Philosophy & Religion Portal

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The earliest Greek philosophers focused their attention upon the origin and nature of the physical world; later philosophers have theorized about the nature of knowledge, truth, good and evil, love, friendship, and much more. Philosophy involves a methodical assessment of any and all aspects of human existence and experience. The realms of philosophy and religion have sometimes intersected in conducting such inquiries as these. As with philosophy, the study of religion underscores how humankind has long speculated about its origins. The possibility of a higher being (or beings) to which livings things owe their existence has long captived human thought. Many religions also offer their own views on the nature of good and evil, and they may prescribe guidelines and judgment on different kinds of human behavior.</div> </div> <div class="text-hr text-hr-right border-navy label mt-30 ls-lg">Browse Subcategories</div> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 mt-20 category-snap-slider"> <div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex font-14 overflow-hidden text-nowrap mx-5"> <a href="/browse/Ancient-Religions-Mythology" class="link-white mr-20 mr-sm-30">Ancient Religions & Mythology</a> <a href="/browse/Ethical-Issues" class="link-white mr-20 mr-sm-30">Ethical Issues</a> <a href="/browse/Humanities" class="link-white mr-20 mr-sm-30">Humanities</a> <a href="/browse/Philosophers" class="link-white mr-20 mr-sm-30">Philosophers</a> <a href="/browse/Philosophical-Issues" class="link-white mr-20 mr-sm-30">Philosophical Issues</a> <a href="/browse/Religious-Beliefs" class="link-white mr-20 mr-sm-30">Religious Beliefs</a> <a href="/browse/Religious-Personages-Scholars" class="link-white mr-20 mr-sm-30">Religious Personages & Scholars</a> <a href="/browse/Religious-Places" class="link-white mr-20 mr-sm-30">Religious Places</a> <a href="/browse/Sacred-Art-Music" class="link-white mr-20 mr-sm-30">Sacred Art & Music</a> <a href="/browse/Scriptures" class="link-white mr-20 mr-sm-30">Scriptures</a> <a href="/browse/Spirituality" class="link-white mr-20 mr-sm-30">Spirituality</a> <a href="/browse/Religious-Movements-Organizations" class="link-white ">Religious Movements & Organizations</a> </div> <button disabled class="prev-button js-prev-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-blue " aria-label="Previous"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></span> </button> <button disabled class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-blue " aria-label="Next"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span> </button> </div> </div> </div> <div class="container"> <h2 class="label my-30 text-center">Featured content, December 03, 2024</h2> <div class="qa-pinboard-items js-pinboard grid gy-20"> <div class="p-10 d-inline-flex js-pin col-100 col-sm-33 col-md-25 "> <div class="card text-normal col-100 "> <div class="card-media position-relative"> <a href="/story/why-is-christmas-in-december" style="--aspect-ratio: 16/9"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/24/190024-131-988B5D32/Nativity-Scene-Adoration-of-the-Magi-Church.jpg?w=400&h=225&c=crop" alt="Nativity Scene, Adoration of the Magi, Church of the Birth of the Virgin Mary, Montenegro" class="col-100" /> </a> </div> <div class="col"> <div class="card-body text-hyphenate"> <a href="/story/why-is-christmas-in-december" class="font-weight-bold font-16 lh-sm">Why Is Christmas in December?</a> <div class="font-serif mt-10 font-14"> No one knows when Jesus was born, so why celebrate his birth on December 25? </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="p-10 d-inline-flex js-pin col-100 col-sm-33 col-md-25 "> <div class="card text-normal col-100 "> <div class="card-media position-relative"> <a href="/list/the-seven-sacraments-of-the-roman-catholic-church" style="--aspect-ratio: 16/9"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/35/152735-131-06FBAE3F/Marriage-couple-church-wedding-ceremony.jpg?w=400&h=225&c=crop" alt="Marriage. 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From ancient Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle to later notable philosophers such as Ren茅 Descartes and Immanuel Kant, philosophy's great thinkers have approached sensitive ethical and existential issues from a variety of different angles. Their ideas have influenced the way we look at our world and the way we relate to one another as human beings.</div> <div class="label mt-20">Articles</div> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li class="mt-20"> <a class="font-weight-bold" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Socrates">Socrates</a> <div class="font-serif">Greek philosopher</div> </li> <li class="mt-20"> <a class="font-weight-bold" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Stuart-Mill">John Stuart Mill</a> <div class="font-serif">British philosopher and economist</div> </li> <li class="mt-20"> <a class="font-weight-bold" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Thomas-Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a> <div class="font-serif">English philosopher</div> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="col-100 col-sm-33 col-md-25"> <a href="/browse/Philosophical-Issues"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/58/181058-050-9CC9F60F/Marcus-Tullius-Cicero-detail-marble-bust-Capitoline.jpg?w=400&h=225&c=crop" alt="Cicero" class="col-100 mb-20" /> </a> <a href="/browse/Philosophical-Issues" class="font-weight-bold font-16">Philosophical Issues</a> <div class="font-serif mt-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> Do you embrace weighty topics such as the relative merits of empiricism and rationalism? An inquisitive spirit is all but a prerequisite for many of the topics listed here, which deal with the different approaches to and ideas about the big questions of life.</div> <div class="label mt-20">Articles</div> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li class="mt-20"> <a class="font-weight-bold" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Indian-philosophy">Indian philosophy</a> <div class="font-serif"></div> </li> <li class="mt-20"> <a class="font-weight-bold" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/ethics-philosophy">ethics</a> <div class="font-serif">philosophy</div> </li> <li class="mt-20"> <a class="font-weight-bold" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/formal-logic">formal logic</a> <div class="font-serif"></div> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="col-100 col-sm-33 col-md-25"> <a href="/browse/Religious-Beliefs"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/63/115263-050-9D187C7B/Abu-Darweesh-Mosque-Amman-Jordan.jpg?w=400&h=225&c=crop" alt="Abu Darweesh Mosque" class="col-100 mb-20" /> </a> <a href="/browse/Religious-Beliefs" class="font-weight-bold font-16">Religious Beliefs</a> <div class="font-serif mt-10 line-clamp clamp-3">Our religious beliefs can affect our lifestyle, our perceptions, and our way of relating to fellow human beings. Is there a higher power (or powers) that governs the universe and judges all of us? Does committing a mortal sin mean the death of a soul, or is there a chance for forgiveness? The answers to such questions differ widely across different religions.</div> <div class="label mt-20">Articles</div> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li class="mt-20"> <a class="font-weight-bold" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism">Hinduism</a> <div class="font-serif">religion</div> </li> <li class="mt-20"> <a class="font-weight-bold" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Taoism">Taoism</a> <div class="font-serif">Chinese philosophy and religion</div> </li> <li class="mt-20"> <a class="font-weight-bold" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christianity">Christianity</a> <div class="font-serif"></div> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="col-100 col-sm-33 col-md-25"> <a href="/browse/Religious-Personages-Scholars"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/97/115497-050-7D8CC20E/Portrait-oil-panel-Martin-Luther-Lucas-Cranach.jpg?w=400&h=225&c=crop" alt="Martin Luther" class="col-100 mb-20" /> </a> <a href="/browse/Religious-Personages-Scholars" class="font-weight-bold font-16">Religious Personages & Scholars</a> <div class="font-serif mt-10 line-clamp clamp-3">This general category includes a selection of more specific topics.</div> <div class="label mt-20">Articles</div> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li class="mt-20"> <a class="font-weight-bold" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Moses-Hebrew-prophet">Moses</a> <div class="font-serif">Hebrew prophet</div> </li> <li class="mt-20"> <a class="font-weight-bold" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Paul-the-Apostle">St. Paul the Apostle</a> <div class="font-serif">Christian Apostle</div> </li> <li class="mt-20"> <a class="font-weight-bold" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Gregory-VII">St. Gregory VII</a> <div class="font-serif">pope</div> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="col-100 col-sm-33 col-md-25"> <a href="/browse/Religious-Places"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/91/29891-004-9C0B460A/St-Bernadette.jpg?w=400&h=225&c=crop" alt="How is sewage and industrial wastewater reclaimed for use?" class="col-100 mb-20" /> </a> <a href="/browse/Religious-Places" class="font-weight-bold font-16">Religious Places</a> <div class="font-serif mt-10 line-clamp clamp-3">Human beings tend to relate to their religious beliefs through symbolism. Religious and sacred places鈥攃ommon destinations for pilgrims鈥攔epresent a physical connection that helps believers express their devotion.</div> <div class="label mt-20">Articles</div> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li class="mt-20"> <a class="font-weight-bold" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Western-Wall">Western Wall</a> <div class="font-serif">pilgrimage site, Jerusalem</div> </li> <li class="mt-20"> <a class="font-weight-bold" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Bethlehem">Bethlehem</a> <div class="font-serif">town, West Bank</div> </li> <li class="mt-20"> <a class="font-weight-bold" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Holy-Sepulchre">Church of the Holy Sepulchre</a> <div class="font-serif">church, Jerusalem</div> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="col-100 col-sm-33 col-md-25"> <a href="/browse/Sacred-Art-Music"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/33/163233-050-92B3A954/Mahalia-Jackson-photograph-Carl-Van-Vechten-1962.jpg?w=400&h=225&c=crop" alt="Mahalia Jackson" class="col-100 mb-20" /> </a> <a href="/browse/Sacred-Art-Music" class="font-weight-bold font-16">Sacred Art & Music</a> <div class="font-serif mt-10 line-clamp clamp-3">This general category includes a selection of more specific topics.</div> <div class="label mt-20">Articles</div> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li class="mt-20"> <a class="font-weight-bold" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Franz-Liszt">Franz Liszt</a> <div class="font-serif">Hungarian composer</div> </li> <li class="mt-20"> <a class="font-weight-bold" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ludwig-van-Beethoven">Ludwig van Beethoven</a> <div class="font-serif">German composer</div> </li> <li class="mt-20"> <a class="font-weight-bold" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Igor-Stravinsky">Igor Stravinsky</a> <div class="font-serif">Russian composer</div> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="col-100 col-sm-33 col-md-25"> <a href="/browse/Scriptures"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/79/58679-004-1CCC3895/Chapter-Isaiah-Scroll-Dead-Sea-Scrolls-Shrine.jpg?w=400&h=225&c=crop" alt="Chapter 49 of the Isaiah Scroll" class="col-100 mb-20" /> </a> <a href="/browse/Scriptures" class="font-weight-bold font-16">Scriptures</a> <div class="font-serif mt-10 line-clamp clamp-3">Sacred scriptures of all religions, viewed as the word of God or inspired by God, have influenced the moral and ethical standards of countries, peoples, and religious groups. Their interpretation has long been a subject of discussion and, at times, controversy.</div> <div class="label mt-20">Articles</div> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li class="mt-20"> <a class="font-weight-bold" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bible">Bible</a> <div class="font-serif">sacred text</div> </li> <li class="mt-20"> <a class="font-weight-bold" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Quran">Qur示膩n</a> <div class="font-serif">sacred text</div> </li> <li class="mt-20"> <a class="font-weight-bold" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bhagavadgita">Bhagavadgita</a> <div class="font-serif">Hindu scripture</div> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="col-100 col-sm-33 col-md-25"> <a href="/browse/Spirituality"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/84/132384-050-A6A38C8A/Detail-Religion-mural-lunette-series-Charles-Sprague-1897.jpg?w=400&h=225&c=crop" alt="Charles Sprague Pearce: Religion" class="col-100 mb-20" /> </a> <a href="/browse/Spirituality" class="font-weight-bold font-16">Spirituality</a> <div class="font-serif mt-10 line-clamp clamp-3">This general category includes a selection of more specific topics.</div> <div class="label mt-20">Articles</div> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li class="mt-20"> <a class="font-weight-bold" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/miracle">miracle</a> <div class="font-serif"></div> </li> <li class="mt-20"> <a class="font-weight-bold" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Socrates">Socrates</a> <div class="font-serif">Greek philosopher</div> </li> <li class="mt-20"> <a class="font-weight-bold" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Augustine">St. Augustine</a> <div class="font-serif">Christian bishop and theologian</div> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="col-100 col-sm-33 col-md-25"> <a href="/browse/Religious-Movements-Organizations"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/47/147147-050-74AF7248/headquarters-Tenrikyo-city-Tenri-Japan.jpg?w=400&h=225&c=crop" alt="Tenrikyo" class="col-100 mb-20" /> </a> <a href="/browse/Religious-Movements-Organizations" class="font-weight-bold font-16">Religious Movements & Organizations</a> <div class="font-serif mt-10 line-clamp clamp-3">This general category includes a selection of more specific topics.</div> <div class="label mt-20">Articles</div> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li class="mt-20"> <a class="font-weight-bold" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tenrikyo">Tenriky艒</a> <div class="font-serif">Japanese religion</div> </li> <li class="mt-20"> <a class="font-weight-bold" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shakers">Shaker</a> <div class="font-serif">Protestant sect</div> </li> <li class="mt-20"> <a class="font-weight-bold" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rinzai">Rinzai</a> <div class="font-serif">Buddhist sect</div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> <DIV class="marketing-CATEGORY_PAGE_SUBSCRIPTION marketing-content" data-marketing-id="CATEGORY_PAGE_SUBSCRIPTION"><style> .student-promo-banner-wrapper { container-type: inline-size; margin-bottom: 15px; } @container (min-width: 475px) { .student-promo-banner { flex-direction: row; } .student-promo-banner-img-wrapper { margin-bottom: 0; margin-right: 10px; justify-content: flex-start; } .student-promo-banner-text-wrapper { text-align: left; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 10px; } .student-promo-banner-button-wrapper { margin-right: 0; } }</style> <div class="student-promo-banner-wrapper"> <div class="student-promo-banner d-flex flex-column align-items-center bg-blue rounded p-20"> <div class="student-promo-banner-img-wrapper mb-20 mr-0 d-flex justify-content-center"> <img class="rounded" style="max-width: 100px; min-width: 80px" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/marketing/BlueThistle.webp" /> </div> <div class="student-promo-banner-text-wrapper ml-0 mb-10 text-center text-white"> <div class="h2 mb-10">Britannica Premium</div> <div class="h4 font-weight-semi-bold">Did you know you're not getting the full Britannica experience? 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