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id="toc-Mechanism_of_heat_removal_during_quenching-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul 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class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Закаляване – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Закаляване" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tremp_de_l%27acer" title="Tremp de l'acer – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Tremp de l'acer" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalen%C3%AD" title="Kalení – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kalení" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abschrecken_(Metallurgie)" title="Abschrecken (Metallurgie) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Abschrecken (Metallurgie)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%AE_(%CE%BC%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1)" title="Βαφή (μεταλλουργία) – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βαφή (μεταλλουργία)" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Templado" title="Templado – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Templado" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardado" title="Hardado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Hardado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aro_(metalurgia)" title="Aro (metalurgia) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Aro (metalurgia)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%A8%D8%AF%D9%87%DB%8C_(%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%98%DB%8C)" title="آبدهی (متالورژی) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آبدهی (متالورژی)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trempe_(m%C3%A9tallurgie)" title="Trempe (métallurgie) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Trempe (métallurgie)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A9mpera_(metalurxia)" title="Témpera (metalurxia) – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Témpera (metalurxia)" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8B%B4%EA%B8%88%EC%A7%88" title="담금질 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="담금질" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%AD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Մխում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մխում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaljenje" title="Kaljenje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kaljenje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trattamento_di_tempra" title="Trattamento di tempra – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Trattamento di tempra" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%97%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%9D" title="חיסום – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="חיסום" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afschrikken" title="Afschrikken – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Afschrikken" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q17437798 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C4%83lire" title="Călire – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Călire" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Закалка металла – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Закалка металла" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaljenje" title="Kaljenje – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kaljenje" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%86_%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%86" title="کوینچ کردن – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کوینچ کردن" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ga%C5%A1enje" title="Gašenje – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Gašenje" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaljenje" title="Kaljenje – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kaljenje" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karkaisu" title="Karkaisu – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Karkaisu" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sl%C3%A4ckh%C3%A4rdning" title="Släckhärdning – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Släckhärdning" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Гартування – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Гартування" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B4i_(nhi%E1%BB%87t_luy%E1%BB%87n)" title="Tôi (nhiệt luyện) – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tôi (nhiệt luyện)" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B7%AC%E7%81%AB" title="淬火 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="淬火" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B7%AC%E7%81%AB" 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free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Quench&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Quench">Quench</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Rapid cooling of a workpiece to obtain certain material properties</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Quench_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Quench (disambiguation)">Quench (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Quenching" title="Special:EditPage/Quenching">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Quenching%22">"Quenching"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Quenching%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Quenching%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Quenching%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Quenching%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Quenching%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ArthurSiegelcoke1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/ArthurSiegelcoke1.jpg/250px-ArthurSiegelcoke1.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/ArthurSiegelcoke1.jpg/375px-ArthurSiegelcoke1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/ArthurSiegelcoke1.jpg/500px-ArthurSiegelcoke1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2295" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Coke_(fuel)" title="Coke (fuel)">Coke</a> being pushed into a quenching car, Hanna furnaces of the Great Lakes Steel Corporation, <a href="/wiki/Detroit" title="Detroit">Detroit, Michigan</a>, November 1942</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">materials science</a>, <b>quenching</b> is the rapid <a href="/wiki/Conduction_(heat)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conduction (heat)">cooling</a> of a workpiece in water, gas, oil, polymer, air, or other fluids to obtain certain <a href="/wiki/Material_properties" class="mw-redirect" title="Material properties">material properties</a>. A type of <a href="/wiki/Heat_treating" title="Heat treating">heat treating</a>, quenching prevents undesired low-temperature processes, such as <a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)">phase</a> transformations, from occurring. It does this by reducing the <a href="/wiki/Window_of_opportunity" title="Window of opportunity">window of time</a> during which these undesired reactions are both thermodynamically favorable and kinetically accessible; for instance, quenching can reduce the crystal grain size of both metallic and plastic materials, increasing their hardness. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a>, quenching is most commonly used to <a href="/wiki/Hardening_(metallurgy)" title="Hardening (metallurgy)">harden</a> <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> by inducing a <a href="/wiki/Martensite" title="Martensite">martensite</a> transformation, where the steel must be rapidly cooled through its <a href="/wiki/Eutectoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Eutectoid">eutectoid</a> point, the temperature at which <a href="/wiki/Austenite" title="Austenite">austenite</a> becomes unstable. Rapid cooling prevents the formation of <a href="/wiki/Cementite" title="Cementite">cementite</a> structure, instead forcibly dissolving carbon atoms in the ferrite lattice.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In steel alloyed with metals such as <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a>, the eutectoid temperature becomes much lower, but the kinetic barriers to phase transformation remain the same. This allows quenching to start at a lower temperature, making the process much easier. <a href="/wiki/High-speed_steel" title="High-speed steel">High-speed steel</a> also has added <a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">tungsten</a>, which serves to raise kinetic barriers, which, among other effects, gives material properties (hardness and abrasion resistance) as though the workpiece had been cooled more rapidly than it really has. Even cooling such alloys slowly in the air has most of the desired effects of quenching; high-speed steel weakens much less from heat cycling due to high-speed cutting.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Extremely rapid cooling can prevent the formation of all crystal structures, resulting in <a href="/wiki/Amorphous_metal" title="Amorphous metal">amorphous metal</a> or "metallic glass". </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Quench_hardening">Quench hardening</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quenching&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Quench hardening"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Quench hardening is a mechanical process in which steel and cast iron alloys are strengthened and hardened. These metals consist of ferrous metals and alloys. This is done by heating the material to a certain temperature, depending on the material. This produces a harder material by either surface hardening or through-hardening varying on the rate at which the material is cooled. The material is then often <a href="/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy)" title="Tempering (metallurgy)">tempered</a> to reduce the brittleness that may increase from the quench hardening process. Items that may be quenched include gears, shafts, and wear blocks. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Purpose">Purpose</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quenching&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Purpose"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Before hardening, cast steels and iron are of a uniform and lamellar (or layered) <a href="/wiki/Pearlite" title="Pearlite">pearlitic</a> grain structure. This is a mixture of <a href="/wiki/Allotropes_of_iron" title="Allotropes of iron">ferrite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cementite" title="Cementite">cementite</a> formed when steel or cast iron are manufactured and cooled at a slow rate. Pearlite is not an ideal material for many common applications of steel alloys as it is quite soft. By heating pearlite past its eutectoid transition temperature of 727 °C and then rapidly cooling, some of the material's crystal structure can be transformed into a much harder structure known as martensite. Steels with this martensitic structure are often used in applications when the workpiece must be highly resistant to deformation, such as the cutting edge of blades. This is very efficient. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Why is this more fficient? (July 2024)">why?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Process">Process</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quenching&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Process"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The process of quenching is a progression, beginning with heating the sample. Most materials are heated to between 815 and 900 °C (1,499 and 1,652 °F), with careful attention paid to keeping temperatures throughout the workpiece uniform. Minimizing uneven heating and overheating is key to imparting desired material properties. </p><p>The second step in the quenching process is soaking. Workpieces can be soaked in air (air furnace), a liquid bath, or a vacuum. The recommended time allocation in salt or lead baths is up to 6 minutes. Soaking times can range a little higher within a vacuum. As in the heating step, it is important that the temperature throughout the sample remains as uniform as possible during soaking. </p><p>Once the workpiece has finished soaking, it moves on to the cooling step. During this step, the part is submerged into some kind of quenching fluid; different quenching fluids can have a significant effect on the final characteristics of a quenched part. Water is one of the most efficient quenching media where maximum hardness is desired, but there is a small chance that it may cause distortion and tiny cracking. When hardness can be sacrificed, mineral oils are often used. These oil-based fluids often oxidize and form sludge during quenching, which consequently lowers the efficiency of the process. The cooling rate of oil is much less than water. Intermediate rates between water and oil can be obtained with a purpose-formulated quenchant, a substance with an inverse solubility that therefore deposits on the object to slow the rate of cooling. </p><p>Quenching can also be accomplished using inert gases, such as nitrogen and noble gases. Nitrogen is commonly used at greater than atmospheric pressure ranging up to 20 bar absolute. Helium is also used because its thermal capacity is greater than nitrogen. Alternatively, argon can be used; however, its density requires significantly more energy to move, and its thermal capacity is less than the alternatives. To minimize distortion in the workpiece, long cylindrical workpieces are quenched vertically; flat workpieces are quenched on the edge; and thick sections should enter the bath first. To prevent steam bubbles the bath is agitated. </p><p>Often, after quenching, an iron or steel alloy will be excessively hard and brittle due to an overabundance of martensite. In these cases, another heat treatment technique known as <a href="/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy)" title="Tempering (metallurgy)">tempering</a> is performed on the quenched material to increase the <a href="/wiki/Toughness" title="Toughness">toughness</a> of <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>-based <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloys</a>. Tempering is usually performed after <a href="/wiki/Hardening_(metallurgy)" title="Hardening (metallurgy)">hardening</a>, to reduce some of the excess <a href="/wiki/Hardness" title="Hardness">hardness</a>, and is done by heating the metal to some temperature below the <a href="/wiki/Critical_point_(thermodynamics)" title="Critical point (thermodynamics)">critical point</a> for a certain period of time, then allowing it to cool in still air. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mechanism_of_heat_removal_during_quenching">Mechanism of heat removal during quenching</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quenching&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Mechanism of heat removal during quenching"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Heat is removed in three particular stages: </p><p><b>Stage A: Vapor bubbles formed over metal and starts cooling</b> </p><p>During this stage, due to the <a href="/wiki/Leidenfrost_effect" title="Leidenfrost effect">Leidenfrost effect</a>, the object is fully surrounded by vapor which insulates it from the rest of the liquid. </p><p><b>Stage B: Vapor-transport cooling</b> </p><p>Once the temperature has dropped enough, the vapor layer will destabilize and the liquid will be able to fully contact the object and heat will be removed much more quickly. </p><p><b>Stage C: Liquid cooling</b> </p><p>This stage occurs when the temperature of the object is below the boiling point of the liquid. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quenching&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is evidence of the use of quenching processes by blacksmiths stretching back into the middle of the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a>, but little detailed information exists related to the development of these techniques and the procedures employed by early smiths.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although early ironworkers must have swiftly noticed that processes of cooling could affect the strength and brittleness of iron, and it can be claimed that heat treatment of steel was known in the Old World from the late second millennium BC,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it is hard to identify deliberate uses of quenching archaeologically. Moreover, it appears that, at least in Europe, "quenching and tempering separately do not seem to have become common until the 15th century"; it is helpful to distinguish between "full quenching" of steel, where the quenching is so rapid that only martensite forms, and "slack quenching", where the quenching is slower or interrupted, which also allows pearlite to form and results in a less brittle product.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest examples of quenched steel may come from ancient Mesopotamia, with a relatively secure example of a fourth-century BC quench-hardened chisel from Al Mina in Turkey.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Book 9, lines 389-94 of Homer's <i><a href="/wiki/Odyssey" title="Odyssey">Odyssey</a></i> is widely cited as an early, possibly the first, written reference to quenching:<sup id="cite_ref-:2_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>as when a man who works as a blacksmith plunges a screaming great axe blade or adze into cold water, treating it for temper, since this is the way steel is made strong, even so Cyclops' eye sizzled about the beam of the olive.</p></blockquote> <p>However, it is not beyond doubt that the passage describes deliberate quench-hardening, rather than simply cooling.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise, there is a prospect that the <i><a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a></i> refers to the oil-quenching of iron arrowheads, but the evidence is problematic.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> addressed the topic of quenchants, distinguishing the water of different rivers.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chapters 18-21 of the twelfth-century <i>De diversis artis</i> by <a href="/wiki/Theophilus_Presbyter" title="Theophilus Presbyter">Theophilus Presbyter</a> mentions quenching, recommending amongst other things that 'tools are also given a harder tempering in the urine of a small, red-headed boy than in ordinary water'.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the fuller early discussions of quenching is the first Western printed book on metallurgy, <i><a href="/wiki/Von_Stahel_und_Eysen" title="Von Stahel und Eysen">Von Stahel und Eysen</a></i>, published in 1532, which is characteristic of late-medieval technical treatises. </p><p>The modern scientific study of quenching began to gain real momentum from the seventeenth century, with a major step being the observation-led discussion by <a href="/wiki/Giambattista_della_Porta" title="Giambattista della Porta">Giambattista della Porta</a> in his 1558 <i><a href="/wiki/Magia_Naturalis" title="Magia Naturalis">Magia Naturalis</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quenching&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quench_press" title="Quench press">Quench press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy)" title="Tempering (metallurgy)">Tempering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martempering" title="Martempering">Martempering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austempering" title="Austempering">Austempering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardening_(metallurgy)" title="Hardening (metallurgy)">Hardening (metallurgy)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quenching&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tec-science.com/material-science/heat-treatment-steel/quenching-and-tempering/">"Quenching and tempering of steel"</a>. <i>tec-science</i>. 8 July 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=tec-science&rft.atitle=Quenching+and+tempering+of+steel&rft.date=2018-07-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tec-science.com%2Fmaterial-science%2Fheat-treatment-steel%2Fquenching-and-tempering%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuenching" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLegerskáChovanecChaus2006" class="citation journal cs1">Legerská, M.; Chovanec, J.; Chaus, Alexander S. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scientific.net/SSP.113.559">"Development of High-Speed Steels for Cast Metal-Cutting Tools"</a>. <i>Solid State Phenomena</i>. <b>113</b>: 559–564. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4028%2Fwww.scientific.net%2FSSP.113.559">10.4028/www.scientific.net/SSP.113.559</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:137397169">137397169</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-04-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Solid+State+Phenomena&rft.atitle=Development+of+High-Speed+Steels+for+Cast+Metal-Cutting+Tools&rft.volume=113&rft.pages=559-564&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4028%2Fwww.scientific.net%2FSSP.113.559&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A137397169%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Legersk%C3%A1&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Chovanec%2C+J.&rft.au=Chaus%2C+Alexander+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientific.net%2FSSP.113.559&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuenching" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMackenzie2008" class="citation journal cs1">Mackenzie, D. S. (June 2008). "History of quenching". <i>International Heat Treatment and Surface Engineering</i>. <b>2</b> (2): 68–73. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1179%2F174951508x358437">10.1179/174951508x358437</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1749-5148">1749-5148</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Heat+Treatment+and+Surface+Engineering&rft.atitle=History+of+quenching&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=68-73&rft.date=2008-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1179%2F174951508x358437&rft.issn=1749-5148&rft.aulast=Mackenzie&rft.aufirst=D.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuenching" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCraddock2012" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Craddock, Paul T. (2012). "Metallurgy in the Old World". In Silberman, Neil Asher (ed.). <i>The Oxford companion to archaeology</i>. Vol. 1 of 3 (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press (published 2012-10-12). pp. 377–380. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199739219" title="Special:BookSources/9780199739219"><bdi>9780199739219</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/819762187">819762187</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Metallurgy+in+the+Old+World&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+companion+to+archaeology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=377-380&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F819762187&rft.isbn=9780199739219&rft.aulast=Craddock&rft.aufirst=Paul+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuenching" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2012" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Alan (2012-05-03). <i>The sword and the crucible: a history of the metallurgy of European swords up to the 16th century</i>. History of Warfare. Vol. 77. Leiden: Brill. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004229334" title="Special:BookSources/9789004229334"><bdi>9789004229334</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/794328540">794328540</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+sword+and+the+crucible%3A+a+history+of+the+metallurgy+of+European+swords+up+to+the+16th+century&rft.place=Leiden&rft.series=History+of+Warfare&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2012-05-03&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F794328540&rft.isbn=9789004229334&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuenching" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoorey1999" class="citation book cs1">Moorey, P. R. S. (Peter Roger Stuart) (1999). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientmesopotam00moor"><i>Ancient mesopotamian materials and industries: the archaeological evidence</i></a></span>. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientmesopotam00moor/page/n158">283</a>–85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1575060422" title="Special:BookSources/978-1575060422"><bdi>978-1575060422</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/42907384">42907384</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+mesopotamian+materials+and+industries%3A+the+archaeological+evidence&rft.place=Winona+Lake%2C+Ind.&rft.pages=283-85&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F42907384&rft.isbn=978-1575060422&rft.aulast=Moorey&rft.aufirst=P.+R.+S.+%28Peter+Roger+Stuart%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientmesopotam00moor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuenching" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForbes1972" class="citation book cs1">Forbes, R. J. (Robert James) (1972-01-01). <i>Studies in ancient technology</i>. Metallurgy in Antiquity, part 2. Copper and Bronze, Tin, Arsenic, Antimony and Iron. Vol. 9 (2d rev. ed.). Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 211. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004034877" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004034877"><bdi>978-9004034877</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1022929">1022929</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+ancient+technology&rft.place=Leiden&rft.series=Metallurgy+in+Antiquity%2C+part+2.+Copper+and+Bronze%2C+Tin%2C+Arsenic%2C+Antimony+and+Iron.&rft.pages=211&rft.edition=2d+rev.&rft.pub=E.J.+Brill&rft.date=1972-01-01&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1022929&rft.isbn=978-9004034877&rft.aulast=Forbes&rft.aufirst=R.+J.+%28Robert+James%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQuenching" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">P. R. S. Moorey, <i>Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence</i> (Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 1999), p. 284.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. K. Dube, 'Ferrous Arrowheads and Their Oil Quench Hardening: Some Early Indian Evidence', <i>JOM: The Journal of The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society</i>, 60.5 (May 2008), 25-31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John D. Verhoeven, <i>Steel Metallurgy for the Non-Metallurgist</i> (Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International, 2007), p. 117.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Vanpaemel. HISTORY OF THE HARDENING OF STEEL: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY. Journal de Physique Colloques, 1982, 43 (C4), pp. C4-847-C4-854. DOI:10.1051/jphyscol:19824139; <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/jpa-00222126">https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/jpa-00222126</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Quenching&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Iron_and_steel_production" title="Template:Iron and steel production"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Iron_and_steel_production" title="Template talk:Iron and steel production"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Iron_and_steel_production" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Iron and steel production"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Iron_and_steel_production" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Iron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> production</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ferrous_metallurgy" title="Ferrous metallurgy">History of ferrous metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_steel_producers" title="List of steel producers">List of steel producers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Iron production<br />(<a href="/wiki/Ironworks" title="Ironworks">Ironworks</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">Smelting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bloomery" title="Bloomery">Bloomery</a> (produces <a href="/wiki/Direct_reduced_iron" title="Direct reduced iron">sponge iron</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">Blast furnace</a> (produces <a href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">pig iron</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_blast" title="Cold blast">Cold blast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_blast" title="Hot blast">Hot blast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthracite_iron" title="Anthracite iron">Anthracite iron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_reduced_iron" title="Direct reduced iron">Direct reduced iron</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Secondary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">Wrought iron</a> (via <a href="/wiki/Finery_forge" title="Finery forge">Finery forge</a> or <a href="/wiki/Reverberatory_furnace" title="Reverberatory furnace">Reverberatory</a> <a href="/wiki/Puddling_(metallurgy)" title="Puddling (metallurgy)">Puddling</a> <a href="/wiki/Industrial_furnace" title="Industrial furnace">Furnace</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">Cast iron</a> (via <a href="/wiki/Cupola_furnace" title="Cupola furnace">Cupola furnace</a> or <a href="/wiki/Induction_furnace" title="Induction furnace">Induction furnace</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg/120px-Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg/180px-Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg/240px-Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg 2x" data-file-width="779" data-file-height="778" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Steelmaking" title="Steelmaking">Steelmaking</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Steel_mill" title="Steel mill">Steel mill</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary (Pre-1850)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pattern_welding" title="Pattern welding">Pattern welding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucible_steel" title="Crucible steel">Crucible steel</a> (<a href="/wiki/Damascus_steel" title="Damascus steel">Damascus steel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wootz_steel" title="Wootz steel">Wootz steel</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatara_(furnace)" title="Tatara (furnace)">Tatara furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cementation_process" title="Cementation process">Cementation process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary (Post-1850)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bessemer_process" title="Bessemer process">Bessemer process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_hearth_furnace" class="mw-redirect" title="Open hearth furnace">Open hearth furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_arc_furnace" title="Electric arc furnace">Electric arc furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_oxygen_steelmaking" title="Basic oxygen steelmaking">Basic oxygen process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Secondary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electro-slag_remelting" title="Electro-slag remelting">Electro-slag remelting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_arc_remelting" title="Vacuum arc remelting">Vacuum arc remelting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argon_oxygen_decarburization" title="Argon oxygen decarburization">Argon oxygen decarburization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heat_treating" title="Heat treating">Heat treatment</a> methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Annealing_(metallurgy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Annealing (metallurgy)">Annealing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Low_hydrogen_annealing" title="Low hydrogen annealing">Low hydrogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annealing_by_short_circuit" title="Annealing by short circuit">Short circuit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hardening_(metallurgy)" title="Hardening (metallurgy)">Hardening</a> / <br /><a href="/wiki/Case-hardening" title="Case-hardening">Case-hardening</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ausforming" title="Ausforming">Ausforming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boriding" title="Boriding">Boriding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonitriding" title="Carbonitriding">Carbonitriding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carburizing" title="Carburizing">Carburizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_hardening" title="Cryogenic hardening">Cryogenic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferritic_nitrocarburizing" title="Ferritic nitrocarburizing">Ferritic nitrocarburizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Induction_hardening" title="Induction hardening">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitriding" title="Nitriding">Nitriding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precipitation_hardening" title="Precipitation hardening">Precipitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quench_polish_quench" title="Quench polish quench">Quench polish quench</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy)" title="Tempering (metallurgy)">Tempering</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austempering" title="Austempering">Austempering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martempering" title="Martempering">Martempering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_treatment" title="Cryogenic treatment">Cryogenic treatment</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_deburring" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryogenic deburring">Deburring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_deflashing" title="Cryogenic deflashing">Deflashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_hardening" title="Cryogenic hardening">Hardening</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_heat_treatment" title="Differential heat treatment">Differential heat treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decarburization" title="Decarburization">Decarburization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forming_gas" title="Forming gas">Forming gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post_weld_heat_treatment" title="Post weld heat treatment">Post weld heat treatment</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Quenching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superplastic_forming" title="Superplastic forming">Superplastic forming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_steel_production" title="List of countries by steel production">Production by country</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Bangladesh" title="Steel industry in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_China" title="Steel industry in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_and_steel_industry_in_India" title="Iron and steel industry in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Italy" title="Steel industry in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Luxembourg" title="Steel industry in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Nigeria" title="Steel industry in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_and_steel_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Iron and steel industry in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> 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