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<span>Variations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Variations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Terminology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terminology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Terminology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terminology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Outcrossing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Outcrossing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Outcrossing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Outcrossing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> 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</div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Plant reproductive morphology</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexualid%C3%A1_vexetal" title="Sexualidá vexetal – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Sexualidá vexetal" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Двудомно растение – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Двудомно растение" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexualitat_vegetal" title="Sexualitat vegetal – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Sexualitat vegetal" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexualidad_vegetal" title="Sexualidad vegetal – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sexualidad vegetal" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%B2%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B4%DB%8C_%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%87" title="ساختار زایشی گیاه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ساختار زایشی گیاه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_chez_les_plantes_%C3%A0_fleurs" title="Reproduction chez les plantes à fleurs – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Reproduction chez les plantes à fleurs" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morfologi_reproduksi_tumbuhan" title="Morfologi reproduksi tumbuhan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Morfologi reproduksi tumbuhan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A6%D7%9E%D7%97" title="מיניות הצמח – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מיניות הצמח" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_n%C3%B6v%C3%A9nyek_nemis%C3%A9ge" title="A növények nemisége – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="A növények nemisége" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jantina_tumbuhan" title="Jantina tumbuhan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Jantina tumbuhan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E3%81%AE%E6%80%A7" title="植物の性 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="植物の性" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bir_jinsli_gul" title="Bir jinsli gul – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Bir jinsli gul" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morfologia_reprodutiva_das_plantas" title="Morfologia reprodutiva das plantas – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Morfologia reprodutiva das plantas" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D1%83_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Разделение полов у растений – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Разделение полов у растений" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ss mw-list-item"><a href="https://ss.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simo_setitjalo_tekutala" title="Simo setitjalo tekutala – Swati" lang="ss" hreflang="ss" data-title="Simo setitjalo tekutala" data-language-autonym="SiSwati" data-language-local-name="Swati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>SiSwati</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%ACnh_th%C3%A1i_h%E1%BB%8Dc_sinh_s%E1%BA%A3n_th%E1%BB%B1c_v%E1%BA%ADt" title="Hình thái học sinh sản thực vật – Vietnamese" 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Parts of plant enabling sexual reproduction</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Schlumbergera_04_ies.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Schlumbergera_04_ies.jpg/250px-Schlumbergera_04_ies.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Schlumbergera_04_ies.jpg/375px-Schlumbergera_04_ies.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Schlumbergera_04_ies.jpg/500px-Schlumbergera_04_ies.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Close-up of a flower of <i><a href="/wiki/Schlumbergera" title="Schlumbergera">Schlumbergera</a></i> (Christmas or Holiday Cactus), showing part of the <a href="/wiki/Gynoecium" title="Gynoecium">gynoecium</a> (the stigma and part of the style is visible) and the <a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">stamens</a> that surround it</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Plant reproductive morphology</b> is the study of the physical form and structure (the <a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">morphology</a>) of those parts of plants directly or indirectly concerned with <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual reproduction</a>. </p><p>Among all living organisms, <a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">flowers</a>, which are the reproductive structures of <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">angiosperms</a>, are the most varied physically and show a correspondingly great diversity in methods of reproduction.<sup id="cite_ref-Barrett-2002_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barrett-2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plants that are not flowering plants (<a href="/wiki/Green_alga" class="mw-redirect" title="Green alga">green algae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">mosses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marchantiophyta" title="Marchantiophyta">liverworts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hornwort" title="Hornwort">hornworts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">ferns</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">gymnosperms</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Conifer" title="Conifer">conifers</a>) also have complex interplays between morphological adaptation and environmental factors in their sexual reproduction. The breeding system, or how the <a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm</a> from one plant fertilizes the <a href="/wiki/Egg_cell" title="Egg cell">ovum</a> of another, depends on the reproductive morphology, and is the single most important determinant of the genetic structure of nonclonal plant populations. <a href="/wiki/Christian_Konrad_Sprengel" title="Christian Konrad Sprengel">Christian Konrad Sprengel</a> (1793) studied the reproduction of flowering plants and for the first time it was understood that the <a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">pollination</a> process involved both <a href="/wiki/Biotic_component" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotic component">biotic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Abiotic">abiotic</a> interactions. <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>'s theories of <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> utilized this work to build his <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of evolution">theory of evolution</a>, which includes analysis of the <a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">coevolution</a> of flowers and their <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insect</a> <a href="/wiki/Pollinator" title="Pollinator">pollinators</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Use_of_sexual_terminology">Use of sexual terminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_reproductive_morphology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Use of sexual terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marchantia_polymorpha_gametophytes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Marchantia_polymorpha_gametophytes.jpg/250px-Marchantia_polymorpha_gametophytes.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Marchantia_polymorpha_gametophytes.jpg/375px-Marchantia_polymorpha_gametophytes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Marchantia_polymorpha_gametophytes.jpg/500px-Marchantia_polymorpha_gametophytes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5000" data-file-height="2028" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Monoicous" class="mw-redirect" title="Monoicous">Dioicous</a> gametophytes of the liverwort <i><a href="/wiki/Marchantia_polymorpha" title="Marchantia polymorpha">Marchantia polymorpha</a></i>. In this species, gametes are produced on different plants on umbrella-shaped <a href="/wiki/Gametophore" title="Gametophore">gametophores</a> with different morphologies. The radiating arms of female gametophores (left) protect <a href="/wiki/Archegonium" title="Archegonium">archegonia</a> that produce eggs. Male gametophores (right) are topped with <a href="/wiki/Antheridium" title="Antheridium">antheridia</a> that produce sperm.</figcaption></figure> <p>Plants have complex lifecycles involving <a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">alternation of generations</a>. One generation, the <a href="/wiki/Sporophyte" title="Sporophyte">sporophyte</a>, gives rise to the next generation, the <a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">gametophyte</a> asexually via <a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a>. Spores may be identical isospores or come in different sizes (<a href="/wiki/Microspore" title="Microspore">microspores</a> and <a href="/wiki/Megaspore" title="Megaspore">megaspores</a>), but strictly speaking, spores and sporophytes are neither male nor female because they do not produce <a href="/wiki/Gametes" class="mw-redirect" title="Gametes">gametes</a>. The alternate generation, the gametophyte, produces gametes, <a href="/wiki/Egg_cell" title="Egg cell">eggs</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm</a>. A gametophyte can be <a href="/wiki/Monoicous" class="mw-redirect" title="Monoicous">monoicous</a> (bisexual), producing both eggs and sperm, or dioicous (unisexual), either female (producing eggs) or male (producing sperm). </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Bryophytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Bryophytes">bryophytes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Liverwort" class="mw-redirect" title="Liverwort">liverworts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">mosses</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hornwort" title="Hornwort">hornworts</a>), the sexual gametophyte is the dominant generation. In <a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">ferns</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spermatophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatophyte">seed plants</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Cycad" title="Cycad">cycads</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conifer" title="Conifer">conifers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">flowering plants</a>, etc.) the sporophyte is the dominant generation; the obvious visible plant, whether a small herb or a large tree, is the sporophyte, and the gametophyte is very small. In bryophytes and ferns, the gametophytes are independent, free-living plants, while in seed plants, each female megagametophyte, and the megaspore that gives rise to it, is hidden within the sporophyte and is entirely dependent on it for nutrition. Each male gametophyte typically consists of two to four cells enclosed within the protective wall of a pollen grain. </p><p>The sporophyte of a flowering plant is often described using sexual terms (e.g. "female" or "male") <em>based on the sexuality of the gametophyte it gives rise to</em>. For example, a sporophyte that produces spores that give rise only to male gametophytes may be described as "male", even though the sporophyte itself is asexual, producing only spores. Similarly, flowers produced by the sporophyte may be described as "unisexual" or "bisexual", meaning that they give rise to either one sex of gametophyte or both sexes of the gametophyte.<sup id="cite_ref-Hickey-2001_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hickey-2001-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (March 2023)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Flowering_plants">Flowering plants</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_reproductive_morphology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Flowering plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Basic_flower_morphology">Basic flower morphology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_reproductive_morphology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Basic flower morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ranunculus_glaberrimus_labelled.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Ranunculus_glaberrimus_labelled.jpg/450px-Ranunculus_glaberrimus_labelled.jpg" decoding="async" width="450" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Ranunculus_glaberrimus_labelled.jpg/675px-Ranunculus_glaberrimus_labelled.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Ranunculus_glaberrimus_labelled.jpg/900px-Ranunculus_glaberrimus_labelled.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2090" data-file-height="1110" /></a><figcaption>Flower of <i>Ranunculus glaberrimus</i></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">flower</a> is the characteristic structure concerned with sexual reproduction in flowering plants (angiosperms). Flowers vary enormously in their structure (morphology). A <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms#perfect" title="Glossary of botanical terms">perfect</a> flower, like that of <i><a href="/wiki/Ranunculus_glaberrimus" title="Ranunculus glaberrimus">Ranunculus glaberrimus</a></i> shown in the figure, has a <a href="/wiki/Calyx_(botany)" class="mw-redirect" title="Calyx (botany)">calyx</a> of outer <a href="/wiki/Sepal" title="Sepal">sepals</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Corolla_(flower)" class="mw-redirect" title="Corolla (flower)">corolla</a> of inner <a href="/wiki/Petal" title="Petal">petals</a> and both male and female <a href="/wiki/Sex_organ" title="Sex organ">sex organs</a>. The sepals and petals together form the <a href="/wiki/Perianth" title="Perianth">perianth</a>. Next inwards there are numerous <a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">stamens</a>, which produce <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a> grains, each containing a microscopic male gametophyte. Stamens may be called the "male" parts of a flower and collectively form the androecium. Finally in the middle there are <a href="/wiki/Carpel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpel">carpels</a>, which at maturity contain one or more <a href="/wiki/Ovule" title="Ovule">ovules</a>, and within each ovule is a tiny female gametophyte.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESporne197414–15_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESporne197414–15-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carpels may be called the "female" parts of a flower and collectively form the gynoecium. </p><p>Each carpel in <i>Ranunculus</i> species is an <a href="/wiki/Achene" title="Achene">achene</a> that produces one ovule,<sup id="cite_ref-Whittemore_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whittemore-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which when fertilized becomes a seed. If the carpel contains more than one seed, as in <i><a href="/wiki/Eranthis_hyemalis" title="Eranthis hyemalis">Eranthis hyemalis</a></i>, it is called a <a href="/wiki/Follicle_(fruit)" title="Follicle (fruit)">follicle</a>. Two or more carpels may be fused together to varying degrees and the entire structure, including the fused styles and stigmas may be called a <a href="/wiki/Pistil" class="mw-redirect" title="Pistil">pistil</a>. The lower part of the pistil, where the ovules are produced, is called the <a href="/wiki/Ovary_(botany)" title="Ovary (botany)">ovary</a>. It may be divided into chambers (<a href="/wiki/Locule" title="Locule">locules</a>) corresponding to the separate carpels.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESporne1974125–127_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESporne1974125–127-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Variations">Variations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_reproductive_morphology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Variations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Flower#Floral_function" title="Flower">Flower § Floral function</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tagalder8139.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Tagalder8139.jpg/170px-Tagalder8139.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Tagalder8139.jpg/255px-Tagalder8139.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Tagalder8139.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Alnus_serrulata" title="Alnus serrulata">Alnus serrulata</a></i> has <b>unisexual</b> flowers and is <b>monoecious</b>. A pair of maturing male-flower catkins are on the right; female catkins (of the previous year) on the left.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hollyflowers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Hollyflowers.jpg/300px-Hollyflowers.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Hollyflowers.jpg/450px-Hollyflowers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Hollyflowers.jpg/600px-Hollyflowers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="684" data-file-height="454" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Ilex_aquifolium" title="Ilex aquifolium">Ilex aquifolium</a></i> has <b>unisexual</b> flowers and is <b>dioecious</b>. (Above and top right): A 'shoot' with flowers from a male plant; and a male flower enlarged, showing robust <a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">stamens</a> with <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a>; and showing a female-flower <a href="/wiki/Carpel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpel">stigma</a>, reduced and sterile. + (Below and bottom right): A shoot with flowers from a female plant; and a female flower enlarged, showing a robust stigma; and showing male-flower stamens (<a href="/wiki/Staminode" title="Staminode">staminodes</a>), reduced, sterile, and with no pollen.</figcaption></figure> <p>A perfect flower has both stamens and carpels, and is described as "bisexual" or "hermaphroditic". A unisexual flower is one in which either the stamens or the carpels are missing, <a href="/wiki/Vestigiality" title="Vestigiality">vestigial</a> or otherwise non-functional. Each flower is either staminate (having only functional stamens and thus male), or carpellate or pistillate (having only functional carpels and thus female). If separate staminate and carpellate flowers are always found on the same plant, the species is described as <b><a href="/wiki/Monoecious" class="mw-redirect" title="Monoecious">monoecious</a></b>. If separate staminate and carpellate flowers are always found on different plants, the species is described as <b><a href="/wiki/Dioecious" class="mw-redirect" title="Dioecious">dioecious</a></b>.<sup id="cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beentje-2010-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 1995 study found that about 6% of angiosperm species are dioecious, and that 7% of genera contain some dioecious species.<sup id="cite_ref-Renner-1995_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Renner-1995-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Members of the birch family (<a href="/wiki/Betulaceae" title="Betulaceae">Betulaceae</a>) are examples of monoecious plants with unisexual flowers. A mature alder tree (<i><a href="/wiki/Alnus" class="mw-redirect" title="Alnus">Alnus</a></i> species) produces long catkins containing only male flowers, each with four stamens and a minute perianth, and separate stalked groups of female flowers, each without a perianth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStace2010292–296_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStace2010292–296-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (See the illustration of <i><a href="/wiki/Alnus_serrulata" title="Alnus serrulata">Alnus serrulata</a></i>.) </p><p>Most hollies (members of the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Ilex" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilex">Ilex</a></i>) are dioecious. Each plant produces either functionally male flowers or functionally female flowers. In <i><a href="/wiki/Ilex_aquifolium" title="Ilex aquifolium">Ilex aquifolium</a></i> (see the illustration), the common European holly, both kinds of flower have four sepals and four white petals; male flowers have four stamens, female flowers usually have four non-functional reduced stamens and a four-celled ovary.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStace2010669_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStace2010669-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since only female plants are able to set fruit and produce berries, this has consequences for gardeners. <i><a href="/wiki/Amborella" title="Amborella">Amborella</a></i> represents the first known group of flowering plants to separate from their common ancestor. It too is dioecious; at any one time, each plant produces either flowers with functional stamens but no carpels, or flowers with a few non-functional stamens and a number of fully functional carpels. However, <i>Amborella</i> plants may change their "sex" over time. In one study, five cuttings from a male plant produced only male flowers when they first flowered, but at their second flowering three switched to producing female flowers.<sup id="cite_ref-Buzgo-2004_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buzgo-2004-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In extreme cases, almost all of the parts present in a complete flower may be missing, so long as at least one carpel or one stamen is present. This situation is reached in the female flowers of duckweeds (<i><a href="/wiki/Lemna" title="Lemna">Lemna</a></i>), which consist of a single carpel, and in the male flowers of spurges (<i><a href="/wiki/Euphorbia" title="Euphorbia">Euphorbia</a></i>) which consist of a single stamen.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESporne197415–16_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESporne197415–16-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Monoecy_dioecy_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Monoecy_dioecy_en.svg/459px-Monoecy_dioecy_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="459" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Monoecy_dioecy_en.svg/689px-Monoecy_dioecy_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Monoecy_dioecy_en.svg/918px-Monoecy_dioecy_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="886" data-file-height="408" /></a><figcaption>The basic cases of sexuality of flowering plants.</figcaption></figure> <p>A species such as <i><a href="/wiki/Fraxinus_excelsior" title="Fraxinus excelsior">Fraxinus excelsior</a></i>, the common ash of Europe, demonstrates one possible kind of variation. Ash flowers are wind-pollinated and lack petals and sepals. Structurally, the flowers may be bisexual, consisting of two stamens and an ovary, or may be male (staminate), lacking a functional ovary, or female (carpellate), lacking functional stamens. Different forms may occur on the same tree, or on different trees.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStace2010292–296_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStace2010292–296-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Asteraceae (sunflower family), with close to 22,000 species worldwide, have highly modified inflorescences made up of flowers (florets) collected together into tightly packed heads. Heads may have florets of one sexual morphology – all bisexual, all carpellate or all staminate (when they are called <a href="/wiki/Homogamy_(biology)" title="Homogamy (biology)">homogamous</a>), or may have mixtures of two or more sexual forms (heterogamous).<sup id="cite_ref-Barkley_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barkley-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus goatsbeards (<i><a href="/wiki/Tragopogon" title="Tragopogon">Tragopogon</a></i> species) have heads of bisexual florets, like other members of the tribe Cichorieae,<sup id="cite_ref-Barkley-2_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barkley-2-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whereas marigolds (<i><a href="/wiki/Calendula" title="Calendula">Calendula</a></i> species) generally have heads with the outer florets bisexual and the inner florets staminate (male).<sup id="cite_ref-Strother_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Strother-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Like <i>Amborella</i>, some plants undergo sex-switching. For example, <i><a href="/wiki/Arisaema_triphyllum" title="Arisaema triphyllum">Arisaema triphyllum</a></i> (Jack-in-the-pulpit) expresses sexual differences at different stages of growth: smaller plants produce all or mostly male flowers; as plants grow larger over the years the male flowers are replaced by more female flowers on the same plant. <i>Arisaema triphyllum</i> thus covers a multitude of sexual conditions in its lifetime: nonsexual juvenile plants, young plants that are all male, larger plants with a mix of both male and female flowers, and large plants that have mostly female flowers.<sup id="cite_ref-Ewing-1982_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ewing-1982-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other plant populations have plants that produce more male flowers early in the year and as plants bloom later in the growing season they produce more female flowers.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Terminology">Terminology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_reproductive_morphology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Terminology"></span> The complexity of the morphology of flowers and its variation within populations has led to a rich terminology. </p> <ul><li><span class="anchor" id="Androdioecious"></span><b>Androdioecious</b>: having male flowers on some plants, bisexual ones on others.<sup id="cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beentje-2010-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="anchor" id="Androecious"></span><b>Androecious</b>: having only male flowers (the male of a <a href="#Dioecious">dioecious</a> population); producing pollen but no seed.<sup id="cite_ref-Janick-2010_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Janick-2010-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Androgynous</b>: see <a href="#Bisexual">bisexual</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beentje-2010-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="anchor" id="Androgynomonoecious"></span><b>Androgynomonoecious</b>: having male, female, and bisexual flowers on the same plant, also called trimonoecious.<sup id="cite_ref-Janick-2010_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Janick-2010-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="anchor" id="Andromonoecious"></span><b>Andromonoecious</b>: having both <a href="#Bisexual">bisexual</a> and male flowers on the same plant.<sup id="cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beentje-2010-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="anchor" id="Bisexual"></span><span class="anchor" id="Perfect_flower"></span><span class="anchor" id="Androgynous"></span><span class="anchor" id="Hermaphroditic"></span><span class="anchor" id="Monoclinous"></span><span class="anchor" id="Synoecious"></span><b>Bisexual</b>: each flower of each individual has both male and female structures, i.e. it combines both sexes in one structure.<sup id="cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beentje-2010-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Flowers of this kind are called <b>perfect</b>, having both <a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">stamens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carpel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpel">carpels</a>. Other terms used for this condition are <b>androgynous</b>, <b>hermaphroditic</b>, <b>monoclinous</b> and <b>synoecious</b>.</li> <li><span class="anchor" id="Dichogamous"></span><b>Dichogamous</b>: having sexes developing at different times; producing pollen when the stigmas are not receptive,<sup id="cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beentje-2010-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> either <a href="#Protandrous">protandrous</a> or <a href="#Protogynous">protogynous</a>. This promotes <a href="/wiki/Outcrossing" title="Outcrossing">outcrossing</a> by limiting self-pollination.<sup id="cite_ref-Stace-1995_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stace-1995-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some dichogamous plants have <a href="#Bisexual">bisexual</a> flowers, others have <a href="#Unisexual">unisexual</a> flowers.</li> <li><b>Diclinous</b>: see <a href="#Unisexual">Unisexual</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beentje-2010-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="anchor" id="Dioecious"></span><b><a href="/wiki/Dioecy" title="Dioecy">Dioecious</a></b>: having either only male or only female flowers.<sup id="cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beentje-2010-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No individual plant of the population produces both pollen and ovules.<sup id="cite_ref-Baskauf-2002_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baskauf-2002-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (From the Greek for "two households". See also the Wiktionary entry for <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dioecious" class="extiw" title="wikt:dioecious">dioecious</a>.)</li> <li><span class="anchor" id="Gynodioecious"></span><b>Gynodioecious</b>: having hermaphrodite flowers and female flowers on separate plants.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="anchor" id="Gynoecious"></span><b>Gynoecious</b>: having only female flowers (the female of a <a href="#Dioecious">dioecious</a> population); producing seed but not pollen.<sup id="cite_ref-Grubben-2004_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grubben-2004-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="anchor" id="Gynomonoecious"></span><b>Gynomonoecious</b>: having both <a href="#Bisexual">bisexual</a> and female flowers on the same plant.<sup id="cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beentje-2010-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Hermaphroditic</b>: see <a href="#Bisexual">bisexual</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beentje-2010-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Homogamous:</b> male and female sexes reach maturity in synchrony; producing mature pollens when stigma is receptive.</li> <li><b>Imperfect</b>: (of flowers) having some parts that are normally present not developed,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECook1968131_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook1968131-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> e.g. lacking stamens. See also <a href="#Unisexual">Unisexual</a>.</li> <li><b>Monoclinous</b>: see <a href="#Bisexual">bisexual</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beentje-2010-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="anchor" id="Monoecious"></span><b><a href="/wiki/Monoecious" class="mw-redirect" title="Monoecious">Monoecious</a></b>: In the commoner narrow sense of the term, it refers to plants with <a href="#Unisexual">unisexual</a> flowers which occur on the same individual.<sup id="cite_ref-Hickey-2001_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hickey-2001-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the broad sense of the term, it also includes plants with <a href="#Bisexual">bisexual</a> flowers.<sup id="cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beentje-2010-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Individuals bearing separate flowers of both sexes at the same time are called simultaneously or synchronously monoecious and individuals that bear flowers of one sex at one time are called consecutively monoecious.<sup id="cite_ref-Kumar-2008_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kumar-2008-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (From the Greek <i>monos</i> "single" + <i>oikia</i> "house". See also the Wiktionary entry for <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/monoecious" class="extiw" title="wikt:monoecious">monoecious</a>.)</li> <li><b>Perfect</b>: (of flowers) see <a href="#Bisexual">bisexual</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beentje-2010-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="anchor" id="Polygamodioecious"></span><b>Polygamodioecious</b>: mostly <a href="#Dioecious">dioecious</a>, but with either a few flowers of the opposite sex or a few <a href="#Bisexual">bisexual</a> flowers on the same plant.<sup id="cite_ref-Hickey-2001_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hickey-2001-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Polygamomonoecious</b>: see <a href="#Polygamous">polygamous</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beentje-2010-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Or, mostly monoecious, but also partly polygamous.<sup id="cite_ref-Hickey-2001_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hickey-2001-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="anchor" id="Polygamous"></span><span class="anchor" id="Polygamomonoecious"></span><span class="anchor" id="Trimonoecious"></span><b>Polygamous</b>: having male, female, and <a href="#Bisexual">bisexual</a> flowers on the same plant.<sup id="cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beentje-2010-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also called <b>polygamomonoecious</b> or <b>trimonoecious</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-Geber-1999_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geber-1999-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Or, with bisexual and at least one of male and female flowers on the same plant.<sup id="cite_ref-Hickey-2001_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hickey-2001-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="anchor" id="Protandrous"></span><b>Protandrous</b>: (of <a href="#Dichogamous">dichogamous</a> plants) having male parts of flowers developed before female parts, e.g. having flowers that function first as male and then change to female or producing pollen before the stigmas of the same plant are receptive.<sup id="cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beentje-2010-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<b>Protoandrous</b> is also used.)</li> <li><span class="anchor" id="Protogynous"></span><b>Protogynous</b>: (of <a href="#Dichogamous">dichogamous</a> plants) having female parts of flowers developed before male parts, e.g. having flowers that function first as female and then change to male or producing pollen after the stigmas of the same plant are receptive.<sup id="cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beentje-2010-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="anchor" id="Subandroecious"></span><b>Subandroecious</b>: having mostly male flowers, with a few female or <a href="#Bisexual">bisexual</a> flowers.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="anchor" id="Subdioecious"></span><b>Subdioecious</b>: having some individuals in otherwise <a href="#Dioecious">dioecious</a> populations with flowers that are not clearly male or female. The population produces normally male or female plants with <a href="#Unisexual">unisexual</a> flowers, but some plants may have <a href="#Bisexual">bisexual</a> flowers, some both male and female flowers, and others some combination thereof, such as female and bisexual flowers. The condition is thought to represent a transition between bisexuality and <a href="#Dioecous">dioecy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Olson-2000_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Olson-2000-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Strittmatter-2002_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Strittmatter-2002-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="anchor" id="Subgynoecious"></span><b>Subgynoecious</b>: having mostly female flowers, with a few male or <a href="#Bisexual">bisexual</a> flowers.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><b>Synoecious</b>: see <a href="#Bisexual">bisexual</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beentje-2010-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Trimonoecious</b>: see <a href="#Polygamous">polygamous</a><sup id="cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beentje-2010-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="#Androgynomonoecious">androgynomonoecious</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Janick-2010_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Janick-2010-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Trioecy" title="Trioecy">Trioecious</a></b>: with male, female and bisexual flowers on different plants.<sup id="cite_ref-Beentje-2016_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beentje-2016-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><span class="anchor" id="Unisexual"></span><span class="anchor" id="Diclinous"></span><span class="anchor" id="Incomplete_flower"></span><span class="anchor" id="Imperfect_flower"></span><b>Unisexual</b>: having either functionally male or functionally female flowers.<sup id="cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beentje-2010-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This condition is also called <b>diclinous</b>, <b>incomplete</b> or <b>imperfect</b>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Outcrossing">Outcrossing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_reproductive_morphology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Outcrossing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Special:EditPage/Plant reproductive morphology">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Outcrossing" title="Outcrossing">Outcrossing</a>, cross-fertilization or allogamy, in which offspring are formed by the fusion of the <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gametes</a> of two different plants, is the most common mode of reproduction among <a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">higher plants</a>. About 55% of higher plant species reproduce in this way. An additional 7% are partially cross-fertilizing and partially self-fertilizing (autogamy). About 15% produce gametes but are principally self-fertilizing with significant out-crossing lacking. Only about 8% of higher plant species reproduce exclusively by non-sexual means. These include plants that reproduce vegetatively by runners or bulbils, or which produce seeds without embryo fertilization (<a href="/wiki/Apomixis" title="Apomixis">apomixis</a>). The selective advantage of outcrossing appears to be the masking of deleterious recessive mutations.<sup id="cite_ref-Bernstein-1991_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bernstein-1991-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The primary mechanism used by flowering plants to ensure outcrossing involves a genetic mechanism known as <a href="/wiki/Self-incompatibility_in_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-incompatibility in plants">self-incompatibility</a>. Various aspects of floral morphology promote allogamy. In plants with bisexual flowers, the anthers and carpels may mature at different times, plants being <a href="/wiki/Sequential_hermaphroditism" title="Sequential hermaphroditism">protandrous</a> (with the anthers maturing first) or protogynous (with the carpels mature first).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Monoecious species, with unisexual flowers on the same plant, may produce male and female flowers at different times.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Dioecy, the condition of having unisexual flowers on different plants, necessarily results in outcrossing, and probably evolved for this purpose. However, "dioecy has proven difficult to explain simply as an outbreeding mechanism in plants that lack self-incompatibility".<sup id="cite_ref-Renner-1995_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Renner-1995-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Resource-allocation constraints may be important in the evolution of dioecy, for example, with wind-pollination, separate male flowers arranged in a catkin that vibrates in the wind may provide better pollen dispersal.<sup id="cite_ref-Renner-1995_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Renner-1995-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In climbing plants, rapid upward growth may be essential, and resource allocation to fruit production may be incompatible with rapid growth, thus giving an advantage to delayed production of female flowers.<sup id="cite_ref-Renner-1995_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Renner-1995-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dioecy has evolved separately in many different lineages, and monoecy in the plant lineage correlates with the evolution of dioecy, suggesting that dioecy can evolve more readily from plants that already produce separate male and female flowers.<sup id="cite_ref-Renner-1995_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Renner-1995-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_reproductive_morphology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apomixis" title="Apomixis">Apomixis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetative_reproduction" title="Vegetative reproduction">Vegetative reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Evolution of sexual reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants#Flowers" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history of plants: Flowers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flower#Development" title="Flower">Flower: Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">Meiosis</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_reproductive_morphology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_reproductive_morphology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Barrett-2002-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Barrett-2002_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBarrett2002" class="citation journal cs1">Barrett, S.C.H. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130527102011/http://labs.eeb.utoronto.ca/barrett/pdf/schb_189.pdf">"The evolution of plant sexual diversity"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Nature Reviews Genetics</i>. <b>3</b> (4): 274–284. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrg776">10.1038/nrg776</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11967552">11967552</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7424193">7424193</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://labs.eeb.utoronto.ca/barrett/pdf/schb_189.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2013-05-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-02-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews+Genetics&rft.atitle=The+evolution+of+plant+sexual+diversity&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=274-284&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A7424193%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11967552&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrg776&rft.aulast=Barrett&rft.aufirst=S.C.H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flabs.eeb.utoronto.ca%2Fbarrett%2Fpdf%2Fschb_189.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+reproductive+morphology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hickey-2001-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hickey-2001_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hickey-2001_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hickey-2001_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hickey-2001_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hickey-2001_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHickeyKing2001" class="citation book cs1">Hickey, M. & King, C. (2001). <i>The Cambridge Illustrated Glossary of Botanical Terms</i>. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Illustrated+Glossary+of+Botanical+Terms&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Hickey&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=King%2C+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+reproductive+morphology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESporne197414–15-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESporne197414–15_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSporne1974">Sporne 1974</a>, pp. 14–15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Whittemore-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Whittemore_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhittemore" class="citation book cs1">Whittemore, Alan T. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=127971">"<i>Ranunculus</i>"</a>. <i>Flora of North America</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-03-04</span></span> – via www.eFloras.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ranunculus&rft.btitle=Flora+of+North+America&rft.aulast=Whittemore&rft.aufirst=Alan+T&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.efloras.org%2Fflorataxon.aspx%3Fflora_id%3D1%26taxon_id%3D127971&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+reproductive+morphology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESporne1974125–127-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESporne1974125–127_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSporne1974">Sporne 1974</a>, pp. 125–127.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beentje-2010-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beentje-2010_6-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeentje2010" class="citation book cs1">Beentje, Henk (2010). <i>The Kew Plant Glossary</i>. 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Berlin: Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-540-64597-7" title="Special:BookSources/3-540-64597-7"><bdi>3-540-64597-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gender+and+sexual+dimorphism+in+flowering+plants&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=3-540-64597-7&rft.aulast=Geber&rft.aufirst=Monica+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpUo2T34ppKUC%26q%3Dpolygamy%2Bplants%26pg%3DPA4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+reproductive+morphology" class="Z3988"></span> p. 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTestolinCiprianiCosta1995" class="citation journal cs1">Testolin, R; Cipriani, G; Costa, G (May 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00242255">"Sex segregation ratio and gender expression in the genus Actinidia"</a>. <i>Sexual Plant Reproduction</i>. <b>8</b> (3). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00242255">10.1007/BF00242255</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:25414438">25414438</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(2002). "Subdioecy in <i>Consolea spinosissima</i> (Cactaceae): breeding system and embryological studies". <i>American Journal of Botany</i>. <b>89</b> (9): 1373–1387. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3732%2Fajb.89.9.1373">10.3732/ajb.89.9.1373</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21665739">21665739</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Botany&rft.atitle=Subdioecy+in+Consolea+spinosissima+%28Cactaceae%29%3A+breeding+system+and+embryological+studies&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=1373-1387&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3732%2Fajb.89.9.1373&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21665739&rft.aulast=Strittmatter&rft.aufirst=L.I.&rft.au=Negr%C3%B3n-Ortiz%2C+V.&rft.au=Hickey%2C+R.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+reproductive+morphology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beentje-2016-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Beentje-2016_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeentje2016" class="citation book cs1">Beentje, Henk (2016). <i>The Kew Plant Glossary</i> (second ed.). Richmond, Surrey: <a href="/wiki/Royal_Botanic_Gardens,_Kew" title="Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew">Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84246-604-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84246-604-9"><bdi>978-1-84246-604-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Kew+Plant+Glossary&rft.place=Richmond%2C+Surrey&rft.edition=second&rft.pub=Royal+Botanic+Gardens%2C+Kew&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-84246-604-9&rft.aulast=Beentje&rft.aufirst=Henk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+reproductive+morphology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bernstein-1991-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bernstein-1991_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernsteinBernstein1991" class="citation book cs1">Bernstein, C. & Bernstein, H. (1991). <i>Aging, Sex, and DNA Repair</i>. San Diego: Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-092860-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-092860-6"><bdi>978-0-12-092860-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aging%2C+Sex%2C+and+DNA+Repair&rft.place=San+Diego&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-12-092860-6&rft.aulast=Bernstein&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Bernstein%2C+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+reproductive+morphology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_reproductive_morphology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCook1968" class="citation book cs1">Cook, J. Gordon (1968). <i>ABC of plant terms</i>. Watford, UK: Merrow. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/474319451">474319451</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ABC+of+plant+terms&rft.place=Watford%2C+UK&rft.pub=Merrow&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F474319451&rft.aulast=Cook&rft.aufirst=J.+Gordon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+reproductive+morphology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSporne1974" class="citation book cs1">Sporne, K.R. (1974). <i>The Morphology of Angiosperms</i>. London: Hutchinson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-09-120611-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-09-120611-6"><bdi>978-0-09-120611-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Morphology+of+Angiosperms&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Hutchinson&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-09-120611-6&rft.aulast=Sporne&rft.aufirst=K.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+reproductive+morphology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStace2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Clive_Stace" class="mw-redirect" title="Clive Stace">Stace, Clive</a> (2010). <i>New Flora of the British Isles</i> (3rd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-70772-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-70772-5"><bdi>978-0-521-70772-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Flora+of+the+British+Isles&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-521-70772-5&rft.aulast=Stace&rft.aufirst=Clive&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+reproductive+morphology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_reproductive_morphology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarwin1877" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin, Charles</a> (1877). <i>The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species</i>. London: J. Murray.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Different+Forms+of+Flowers+on+Plants+of+the+Same+Species&rft.place=London&rft.pub=J.+Murray&rft.date=1877&rft.aulast=Darwin&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+reproductive+morphology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLinnaeus1735" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Linnaeus, Carl</a> (1735). <a href="/wiki/Systema_Naturae" title="Systema Naturae"><i>Systema Naturae</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Systema+Naturae&rft.date=1735&rft.aulast=Linnaeus&rft.aufirst=Carl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+reproductive+morphology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSattler1973" class="citation book cs1">Sattler, Rolf (1973). <i>Organogenesis of Flowers: a Photographic Text-Atlas</i>. University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-1864-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-1864-9"><bdi>978-0-8020-1864-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Organogenesis+of+Flowers%3A+a+Photographic+Text-Atlas&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-8020-1864-9&rft.aulast=Sattler&rft.aufirst=Rolf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APlant+reproductive+morphology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_reproductive_morphology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Plant_reproductive_morphology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Plant reproductive morphology">Plant reproductive morphology</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180703153234/http://www.cas.vanderbilt.edu/bioimages/pages/sexual-systems.htm">Images of sexual systems in flowering plants at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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#C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a> groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">Algae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryophyte" title="Bryophyte">Bryophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-vascular_plant" title="Non-vascular plant">Non-vascular plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Vascular plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">Fern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycophyte" title="Lycophyte">Lycophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spermatophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatophyte">Spermatophytes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">Gymnosperm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Angiosperm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">Plant morphology</a><br /><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_plant_morphology" title="Glossary of plant morphology">glossary</a>)</span></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_cell" title="Plant cell">Plant cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">Cell wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phragmoplast" title="Phragmoplast">Phragmoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid">Plastid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmodesma" title="Plasmodesma">Plasmodesma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuole" title="Vacuole">Vacuole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cork_cambium" title="Cork cambium">Cork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue" title="Ground tissue">Ground tissue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leaf#Mesophyll" title="Leaf">Mesophyll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meristem" title="Meristem">Meristem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_organ" title="Storage organ">Storage organs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">Vascular tissue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_bundle" title="Vascular bundle">Vascular bundle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">Wood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Vegetative</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulb" title="Bulb">Bulb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizoid" title="Rhizoid">Rhizoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizome" title="Rhizome">Rhizome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">Shoot</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bud" title="Bud">Bud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">Leaf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cataphyll" title="Cataphyll">Cataphyll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petiole_(botany)" title="Petiole (botany)">Petiole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sessility_(botany)" title="Sessility (botany)">Sessility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">Stem</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Reproductive</a><br />(incl. Flower)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archegonium" title="Archegonium">Archegonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antheridium" title="Antheridium">Antheridium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Androecium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">Pollen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Stamen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anther" class="mw-redirect" title="Anther">Anther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen#Morphology_and_terminology" title="Stamen">Filament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staminode" title="Staminode">Staminode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapetum_(botany)" title="Tapetum (botany)">Tapetum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestivation_(botany)" title="Aestivation (botany)">Aestivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ABC_model_of_flower_development" title="ABC model of flower development">Flower development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_diagram" title="Floral diagram">Floral diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_formula" title="Floral formula">Floral formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_symmetry" title="Floral symmetry">Floral symmetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whorl_(botany)" title="Whorl (botany)">Whorl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">Fruit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fruit_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fruit anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berry_(botany)" title="Berry (botany)">Berry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capsule_(fruit)" title="Capsule (fruit)">Capsule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nut_(fruit)" title="Nut (fruit)">Nut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrena" title="Pyrena">Pyrena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">Seed</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seed_dispersal" title="Seed dispersal">Dispersal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endosperm" title="Endosperm">Endosperm</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">Gametophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Column_(botany)" title="Column (botany)">Gynandrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynoecium" title="Gynoecium">Gynoecium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carpel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpel">Carpel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ovary_(botany)" title="Ovary (botany)">Ovary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Locule" title="Locule">Locule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovule" title="Ovule">Ovule</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stigma_(botany)" title="Stigma (botany)">Stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_(botany)" title="Style (botany)">Style</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypanthium" title="Hypanthium">Hypanthium (Floral cup)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflorescence" title="Inflorescence">Inflorescence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bract" title="Bract">Bract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedicel_(botany)" title="Pedicel (botany)">Pedicellate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raceme" title="Raceme">Raceme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbel" title="Umbel">Umbel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perianth" title="Perianth">Perianth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tepal" title="Tepal">Tepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petal" title="Petal">Petal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sepal" title="Sepal">Sepal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryo#Plant_embryos" title="Embryo">Plant embryo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Receptacle_(botany)" title="Receptacle (botany)">Receptacle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyll" title="Sporophyll">Sporophyll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyte" title="Sporophyte">Sporophyte</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Surface structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_cuticle" title="Plant cuticle">Cuticle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicuticular_wax" title="Epicuticular wax">Epicuticular wax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">Epidermis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nectar" title="Nectar">Nectar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoma" title="Stoma">Stoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorns,_spines,_and_prickles" title="Thorns, spines, and prickles">Thorns, spines, and prickles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichome" title="Trichome">Trichome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a><br />Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleurone" title="Aleurone">Aleurone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apical_dominance" title="Apical dominance">Apical dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulk_movement" title="Bulk movement">Bulk flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">Cellulose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition" title="Plant nutrition">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">Chlorophyll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytomelanin" title="Phytomelanin">Phytomelanin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_hormone" title="Plant hormone">Plant hormones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system#Plants" title="Respiratory system">Respiration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_exchange#Plants" title="Gas exchange">Gas Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sap" title="Sap">Sap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">Starch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">Sugar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">Transpiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turgor_pressure" title="Turgor pressure">Turgor pressure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Plant growth<br />and habit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habit_(biology)#Structure" title="Habit (biology)">Habit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cushion_plant" title="Cushion plant">Cushion plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosette_(botany)" title="Rosette (botany)">Rosettes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrub" title="Shrub">Shrubs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prostrate_shrub" title="Prostrate shrub">Prostrate shrubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subshrub" title="Subshrub">Subshrubs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succulent_plant" title="Succulent plant">Succulent plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">Trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine" title="Vine">Vines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liana" title="Liana">Lianas</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbaceous_plant" title="Herbaceous plant">Herbaceous plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_growth" title="Secondary growth">Secondary growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woody_plant" title="Woody plant">Woody plants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproduction" title="Plant reproduction">Reproduction</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolution" title="Plant evolution">Evolution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Ecology</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">Alternation of generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_fertilization" title="Double fertilization">Double fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Plant evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_plant_evolution" title="Timeline of plant evolution">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germination" title="Germination">Germination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">Pollination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_pollination" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial pollination">Artificial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator" title="Pollinator">Pollinators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollen_tube" title="Pollen tube">Pollen tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-pollination" title="Self-pollination">Self</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Sporangium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microsporangia" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsporangia">Microsporangia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microspore" title="Microspore">Microspore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Megasporangium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megaspore" title="Megaspore">Megaspore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">Spore</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_taxonomy" title="Plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Biological classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_nomenclature" title="Botanical nomenclature">Botanical nomenclature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_name" title="Botanical name">Botanical name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correct_name" title="Correct name">Correct name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Author_citation_(botany)" title="Author citation (botany)">Author citation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_algae,_fungi,_and_plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants">International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_Cultivated_Plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants">ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultivated_plant_taxonomy" title="Cultivated plant taxonomy">Cultivated plant taxonomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citrus_taxonomy" title="Citrus taxonomy">Citrus taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultigen" title="Cultigen">Cultigen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultivar" title="Cultivar">Cultivar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultivar_group" title="Cultivar group">Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grex_(horticulture)" title="Grex (horticulture)">Grex</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_plant_systematics" title="History of plant systematics">History of plant systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbarium" title="Herbarium">Herbarium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_for_Plant_Taxonomy" title="International Association for Plant Taxonomy">International Association for Plant Taxonomy</a> (IAPT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_systems_of_plant_taxonomy" title="List of systems of plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic rank</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Practice</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floriculture" title="Floriculture">Floriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticulture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemical" title="Phytochemical">Phytochemical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Lists</li><li>Related topics</li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Botanical terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists" title="List of botanists">Botanists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists_by_author_abbreviation_(W%E2%80%93Z)" title="List of botanists by author abbreviation (W–Z)">by author abbreviation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_expeditions" title="Botanical expeditions">Botanical expeditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_individual_trees" title="List of individual trees">Individual trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_plants" title="Lists of plants">Plants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Botany" title="Category:Botany">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Sex" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sex_(biology)" title="Template:Sex (biology)"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sex_(biology)" title="Template talk:Sex (biology)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sex_(biology)" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sex (biology)"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Sex" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sex" title="Sex">Sex</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological<br />terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Male" title="Male">Male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female" title="Female">Female</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_differentiation" title="Sexual differentiation">Sexual differentiation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminization_(biology)" title="Feminization (biology)">Feminization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virilization" title="Virilization">Virilization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-determination_system" title="Sex-determination system">Sex-determination system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/XY_sex-determination_system" title="XY sex-determination system">XY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZW_sex-determination_system" title="ZW sex-determination system">ZW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XO_sex-determination_system" title="XO sex-determination system">XO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZO_sex-determination_system" title="ZO sex-determination system">ZO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperature-dependent_sex_determination" title="Temperature-dependent sex determination">Temperature-dependent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haplodiploidy" title="Haplodiploidy">Haplodiploidy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_chromosome" title="Sex chromosome">Sex chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testis-determining_factor" class="mw-redirect" title="Testis-determining factor">Testis-determining factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermaphrodite" title="Hermaphrodite">Hermaphrodite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sequential_hermaphroditism" title="Sequential hermaphroditism">Sequential hermaphroditism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simultaneous_hermaphroditism" title="Simultaneous hermaphroditism">Simultaneous hermaphroditism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex" title="Intersex">Intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasexual_cycle" title="Parasexual cycle">parasexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_as_a_biological_variable" title="Sex as a biological variable">Sex as a biological variable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">Sexual<br />reproduction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Evolution of sexual reproduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anisogamy" title="Anisogamy">Anisogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isogamy" title="Isogamy">Isogamy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_cell" title="Germ cell">Germ cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_system" title="Reproductive system">Reproductive system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_organ" title="Sex organ">Sex organ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating" title="Mating">Mating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gametogenesis" title="Gametogenesis">Gametogenesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spermatogenesis" title="Spermatogenesis">Spermatogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oogenesis" title="Oogenesis">Oogenesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">Gamete</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spermatozoon" title="Spermatozoon">spermatozoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egg_cell" title="Egg cell">ovum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertilisation" title="Fertilisation">Fertilization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/External_fertilization" title="External fertilization">External</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_fertilization" title="Internal fertilization">Internal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproduction" title="Plant reproduction">Plant reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_in_fungi" title="Mating in fungi">Fungal reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction_in_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual reproduction in animals">Sexual reproduction in animals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_intercourse" title="Sexual intercourse">Sexual intercourse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penile-vaginal_intercourse" title="Penile-vaginal intercourse">Penile-vaginal intercourse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copulation_(zoology)" title="Copulation (zoology)">Copulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation" title="Effects of hormones on sexual motivation">Hormonal motivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_reproduction" title="Human reproduction">Human reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lordosis_behavior" title="Lordosis behavior">Lordosis behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelvic_thrust" title="Pelvic thrust">Pelvic thrust</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Sexuality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Plant sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_sexual_behaviour" title="Animal sexual behaviour">Animal sexuality</a> <ul><li><a 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