLeach1992">Leach 1992</a>, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELodge1891-74"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELodge1891_74-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLodge1891">Lodge 1891</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino200096-75">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGambino200096_75-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGambino200096_75-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGambino2000">Gambino 2000</a>, p. 96. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotein1979273-76">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBotein1979273_76-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBotein1979273_76-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBotein1979">Botein 1979</a>, p. 273. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlobe18911-77"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlobe18911_77-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGlobe1891">Globe 1891</a>, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeLucia2003218–219-78"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeLucia2003218–219_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDeLucia2003">DeLucia 2003</a>, pp. 218–219. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotein1979275-79"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBotein1979275_79-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBotein1979">Botein 1979</a>, p. 275. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino2000179-80"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGambino2000179_80-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGambino2000">Gambino 2000</a>, p. 179. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007229-81"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2007229_81-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith2007">Smith 2007</a>, p. 229. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotein1979276-82"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBotein1979276_82-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBotein1979">Botein 1979</a>, p. 276. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino200095-83"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGambino200095_83-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGambino2000">Gambino 2000</a>, p. 95. </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-84"><a href="#cite_ref-:1_84-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStaples2019" class="citation news cs1">Staples, Brent (October 12, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/10/12/opinion/columbus-day-italian-american-racism.html">"Opinion: How Italians Became 'White'"</a>. The New York Times. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. Retrieved October 15, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Opinion%3A+How+Italians+Became+%27White%27&rft.date=2019-10-12&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Staples&rft.aufirst=Brent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Finteractive%2F2019%2F10%2F12%2Fopinion%2Fcolumbus-day-italian-american-racism.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1891+New+Orleans+lynchings" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino2000126–127-85"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGambino2000126–127_85-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGambino2000">Gambino 2000</a>, pp. 126–127. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoosevelt18911–2-86"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoosevelt18911–2_86-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoosevelt1891">Roosevelt 1891</a>, pp. 1–2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDonohue2012-87">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonohue2012_87-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDonohue2012_87-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDonohue2012">Donohue 2012</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENelli198165-88"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENelli198165_88-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNelli1981">Nelli 1981</a>, p. 65. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuleo200778–79-89"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuleo200778–79_89-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPuleo2007">Puleo 2007</a>, pp. 78–79. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELodge1891611–612-90"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELodge1891611–612_90-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLodge1891">Lodge 1891</a>, pp. 611–612. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaselliCandeloro200436-91"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaselliCandeloro200436_91-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaselliCandeloro2004">Maselli & Candeloro 2004</a>, p. 36. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotein1979263–264,_277,_279-92"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBotein1979263–264,_277,_279_92-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBotein1979">Botein 1979</a>, pp. 263–264, 277, 279. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurtz1983356–357,_366-93"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurtz1983356–357,_366_93-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKurtz1983">Kurtz 1983</a>, pp. 356–357, 366. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaiamonte1992140–141-94"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaiamonte1992140–141_94-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaiamonte1992">Baiamonte 1992</a>, pp. 140–141. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENelli198156-95"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENelli198156_95-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNelli1981">Nelli 1981</a>, p. 56. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaiamonte1992143–144-96"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaiamonte1992143–144_96-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaiamonte1992">Baiamonte 1992</a>, pp. 143–144. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007285-97"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2007285_97-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith2007">Smith 2007</a>, p. 285. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2007291-98"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2007291_98-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith2007">Smith 2007</a>, p. 291. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaiamonte1992120-99"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaiamonte1992120_99-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaiamonte1992">Baiamonte 1992</a>, p. 120. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKurtz1983357-100"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurtz1983357_100-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKurtz1983">Kurtz 1983</a>, p. 357. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENelli198159-101"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENelli198159_101-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNelli1981">Nelli 1981</a>, p. 59. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENelli198136–37-102"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENelli198136–37_102-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNelli1981">Nelli 1981</a>, pp. 36–37. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGambino2000103-104"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGambino2000103_104-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGambino2000">Gambino 2000</a>, p. 103. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWebb20001155–1156-105">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWebb20001155–1156_105-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWebb20001155–1156_105-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWebb2000">Webb 2000</a>, pp. 1155–1156. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBotein1978505–506-106"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBotein1978505–506_106-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBotein1978">Botein 1978</a>, pp. 505–506. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1977628–629-107"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1977628–629_107-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJackson1977">Jackson 1977</a>, pp. 628–629. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWileyPozzetta1978378–379-108"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWileyPozzetta1978378–379_108-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWileyPozzetta1978">Wiley & Pozzetta 1978</a>, pp. 378–379. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=1891_New_Orleans_lynchings&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books">Books</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=1891_New_Orleans_lynchings&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Books">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGambino2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Gambino" title="Richard Gambino">Gambino, Richard</a> (2000). Vendetta: The True Story of the Largest Lynching in U.S. History (2nd ed.). Toronto: Guernica. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55071-103-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-55071-103-2"><bdi>1-55071-103-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/43282789">43282789</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vendetta%3A+The+True+Story+of+the+Largest+Lynching+in+U.S.+History&rft.place=Toronto&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Guernica&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F43282789&rft.isbn=1-55071-103-2&rft.aulast=Gambino&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1891+New+Orleans+lynchings" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMargavioSalomone2014" class="citation book cs1">Margavio, A.; Salomone, Jerome (2014). Bread and Respect: The Italians of Louisiana. Chicago: Pelican Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4556-0150-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4556-0150-9"><bdi>978-1-4556-0150-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1257076872">1257076872</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bread+and+Respect%3A+The+Italians+of+Louisiana.&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=Pelican+Publishing&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1257076872&rft.isbn=978-1-4556-0150-9&rft.aulast=Margavio&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Salomone%2C+Jerome&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1891+New+Orleans+lynchings" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNelli1981" class="citation book cs1">Nelli, Humbert S. (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/businessofcrimei00nell">The Business of Crime: Italians and Syndicate Crime in the United States</a>. University of Chicago Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/businessofcrimei00nell/page/29">29</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226571324" title="Special:BookSources/9780226571324"><bdi>9780226571324</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Business+of+Crime%3A+Italians+and+Syndicate+Crime+in+the+United+States&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=9780226571324&rft.aulast=Nelli&rft.aufirst=Humbert+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbusinessofcrimei00nell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1891+New+Orleans+lynchings" class="Z3988"> pp 24–69</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPuleo2007" class="citation book cs1">Puleo, Stephen (2007). The Boston Italians: A Story of Pride, Perseverance, and Paesani, from the Years of the Great Immigration to the Present Day. Boston: Beacon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-5036-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-5036-1"><bdi>978-0-8070-5036-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/71812706">71812706</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Boston+Italians%3A+A+Story+of+Pride%2C+Perseverance%2C+and+Paesani%2C+from+the+Years+of+the+Great+Immigration+to+the+Present+Day&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Beacon+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F71812706&rft.isbn=978-0-8070-5036-1&rft.aulast=Puleo&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1891+New+Orleans+lynchings" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2007" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Tom (2007). The Crescent City Lynchings: The Murder of Chief Hennessy, the New Orleans "Mafia" Trials, and the Parish Prison Mob. Guilford, CT. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59228-901-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59228-901-1"><bdi>978-1-59228-901-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/77536401">77536401</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Crescent+City+Lynchings%3A+The+Murder+of+Chief+Hennessy%2C+the+New+Orleans+%22Mafia%22+Trials%2C+and+the+Parish+Prison+Mob&rft.place=Guilford%2C+CT&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F77536401&rft.isbn=978-1-59228-901-1&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Tom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1891+New+Orleans+lynchings" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCummins2014" class="citation book cs1">Cummins, Light Townsend (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j1slAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT265">Louisiana: A History</a>. <a href="/wiki/Judith_Kelleher_Schafer" title="Judith Kelleher Schafer">Judith Kelleher Schafer</a>, Edward F. Haas, Michael L. Kurtz, Bennett H. Wall, John C. Rodrigue (Sixth ed.). Chichester, West Sussex. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-61964-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-61964-3"><bdi>978-1-118-61964-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/855507249">855507249</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Louisiana%3A+A+History&rft.place=Chichester%2C+West+Sussex&rft.edition=Sixth&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F855507249&rft.isbn=978-1-118-61964-3&rft.aulast=Cummins&rft.aufirst=Light+Townsend&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dj1slAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT265&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1891+New+Orleans+lynchings" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Articles">Articles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=1891_New_Orleans_lynchings&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Articles">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaiamonte1992" class="citation journal cs1">Baiamonte, John V. (1992). "'Who Killa de Chief' Revisited: The Hennessey Assassination and Its Aftermath, 1890–1991". Louisiana History. 33 (2). Louisiana Historical Association: 117–146. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4232935">4232935</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Louisiana+History&rft.atitle=%27Who+Killa+de+Chief%27+Revisited%3A+The+Hennessey+Assassination+and+Its+Aftermath%2C+1890%E2%80%931991&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=117-146&rft.date=1992&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4232935%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Baiamonte&rft.aufirst=John+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1891+New+Orleans+lynchings" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBotein1979" class="citation journal cs1">Botein, Barbara (1979). "The Hennessy Case: An Episode in Anti-Italian Nativism". Louisiana History. 20 (3). Louisiana Historical Association: 261–279. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4231912">4231912</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Louisiana+History&rft.atitle=The+Hennessy+Case%3A+An+Episode+in+Anti-Italian+Nativism&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=261-279&rft.date=1979&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4231912%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Botein&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1891+New+Orleans+lynchings" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBotein1978" class="citation journal cs1">Botein, Barbara (1978). "Review". Louisiana History. 19 (4). Louisiana Historical Association: 505–506. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4231852">4231852</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Louisiana+History&rft.atitle=Review&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=505-506&rft.date=1978&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4231852%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Botein&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1891+New+Orleans+lynchings" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeLucia2003" class="citation journal cs1">DeLucia, Christine (2003). "Getting the Story Straight: Press Coverage of Italian-American Lynchings from 1856–1910". <a href="/wiki/Italian_Americana" title="Italian Americana">Italian Americana</a>. 21 (2): 212–221. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/29776894">29776894</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Italian+Americana&rft.atitle=Getting+the+Story+Straight%3A+Press+Coverage+of+Italian-American+Lynchings+from+1856%E2%80%931910&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=212-221&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F29776894%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=DeLucia&rft.aufirst=Christine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1891+New+Orleans+lynchings" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonohue2012" class="citation web cs1">Donohue, Stacy Lee (September 17, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161111084712/http://www.uwosh.edu/filmandhistory/documentary/americanhistory1/linciati.php">"Review of Linciati: Lynchings of Italians in America (2004)"</a>. Film & History. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uwosh.edu/filmandhistory/documentary/americanhistory1/linciati.php">the original</a> on November 11, 2016. Retrieved August 28, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Film+%26+History&rft.atitle=Review+of+Linciati%3A+Lynchings+of+Italians+in+America+%282004%29&rft.date=2012-09-17&rft.aulast=Donohue&rft.aufirst=Stacy+Lee&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uwosh.edu%2Ffilmandhistory%2Fdocumentary%2Famericanhistory1%2Flinciati.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1891+New+Orleans+lynchings" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson1977" class="citation journal cs1">Jackson, Joy (1977). "Review". The Journal of Southern History. 43 (4). Southern Historical Association: 628–629. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2207032">10.2307/2207032</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2207032">2207032</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Southern+History&rft.atitle=Review&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=628-629&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2207032&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2207032%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Joy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1891+New+Orleans+lynchings" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKurtz1983" class="citation journal cs1">Kurtz, Michael L. 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(1978). "Review". The Florida Historical Quarterly. 56 (3). Florida Historical Society: 378–379. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30147455">30147455</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Florida+Historical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Review&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=378-379&rft.date=1978&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F30147455%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Wiley&rft.aufirst=Bell+I.&rft.au=Pozzetta%2C+George+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1891+New+Orleans+lynchings" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLibrary_of_Congress" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/immigration/italian/under-attack/">"Under Attack | Italian | Immigration and Relocation in U.S. History | Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress | Library of Congress"</a>. Library of Congress. Retrieved April 22, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Library+of+Congress&rft.atitle=Under+Attack+%7C+Italian+%7C+Immigration+and+Relocation+in+U.S.+History+%7C+Classroom+Materials+at+the+Library+of+Congress+%7C+Library+of+Congress&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fclassroom-materials%2Fimmigration%2Fitalian%2Funder-attack%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1891+New+Orleans+lynchings" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNY_Times,_March_15,_1891" class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9D03E1D81239E033A25756C1A9659C94609ED7CF">"Chief Hennessy Avenged; Eleven of His Italian Assassins Lynched by a Mob. An Uprising of Indignant Citizens in New Orleans – The Prison Doors Forced and the Italian Murderers Shot Down"</a>. The New York Times. March 15, 1891.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Chief+Hennessy+Avenged%3B+Eleven+of+His+Italian+Assassins+Lynched+by+a+Mob.+An+Uprising+of+Indignant+Citizens+in+New+Orleans+%E2%80%93+The+Prison+Doors+Forced+and+the+Italian+Murderers+Shot+Down&rft.date=1891-03-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Fabstract.html%3Fres%3D9D03E1D81239E033A25756C1A9659C94609ED7CF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1891+New+Orleans+lynchings" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNY_Times,_March_16,_1891" class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1891/03/16/103299119.pdf">"The New Orleans Affair"</a> (PDF). The New York Times. March 16, 1891. p. 4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+New+Orleans+Affair&rft.pages=4&rft.date=1891-03-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimesmachine.nytimes.com%2Ftimesmachine%2F1891%2F03%2F16%2F103299119.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1891+New+Orleans+lynchings" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlobe1891" class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/494193267">"STILETTO RULE: New Orleans Arose to Meet the Curse"</a>. The Boston Globe. March 16, 1891. p. 1. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.proquest.com/docview/494193267">494193267</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Boston+Globe&rft.atitle=STILETTO+RULE%3A+New+Orleans+Arose+to+Meet+the+Curse&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1891-03-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fdocview%2F494193267&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1891+New+Orleans+lynchings" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=1891_New_Orleans_lynchings&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Botein, Barbara. "The Hennessy Case: An Episode in American Nativism, 1890" (PhD dissertation, New York University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1975. 7528507).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGauthreaux2010" class="citation journal cs1">Gauthreaux, Alan G. (2010). "An Inhospitable Land: Anti-Italian Sentiment and Violence in Louisiana, 1891–1924". Louisiana History. 51 (1). Louisiana Historical Association: 41–68. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40646346">40646346</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Louisiana+History&rft.atitle=An+Inhospitable+Land%3A+Anti-Italian+Sentiment+and+Violence+in+Louisiana%2C+1891%E2%80%931924&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=41-68&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40646346%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Gauthreaux&rft.aufirst=Alan+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1891+New+Orleans+lynchings" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Giordano, Paolo. " Italian Immigration in the State of Louisiana: Its Causes, Effects, and Results" Italian Americana 5#2 (1979), pp. 160–177 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/29775972">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobson1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Frye_Jacobson" title="Matthew Frye Jacobson">Jacobson, Matthew Frye</a> (1998). Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. pp. 52–62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-06371-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-06371-6"><bdi>0-674-06371-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/38752991">38752991</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Whiteness+of+a+Different+Color%3A+European+Immigrants+and+the+Alchemy+of+Race&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&rft.pages=52-62&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F38752991&rft.isbn=0-674-06371-6&rft.aulast=Jacobson&rft.aufirst=Matthew+Frye&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1891+New+Orleans+lynchings" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaselliCandeloro2004" class="citation book cs1">Maselli, Joseph; Candeloro, Dominic (2004). "New Orleans's 1891 Nightmare: Eleven Italians Lynched". Italians in New Orleans. Charleston, SC: Arcadia Pub. pp. 35–42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7385-1692-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7385-1692-9"><bdi>0-7385-1692-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/57000995">57000995</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=New+Orleans%27s+1891+Nightmare%3A+Eleven+Italians+Lynched&rft.btitle=Italians+in+New+Orleans&rft.place=Charleston%2C+SC&rft.pages=35-42&rft.pub=Arcadia+Pub&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F57000995&rft.isbn=0-7385-1692-9&rft.aulast=Maselli&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft.au=Candeloro%2C+Dominic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1891+New+Orleans+lynchings" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRimanelliPostman1992" class="citation book cs1">Rimanelli, Marco; Postman, Sheryl Lynn (1992). The 1891 New Orleans Lynching and U.S.-Italian Relations: A Look Back. Marco Rimanelli, Sheryl L. Postman. New York: P. Lang. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8204-1672-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8204-1672-X"><bdi>0-8204-1672-X</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/24550271">24550271</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+1891+New+Orleans+Lynching+and+U.S.-Italian+Relations%3A+A+Look+Back&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=P.+Lang&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F24550271&rft.isbn=0-8204-1672-X&rft.aulast=Rimanelli&rft.aufirst=Marco&rft.au=Postman%2C+Sheryl+Lynn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1891+New+Orleans+lynchings" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoolf2015" class="citation web cs1">Woolf, Christopher (November 26, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theworld.org/stories/2015-11-26/brief-history-america-s-hostility-previous-generation-mediterranean-migrants">"A Brief History of America's Hostility to a Previous Generation of Mediterranean Migrants — Italians"</a>. The World from PRX. Retrieved April 22, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+from+PRX&rft.atitle=A+Brief+History+of+America%27s+Hostility+to+a+Previous+Generation+of+Mediterranean+Migrants+%E2%80%94+Italians&rft.date=2015-11-26&rft.aulast=Woolf&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheworld.org%2Fstories%2F2015-11-26%2Fbrief-history-america-s-hostility-previous-generation-mediterranean-migrants&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1891+New+Orleans+lynchings" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnited_States._Dept._of_State1891" class="citation book cs1">United States. Dept. of State (1891). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/correspondencei01statgoog">Correspondence in Relation to the Killing of Prisoners in New Orleans on March 14, 1891</a>. Harvard University. Washington : Government Printing Office.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Correspondence+in+Relation+to+the+Killing+of+Prisoners+in+New+Orleans+on+March+14%2C+1891&rft.pub=Washington+%3A+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1891&rft.au=United+States.+Dept.+of+State&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcorrespondencei01statgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1891+New+Orleans+lynchings" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas2006" class="citation thesis cs1">Thomas, Clayton Hubert (2006). "Those Anarchist Bastards": Judge Webster Thayer and the Making of the Sacco-Vanzetti Cases's Arch-Villain (Thesis). <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/228511127">228511127</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=%22Those+Anarchist+Bastards%22%3A+Judge+Webster+Thayer+and+the+Making+of+the+Sacco-Vanzetti+Cases%27s+Arch-Villain&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F228511127&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Clayton+Hubert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1891+New+Orleans+lynchings" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Articles_from_the_1930s">Articles from the 1930s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=1891_New_Orleans_lynchings&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Articles from the 1930s">edit</a>]</div> The studies by Coxe and Kendall have been widely cited, both as sources and as examples of uncritical acceptance of the "Sicilian Mafia" thesis. <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoxe1937" class="citation journal cs1">Coxe, John E. (1937). "The New Orleans Mafia Incident". Louisiana History. XX. Louisiana Historical Association: 1067–1110.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Louisiana+History&rft.atitle=The+New+Orleans+Mafia+Incident&rft.volume=XX&rft.pages=1067-1110&rft.date=1937&rft.aulast=Coxe&rft.aufirst=John+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1891+New+Orleans+lynchings" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKendall1939" class="citation journal cs1">Kendall, John S. (1939). "Who Killa de Chief?". Louisiana History. XXII. Louisiana Historical Association: 492–530.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Louisiana+History&rft.atitle=Who+Killa+de+Chief%3F&rft.volume=XXII&rft.pages=492-530&rft.date=1939&rft.aulast=Kendall&rft.aufirst=John+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1891+New+Orleans+lynchings" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fiction">Fiction</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=1891_New_Orleans_lynchings&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Fiction">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accordion_Crimes" title="Accordion Crimes">Accordion Crimes</a> by <a href="/wiki/E._Annie_Proulx" class="mw-redirect" title="E. Annie Proulx">E. Annie Proulx</a>. This 1996 novel begins in the 19th century, as a Sicilian accordion-maker comes to the United States in search of better opportunities. He is shot by an anti-Italian lynch mob and his accordion is passed along, becoming the center of events like a cat with nine lives.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=1891_New_Orleans_lynchings&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lynching" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:lynching">lynching</a> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:March_14,_1891_lynchings" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:March 14, 1891 lynchings">March 14, 1891 lynchings</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1891/03/15/106047661.pdf">"Chief Hennessy Avenged"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. March 15, 1891.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Chief+Hennessy+Avenged&rft.date=1891-03-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimesmachine.nytimes.com%2Ftimesmachine%2F1891%2F03%2F15%2F106047661.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3A1891+New+Orleans+lynchings" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output 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a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Template:Lynching in the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Template talk:Lynching in the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this 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States</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Before 1900</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Francis_McIntosh" title="Lynching of Francis McIntosh">Francis McIntosh</a> (1836)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Parish_Lovejoy" title="Elijah Parish Lovejoy">Elijah Parish Lovejoy</a> (1837)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josefa_Segovia" title="Josefa Segovia">Josefa Segovia</a> (1851)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancho_Daniel" title="Pancho Daniel">Pancho Daniel</a> (1858)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detroit_race_riot_of_1863" title="Detroit race riot of 1863">Joshua Boyd</a> (1863)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Plummer" title="Henry Plummer">Henry Plummer</a> (1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Sketoe" title="Bill Sketoe">Bill Sketoe</a> (1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clubfoot_George" title="Clubfoot George">Clubfoot George</a> (1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Long" title="Steve Long">Steve Long, Ace and Con Moyer</a> (1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyatt_Outlaw" title="Wyatt Outlaw">Wyatt Outlaw</a> (1870)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_W._Stephens" title="John W. Stephens">John W. Stephens</a> (1870)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Boyd_(county_solicitor)" title="Alexander Boyd (county solicitor)">Alexander Boyd</a> (1870)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Williams_(militia_leader)" title="Jim Williams (militia leader)">Jim Williams</a> (1871)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_David_Jones" title="Lynching of David Jones">David Jones</a> (1872)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Jo_Reed" title="Lynching of Jo Reed">Jo Reed</a> (1875)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_St._Clair_(minister)" title="Arthur St. Clair (minister)">Arthur St. Clair</a> (1877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Michael_Green" title="Lynching of Michael Green">Michael Green</a> (1878)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Standing" title="Joseph Standing">Joseph Standing</a> (1879)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Nose_George" title="Big Nose George">Big Nose George Parrott</a> (1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Thurber" title="Charles Thurber">Charles Thurber</a> (1882)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bisbee_massacre" title="Bisbee massacre">John Wesley Heath</a> (1884)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Eliza_Woods" title="Lynching of Eliza Woods">Eliza Woods</a> (1886)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mingo_Jack" title="Mingo Jack">Samuel "Mingo Jack" Johnson</a> (1886)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Amos_Miller" title="Lynching of Amos Miller">Amos Miller</a> (1888)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Joseph_Vermillion" title="Lynching of Joseph Vermillion">Joseph Vermillion</a> (1889)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_George_Meadows" title="Lynching of George Meadows">George Meadows</a> (1889)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Watson" title="Ellen Watson">Ellen Watson</a> (1889)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madison,_Georgia#Jim_Crow_era" title="Madison, Georgia">Brown Washington</a> (1890)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Jim_Taylor" title="Lynching of Jim Taylor">Jim Taylor</a> (1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tillman#Lynching_and_race" title="Benjamin Tillman">Dick Lundy</a> (1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Joe_Coe" title="Lynching of Joe Coe">Joe Coe</a> (1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Lewis_(lynching_victim)" title="Robert Lewis (lynching victim)">Robert Lewis</a> (1892)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Ephraim_Grizzard" title="Lynching of Ephraim Grizzard">Ephraim Grizzard</a> (1892)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Samuel_J._Bush" title="Lynching of Samuel J. Bush">Samuel J. Bush</a> (1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark,_South_Carolina#History" title="Denmark, South Carolina">John Peterson</a> (1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Alfred_Blount" title="Lynching of Alfred Blount">Alfred Blount</a> (1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Smith_(lynching_victim)" title="Henry Smith (lynching victim)">Henry Smith</a> (1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Richard_Puryear" title="Lynching of Richard Puryear">Richard Puryear</a> (1894)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Stephen_Williams" title="Lynching of Stephen Williams">Stephen Williams</a> (1894)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocky_Springs,_Mississippi#Lynching" title="Rocky Springs, Mississippi">Amos Hicks</a> (1894)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellicott_City,_Maryland#Incorporation_and_disincorporation" title="Ellicott City, Maryland">Jacob Henson</a> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_William_Andrews" title="Lynching of William Andrews">William Andrews</a> (1897)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Joseph_H._McCoy" title="Lynching of Joseph H. McCoy">Joseph H. McCoy</a> (1897)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/LaFayette,_Alabama#History" title="LaFayette, Alabama">John Anderson</a> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_John_Henry_James" title="Lynching of John Henry James">John Henry James</a> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_F._W._Stewart" title="Lynching of F. W. Stewart">F. W. Stewart</a> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Sam_Hose" title="Lynching of Sam Hose">Sam Hose</a> (1899)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Benjamin_Thomas" title="Lynching of Benjamin Thomas">Benjamin Thomas</a> (1899)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">1900–1940</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Rochelle" title="Fred Rochelle">Fred Rochelle</a> (1901)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Ballie_Crutchfield" title="Lynching of Ballie Crutchfield">Ballie Crutchfield</a> (1901)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_George_Ward" title="Lynching of George Ward">George Ward</a> (1901)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#Twentieth_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">Walker Davis</a> (1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danville_race_riot" title="Danville race riot">J. D. Mayfield</a> (1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_George_White" title="Lynching of George White"> George White</a> (1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_David_Wyatt" title="Lynching of David Wyatt">David Wyatt</a> (1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Marie_Thompson" title="Lynching of Marie Thompson">Marie Thompson</a> (1904)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Paul_Reed_and_Will_Cato" title="Lynching of Paul Reed and Will Cato">Paul Reed and Will Cato</a> (1904)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gadsden,_Alabama#Lynching_of_Bunk_Richardson" title="Gadsden, Alabama">Bunk Richardson</a> (1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Ed_Johnson" title="Lynching of Ed Johnson">Ed Johnson</a> (1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toyah,_Texas#History" title="Toyah, Texas">Slab Pitts</a> (1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_William_Burns" title="Lynching of William Burns">William Burns</a> (1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Earnest_Williams" title="Lynching of Earnest Williams">Earnest Williams</a> (1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Miller_(outlaw)" title="Jim Miller (outlaw)">Jim Miller</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#20th_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">James Hodges</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#20th_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">Matthew Chase</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#20th_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">"Mose" Creole</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#20th_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">"Pie" Hill</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_%22Froggie%22_James" title="William "Froggie" James">William "Froggie" James and Henry Salzner</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centreville,_Alabama#1910_lynching" title="Centreville, Alabama">Grant Richardson</a> (1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_King_Johnson" title="Lynching of King Johnson">King Johnson</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#20th_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">Name unknown (TX)</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Laura_and_L._D._Nelson" title="Lynching of Laura and L. D. Nelson">Laura and L. D. Nelson</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livermore,_Kentucky#Opera_house_lynching" title="Livermore, Kentucky">Will Porter</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Zachariah_Walker" title="Lynching of Zachariah Walker">Zachariah Walker</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#20th_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">Mary Jackson</a> (1912)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1912_racial_conflict_in_Forsyth_County,_Georgia" title="1912 racial conflict in Forsyth County, Georgia">Rob Edwards</a> (1912)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#20th_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">George Saunders</a> (1912)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#20th_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">Robert Perry</a> (1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#20th_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">? Anderson</a> (1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#20th_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">Charles Fisher</a> (1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_John_Evans" title="Lynching of John Evans">John Evans</a> (1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Frank" title="Leo Frank">Leo Frank</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cedarbluff,_Mississippi#History" title="Cedarbluff, Mississippi">Name unknown (MS)</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Jesse_Washington" title="Lynching of Jesse Washington">Jesse Washington</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Anthony_Crawford" title="Lynching of Anthony Crawford">Anthony Crawford</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cedarbluff,_Mississippi#History" title="Cedarbluff, Mississippi">Jeff Brown</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Paulo_Boleta" title="Lynching of Paulo Boleta">Paulo Boleta</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Little_(unionist)" title="Frank Little (unionist)">Frank Little</a> (1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Marshall,_Texas#20th_century" title="History of Marshall, Texas">Charles Jones</a> (1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Ell_Persons" title="Lynching of Ell Persons">Ell Persons</a> (1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Prager" title="Robert Prager">Robert Prager</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_1918_lynchings" title="May 1918 lynchings">Mary Turner and her unborn baby</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_1918_lynchings" title="May 1918 lynchings">Hazel "Hayes" Turner</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_George_Taylor" title="Lynching of George Taylor">George Taylor</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_McIlherron" class="mw-redirect" title="Jim McIlherron">Jim McIlherron</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Olli_Kinkkonen" title="Lynching of Olli Kinkkonen">Olli Kinkkonen</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madison,_Georgia#Jim_Crow_era" title="Madison, Georgia">Wallace Baynes</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omaha_race_riot_of_1919" title="Omaha race riot of 1919">Will Brown</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wesley_Everest" title="Wesley Everest">Wesley Everest</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hartfield" title="John Hartfield">John Hartfield</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Jay_Lynch" title="Lynching of Jay Lynch">Jay Lynch</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berry_Washington" title="Berry Washington">Berry Washington</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1920_Alabama_coal_strike#Willie_Baird" title="1920 Alabama coal strike">Willie Baird</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Belton" title="Roy Belton">Roy Belton</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Rowland" title="Dick Rowland">Dick Rowland (attempted)</a> (1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Henry_Lowry" title="Lynching of Henry Lowry">Henry Lowry</a> (1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_James_Harvey_and_Joe_Jordan" title="Lynching of James Harvey and Joe Jordan">James Harvey and Joe Jordan</a> (1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Pullen" title="Joe Pullen">Joe Pullen</a> (1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Samuel_Smith" title="Lynching of Samuel Smith">Samuel Smith</a> (1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_L._Q._Ivy" title="Lynching of L. Q. Ivy">L. Q. Ivy</a> (1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Raymond_Byrd" title="Lynching of Raymond Byrd">Raymond Byrd</a> (1926)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Clark_(lynching_victim)" title="James Clark (lynching victim)">James Clark</a> (1926)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Lake,_Colorado#Fred_Selak" title="Grand Lake, Colorado">Fred N. Selak</a> (1926)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Tom_Payne" title="Lynching of Tom Payne">Tom Payne</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_John_Carter" title="Lynching of John Carter">John Carter</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Dan_Anderson" title="Lynching of Dan Anderson">Dan Anderson</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Will_Sherod" title="Lynching of Will Sherod">Will Sherod</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Bernice_Raspberry" title="Lynching of Bernice Raspberry">Bernice Raspberry</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Owen_Flemming" title="Lynching of Owen Flemming">Owen Flemming</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Joseph_Upchurch" title="Lynching of Joseph Upchurch">Joseph Upchurch</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Joe_Smith" title="Lynching of Joe Smith">Joe Smith</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Albert_Williams" title="Lynching of Albert Williams">Albert Williams</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Thomas_Bradshaw" title="Lynching of Thomas Bradshaw">Thomas Bradshaw</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Winston_Pounds" title="Lynching of Winston Pounds">Winston Pounds</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Thomas_Williams" title="Lynching of Thomas Williams">Thomas Williams</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Henry_Choate" title="Lynching of Henry Choate">Henry Choate</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Leonard_Woods" title="Lynching of Leonard Woods">Leonard Woods</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mondak,_Montana" title="Mondak, Montana">J. C. Collins</a> (1928)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_George_Hughes" title="Lynching of George Hughes">George Hughes</a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Cameron_(activist)" title="James Cameron (activist)">James Cameron</a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Raymond_Gunn" title="Lynching of Raymond Gunn">Lynching of Raymond Gunn</a> (1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Williams_(laborer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Matthew Williams (laborer)">Matthew Williams</a> (1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Shedrick_Thompson" title="Death of Shedrick Thompson">Shedrick Thompson</a> (1932)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_George_Armwood" title="Lynching of George Armwood">George Armwood</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Cordie_Cheek" title="Lynching of Cordie Cheek">Cordie Cheek</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Claude_Neal" title="Lynching of Claude Neal">Claude Neal</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Austin_Callaway" title="Lynching of Austin Callaway">Austin Callaway</a> (1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elbert_Williams" title="Elbert Williams">Elbert Williams</a> (1940)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">After 1940</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Hall" title="Felix Hall">Felix Hall</a> (1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kunze" title="Johannes Kunze">Johannes Kunze</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screws_v._United_States" title="Screws v. United States">Robert "Bobbie" Hall</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Willie_James_Howard" title="Lynching of Willie James Howard">Willie James Howard</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recy_Taylor" title="Recy Taylor">Recy Taylor</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cecil_Jones" title="John Cecil Jones">John Cecil Jones</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Willie_Earle" title="Lynching of Willie Earle">Willie Earle</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamar_Smith_(activist)" title="Lamar Smith (activist)">Lamar Smith</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Lee" title="George W. Lee">George W. Lee</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judge_Edward_Aaron" title="Judge Edward Aaron">Judge Edward Aaron</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Willie_Edwards" title="Murder of Willie Edwards">Willie Edwards</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Mack_Charles_Parker" title="Lynching of Mack Charles Parker">Mack Charles Parker</a> (1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Allen" title="Louis Allen">Louis Allen</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Lemuel_Penn" title="Murder of Lemuel Penn">Lemuel Penn</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Frank_Morris" title="Murder of Frank Morris">Frank Morris</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Reeb" title="James Reeb">James Reeb</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Dahmer" title="Vernon Dahmer">Vernon Dahmer</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Wharlest_Jackson" title="Murder of Wharlest Jackson">Wharlest Jackson</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Carol_Jenkins" title="Murder of Carol Jenkins">Carol Jenkins</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shooting_of_Henry_Marrow" class="mw-redirect" title="Shooting of Henry Marrow">Henry Marrow</a> (1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livernois%E2%80%93Fenkell_riot" title="Livernois–Fenkell riot">Marian Pyszko</a> (1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Betty_Gardner" title="Murder of Betty Gardner">Betty Gardner</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Miami_riots" title="1980 Miami riots">Arthur McDuffie</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Michael_Donald" title="Lynching of Michael Donald">Michael Donald</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Yusef_Hawkins" title="Murder of Yusef Hawkins">Yusef Hawkins</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_James_Byrd_Jr." title="Murder of James Byrd Jr.">James Byrd Jr.</a> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_James_Craig_Anderson" title="Murder of James Craig Anderson">James Craig Anderson</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Ahmaud_Arbery" title="Murder of Ahmaud Arbery">Ahmaud Arbery</a> (2020)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Multiple_victims" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Multiple victims</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Joseph_Smith" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of Joseph Smith">Death of Joseph Smith</a> (<a href="/wiki/Joseph_Smith" title="Joseph Smith">Joseph Smith</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hyrum_Smith" title="Hyrum Smith">Hyrum Smith</a>) (1844)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marais_des_Cygnes_massacre" title="Marais des Cygnes massacre">Marais des Cygnes, KS, massacre</a> (1858)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Hanging_at_Gainesville" title="Great Hanging at Gainesville">Great Hanging at Gainesville, TX</a> (1862)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_City_draft_riots" title="New York City draft riots">New York City draft riots</a> (1863)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detroit_race_riot_(1863)" class="mw-redirect" title="Detroit race riot (1863)">Detroit race riot (1863)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Signoret" title="Felix Signoret">? Lachenais and four others</a> (1863)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Pillow" title="Battle of Fort Pillow">Fort Pillow, TN, massacre</a> (1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Plummer" title="Henry Plummer">Plummer Gang</a> (1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memphis_riots_of_1866" class="mw-redirect" title="Memphis riots of 1866">Memphis massacre</a> (1866)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1866_Gallatin_County_race_riot" title="1866 Gallatin County race riot">Gallatin County, KY, race riot</a> (1866)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_massacre_of_1866" class="mw-redirect" title="New Orleans massacre of 1866">New Orleans massacre of 1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reno_Gang" title="Reno Gang">Reno Brothers Gang</a> (1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camilla_massacre" title="Camilla massacre">Camilla, GA, massacre</a> (1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Long" title="Steve Long">Steve Long and two half-brothers</a> (1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulaski_riot" title="Pulaski riot">Pulaski, TN, riot</a> (1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Samuel_Bierfield" class="mw-redirect" title="Lynching of Samuel Bierfield">Samuel Bierfield and Lawrence Bowman</a> (1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opelousas_massacre" title="Opelousas massacre">Opelousas, LA, massacre</a> (1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bear_River_City,_Wyoming#Bear_River_City_Riot_of_November_19,_1868" title="Bear River City, Wyoming">Bear River City riot</a> (1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_massacre_of_1871" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese massacre of 1871">Chinese massacre of 1871</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meridian_race_riot_of_1871" title="Meridian race riot of 1871">Meridian, MS, race riot</a> (1871)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colfax_massacre" title="Colfax massacre">Colfax, LA, massacre</a> (1873)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_riot_of_1874" class="mw-redirect" title="Election riot of 1874">Election riot of 1874</a> (AL)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Moya" title="Juan Moya">Juan, Antonio, and Marcelo Moya</a> (1874)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Benjamin_and_Mollie_French" title="Lynching of Benjamin and Mollie French">Benjamin and Mollie French</a> (1876)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellenton_riot" class="mw-redirect" title="Ellenton riot">Ellenton, SC, riot</a> (1876)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamburg_massacre" title="Hamburg massacre">Hamburg, SC, massacre</a> (1876)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thibodaux_massacre" title="Thibodaux massacre">Thibodeax, LA, massacre</a> (1878)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horrell_Brothers" title="Horrell Brothers">Mart and Tom Horrell</a> (1878)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Nevlin_Porter_and_Johnson_Spencer" title="Lynching of Nevlin Porter and Johnson Spencer">Nevlin Porter and Johnson Spencer</a> (1879)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willits,_California##Triple_Masonic_lynching_of_1879" title="Willits, California">Elijah Frost, Abijah Gibson, Tom McCracken</a> (1879)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variety_Hall_shootout" title="Variety Hall shootout">T.J. House, James West, John Dorsey</a> (1880)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_14,_1891,_lynchings" class="mw-redirect" title="March 14, 1891, lynchings">New Orleans 1891 lynchings</a> (1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_the_Ruggles_brothers" title="Lynching of the Ruggles brothers">Ruggles Brothers (CA)</a> (1892)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Grocery_lynchings" title="People's Grocery lynchings">Thomas Moss, Henry Stewart, Calvin McDowell (TN)</a> (1892)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Nevlin_Porter_and_Johnson_Spencer" title="Lynching of Nevlin Porter and Johnson Spencer">Porter and Spencer (MS)</a> (1897)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenix_election_riot" title="Phoenix election riot">Phoenix, SC, election riot</a> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilmington_insurrection_of_1898" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilmington insurrection of 1898">Wilmington, NC, insurrection</a> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Julia_and_Frazier_Baker" class="mw-redirect" title="Lynching of Julia and Frazier Baker">Julia and Frazier Baker</a> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pana_riot" title="Pana riot">Pana, IL, riot</a> (1899)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watkinsville_lynching" title="Watkinsville lynching">Watkinsville lynching</a> (1905)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1906_Atlanta_race_massacre" title="1906 Atlanta race massacre">1906 Atlanta race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemper_County,_Mississippi#History" title="Kemper County, Mississippi">Kemper County, MS</a> (1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_the_Walker_family" title="Lynching of the Walker family">Walker family</a> (1908)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Springfield_race_riot_of_1908" title="Springfield race riot of 1908">Springfield race riot of 1908</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slocum,_Texas" title="Slocum, Texas">Slocum, TX, massacre</a> (1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Laura_and_L._D._Nelson" title="Lynching of Laura and L. D. Nelson">Laura and L.D. Nelson</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harris_County,_Georgia#History" title="Harris County, Georgia">Harris County, GA, lynchings</a> (1912)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newberry_Six_lynchings" title="Newberry Six lynchings">Newberry, FL, lynchings</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_St._Louis_riots" class="mw-redirect" title="East St. Louis riots">East St. Louis, IL, riots</a> (1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brooks_County,_Georgia" title="Brooks County, Georgia">Lynching rampage in Brooks County, GA</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jenkins_County,_Georgia,_riot_of_1919" class="mw-redirect" title="Jenkins County, Georgia, riot of 1919">Jenkins County, GA, riot</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longview_race_riot" title="Longview race riot">Longview, TX, race riot</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elaine_race_riot" class="mw-redirect" title="Elaine race riot">Elaine, AR, race riot</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omaha_race_riot_of_1919" title="Omaha race riot of 1919">Omaha race riot of 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knoxville_riot_of_1919" title="Knoxville riot of 1919">Knoxville riot of 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Summer" title="Red Summer">Red Summer</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duluth_lynchings" title="Duluth lynchings">Duluth, MN, lynchings</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocoee_massacre" title="Ocoee massacre">Ocoee, FL, massacre</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a> (1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perry_race_riot" class="mw-redirect" title="Perry race riot">Perry, FL, race riot</a> (1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosewood_massacre" title="Rosewood massacre">Rosewood, FL, massacre</a> (1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Jim_and_Mark_Fox" title="Lynching of Jim and Mark Fox">Jim and Mark Fox</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Thomas_Shipp_and_Abram_Smith" title="Lynching of Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith">Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith</a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tate_County,_Mississippi#History" title="Tate County, Mississippi">Tate County, MS</a> (1932)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brooke_Hart#Lynching_of_Thurmond_and_Holmes" class="mw-redirect" title="Brooke Hart">Thomas Harold Thurmond and John M. Holmes</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Roosevelt_Townes_and_Robert_McDaniels" title="Lynching of Roosevelt Townes and Robert McDaniels">Roosevelt Townes and Robert McDaniels</a> (1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beaumont_race_riot_of_1943" title="Beaumont race riot of 1943">Beaumont, TX, Race Riot</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/O%27Day_Short" title="O'Day Short">O'Day Short, wife, and two children</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moore%27s_Ford_lynchings" title="Moore's Ford lynchings">Moore's Ford, GA, lynchings</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_T._Moore" title="Harry T. Moore">Harry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harriette_Moore" title="Harriette Moore">Harriette Moore</a> (1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anniston,_Alabama#The_Civil_Rights_era" title="Anniston, Alabama">Anniston, AL</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Chaney,_Goodman,_and_Schwerner" title="Murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner">Freedom Summer Murders</a> (<a href="/wiki/James_Chaney" title="James Chaney">James Chaney</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Goodman_(activist)" title="Andrew Goodman (activist)">Andrew Goodman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Schwerner" title="Michael Schwerner">Michael Schwerner</a>) (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Cold_Case" title="Mississippi Cold Case">Henry Hezekiah Dee and Charles Eddie Moore</a> (1964)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiana_White_Caps" title="Indiana White Caps">Indiana White Caps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Shirts_(United_States)" title="Red Shirts (United States)">Red Shirts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_American_Jews" title="Lynching of American Jews">Jews</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anti-lynching_movement" title="Anti-lynching movement">Anti-lynching movement</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:American_anti-lynching_activists" title="Category:American anti-lynching activists">American anti-lynching activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Crusade_Against_Lynching" title="American Crusade Against Lynching">American Crusade Against Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jessie_Daniel_Ames" title="Jessie Daniel Ames">Jessie Daniel Ames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_C._Ansorge" title="Martin C. Ansorge">Martin C. Ansorge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_of_Southern_Women_for_the_Prevention_of_Lynching" title="Association of Southern Women for the Prevention of Lynching">Association of Southern Women for the Prevention of Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flossie_Bailey" title="Flossie Bailey">Flossie Bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_O%27Connell_Bradley" title="William O'Connell Bradley">William O'Connell Bradley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ella_Barksdale_Brown" title="Ella Barksdale Brown">Ella Barksdale Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Father_Divine" title="Father Divine">Father Divine</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Flag_Salute" title="Flag Salute">Flag Salute</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">N.A.A.C.P.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Conference_on_Lynching" title="National Conference on Lynching">National Conference on Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Strange_Fruit" title="Strange Fruit">Strange Fruit</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Legislation" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legislation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dyer_Anti-Lynching_Bill" title="Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill">Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_P._Costigan#Costigan–Wagner_Bill" title="Edward P. Costigan">Costigan-Wagner Bill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice_for_Victims_of_Lynching_Act" title="Justice for Victims of Lynching Act">Justice for Victims of Lynching Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till_Unsolved_Civil_Rights_Crime_Act" title="Emmett Till Unsolved Civil Rights Crime Act">Emmett Till Unsolved Civil Rights Crime Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till_Antilynching_Act" title="Emmett Till Antilynching Act">Emmett Till Antilynching Act</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Defenders of lynching</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_G._Bilbo" title="Theodore G. Bilbo">Theodore G. Bilbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cole_L._Blease" title="Cole L. Blease">Cole L. Blease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_S._Carr" title="Julian S. Carr">Julian S. Carr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Johnston_Catts" title="Sidney Johnston Catts">Sidney Johnston Catts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Dixon_Jr." title="Thomas Dixon Jr.">Thomas Dixon Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebecca_Latimer_Felton" title="Rebecca Latimer Felton">Rebecca Latimer Felton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Temple_Graves" title="John Temple Graves">John Temple Graves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Trotwood_Moore" title="John Trotwood Moore">John Trotwood Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_T._Morgan" title="John T. Morgan">John T. Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Rolph" title="James Rolph">James Rolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goodloe_Sutton" title="Goodloe Sutton">Goodloe Sutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tillman" title="Benjamin Tillman">Benjamin Tillman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_K._Vardaman" title="James K. Vardaman">James K. Vardaman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Watson" title="Thomas E. Watson">Thomas E. Watson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Memory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/America%27s_Black_Holocaust_Museum" title="America's Black Holocaust Museum">America's Black Holocaust Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Memorial" title="Civil Rights Memorial">Civil Rights Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Legacy_Museum" title="The Legacy Museum">The Legacy Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Memorial_for_Peace_and_Justice" title="National Memorial for Peace and Justice">National Memorial for Peace and Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_African_American_History_and_Culture" title="National Museum of African American History and Culture">National Museum of African American History and Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Poverty_Law_Center" title="Southern Poverty Law Center">Southern Poverty Law Center</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Allen_(collector)" title="James Allen (collector)">James Allen (collector)</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/And_you_are_lynching_Negroes" title="And you are lynching Negroes">And you are lynching Negroes</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_John_Shillady" title="Attack on John Shillady">Attack on John Shillady</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Liberty_Place" title="Battle of Liberty Place">Battle of Liberty Place</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Birth_of_a_Nation" title="The Birth of a Nation">The Birth of a Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Clansman:_A_Historical_Romance_of_the_Ku_Klux_Klan" title="The Clansman: A Historical Romance of the Ku Klux Klan">The Clansman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Deaths_in_police_custody_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Deaths in police custody in the United States">Deaths in police custody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fury_(1936_film)" title="Fury (1936 film)">Fury (1936 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hang_%27Em_High" title="Hang 'Em High">Hang 'Em High</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_postcard" title="Lynching postcard">Lynching postcard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Burning" title="Mississippi Burning">Mississippi Burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Cold_Case" title="Mississippi Cold Case">Mississippi Cold Case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Jimmie_Lee_Jackson" title="Murder of Jimmie Lee Jackson">Murder of Jimmie Lee Jackson</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Ox-Bow_Incident" title="The Ox-Bow Incident">The Ox-Bow Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parade_(musical)" title="Parade (musical)">Parade (musical)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Summer" title="Red Summer">Red Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottsboro_Boys" title="Scottsboro Boys">Scottsboro Boys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Parade" title="Silent Parade">Silent Parade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_Mountain#Confederate_Memorial_Carving" title="Stone Mountain">Stone Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summer_in_Mississippi" title="Summer in Mississippi">Summer in Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundown_town" title="Sundown town">Sundown town</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_sundown_towns_in_the_United_States" title="List of sundown towns in the United States">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/They_Won%27t_Forget" title="They Won't Forget">They Won't Forget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_United_States_of_Lyncherdom" title="The United States of Lyncherdom">"The United States of Lyncherdom" (Twain)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Shipp" title="United States v. Shipp">United States v. Shipp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vendetta_(1999_film)" title="Vendetta (1999 film)">Vendetta (1999 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilmington_massacre" title="Wilmington massacre">Wilmington insurrection of 1898</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Categories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Lynching in the United States">Lynching in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lynching_deaths_in_the_United_States_by_state" title="Category:Lynching deaths in the United States by state">Lynching deaths in the United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: 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