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class="noprint"></div> <div id="content" class="mw-body" role="main"> <a id="top"></a> <div id="siteNotice"></div> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Packet switching</h1> <div id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content"> <div id="siteSub">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> <div id="contentSub"></div> <div id="jump-to-nav" class="mw-jump"> Jump to: <a href="#mw-head">navigation</a>, <a href="#p-search">search</a> </div> <div id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><p><b>Packet switching</b> is a digital networking communications method that groups all transmitted data into suitably sized blocks, called <i><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_packet" title="Network packet">packets</a></i>, that are transmitted via a medium that may be shared by multiple simultaneous communication sessions. Packet switching increases network efficiency, robustness and enables <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_convergence" title="Technological convergence">technological convergence</a> of many applications operating on the same network.</p> <p>Packets are composed of a <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Header_(computing)" title="Header (computing)">header</a> and <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Payload_(computing)" title="Payload (computing)">payload</a>. Information in the header is used by <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Networking_hardware" title="Networking hardware">networking hardware</a> to direct the packet to its destination where the payload is extracted and used by <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_software" title="Application software">application software</a>.</p> <p>Packet switching was developed in the 1960s and 1970s and has evolved through early implementations to widespread use in <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X.25" title="X.25">X.25</a> networks and the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a>. Today it is a fundamental technology used in the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> and most <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">local area networks</a>.</p> <table class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks plainlist" style="float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%"> <tr> <th style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em;background:#bdb; display:block;margin-bottom:0.5em;"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplexing" title="Multiplexing">Multiplexing</a></th> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding:0.1em;background:#cfc;"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulation#Analog_modulation_methods" title="Modulation">Analog modulation</a></th> </tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding:0.15em 1.0em 0.8em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude_modulation" title="Amplitude modulation">AM</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_modulation" title="Frequency modulation">FM</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_modulation" title="Phase modulation">PM</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrature_amplitude_modulation" title="Quadrature amplitude modulation">QAM</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_modulation" title="Space modulation">SM</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-sideband_modulation" title="Single-sideband modulation">SSB</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding:0.1em;background:#cfc;"> <div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;padding-bottom:0.25em"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_switching" title="Circuit switching">Circuit mode<br/> <span style="font-weight:normal;">(constant bandwidth)</span></a></div> </th> </tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding:0.15em 1.0em 0.8em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-division_multiplexing" title="Time-division multiplexing">TDM</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency-division_multiplexing" title="Frequency-division multiplexing">FDM</a> / <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelength-division_multiplexing" title="Wavelength-division multiplexing">WDM</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space-division_multiplexing" title="Space-division multiplexing" class="mw-redirect">SDM</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polarization-division_multiplexing" title="Polarization-division multiplexing">Polarization</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_multiplexing" title="Spatial multiplexing">Spatial</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_angular_momentum_multiplexing" title="Orbital angular momentum multiplexing">OAM</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding:0.1em;background:#cfc;"> <div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;padding-bottom:0.25em"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_multiplexing" title="Statistical multiplexing" class="mw-redirect">Statistical multiplexing<br/> <span style="font-weight:normal;">(variable bandwidth)</span></a></div> </th> </tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding:0.15em 1.0em 0.8em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul> <li><strong class="selflink">Packet switching</strong></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_division_multiple_access#Dynamic_TDMA" title="Time division multiple access">Dynamic TDM</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency-hopping_spread_spectrum" title="Frequency-hopping spread spectrum">FHSS</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct-sequence_spread_spectrum" title="Direct-sequence spread spectrum">DSSS</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OFDMA" title="OFDMA" class="mw-redirect">OFDMA</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-carrier_frequency-division-multiplex" title="Single-carrier frequency-division-multiplex" class="mw-redirect">SC-FDM</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-carrier_spread_spectrum" title="Multi-carrier spread spectrum" class="mw-redirect">MC-SS</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding:0.1em;background:#cfc;">Related topics</th> </tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding:0.15em 1.0em 0.8em;"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_access_method" title="Channel access method">Channel access methods</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_access_control" title="Media access control">Media access control</a></li> </ul> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right;font-size:115%"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Multiplex_techniques" title="Template:Multiplex techniques"><span title="View this template">v</span></a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Multiplex_techniques" title="Template talk:Multiplex techniques"><span title="Discuss this template">t</span></a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Multiplex_techniques&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template">e</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> <div class="toclimit-3"> <div id="toc" class="toc"> <div id="toctitle"> <h2>Contents</h2> </div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Overview"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Overview</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Connectionless_and_connection-oriented_modes"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Connectionless and connection-oriented modes</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Packet_switching_in_networks"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Packet switching in networks</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#X.25_vs._Frame_Relay"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">X.25 vs. Frame Relay</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Packet_switched_networks"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Packet switched networks</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Early_networks"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Early networks</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><a href="#Appletalk"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Appletalk</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><a href="#ARPANET"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">ARPANET</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#BNRNET"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.3</span> <span class="toctext">BNRNET</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11"><a href="#CYCLADES"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.4</span> <span class="toctext">CYCLADES</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12"><a href="#DECnet"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.5</span> <span class="toctext">DECnet</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-13"><a href="#DDX-1"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.6</span> <span class="toctext">DDX-1</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-14"><a href="#EIN_n.C3.A9e_COST_II"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.7</span> <span class="toctext">EIN née COST II</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-15"><a href="#EPSS"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.8</span> <span class="toctext">EPSS</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-16"><a href="#GEIS"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.9</span> <span class="toctext">GEIS</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-17"><a href="#IPSANET"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.10</span> <span class="toctext">IPSANET</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-18"><a href="#IPX.2FSPX"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.11</span> <span class="toctext">IPX/SPX</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-19"><a href="#Merit_Network"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.12</span> <span class="toctext">Merit Network</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-20"><a href="#NPL"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.13</span> <span class="toctext">NPL</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-21"><a href="#OCTOPUS"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.14</span> <span class="toctext">OCTOPUS</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-22"><a href="#Philips_Research"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.15</span> <span class="toctext">Philips Research</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-23"><a href="#PUP"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.16</span> <span class="toctext">PUP</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-24"><a href="#RCP"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.17</span> <span class="toctext">RCP</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-25"><a href="#RETD"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.18</span> <span class="toctext">RETD</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-26"><a href="#SCANNET"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.19</span> <span class="toctext">SCANNET</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-27"><a href="#SITA_HLN"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.20</span> <span class="toctext">SITA HLN</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-28"><a href="#IBM_Systems_Network_Architecture"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.21</span> <span class="toctext">IBM Systems Network Architecture</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-29"><a href="#Telenet"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.22</span> <span class="toctext">Telenet</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-30"><a href="#Tymnet"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.23</span> <span class="toctext">Tymnet</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-31"><a href="#XNS"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.24</span> <span class="toctext">XNS</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-32"><a href="#X.25_era"><span class="tocnumber">6.2</span> <span class="toctext">X.25 era</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-33"><a href="#AUSTPAC"><span class="tocnumber">6.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">AUSTPAC</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-34"><a href="#ConnNet"><span class="tocnumber">6.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">ConnNet</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-35"><a href="#Datanet_1"><span class="tocnumber">6.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Datanet 1</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-36"><a href="#Datapac"><span class="tocnumber">6.2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Datapac</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-37"><a href="#Datex-P"><span class="tocnumber">6.2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Datex-P</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-38"><a href="#Eirpac"><span class="tocnumber">6.2.6</span> <span class="toctext">Eirpac</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-39"><a href="#HIPA-NET"><span class="tocnumber">6.2.7</span> <span class="toctext">HIPA-NET</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-40"><a href="#Iberpac"><span class="tocnumber">6.2.8</span> <span class="toctext">Iberpac</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-41"><a href="#JANET"><span class="tocnumber">6.2.9</span> <span class="toctext">JANET</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-42"><a href="#PSS"><span class="tocnumber">6.2.10</span> <span class="toctext">PSS</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-43"><a href="#Transpac"><span class="tocnumber">6.2.11</span> <span class="toctext">Transpac</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-44"><a href="#VENUS-P"><span class="tocnumber">6.2.12</span> <span class="toctext">VENUS-P</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-45"><a href="#Venepaq"><span class="tocnumber">6.2.13</span> <span class="toctext">Venepaq</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-46"><a href="#Internet_era"><span class="tocnumber">6.3</span> <span class="toctext">Internet era</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-47"><a href="#CSNET"><span class="tocnumber">6.3.1</span> <span class="toctext">CSNET</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-48"><a href="#Internet2"><span class="tocnumber">6.3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Internet2</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-49"><a href="#NSFNET"><span class="tocnumber">6.3.3</span> <span class="toctext">NSFNET</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-50"><a href="#NSFNET_regional_networks"><span class="tocnumber">6.3.4</span> <span class="toctext">NSFNET regional networks</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-51"><a href="#National_LambdaRail"><span class="tocnumber">6.3.5</span> <span class="toctext">National LambdaRail</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-52"><a href="#TransPAC.2C_TransPAC2.2C_and_TransPAC3"><span class="tocnumber">6.3.6</span> <span class="toctext">TransPAC, TransPAC2, and TransPAC3</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-53"><a href="#Very_high-speed_Backbone_Network_Service_.28vBNS.29"><span class="tocnumber">6.3.7</span> <span class="toctext">Very high-speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS)</span></a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-54"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-55"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-56"><a href="#Bibliography"><span class="tocnumber">8.1</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliography</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-57"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-58"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Overview">Overview</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:352px;"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Packet_Switching.gif" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Packet_Switching.gif/350px-Packet_Switching.gif" width="350" height="197" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Packet_Switching.gif/525px-Packet_Switching.gif 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150325101139im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Packet_Switching.gif/700px-Packet_Switching.gif 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="720"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Packet_Switching.gif" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> An animation demonstrating data packet switching across a network (Click on the image to load the animation)</div> </div> </div> <p>Packet switching features delivery of <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_bit_rate" title="Variable bit rate" class="mw-redirect">variable bit rate</a> data streams (sequences of packets) over a <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">computer network</a> which allocates transmission resources as needed using <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_multiplexing" title="Statistical multiplexing" class="mw-redirect">statistical multiplexing</a> or <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_bandwidth_allocation" title="Dynamic bandwidth allocation">dynamic bandwidth allocation</a> techniques. When traversing network adapters, switches, routers, and other <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_node" title="Network node" class="mw-redirect">network nodes</a>, packets are buffered and queued, resulting in variable delay and <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Throughput" title="Throughput">throughput</a> depending on the network's capacity and the traffic load on the network.</p> <p>Packet switching contrasts with another principal networking paradigm, <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_switching" title="Circuit switching">circuit switching</a>, a method which sets up a limited number of dedicated connections of constant bit rate and constant delay between nodes for exclusive use during the communication session. In cases where traffic fees are charged (as opposed to flat rate), for example in <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_communication" title="Cellular communication" class="mw-redirect">cellular communication</a> services, circuit switching is characterized by a fee per unit of connection time, even when no data is transferred, while packet switching is characterized by a fee per unit of information transmitted (characters, packets, messages, …).</p> <p>Packet mode communication may be utilized with or without intermediate forwarding nodes (packet switches or <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Router_(computing)" title="Router (computing)">routers</a>). Packets are normally forwarded by intermediate network nodes asynchronously using <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFO_(computing_and_electronics)" title="FIFO (computing and electronics)">first-in, first-out</a> buffering, but may be forwarded according to some scheduling discipline for <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_queuing" title="Fair queuing">fair queuing</a>, <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_shaping" title="Traffic shaping">traffic shaping</a>, or for differentiated or guaranteed <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_of_service" title="Quality of service">quality of service</a>, such as <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weighted_fair_queuing" title="Weighted fair queuing" class="mw-redirect">weighted fair queuing</a> or <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaky_bucket" title="Leaky bucket">leaky bucket</a>. In case of a shared physical medium (radio, <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10BASE5" title="10BASE5">10BASE5 or thick Ethernet</a>, …), the packets may be delivered according to a <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_access" title="Multiple access" class="mw-redirect">multiple access</a> scheme.</p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <p>First proposed for military uses in the early 1960s and implemented on small networks in 1968, packet switching became one of the fundamental networking technologies behind the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> and most <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">local area networks</a>.</p> <p>The concept of switching small blocks of data was first explored independently by <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Baran" title="Paul Baran">Paul Baran</a> at the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAND_Corporation" title="RAND Corporation">RAND Corporation</a> in the US and <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Davies" title="Donald Davies">Donald Davies</a> at the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Physical_Laboratory_(United_Kingdom)" title="National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)">National Physical Laboratory</a> (NPL) in the UK in the early to mid-1960s.<sup><a href="#CITEREFAbbate2000">Abbate 2000</a></sup></p> <p><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Kleinrock" title="Leonard Kleinrock">Leonard Kleinrock</a> conducted early research in <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queueing_theory" title="Queueing theory">queueing theory</a> which proved important in packet switching, and published a book in the related field of digital <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Message_switching" title="Message switching">message switching</a> (without the packets) in 1961; he also later played a leading role in building and management of the world's first packet-switched network, the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a>.</p> <p>Baran developed the concept of message block switching during his research at the RAND Corporation for the US Air Force into survivable communications networks, first presented to the Air Force in the summer of 1961 as briefing B-265<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup> then published as <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://www.rand.org/pubs/papers/P2626/">RAND Paper P-2626</a> in 1962 and then including and expanding somewhat within a series of eleven papers titled <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://www.rand.org/pubs/research_memoranda/RM3420/index.html">On Distributed Communications</a> in 1964. Baran's P-2626 paper described a general architecture for a large-scale, distributed, survivable communications network. The paper focuses on three key ideas: first, use of a <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decentralized" title="Decentralized" class="mw-redirect">decentralized</a> network with multiple paths between any two points; and second, dividing complete user messages into what he called <i>message blocks</i> (later called packets); then third, delivery of these messages by <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Store_and_forward" title="Store and forward">store and forward</a> switching.</p> <p>Baran's study made its way to <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Taylor_(computer_scientist)" title="Robert Taylor (computer scientist)">Robert Taylor</a> and <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.C.R._Licklider" title="J.C.R. Licklider" class="mw-redirect">J.C.R. Licklider</a> at the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_Processing_Technology_Office" title="Information Processing Technology Office" class="mw-redirect">Information Processing Technology Office</a>, both wide-area network evangelists, and it helped influence <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Roberts_(scientist)" title="Lawrence Roberts (scientist)">Lawrence Roberts</a> to adopt the technology when Taylor put him in charge of development of the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a>.</p> <p>Baran's work was similar to the research performed independently by Donald Davies at the National Physical Laboratory, UK. In 1965, Davies developed the concept of packet-switched networks and proposed development of a UK wide network.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup> He gave a talk on the proposal in 1966, after which a person from the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_(United_Kingdom)" title="Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)">Ministry of Defence</a> (MoD) told him about Baran's work. A member of Davies' team (Roger Scantlebury) met Lawrence Roberts at the 1967 <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Computing_Machinery" title="Association for Computing Machinery">ACM</a> Symposium on Operating System Principles, bringing the two groups together. Scantlebury urged Roberts to use the highest speeds possible to reduce latency.</p> <p>Interestingly, Davies had chosen some of the same parameters for his original network design as Baran, such as a packet size of 1024 bits. In 1966 Davies proposed that a network should be built at the laboratory to serve the needs of NPL and prove the feasibility of packet switching. The NPL Data Communications Network entered service in 1970. Roberts and the ARPANET team took the name "packet switching" itself from Davies's work.</p> <p>The first computer network and packet switching network deployed for computer resource sharing was the Octopus Network at the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Livermore_National_Laboratory" title="Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory">Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory</a> that began connecting four <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CDC_6600" title="CDC 6600">Control Data 6600 computers</a> to several shared storage devices (including an <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_2321_Data_Cell" title="IBM 2321 Data Cell">IBM 2321 Data Cell</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup> in 1968 and an IBM Photostore<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup> in 1970) and to several hundred <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teletype_Model_33" title="Teletype Model 33">Teletype Model 33</a> ASR terminals for <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_sharing" title="Time sharing" class="mw-redirect">time sharing</a> use starting in 1968.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>In 1973, <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vint_Cerf" title="Vint Cerf">Vint Cerf</a> and <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Kahn" title="Bob Kahn">Bob Kahn</a> wrote the specifications for <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_Control_Protocol" title="Transmission Control Protocol">Transmission Control Protocol</a> (TCP), an internetworking protocol for sharing resources using packet-switching among the nodes.</p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Connectionless_and_connection-oriented_modes">Connectionless and connection-oriented modes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Connectionless and connection-oriented modes">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <p>Packet switching may be classified into <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectionless_communication" title="Connectionless communication">connectionless</a> packet switching, also known as <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datagram" title="Datagram">datagram</a> switching, and <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connection-oriented_communication" title="Connection-oriented communication">connection-oriented</a> packet switching, also known as <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_circuit" title="Virtual circuit">virtual circuit</a> switching.</p> <p>Examples of connectionless protocols are <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a>, <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Protocol" title="Internet Protocol">Internet Protocol</a> (IP), and the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_Datagram_Protocol" title="User Datagram Protocol">User Datagram Protocol</a> (UDP). Connection-oriented protocols include <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X.25" title="X.25">X.25</a>, <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_Relay" title="Frame Relay">Frame Relay</a>, <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiprotocol_Label_Switching" title="Multiprotocol Label Switching">Multiprotocol Label Switching</a> (MPLS), and the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_Control_Protocol" title="Transmission Control Protocol">Transmission Control Protocol</a> (TCP).</p> <p>In connectionless mode each packet includes complete addressing information. The packets are routed individually, sometimes resulting in different paths and out-of-order delivery. Each packet is labeled with a destination address, source address, and port numbers. It may also be labeled with the sequence number of the packet. This precludes the need for a dedicated path to help the packet find its way to its destination, but means that much more information is needed in the packet header, which is therefore larger, and this information needs to be looked up in power-hungry content-addressable memory. Each packet is dispatched and may go via different routes; potentially, the system has to do as much work for every packet as the connection-oriented system has to do in connection set-up, but with less information as to the application's requirements. At the destination, the original message/data is reassembled in the correct order, based on the packet sequence number. Thus a <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_connection" title="Virtual connection" class="mw-redirect">virtual connection</a>, also known as a <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_circuit" title="Virtual circuit">virtual circuit</a> or <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byte_stream" title="Byte stream" class="mw-redirect">byte stream</a> is provided to the end-user by a <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_layer" title="Transport layer">transport layer</a> protocol, although intermediate network nodes only provides a connectionless <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_layer" title="Network layer">network layer</a> service.</p> <p>Connection-oriented transmission requires a setup phase in each involved node before any packet is transferred to establish the parameters of communication. The packets include a connection identifier rather than address information and are negotiated between endpoints so that they are delivered in order and with error checking. Address information is only transferred to each node during the connection set-up phase, when the route to the destination is discovered and an entry is added to the switching table in each network node through which the connection passes. The <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signaling_(telecommunications)" title="Signaling (telecommunications)">signaling</a> protocols used allow the application to specify its requirements and discover link parameters. Acceptable values for service parameters may be negotiated. Routing a packet requires the node to look up the connection id in a table. The packet header can be small, as it only needs to contain this code and any information, such as length, timestamp, or sequence number, which is different for different packets.</p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Packet_switching_in_networks">Packet switching in networks</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Packet switching in networks">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <p>Packet switching is used to optimize the use of the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_capacity" title="Channel capacity">channel capacity</a> available in digital telecommunication networks such as computer networks, to minimize the transmission <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latency_(engineering)" title="Latency (engineering)">latency</a> (the time it takes for data to pass across the network), and to increase <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robustness_(computer_science)" title="Robustness (computer science)">robustness</a> of communication.</p> <p>The best-known use of packet switching is the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> and most <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">local area networks</a>. The Internet is implemented by the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Protocol_Suite" title="Internet Protocol Suite" class="mw-redirect">Internet Protocol Suite</a> using a variety of <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Link_Layer" title="Link Layer" class="mw-redirect">Link Layer</a> technologies. For example, <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a> and <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_Relay" title="Frame Relay">Frame Relay</a> are common. Newer <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_phone" title="Mobile phone">mobile phone</a> technologies (e.g., <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPRS" title="GPRS" class="mw-redirect">GPRS</a>, <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I-mode" title="I-mode">I-mode</a>) also use packet switching.</p> <p><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X.25" title="X.25">X.25</a> is a notable use of packet switching in that, despite being based on packet switching methods, it provided <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_circuit" title="Virtual circuit">virtual circuits</a> to the user. These virtual circuits carry variable-length packets. In 1978, X.25 provided the first international and commercial packet switching network, the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Packet_Switched_Service" title="International Packet Switched Service">International Packet Switched Service</a> (IPSS). <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asynchronous_Transfer_Mode" title="Asynchronous Transfer Mode">Asynchronous Transfer Mode</a> (ATM) also is a virtual circuit technology, which uses fixed-length <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_relay" title="Cell relay">cell relay</a> connection oriented packet switching.</p> <p>Datagram packet switching is also called connectionless networking because no connections are established. Technologies such as <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiprotocol_Label_Switching" title="Multiprotocol Label Switching">Multiprotocol Label Switching</a> (MPLS) and the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_reservation_protocol" title="Resource reservation protocol" class="mw-redirect">resource reservation protocol</a> (RSVP) create virtual circuits on top of datagram networks. Virtual circuits are especially useful in building robust failover mechanisms and allocating bandwidth for delay-sensitive applications.</p> <p>MPLS and its predecessors, as well as ATM, have been called "fast packet" technologies. MPLS, indeed, has been called "ATM without cells".<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup> Modern <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Router_(computing)" title="Router (computing)">routers</a>, however, do not require these technologies to be able to forward variable-length packets at multigigabit speeds across the network.</p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="X.25_vs._Frame_Relay">X.25 vs. Frame Relay</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: X.25 vs. Frame Relay">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <p>Both <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X.25" title="X.25">X.25</a> and <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_Relay" title="Frame Relay">Frame Relay</a> provide connection-oriented operations. But X.25 does it at the network layer of the OSI Model. Frame Relay does it at level two, the data link layer. Another major difference between X.25 and Frame Relay is that X.25 requires a handshake between the communicating parties before any user packets are transmitted. Frame Relay does not define any such handshakes. X.25 does not define any operations inside the packet network. It only operates at the user-network-interface (UNI). Thus, the network provider is free to use any procedure it wishes inside the network. X.25 does specify some limited re-transmission procedures at the UNI, and its link layer protocol (LAPB) provides conventional HDLC-type link management procedures. Frame Relay is a modified version of ISDN's layer two protocol, LAPD and LAPB. As such, its integrity operations pertain only between nodes on a link, not end-to-end. Any retransmissions must be carried out by higher layer protocols. The X.25 UNI protocol is part of the X.25 protocol suite, which consists of the lower three layers of the OSI Model. It was widely used at the UNI for packet switching networks during the 1980s and early 1990s, to provide a standardized interface into and out of packet networks. Some implementations used X.25 within the network as well, but its connection-oriented features made this setup cumbersome and inefficient. Frame relay operates principally at layer two of the OSI Model. However, its address field (the Data Link Connection ID, or DLCI) can be used at the OSI network layer, with a minimum set of procedures. Thus, it rids itself of many X.25 layer 3 encumbrances, but still has the DLCI as an ID beyond a node-to-node layer two link protocol. The simplicity of Frame Relay makes it faster and more efficient than X.25. Because Frame relay is a data link layer protocol, like X.25 it does not define internal network routing operations. For X.25 its packet IDs---the virtual circuit and virtual channel numbers have to be correlated to network addresses. The same is true for Frame Relays DLCI. How this is done is up to the network provider. Frame Relay, by virtue of having no network layer procedures is connection-oriented at layer two, by using the HDLC/LAPD/LAPB Set Asynchronous Balanced Mode (SABM). X.25 connections are typically established for each communication session, but it does have a feature allowing a limited amount of traffic to be passed across the UNI without the connection-oriented handshake. For a while, Frame Relay was used to interconnect LANs across wide area networks. However, X.25 and well as Frame Relay have been supplanted by the Internet Protocol (IP) at the network layer, and the Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and or versions of Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) at layer two. A typical configuration is to run IP over ATM or a version of MPLS. <Uyless Black, X.25 and Related Protocols, IEEE Computer Society, 1991> <Uyless Black, Frame Relay Networks, McGraw-Hill, 1998> <Uyless Black, MPLS and Label Switching Networks, Prentice Hall, 2001> < Uyless Black, ATM, Volume I, Prentice Hall, 1995></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Packet_switched_networks">Packet switched networks</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Packet switched networks">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <p>The history of packet-switched networks can be divided into three overlapping eras: early networks before the introduction of <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X.25" title="X.25">X.25</a> and the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSI_model" title="OSI model">OSI model</a>, the X.25 era when many <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postal,_telegraph_and_telephone_service" title="Postal, telegraph and telephone service">postal, telephone and telegraph</a> companies introduced networks with X.25 interfaces, and the Internet era.</p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_networks">Early networks</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Early networks">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>ARPANET and SITA HLN became operational in 1969. Before the introduction of X.25 in 1973,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup> about twenty different network technologies had been developed. Two fundamental differences involved the division of functions and tasks between the hosts at the edge of the network and the network core. In the datagram system, the hosts have the responsibility to ensure orderly delivery of packets. The <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_Datagram_Protocol" title="User Datagram Protocol">User Datagram Protocol</a> (UDP) is an example of a datagram protocol. In the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_call_capability" title="Virtual call capability">virtual call</a> system, the network guarantees sequenced delivery of data to the host. This results in a simpler host interface with less functionality than in the datagram model. The X.25 protocol suite uses this network type.</p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Appletalk">Appletalk</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Appletalk">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AppleTalk" title="AppleTalk">AppleTalk</a> was a proprietary suite of networking protocols developed by <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Inc." title="Apple Inc.">Apple Inc.</a> in 1985 for <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Macintosh" title="Apple Macintosh" class="mw-redirect">Apple Macintosh</a> computers. It was the primary protocol used by Apple devices through the 1980s and 90s. AppleTalk included features that allowed <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">local area networks</a> to be established <i>ad hoc</i> without the requirement for a centralized router or server. The AppleTalk system automatically assigned addresses, updated the distributed namespace, and configured any required inter-network routing. It was a <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plug-n-play" title="Plug-n-play" class="mw-redirect">plug-n-play</a> system.<sup id="cite_ref-Oppenheimer_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oppenheimer-8"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>AppleTalk versions were also released for the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PC" title="IBM PC" class="mw-redirect">IBM PC</a> and compatibles, and the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_IIGS" title="Apple IIGS">Apple IIGS</a>. AppleTalk support was available in most networked printers, especially <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_printer" title="Laser printer" class="mw-redirect">laser printers</a>, some <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_server" title="File server">file servers</a> and <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Router_(computing)" title="Router (computing)">routers</a>. AppleTalk support was terminated in 2009, replaced by <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP" class="mw-redirect">TCP/IP</a> protocols.<sup id="cite_ref-Oppenheimer_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oppenheimer-8"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="ARPANET">ARPANET</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: ARPANET">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>The <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a> was a progenitor network of the Internet and the first network to run the TCP/IP suite using packet switching technologies.</p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="BNRNET">BNRNET</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: BNRNET">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>BNRNET was a network which Bell Northern Research developed for internal use. It initially had only one host but was designed to support many hosts. BNR later made major contributions to the CCITT X.25 project.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="CYCLADES">CYCLADES</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: CYCLADES">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>The <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CYCLADES" title="CYCLADES">CYCLADES</a> packet switching network was a French research network designed and directed by <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Pouzin" title="Louis Pouzin">Louis Pouzin</a>. First demonstrated in 1973, it was developed to explore alternatives to the early ARPANET design and to support network research generally. It was the first network to make the hosts responsible for reliable delivery of data, rather than the network itself, using <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datagrams#Packets_vs._datagrams" title="Datagrams" class="mw-redirect">unreliable datagrams</a> and associated end-to-end protocol mechanisms. Concepts of this network influenced later ARPANET architecture.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span>[</span>12<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="DECnet">DECnet</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: DECnet">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DECnet" title="DECnet">DECnet</a> is a suite of network protocols created by <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation" title="Digital Equipment Corporation">Digital Equipment Corporation</a>, originally released in 1975 in order to connect two <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDP-11" title="PDP-11">PDP-11</a> <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minicomputers" title="Minicomputers" class="mw-redirect">minicomputers</a>. It evolved into one of the first <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer-to-peer" title="Peer-to-peer">peer-to-peer</a> network architectures, thus transforming DEC into a networking powerhouse in the 1980s. Initially built with three <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_Layer" title="Network Layer" class="mw-redirect">layers</a>, it later (1982) evolved into a seven-layer <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Systems_Interconnection" title="Open Systems Interconnection">OSI</a>-compliant networking protocol. The DECnet protocols were designed entirely by Digital Equipment Corporation. However, DECnet Phase II (and later) were <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_standard" title="Open standard">open standards</a> with published specifications, and several implementations were developed outside DEC, including one for <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux" title="Linux">Linux</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="DDX-1">DDX-1</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: DDX-1">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>This was an experimental network from Nippon PTT. It mixed circuit switching and packet switching. It was succeeded by DDX-2.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="EIN_n.C3.A9e_COST_II">EIN née COST II</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: EIN née COST II">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>European Informatics Network was a project to link several national networks. It became operational in 1976.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="EPSS">EPSS</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: EPSS">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>The Experimental Packet Switching System (EPSS) was an experiment of the UK Post Office. Ferranti supplied the hardware and software. The handling of link control messages (acknowledgements and flow control) was different from that of most other networks and is not fully explained in the published literature. <sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="GEIS">GEIS</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: GEIS">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>As General Electric Information Services (GEIS), <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a> was a major international provider of information services. The company originally designed a telephone network to serve as its internal (albeit continent-wide) voice telephone network.</p> <p>In 1965, at the instigation of Warner Sinback, a data network based on this voice-phone network was designed to connect GE's four computer sales and service centers (Schenectady, Phoenix, Chicago, and Phoenix) to facilitate a computer time-sharing service, apparently the world's first commercial online service. (In addition to selling GE computers, the centers were computer service bureaus, offering batch processing services. They lost money from the beginning, and Sinback, a high-level marketing manager, was given the job of turning the business around. He decided that a time-sharing system, based on Kemney's work at Dartmouth—which used a computer on loan from GE—could be profitable. Warner was right.)</p> <p>After going international some years later, GEIS created a network data center near <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleveland" title="Cleveland">Cleveland</a>, Ohio. Very little has been published about the internal details of their network. (Though it has been stated by some that <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tymshare" title="Tymshare">Tymshare</a> copied the GEIS system to create their network, <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tymnet" title="Tymnet">Tymnet</a>.) The design was hierarchal with redundant communication links. <sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span>[</span>17<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="IPSANET">IPSANET</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: IPSANET">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPSANET" title="IPSANET">IPSANET</a> was a semi-private network constructed by <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I._P._Sharp_Associates" title="I. P. Sharp Associates">I. P. Sharp Associates</a> to serve their time-sharing customers. It became operational in May 1976.</p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="IPX.2FSPX">IPX/SPX</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: IPX/SPX">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>The <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPX/SPX" title="IPX/SPX">Internetwork Packet Exchange</a> (IPX) and Sequenced Packet Exchange (SPX) are <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novell" title="Novell">Novell</a> networking protocols derived from Xerox Network Systems' IDP and SPP protocols, respectively. They were used primarily on networks using the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NetWare" title="NetWare">Novell NetWare operating systems</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span>[</span>18<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Merit_Network">Merit Network</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Merit Network">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merit_Network" title="Merit Network">Merit Network, Inc.</a> is an independent non-profit 501(c)(3) corporation governed by Michigan's public universities.<sup id="cite_ref-Merit_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merit-19"><span>[</span>19<span>]</span></a></sup> was formed in 1966 as the Michigan Educational Research Information Triad to explore computer networking between three of Michigan's public universities as a means to help the state's educational and economic development.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup> With initial support from the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_Michigan" title="State of Michigan" class="mw-redirect">State of Michigan</a> and the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a> (NSF), the packet-switched network was first demonstrated in December 1971 when an interactive host to host connection was made between the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a> <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainframe_computer" title="Mainframe computer">mainframe computer</a> systems at the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Michigan" title="University of Michigan">University of Michigan</a> in <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann_Arbor" title="Ann Arbor" class="mw-redirect">Ann Arbor</a> and <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayne_State_University" title="Wayne State University">Wayne State University</a> in <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit" title="Detroit">Detroit</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-MeritTimeline1970-1979_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MeritTimeline1970-1979-21"><span>[</span>21<span>]</span></a></sup> In October 1972 connections to the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_Data_Corporation" title="Control Data Corporation">CDC</a> mainframe at <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michigan_State_University" title="Michigan State University">Michigan State University</a> in <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Lansing" title="East Lansing" class="mw-redirect">East Lansing</a> completed the triad. Over the next several years in addition to host to host interactive connections the network was enhanced to support terminal to host connections, host to host batch connections (remote job submission, remote printing, batch file transfer), interactive file transfer, gateways to the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tymnet" title="Tymnet">Tymnet</a> and <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telenet" title="Telenet">Telenet</a> <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_data_network" title="Public data network">public data networks</a>, <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X.25" title="X.25">X.25</a> host attachments, gateways to X.25 data networks, <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a> attached hosts, and eventually <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP" class="mw-redirect">TCP/IP</a> and additional <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colleges_and_universities_in_Michigan#Public_colleges_and_universities" title="List of colleges and universities in Michigan">public universities in Michigan</a> join the network.<sup id="cite_ref-MeritTimeline1970-1979_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MeritTimeline1970-1979-21"><span>[</span>21<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MeritTimeline1980-1989_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MeritTimeline1980-1989-22"><span>[</span>22<span>]</span></a></sup> All of this set the stage for Merit's role in the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NSFNET" title="NSFNET" class="mw-redirect">NSFNET</a> project starting in the mid-1980s.</p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="NPL">NPL</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: NPL">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>Donald Davies of the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Physical_Laboratory,_UK" title="National Physical Laboratory, UK" class="mw-redirect">National Physical Laboratory, UK</a> made many important contributions to the theory of packet switching. NPL built a single node network to connect sundry hosts at NPL. <sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span>[</span>23<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="OCTOPUS">OCTOPUS</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: OCTOPUS">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>Octopus was a local network at <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Livermore_National_Laboratory" title="Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory">Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory</a>. It connected sundry hosts at the lab to interactive terminals and various computer peripherals including a bulk storage system. <sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span>[</span>24<span>]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span>[</span>25<span>]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span>[</span>26<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Philips_Research">Philips Research</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Philips Research">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philips" title="Philips">Philips</a> Research Laboratories in <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redhill,_Surrey" title="Redhill, Surrey">Redhill, Surrey</a> developed a packet switching network for internal use. It was a datagram network with a single switching node. <sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span>[</span>27<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="PUP">PUP</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: PUP">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PARC_Universal_Packet" title="PARC Universal Packet">PARC Universal Packet</a> (PUP or Pup) was one of the two earliest <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internetwork" title="Internetwork" class="mw-redirect">internetwork</a> <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protocol_suite" title="Protocol suite" class="mw-redirect">protocol suites</a>; it was created by researchers at <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerox_PARC" title="Xerox PARC" class="mw-redirect">Xerox PARC</a> in the mid-1970s. The entire suite provided <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routing" title="Routing">routing</a> and packet delivery, as well as higher level functions such as a <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliable_byte_stream" title="Reliable byte stream">reliable byte stream</a>, along with numerous applications. Further developments led to <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerox_Network_Systems" title="Xerox Network Systems">Xerox Network Systems</a> (XNS).<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span>[</span>28<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="RCP">RCP</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: RCP">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>RCP was an experimental network created by the French PTT. It was used to gain experience with packet switching technology before the specification of <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transpac_(network)" title="Transpac (network)" class="mw-redirect">Transpac</a> was frozen. RCP was a <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_circuit" title="Virtual circuit">virtual-circuit</a> network in contrast to CYCLADES which was based on <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datagram" title="Datagram">datagrams</a>. RCP emphasised terminal to host and terminal to terminal connection; CYCLADES was concerned with host-to-host communication. TRANSPAC was introduced as an X.25 network. RCP influenced the specification of <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X.25" title="X.25">X.25</a> <sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span>[</span>29<span>]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span>[</span>30<span>]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span>[</span>31<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="RETD">RETD</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: RETD">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>Red Especial de Transmisión de Datos was a network developed by Compañía Telefónica Nacional de España. It became operational in 1972 and thus was the first public network. <sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span>[</span>32<span>]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span>[</span>33<span>]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span>[</span>34<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="SCANNET">SCANNET</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: SCANNET">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>"The experimental packet-switched Nordic telecommunication network SCANNET was implemented in Nordic technical libraries in 70's, and it included first Nordic electronic journal Extemplo. Libraries were also among first ones in universities to accommodate microcomputers for public use in early 80's." <sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span>[</span>35<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="SITA_HLN">SITA HLN</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: SITA HLN">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SITA_(IT_company)" title="SITA (IT company)">SITA</a> is a consortium of airlines. Their High Level Network became operational in 1969 at about the same time as ARPANET. It carried interactive traffic and message-switching traffic. As with many non-academic networks very little has been published about it. <sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span>[</span>36<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="IBM_Systems_Network_Architecture">IBM Systems Network Architecture</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: IBM Systems Network Architecture">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Systems_Network_Architecture" title="IBM Systems Network Architecture">IBM Systems Network Architecture</a> (SNA) is <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a>'s proprietary networking architecture created in 1974. An IBM customer could acquire hardware and software from IBM and lease private lines from a common carrier to construct a private network.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span>[</span>37<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Telenet">Telenet</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Telenet">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telenet" title="Telenet">Telenet</a> was the first FCC-licensed <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_data_network" title="Public data network">public data network</a> in the United States. It was founded by former ARPA IPTO director Larry Roberts as a means of making ARPANET technology public. He had tried to interest AT&T in buying the technology, but the monopoly's reaction was that this was incompatible with their future. Bolt, Beranack and Newman (BBN) provided the financing. It initially used ARPANET technology but changed the host interface to X.25 and the terminal interface to X.29. Telenet designed these protocols and helped standardize them in the CCITT. Telenet was incorporated in 1973 and started operations in 1975. It went public in 1979 and was then sold to GTE.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span>[</span>38<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span>[</span>39<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Tymnet">Tymnet</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Tymnet">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tymnet" title="Tymnet">Tymnet</a> was an international data communications network headquartered in San Jose, CA that utilized virtual call packet switched technology and used X.25, SNA/SDLC, BSC and ASCII interfaces to connect host computers (servers)at thousands of large companies, educational institutions, and government agencies. Users typically connected via dial-up connections or dedicated async connections. The business consisted of a large public network that supported dial-up users and a private network business that allowed government agencies and large companies (mostly banks and airlines) to build their own dedicated networks. The private networks were often connected via gateways to the public network to reach locations not on the private network. Tymnet was also connected to dozens of other public networks in the U.S. and internationally via X.25/X.75 gateways. (Interesting note: Tymnet was not named after Mr. Tyme. Another employee suggested the name.) <sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span>[</span>40<span>]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span>[</span>41<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="XNS">XNS</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: XNS">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerox_Network_Systems" title="Xerox Network Systems">Xerox Network Systems</a> (XNS) was a <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protocol_suite" title="Protocol suite" class="mw-redirect">protocol suite</a> promulgated by <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerox" title="Xerox">Xerox</a>, which provided <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routing" title="Routing">routing</a> and packet delivery, as well as higher level functions such as a <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliable_stream" title="Reliable stream" class="mw-redirect">reliable stream</a>, and <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_procedure_call" title="Remote procedure call">remote procedure calls</a>. It was developed from <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PARC_Universal_Packet" title="PARC Universal Packet">PARC Universal Packet</a> (PUP).<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span>[</span>42<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span>[</span>43<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="X.25_era">X.25 era</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: X.25 era">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>There were two kinds of X.25 networks. Some such as DATAPAC and TRANSPAC were initially implemented with an X.25 external interface. Some older networks such as TELENET and TYMNET were modified to provide a X.25 host interface in addition to older host connection schemes. DATAPAC was developed by Bell Northern Research which was a joint venture of <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Canada" title="Bell Canada">Bell Canada</a> (a common carrier) and <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Telecom" title="Northern Telecom" class="mw-redirect">Northern Telecom</a> (a telecommunications equipment supplier). Northern Telecom sold several DATAPAC clones to foreign PTTs including the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Bundespost" title="Deutsche Bundespost">Deutsche Bundespost</a>. <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X.75" title="X.75">X.75</a> and <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X.121" title="X.121">X.121</a> allowed the interconnection of national X.25 networks. A user or host could call a host on a foreign network by including the DNIC of the remote network as part of the destination address.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="AUSTPAC">AUSTPAC</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: AUSTPAC">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AUSTPAC" title="AUSTPAC">AUSTPAC</a> was an Australian public X.25 network operated by <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telstra" title="Telstra">Telstra</a>. Started by <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecom_Australia" title="Telecom Australia">Telecom Australia</a> in the early 1980s, AUSTPAC was Australia's first public packet-switched data network, supporting applications such as on-line betting, financial applications — the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Tax_Office" title="Australian Tax Office" class="mw-redirect">Australian Tax Office</a> made use of AUSTPAC — and remote terminal access to academic institutions, who maintained their connections to AUSTPAC up until the mid-late 1990s in some cases. Access can be via a dial-up terminal to a <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet_Assembler/Disassembler" title="Packet Assembler/Disassembler">PAD</a>, or, by linking a permanent X.25 node to the network.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="ConnNet">ConnNet</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: ConnNet">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ConnNet" title="ConnNet">ConnNet</a> was a packet switched data network operated by the Southern New England Telephone Company serving the state of Connecticut.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Datanet_1">Datanet 1</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Datanet 1">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>Datanet 1 was the public switched data network operated by the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a> PTT Telecom (now known as <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPN" title="KPN">KPN</a>). Strictly speaking Datanet 1 only referred to the network and the connected users via <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leased_line" title="Leased line">leased lines</a> (using the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X.121" title="X.121">X.121</a> DNIC 2041), the name also referred to the public <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet_Assembler/Disassembler" title="Packet Assembler/Disassembler">PAD</a> service <i>Telepad</i> (using the DNIC 2049). And because the main <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videotex" title="Videotex">Videotex</a> service used the network and modified <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet_Assembler/Disassembler" title="Packet Assembler/Disassembler">PAD</a> devices as <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">infrastructure</a> the name Datanet 1 was used for these services as well. Although this use of the name was incorrect all these services were managed by the same people within one department of <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPN" title="KPN">KPN</a> contributed to the confusion.<sup id="cite_ref-dn1descr_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dn1descr-44"><span>[</span>44<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Datapac">Datapac</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Datapac">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DATAPAC" title="DATAPAC">DATAPAC</a> was the first operational X.25 network (1976). It covered major Canadian cities and was eventually extended to smaller centres.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Datex-P">Datex-P</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Datex-P">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>Deutsche Bundespost operated this national network in Germany. The technology was acquired from Northern Telecom.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Eirpac">Eirpac</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Eirpac">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eirpac" title="Eirpac">Eirpac</a> is the Irish public switched data network supporting <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X.25" title="X.25">X.25</a> and <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X.28" title="X.28">X.28</a>. It was launched in 1984, replacing Euronet. Eirpac is run by <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eircom" title="Eircom">Eircom</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="HIPA-NET">HIPA-NET</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: HIPA-NET">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitachi" title="Hitachi">Hitachi</a> designed a private network system for sale as a turnkey package to multi-national organizations. In addition to providing X.25 packet switching, message switching software was also included. Messages were buffered at the nodes adjacent to the sending and receiving terminals. Switched virtual calls were not supported, but through the use of "logical ports" an originating terminal could have a menu of pre-defined destination terminals. <sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span>[</span>45<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Iberpac">Iberpac</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Iberpac">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberpac" title="Iberpac">Iberpac</a> is the Spanish public packet switched network, providing <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X.25" title="X.25">X.25</a> services. Iberpac is run by <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telefonica" title="Telefonica" class="mw-redirect">Telefonica</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="JANET">JANET</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: JANET">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JANET" title="JANET">JANET</a> was the UK academic and research network, linking all universities, higher education establishments, publicly funded research laboratories. The X.25 network was based mainly on <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GEC_4000_series" title="GEC 4000 series">GEC 4000 series</a> switches, and run X.25 links at up to 8 Mbit/s in its final phase before being converted to an IP based network. The JANET network grew out of the 1970s SRCnet (later called SERCnet) network.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="PSS">PSS</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: PSS">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet_Switch_Stream" title="Packet Switch Stream">Packet Switch Stream</a> (PSS) was the UK Post Office (later to become British Telecom) national X.25 network with a DNIC of 2342. British Telecom renamed PSS under its GNS (Global Network Service) name, but the PSS name has remained better known. PSS also included public dial-up PAD access, and various InterStream gateways to other services such as Telex.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Transpac">Transpac</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Transpac">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>Transpac was the national X.25 network in France. It was developed locally at about the same time as DataPac in Canada. The development was done by the French PTT and influenced by the experimental <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RCP_(Packet_switching)" title="RCP (Packet switching)" class="mw-redirect">RCP</a> network. It began operation in 1978.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span>[</span>46<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="VENUS-P">VENUS-P</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: VENUS-P">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>VENUS-P was an international X.25 network that operated from April 1982 through March 2006. At its subscription peak in 1999, VENUS-P connected 207 networks in 87 countries.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span>[</span>47<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Venepaq">Venepaq</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Venepaq">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>Venepaq is the national X.25 public network in Venezuela. It is run by <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantv" title="Cantv" class="mw-redirect">Cantv</a> and allow direct connection and dial up connections. Provides nationalwide access at very low cost. It provides national and international access. Venepaq allow connection from 19.2 kbit/s to 64 kbit/s in direct connections, and 1200, 2400 and 9600 bit/s in dial up connections.</p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Internet_era">Internet era</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Internet era">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <table class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks" style="float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%"> <tr> <th style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></th> </tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Internet_map_1024_-_transparent.png" class="image" title="Visualization of Internet routing paths"><img alt="Visualization of Internet routing paths" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Internet_map_1024_-_transparent.png/150px-Internet_map_1024_-_transparent.png" width="150" height="150" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Internet_map_1024_-_transparent.png/225px-Internet_map_1024_-_transparent.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150325101139im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Internet_map_1024_-_transparent.png/300px-Internet_map_1024_-_transparent.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1280"/></a> <div style="padding-top:0.2em;line-height:1.2em">An <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opte_Project" title="Opte Project">Opte Project</a> visualization of <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routing" title="Routing">routing paths</a> through a portion of the Internet</div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"> <div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left">General</div> <div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center"> <div class="hlist"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_access" title="Internet access">Access</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_censorship" title="Internet censorship">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_democracy" title="Internet democracy" class="mw-redirect">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_divide" title="Digital divide">Digital divide</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_rights" title="Digital rights">Digital rights</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_information" title="Freedom of information">Freedom of information</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">History of the Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Internet_phenomena" title="List of Internet phenomena">Internet phenomena</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Net_neutrality" title="Net neutrality">Net neutrality</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Internet_pioneers" title="List of Internet pioneers">Pioneers</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_privacy" title="Internet privacy">Privacy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Internet_usage" title="Global Internet usage">Usage</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"> <div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_governance" title="Internet governance">Governance</a></div> <div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center"> <div class="plainlist"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICANN" title="ICANN">ICANN</a></li> <li> <div style="padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force" title="Internet Engineering Task Force">Internet Engineering Task Force</a></div> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Governance_Forum" title="Internet Governance Forum">Internet Governance Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Society" title="Internet Society">Internet Society</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"> <div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_infrastructure" title="Information infrastructure">Information infrastructure</a></div> <div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center"> <div class="plainlist"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System" title="Domain Name System">Domain Name System</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertext_Transfer_Protocol" title="Hypertext Transfer Protocol">Hypertext Transfer Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_exchange_point" title="Internet exchange point">Internet exchange point</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Protocol" title="Internet Protocol">Internet Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_protocol_suite" title="Internet protocol suite">Internet protocol suite</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_service_provider" title="Internet service provider">Internet service provider</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_address" title="IP address">IP address</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Message_Access_Protocol" title="Internet Message Access Protocol">Internet Message Access Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_Mail_Transfer_Protocol" title="Simple Mail Transfer Protocol">Simple Mail Transfer Protocol</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"> <div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left">Services</div> <div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center"> <div class="hlist"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blog" title="Blog">Blogs</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microblogging" title="Microblogging">Microblogging</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email" title="Email">Email</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_fax" title="Internet fax">Fax</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_sharing" title="File sharing">File sharing</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_transfer" title="File transfer">File transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_game" title="Online game">Games</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instant_messaging" title="Instant messaging">Instant messaging</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podcast" title="Podcast">Podcasts</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_shopping" title="Online shopping">Shopping</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_television" title="Internet television">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_over_IP" title="Voice over IP">Voice over IP</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_search_engine" title="Web search engine">search</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border:none;padding:0"> <div class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left">Guides</div> <div class="NavContent" style="font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center"> <div class="hlist"> <ul> <li><b><img alt="Wikipedia book" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg/16px-Symbol_book_class2.svg.png" title="Wikipedia book" width="16" height="16" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg/23px-Symbol_book_class2.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150325101139im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg/31px-Symbol_book_class2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185"/> <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book:Internet" title="Book:Internet">Book</a></b></li> <li><b><img alt="List-Class article" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" title="List-Class article" width="16" height="16" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150325101139im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185"/> <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_Internet-related_articles" title="Index of Internet-related articles">Index</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_the_Internet" title="Outline of the Internet">Outline</a></b></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top: 1px solid #aaa; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;"><span class="metadata"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Crystal_Clear_app_browser.png" class="image"><img alt="Portal icon" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Crystal_Clear_app_browser.png/16px-Crystal_Clear_app_browser.png" width="16" height="16" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Crystal_Clear_app_browser.png/24px-Crystal_Clear_app_browser.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150325101139im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Crystal_Clear_app_browser.png/32px-Crystal_Clear_app_browser.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128"/></a></span> <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Internet" title="Portal:Internet">Internet portal</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding-top: 0.6em;"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Internet" title="Template:Internet"><span title="View this template">v</span></a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Internet" title="Template talk:Internet"><span title="Discuss this template">t</span></a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Internet&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template">e</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> <p>When <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> connectivity was made available to anyone who could pay for an <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Service_Provider" title="Internet Service Provider" class="mw-redirect">ISP</a> subscription, the distinctions between national networks blurred. The user no longer saw network identifiers such as the DNIC. Some older technologies such as <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_switching" title="Circuit switching">circuit switching</a> have resurfaced with new names such as <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_packet_switching" title="Fast packet switching">fast packet switching</a>. Researchers have created some experimental networks to complement the existing Internet.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="CSNET">CSNET</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: CSNET">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>The <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CSNET" title="CSNET">Computer Science Network</a> (CSNET) was a computer network funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) that began operation in 1981. Its purpose was to extend networking benefits, for <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a> departments at academic and research institutions that could not be directly connected to <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a>, due to funding or authorization limitations. It played a significant role in spreading awareness of, and access to, national networking and was a major milestone on the path to development of the global <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-nsf_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nsf-48"><span>[</span>48<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span>[</span>49<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Internet2">Internet2</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Internet2">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet2" title="Internet2">Internet2</a> is a not-for-profit United States <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">computer networking</a> <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consortium" title="Consortium">consortium</a> led by members from the research and education communities, industry, and government.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span>[</span>50<span>]</span></a></sup> The Internet2 community, in partnership with <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qwest" title="Qwest">Qwest</a>, built the first Internet2 Network, called <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abilene_Network" title="Abilene Network">Abilene</a>, in 1998 and was a prime investor in the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_LambdaRail" title="National LambdaRail">National LambdaRail</a> (NLR) project.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span>[</span>51<span>]</span></a></sup> In 2006, Internet2 announced a partnership with <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Level_3_Communications" title="Level 3 Communications">Level 3 Communications</a> to launch a brand new nationwide network, boosting its capacity from 10 Gbit/s to 100 Gbit/s.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span>[</span>52<span>]</span></a></sup> In October, 2007, Internet2 officially retired Abilene and now refers to its new, higher capacity network as the Internet2 Network.</p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="NSFNET">NSFNET</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: NSFNET">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NSFNET-traffic-visualization-1991.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/NSFNET-traffic-visualization-1991.jpg/220px-NSFNET-traffic-visualization-1991.jpg" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/NSFNET-traffic-visualization-1991.jpg/330px-NSFNET-traffic-visualization-1991.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150325101139im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/NSFNET-traffic-visualization-1991.jpg/440px-NSFNET-traffic-visualization-1991.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NSFNET-traffic-visualization-1991.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> NSFNET Traffic 1991, NSFNET backbone nodes are shown at the top, regional networks below, traffic volume is depicted from purple (zero bytes) to white (100 billion bytes), visualization by <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Center_for_Supercomputing_Applications" title="National Center for Supercomputing Applications">NCSA</a> using traffic data provided by the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merit_Network" title="Merit Network">Merit Network</a>.</div> </div> </div> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NSFNET" title="NSFNET" class="mw-redirect">NSFNET</a></div> <p>The National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET) was a program of coordinated, evolving projects sponsored by the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a> (NSF) beginning in 1985 to promote advanced research and education networking in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span>[</span>53<span>]</span></a></sup> NSFNET was also the name given to several nationwide backbone networks operating at speeds of 56 kbit/s, 1.5 Mbit/s (T1), and 45 Mbit/s (T3) that were constructed to support NSF's networking initiatives from 1985-1995. Initially created to link researchers to the nation's NSF-funded supercomputing centers, through further public funding and private industry partnerships it developed into a major part of the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_backbone" title="Internet backbone">Internet backbone</a>.</p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="NSFNET_regional_networks">NSFNET regional networks</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: NSFNET regional networks">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>In addition to the five NSF supercomputer centers, NSFNET provided connectivity to eleven regional networks and through these networks to many smaller regional and campus networks in the United States. The NSFNET regional networks were:<sup id="cite_ref-ConneXions-April1996_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ConneXions-April1996-54"><span>[</span>54<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span>[</span>55<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <ul> <li>BARRNet, the Bay Area Regional Research Network in <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palo_Alto,_California" title="Palo Alto, California">Palo Alto, California</a>;</li> <li>CERFNET, California Education and Research Federation Network in <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Diego,_California" title="San Diego, California" class="mw-redirect">San Diego, California</a>, serving California and Nevada;</li> <li>CICNet, the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_on_Institutional_Cooperation" title="Committee on Institutional Cooperation">Committee on Institutional Cooperation</a> Network via the Merit Network in <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann_Arbor,_Michigan" title="Ann Arbor, Michigan">Ann Arbor, Michigan</a> and later as part of the T3 upgrade via <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argonne_National_Laboratory" title="Argonne National Laboratory">Argonne National Laboratory</a> outside of <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>, serving the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Ten" title="Big Ten" class="mw-redirect">Big Ten</a> Universities and the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a> in Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, and Wisconsin;</li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merit_Network" title="Merit Network">Merit/MichNet</a> in <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann_Arbor,_Michigan" title="Ann Arbor, Michigan">Ann Arbor, Michigan</a> serving Michigan, formed in 1966, still in operation as of 2013;<sup id="cite_ref-Merit1998PartOne_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merit1998PartOne-56"><span>[</span>56<span>]</span></a></sup></li> <li>MIDnet in <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincoln,_Nebraska" title="Lincoln, Nebraska">Lincoln, Nebraska</a> serving Arkansas, Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and South Dakota;</li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEARNET" title="NEARNET" class="mw-redirect">NEARNET</a>, the New England Academic and Research Network in <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts" title="Cambridge, Massachusetts">Cambridge, Massachusetts</a>, added as part of the upgrade to T3, serving Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont, established in late 1988, operated by <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBN_Technologies" title="BBN Technologies">BBN</a> under contract to MIT, BBN assumed responsibility for NEARNET on 1 July 1993;<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span>[</span>57<span>]</span></a></sup></li> <li>NorthWestNet in <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle,_Washington" title="Seattle, Washington" class="mw-redirect">Seattle, Washington</a>, serving Alaska, Idaho, Montana, North Dakota, Oregon, and Washington, founded in 1987;<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span>[</span>58<span>]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NYSERNet" title="NYSERNet">NYSERNet</a>, New York State Education and Research Network in <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ithaca,_New_York" title="Ithaca, New York">Ithaca, New York</a>;</li> <li>JVNCNet, the John von Neumann National Supercomputer Center Network in <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton,_New_Jersey" title="Princeton, New Jersey">Princeton, New Jersey</a>, serving Delaware and New Jersey;</li> <li>SESQUINET, the Sesquicentennial Network in <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston,_Texas" title="Houston, Texas" class="mw-redirect">Houston, Texas</a>, founded during the 150th anniversary of the State of <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a>;</li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SURAnet" title="SURAnet">SURAnet</a>, the Southeastern Universities Research Association network in <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_Park,_Maryland" title="College Park, Maryland">College Park, Maryland</a> and later as part of the T3 upgrade in <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlanta,_Georgia" title="Atlanta, Georgia" class="mw-redirect">Atlanta, Georgia</a> serving Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia, sold to <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBN_Technologies" title="BBN Technologies">BBN</a> in 1994; and</li> <li>Westnet in <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_Lake_City,_Utah" title="Salt Lake City, Utah" class="mw-redirect">Salt Lake City, Utah</a> and <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boulder,_Colorado" title="Boulder, Colorado">Boulder, Colorado</a>, serving Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming.</li> </ul> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="National_LambdaRail">National LambdaRail</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: National LambdaRail">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>The <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_LambdaRail" title="National LambdaRail">National LambdaRail</a> was launched in September 2003. It is a 12,000-mile high-speed national computer network owned and operated by the U.S. research and education community that runs over fiber-optic lines. It was the first transcontinental <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10_Gigabit_Ethernet" title="10 Gigabit Ethernet">10 Gigabit Ethernet</a> network. It operates with high aggregate capacity of up to 1.6 Tbit/s and a high 40 Gbit/s bitrate, with plans for 100 Gbit/s.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span>[</span>59<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span>[</span>60<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="TransPAC.2C_TransPAC2.2C_and_TransPAC3">TransPAC, TransPAC2, and TransPAC3</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: TransPAC, TransPAC2, and TransPAC3">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TransPAC2" title="TransPAC2">TransPAC2</a> and TransPAC3, continuations of the TransPAC project, a high-speed international Internet service connecting research and education networks in the Asia-Pacific region to those in the US.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span>[</span>61<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span>[</span>62<span>]</span></a></sup> TransPAC is part of the NSF’s International Research Network Connections (IRNC) program.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span>[</span>63<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Very_high-speed_Backbone_Network_Service_.28vBNS.29">Very high-speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Very high-speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS)">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VBNS.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/VBNS.jpg/220px-VBNS.jpg" width="220" height="136" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/VBNS.jpg/330px-VBNS.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150325101139im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/VBNS.jpg/440px-VBNS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="506" data-file-height="312"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VBNS.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> NSF's very high-speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS)</div> </div> </div> <p>The <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VBNS" title="VBNS" class="mw-redirect">Very high-speed Backbone Network Service</a> (vBNS) came on line in April 1995 as part of a <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a> (NSF) sponsored project to provide high-speed interconnection between NSF-sponsored <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercomputer" title="Supercomputer">supercomputing</a> centers and select access points in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span>[</span>64<span>]</span></a></sup> The network was engineered and operated by <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MCI_Communications" title="MCI Communications">MCI Telecommunications</a> under a cooperative agreement with the NSF. By 1998, the vBNS had grown to connect more than 100 universities and research and engineering institutions via 12 national points of presence with <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Signal_3" title="Digital Signal 3">DS-3</a> (45 Mbit/s), <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OC3#OC-3" title="OC3" class="mw-redirect">OC-3c</a> (155 Mbit/s), and <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OC12#OC-12_.2F_STM-4" title="OC12" class="mw-redirect">OC-12c</a> (622 Mbit/s) links on an all OC-12c backbone, a substantial engineering feat for that time. The vBNS installed one of the first ever production <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_Carrier_transmission_rates#OC-48_.2F_STM-16_.2F_G_SONET" title="Optical Carrier transmission rates">OC-48c</a> (2.5 Gbit/s) <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Protocol" title="Internet Protocol">IP links</a> in February 1999 and went on to upgrade the entire backbone to OC-48c.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span>[</span>65<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>In June 1999 MCI WorldCom introduced vBNS+ which allowed attachments to the vBNS network by organizations that were not approved by or receiving support from NSF.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span>[</span>66<span>]</span></a></sup> After the expiration of the NSF agreement, the vBNS largely transitioned to providing service to the government. Most universities and research centers migrated to the Internet2 educational backbone. In January 2006, when <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MCI_Inc." title="MCI Inc.">MCI</a> and <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verizon" title="Verizon" class="mw-redirect">Verizon</a> merged,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span>[</span>67<span>]</span></a></sup> vBNS+ became a service of <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verizon_Business" title="Verizon Business" class="mw-redirect">Verizon Business</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span>[</span>68<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_switching" title="Circuit switching">Circuit switching</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compuserve" title="Compuserve" class="mw-redirect">Compuserve</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Message_switching" title="Message switching">Message switching</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_burst_switching" title="Optical burst switching">Optical burst switching</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_data_network" title="Public data network">Public data network</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_switched_data_network" title="Public switched data network">Public switched data network</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Store_and_forward_delay" title="Store and forward delay" class="mw-redirect">Store and forward delay</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-Driven_Switching" title="Time-Driven Switching" class="mw-redirect">Time-Driven Switching</a> - a bufferless approach to packet switching</li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_circuit" title="Virtual circuit">Virtual circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_private_network" title="Virtual private network">Virtual private network</a></li> </ul> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">Stewart, Bill (2000-01-07). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii_rand.htm">"Paul Baran Invents Packet Switching"</a>. <i>Living Internet</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-05-08</span></span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APacket+switching&rft.atitle=Paul+Baran+Invents+Packet+Switching&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.au=Stewart%2C+Bill&rft.date=2000-01-07&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.livinginternet.com%2Fi%2Fii_rand.htm&rft.jtitle=Living+Internet&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span id="CITEREFDavies1986" class="citation"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Davies" title="Donald Davies">Davies, D. W.</a> (17 March 1986), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/107241"><i>Oral History 189: D. W. Davies interviewed by Martin Campbell-Kelly at the National Physical Laboratory</i></a>, Charles Babbage Institute University of Minnesota, Minneapolis<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 July</span> 2014</span></span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APacket+switching&rft.au=Davies%2C+D.+W.&rft.aufirst=D.+W.&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.btitle=Oral+History+189%3A+D.+W.+Davies+interviewed+by+Martin+Campbell-Kelly+at+the+National+Physical+Laboratory&rft.date=17+March+1986&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fconservancy.umn.edu%2Fhandle%2F107241&rft.pub=Charles+Babbage+Institute+University+of+Minnesota%2C+Minneapolis&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://www.columbia.edu/acis/history/datacell.html">The IBM 2321 Data Cell Drive</a>, Columbia University Computing History</span></li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://www.computer-history.info/Page4.dir/pages/Photostore.dir/index.html">The IBM 1360 Photostore</a>, Lawrence Livermore Laboratory Computing History</span></li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">Mendicino, Samuel (1970-11-30). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://www.rogerdmoore.ca/PS/OCTOA/OCTO.html">"Octopus: The Lawrence Radiation Laboratory Network"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-05-06</span></span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APacket+switching&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rft.aulast=Mendicino&rft.au=Mendicino%2C+Samuel&rft.btitle=Octopus%3A+The+Lawrence+Radiation+Laboratory+Network&rft.date=1970-11-30&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rogerdmoore.ca%2FPS%2FOCTOA%2FOCTO.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://www.certificationzone.com/cisco/newsletter/SL/interview_08-12-03.html">Interview with the author (of an MPLS-based VPN article)</a>, G. Pildush</span></li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">Taylor, Steve; Jim Metzler (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://www.networkworld.com/newsletters/frame/2008/0128wan1.html">"Vint Cerf on why TCP/IP was so long in coming"</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APacket+switching&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft.au=Jim+Metzler&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.au=Taylor%2C+Steve&rft.btitle=Vint+Cerf+on+why+TCP%2FIP+was+so+long+in+coming&rft.date=2008&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.networkworld.com%2Fnewsletters%2Fframe%2F2008%2F0128wan1.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-Oppenheimer-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oppenheimer_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oppenheimer_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://www.opendoor.com/nethistory/MacWorld2004/index.html">"A History of Macintosh Networking"</a>, Alan Oppenheimer, MacWorld Expo, January 2004</span></li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Inside AppleTalk, Second Edition</i>, Gursharan Sidhu, Richard Andrews and Alan Oppenheiner, Addison-Wesley, 1989, <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0201550210" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-201-55021-0</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation conference">Martel, C. 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Aupperle, Merit Network, Inc., in <i>Library Hi Tech</i>, vol. 16, No. 1 (1998)</span></li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/1993/bbn-0714.html">"BBN to operate NEARnet"</a>, <i>MIT News</i>, 14 July 1993</span></li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/40/40-ps.ps">"About NorthWestNet"</a>, <i>NorthWestNet User Services Internet Resource Guide</i>, NorthWestNet Academic Computing Consortium, Inc., 24 March 1992 accessed 3 July 2012</span></li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation news">Michael Feldman (October 28, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://www.hpcwire.com/hpcwire/2008-10-28/national_lambdarail_opens_for_business.html">"National LambdaRail Opens for Business"</a>. <i>HPCwire</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 6,</span> 2013</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APacket+switching&rft.atitle=National+LambdaRail+Opens+for+Business&rft.aulast=Michael+Feldman&rft.au=Michael+Feldman&rft.date=October+28%2C+2008&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hpcwire.com%2Fhpcwire%2F2008-10-28%2Fnational_lambdarail_opens_for_business.html&rft.jtitle=HPCwire&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://www.nlr.net/about.php">"About NLR"</a>, National LambdaRail, 3 September 2013.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://www.hpcwire.com/hpcwire/2005-04-08/international_transpac2_inaugurated-1.html">"International TransPAC2 Inaugurated"</a>, <i>HPC Wire</i>, 8 April 2005.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://www.transpac.org/index.php">"TransPAC website"</a>. Retrieved 3 September 2013.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://www.irnclinks.net/#transpac3">"TransPAC3 - Asia-US High Performance International Networking"</a>, International Research Network Connections Program (IRNC), U.S. National Science Foundation, October 2011. Retrieved 3 September 2013.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://w2.eff.org/Infrastructure/Govt_docs/nsf_nren.rfp">NSF Solicitation 93-52</a> - Network Access Point Manager, Routing Arbiter, Regional Network Providers, and Very High Speed Backbone Network Services Provider for NSFNET and the NREN(SM) Program, May 6, 1993</span></li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel4/6/15108/00694354.pdf?arnumber=694354">"vBNS: not your father's Internet"</a>, John Jamison, Randy Nicklas, Greg Miller, Kevin Thompson, Rick Wilder, Laura Cunningham and Chuck Song, <i>IEEE Spectrun</i>, Volume 35 Issue 7 (July 1998), pp. 38-46.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://www.verizonbusiness.com/about/news/pr-5449-en-MCI+WorldCom+Introduces+Next+Generation+vBNS%2B+For+All+Higher+Education+And+Research+Organizations.xml">"MCI WorldCom Introduces Next Generation vBNS+ For All Higher Education And Research Organizations"</a>, <i>Verizon Business News</i>, June 23, 1999</span></li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://www.verizonbusiness.com/about/news/pr-18593-en-Verizon+and+MCI+Close+Merger,+Creating+a+Stronger+Competitor+for+Advanced+Communications+Services.xml">"Verizon and MCI Close Merger, Creating a Stronger Competitor for Advanced Communications Services"</a>, <i>Verizon Business News</i>, January 6, 2006</span></li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://www.verizonbusiness.com/solutions/government/federal/contracts/fts2001_bridge/rg_products/vbns/">vBNS+</a>, at <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://www.verizonbusiness.com/">http://www.verizonbusiness.com</a> Home > Solutions > Government > Federal Government > Contract Vehicles > FTS2001 Bridge > Products</span></li> </ol> </div> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Bibliography">Bibliography</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <ul> <li>Leonard Kleinrock, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://www.lk.cs.ucla.edu/bibliography-public_reports.html">Information Flow in Large Communication Nets</a>, (MIT, Cambridge, May 31, 1961) Proposal for a Ph.D. Thesis</li> <li>Leonard Kleinrock. <i>Information Flow in Large Communication Nets</i> (RLE Quarterly Progress Report, July 1961)</li> <li>Leonard Kleinrock. <i>Communication Nets: Stochastic Message Flow and Delay</i> (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1964)</li> <li>Paul Baran et al., <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://www.rand.org/about/history/baran-list.html">On Distributed Communications, Volumes I-XI</a></i> (RAND Corporation Research Documents, August, 1964) <ul> <li>Paul Baran, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://www.rand.org/publications/RM/RM3420/">On Distributed Communications: I Introduction to Distributed Communications Network</a></i> (RAND Memorandum RM-3420-PR. August 1964)</li> </ul> </li> <li>Paul Baran, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://www.cs.ucla.edu/classes/cs217/Baran64.pdf">On Distributed Communications Networks</a>, (<a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE" title="IEEE" class="mw-redirect">IEEE</a> Transactions on Communications Systems, Vol. CS-12 No. 1, pp. 1–9, March 1964)</li> <li>D. W. Davies, K. A. Bartlett, R. A. Scantlebury, and P. T. Wilkinson, <i>A digital communications network for computers giving rapid response at remote terminals</i> (ACM Symposium on Operating Systems Principles. October 1967)</li> <li>R. A. Scantlebury, P. T. Wilkinson, and K. A. Bartlett, <i>The design of a message switching Centre for a digital communication network</i> (IFIP 1968)</li> <li>Larry Roberts and Tom Merrill, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://www.packet.cc/files/toward-coop-net.html">Toward a Cooperative Network of Time-Shared Computers</a></i> (Fall AFIPS Conference. October 1966)</li> <li>Lawrence Roberts, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://www.packet.cc/files/ev-packet-sw.html">The Evolution of Packet Switching</a></i> (Proceedings of the IEEE, November, 1978)</li> </ul> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <ul> <li><span id="CITEREFAbbate2000" class="citation">Abbate, Janet (2000), <i>Inventing the Internet</i>, MIT Press, <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780262511155" title="Special:BookSources/9780262511155">9780262511155</a></span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APacket+switching&rft.au=Abbate%2C+Janet&rft.aufirst=Janet&rft.aulast=Abbate&rft.btitle=Inventing+the+Internet&rft.date=2000&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=9780262511155&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li> <li>Hafner, Katie <i>Where Wizards Stay Up Late</i> (Simon and Schuster, 1996) pp 52–67</li> <li>Norberg, Arthur; O'Neill, Judy E. <i>Transforming Computer Technology: Information Processing for the Pentagon, 1962-1982</i> (Johns Hopkins University, 1996)</li> </ul> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_switching&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <ul> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://purl.umn.edu/107101">Oral history interview with Paul Baran</a>. <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Babbage_Institute" title="Charles Babbage Institute">Charles Babbage Institute</a> University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. Baran describes his working environment at RAND, as well as his initial interest in survivable communications, and the evolution, writing and distribution of his eleven-volume work, "On Distributed Communications." Baran discusses his interaction with the group at ARPA who were responsible for the later development of the ARPANET.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://www.livinginternet.com/i/iw_packet.htm">Packet Switching History and Design</a>, site reviewed by Baran, Roberts, and Kleinrock</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://www.rand.org/about/history/baran.html">Paul Baran and the Origins of the Internet</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://www.isoc.org/internet/history/brief.shtml">A Brief History of the Internet</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://textfiles.group.lt/hacking/icebook2.txt">"The Guide to Hacking & Phreaking, Issue #2", Liquid Jesus</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://www.zakon.org/robert/internet/timeline/">"Hobbes' Internet Timeline v8.1", Robert H'obbes' Zakon, Zakon Group LLC</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://www.rogerdmoore.ca/PS">20+ articles on packet switching in the 70s</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://www.phrack.org/issues.html?issue=18&id=3#article">"An Introduction to Packet Switched Networks", <i>Phrack</i>, 05/3/88</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/http://www.euclideanspace.com/coms/history/epss/index.htm">EPSS</a> Pictures of the EPSS exchanges in London, Manchester and Glasgow.</li> </ul> <p><span class="citation foldoc">This article is based on material taken from the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing" title="Free On-line Dictionary of Computing">Free On-line Dictionary of Computing</a> prior to 1 November 2008 and incorporated under the "relicensing" terms of the <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_Free_Documentation_License" title="GNU Free Documentation License">GFDL</a>, version 1.3 or later.</span></p> <table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <td style="padding:2px"> <table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Telecommunications" title="Template:Telecommunications"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</span></a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a 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href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_broadcasting" title="History of broadcasting">Broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_satellite#History" title="Communications satellite">Communications satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network#History" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drums_in_communication" title="Drums in communication">Drums</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_telegraph#History" title="Electrical telegraph">Electrical telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fax#History" title="Fax">Fax</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliograph#History" title="Heliograph">Heliographs</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_telegraph#Greek_hydraulic_semaphore_system" title="Hydraulic telegraph">Hydraulic telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_media#History" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mobile_phones" title="History of mobile phones">Mobile phone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_communication" title="Optical communication">Optical telecommunication</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semaphore_line#History" title="Semaphore line">Optical telegraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photophone" title="Photophone">Photophone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_prepaid_mobile_phone" title="History of the prepaid mobile phone">Prepaid mobile phone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radio" title="History of radio">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiotelephone" title="Radiotelephone">Radiotelephone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Satellite communications</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoke_signal" title="Smoke signal">Smoke signals</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">Telecommunications history</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">Telegraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_telephone" title="History of the telephone">Telephone</a></li> <li><i><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Telephone_Cases" title="The Telephone Cases">The Telephone Cases</a></i></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_television" title="History of television">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_communication_technology" title="Timeline of communication technology">Timeline of communication technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable#Early_history:_telegraph_and_coaxial_cables" title="Submarine communications cable">Undersea telegraph line</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videoconferencing#History" title="Videoconferencing">Videoconferencing</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videophone#Early_history" title="Videophone">Videophone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_videotelephony" title="History of videotelephony">Videotelephony</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Pioneers</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Howard_Armstrong" title="Edwin Howard Armstrong">Edwin Howard Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Logie_Baird" title="John Logie Baird">John Logie Baird</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jagadish_Chandra_Bose" title="Jagadish Chandra Bose">Jagadish Chandra Bose</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vint_Cerf" title="Vint Cerf">Vint Cerf</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Chappe" title="Claude Chappe">Claude Chappe</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_de_Forest" title="Lee de Forest">Lee de Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philo_Farnsworth" title="Philo Farnsworth">Philo Farnsworth</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden" title="Reginald Fessenden">Reginald Fessenden</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elisha_Gray" title="Elisha Gray">Elisha Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Stepanovich_Popov" title="Alexander Stepanovich Popov">Alexander Stepanovich Popov</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Philipp_Reis" title="Johann Philipp Reis">Johann Philipp Reis</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camille_Papin_Tissot" title="Camille Papin Tissot">Camille Papin Tissot</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Vail" title="Alfred Vail">Alfred Vail</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Wheatstone" title="Charles Wheatstone">Charles Wheatstone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_K._Zworykin" title="Vladimir K. Zworykin">Vladimir K. Zworykin</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_medium" title="Transmission medium">Transmission<br/> media</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coaxial_cable" title="Coaxial cable">Coaxial cable</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free-space_optical_communication" title="Free-space optical communication">Free-space optical</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">Optical fiber</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">Radio waves</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_line" title="Telephone line">Telephone lines</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave#Communication" title="Microwave">Terrestrial microwave</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_P1906.1" title="IEEE P1906.1">Molecules</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_topology" title="Network topology">Network topology</a><br/> and switching</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_link" title="Telecommunications link">Links</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Node_(networking)" title="Node (networking)">Nodes</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_(telecommunication)" title="Terminal (telecommunication)">Terminal node</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_switch" title="Network switch">Network switching</a> (<a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_switching" title="Circuit switching">circuit</a></li> <li><strong class="selflink">packet</strong>)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_exchange" title="Telephone exchange">Telephone exchange</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplexing" title="Multiplexing">Multiplexing</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-user_MIMO#SDMA" title="Multi-user MIMO">Space-division</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency-division_multiplexing" title="Frequency-division multiplexing">Frequency-division</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-division_multiplexing" title="Time-division multiplexing">Time-division</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polarization-division_multiplexing" title="Polarization-division multiplexing">Polarization-division</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_angular_momentum_multiplexing" title="Orbital angular momentum multiplexing">Orbital angular-momentum</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_division_multiple_access" title="Code division multiple access">Code-division</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Networks</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BITNET" title="BITNET">BITNET</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">Computer</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FidoNet" title="FidoNet">FidoNet</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_Services_Digital_Network" title="Integrated Services Digital Network">ISDN</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">LAN</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_telephony" title="Mobile telephony">Mobile</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next-generation_network" title="Next-generation network">NGN</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_switched_telephone_network" title="Public switched telephone network">Public Switched Telephone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_network" title="Radio network">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_equipment" title="Telecommunications equipment">Telecommunications equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_network" title="Television network">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telex" title="Telex">Telex</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wide_area_network" title="Wide area network">WAN</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_network" title="Wireless network">Wireless</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">By continent</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div> <table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Africa_topic" title="Template:Africa topic"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</span></a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Africa_topic" title="Template talk:Africa topic"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Africa_topic&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%">Telecommunications in Africa</div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">Sovereign states</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Algeria" title="Telecommunications in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Angola" title="Telecommunications in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Benin" title="Telecommunications in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Botswana" title="Telecommunications in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Burkina_Faso" title="Telecommunications in Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Burundi" title="Telecommunications in Burundi" class="mw-redirect">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cameroon" title="Telecommunications in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cape_Verde" title="Telecommunications in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Central_African_Republic" title="Telecommunications in the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Chad" title="Telecommunications in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Comoros" title="Telecommunications in Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Telecommunications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Telecommunications in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Djibouti" title="Telecommunications in Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Egypt" title="Telecommunications in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Equatorial_Guinea" title="Telecommunications in Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Eritrea" title="Telecommunications in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ethiopia" title="Telecommunications in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Gabon" title="Telecommunications in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Gambia" title="Telecommunications in the Gambia">The Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ghana" title="Telecommunications in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guinea" title="Telecommunications in Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="Telecommunications in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ivory_Coast" title="Telecommunications in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast (Côte d'Ivoire)</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kenya" title="Telecommunications in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Lesotho" title="Telecommunications in Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Liberia" title="Telecommunications in Liberia" class="mw-redirect">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Libya" title="Telecommunications in Libya" class="mw-redirect">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Madagascar" title="Telecommunications in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Malawi" title="Telecommunications in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mali" title="Telecommunications in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mauritania" title="Telecommunications in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mauritius" title="Telecommunications in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Morocco" title="Telecommunications in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mozambique" title="Telecommunications in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Namibia" title="Telecommunications in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Niger" title="Telecommunications in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Nigeria" title="Telecommunications in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Rwanda" title="Telecommunications in Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="Telecommunications in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Senegal" title="Telecommunications in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Seychelles" title="Telecommunications in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Sierra_Leone" title="Telecommunications in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Somalia" title="Telecommunications in Somalia" class="mw-redirect">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_South_Africa" title="Telecommunications in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_South_Sudan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in South Sudan (page does not exist)">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Sudan" title="Telecommunications in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Swaziland" title="Telecommunications in Swaziland">Swaziland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tanzania" title="Telecommunications in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Togo" title="Telecommunications in Togo">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tunisia" title="Telecommunications in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Uganda" title="Telecommunications in Uganda" class="mw-redirect">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Zambia" title="Telecommunications in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Zimbabwe" title="Telecommunications in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"> <div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with limited<br/> recognition</a></div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic" title="Telecommunications in the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic" class="mw-redirect">Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Somaliland" title="Telecommunications in Somaliland">Somaliland</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"> <div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br/> other territories</div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <div> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Canary_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Canary Islands" class="mw-redirect">Canary Islands</a> / <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ceuta" title="Telecommunications in Ceuta" class="mw-redirect">Ceuta</a> / <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Melilla" title="Telecommunications in Melilla" class="mw-redirect">Melilla</a> / <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Plazas_de_soberan%C3%ADa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Plazas de soberanía (page does not exist)">Plazas de soberanía</a> <small style="font-size:85%;">(Spain)</small></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Madeira" title="Telecommunications in Madeira" class="mw-redirect">Madeira</a> <small style="font-size:85%;">(Portugal)</small></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mayotte" title="Telecommunications in Mayotte">Mayotte</a> / <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_R%C3%A9union" title="Telecommunications in Réunion">Réunion</a> <small style="font-size:85%;">(France)</small></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Helena" title="Telecommunications in Saint Helena" class="mw-redirect">Saint Helena</a> / <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ascension_Island" title="Telecommunications in Ascension Island" class="mw-redirect">Ascension Island</a> / <a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tristan_da_Cunha" title="Telecommunications in Tristan da Cunha" class="mw-redirect">Tristan da Cunha</a> <small style="font-size:85%;">(United Kingdom)</small></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Western_Sahara" title="Telecommunications in Western Sahara">Western Sahara</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </td> </tr> </table> <table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Asia_topic" title="Template:Asia topic"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</span></a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Asia_topic" title="Template talk:Asia topic"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Asia_topic&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%">Telecommunications in Asia</div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Afghanistan" title="Telecommunications in Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Armenia" title="Telecommunications in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Azerbaijan" title="Telecommunications in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bahrain" title="Telecommunications in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bangladesh" title="Telecommunications in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bhutan" title="Telecommunications in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Brunei" title="Telecommunications in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Burma" title="Telecommunications in Burma">Burma (Myanmar)</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cambodia" title="Telecommunications in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_China" title="Telecommunications in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cyprus" title="Telecommunications in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_East_Timor" title="Telecommunications in East Timor">East Timor (Timor-Leste)</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Egypt" title="Telecommunications in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Telecommunications in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_India" title="Telecommunications in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Indonesia" title="Telecommunications in Indonesia" class="mw-redirect">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Iran" title="Telecommunications in Iran" class="mw-redirect">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Iraq" title="Telecommunications in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Israel" title="Telecommunications in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Japan" title="Telecommunications in Japan" class="mw-redirect">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Jordan" title="Telecommunications in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kazakhstan" title="Telecommunications in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_North_Korea" title="Telecommunications in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_South_Korea" title="Telecommunications in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kuwait" title="Telecommunications in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Telecommunications in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Laos" title="Telecommunications in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Lebanon" title="Telecommunications in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Malaysia" title="Telecommunications in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Maldives" title="Telecommunications in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mongolia" title="Telecommunications in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Nepal" title="Telecommunications in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Oman" title="Telecommunications in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Pakistan" title="Telecommunications in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Philippines" title="Telecommunications in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Qatar" title="Telecommunications in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Russia" title="Telecommunications in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Telecommunications in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Singapore" title="Telecommunications in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Telecommunications in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Syria" title="Telecommunications in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tajikistan" title="Telecommunications in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Thailand" title="Telecommunications in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Turkey" title="Telecommunications in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Turkmenistan" title="Telecommunications in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Telecommunications in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Uzbekistan" title="Telecommunications in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Vietnam" title="Telecommunications in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Yemen" title="Telecommunications in Yemen">Yemen</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with<br/> limited recognition</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Nagorno-Karabakh_Republic" title="Telecommunications in the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic" class="mw-redirect">Nagorno-Karabakh</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Northern_Cyprus" title="Telecommunications in Northern Cyprus" class="mw-redirect">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Palestinian_territories" title="Telecommunications in the Palestinian territories" class="mw-redirect">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Taiwan" title="Telecommunications in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br/> other territories</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_the_British_Indian_Ocean_Territory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the British Indian Ocean Territory (page does not exist)">British Indian Ocean Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Christmas_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Christmas Island (page does not exist)">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (page does not exist)">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Hong_Kong" title="Telecommunications in Hong Kong" class="mw-redirect">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Macau" title="Telecommunications in Macau">Macau</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> <table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Europe_topic" title="Template:Europe topic"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</span></a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Europe_topic" title="Template talk:Europe topic"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Europe_topic&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Europe" title="Telecommunications in Europe" class="mw-redirect">Telecommunications in Europe</a></div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">Sovereign states</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Albania" title="Telecommunications in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Andorra" title="Telecommunications in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Armenia" title="Telecommunications in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Austria" title="Telecommunications in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Azerbaijan" title="Telecommunications in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Belarus" title="Telecommunications in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Belgium" title="Telecommunications in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Telecommunications in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bulgaria" title="Telecommunications in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Croatia" title="Telecommunications in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cyprus" title="Telecommunications in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Telecommunications in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Denmark" title="Telecommunications in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Estonia" title="Telecommunications in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Finland" title="Telecommunications in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_France" title="Telecommunications in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Telecommunications in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Germany" title="Telecommunications in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Greece" title="Telecommunications in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Hungary" title="Telecommunications in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Iceland" title="Telecommunications in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Telecommunications in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Italy" title="Telecommunications in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kazakhstan" title="Telecommunications in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Latvia" title="Telecommunications in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Liechtenstein" title="Telecommunications in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Lithuania" title="Telecommunications in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Luxembourg" title="Telecommunications in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Republic_of_Macedonia" title="Telecommunications in the Republic of Macedonia">Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Malta" title="Telecommunications in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Moldova" title="Telecommunications in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Monaco" title="Telecommunications in Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Montenegro" title="Telecommunications in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Netherlands" title="Telecommunications in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Norway" title="Telecommunications in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Poland" title="Telecommunications in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Portugal" title="Telecommunications in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Romania" title="Telecommunications in Romania" class="mw-redirect">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Russia" title="Telecommunications in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_San_Marino" title="Telecommunications in San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Serbia" title="Telecommunications in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Slovakia" title="Telecommunications in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Slovenia" title="Telecommunications in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Spain" title="Telecommunications in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Sweden" title="Telecommunications in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Switzerland" title="Telecommunications in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Turkey" title="Telecommunications in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ukraine" title="Telecommunications in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Telecommunications in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"> <div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with limited<br/> recognition</a></div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kosovo" title="Telecommunications in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Nagorno-Karabakh_Republic" title="Telecommunications in the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic" class="mw-redirect">Nagorno-Karabakh</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Northern_Cyprus" title="Telecommunications in Northern Cyprus" class="mw-redirect">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Transnistria" title="Telecommunications in Transnistria">Transnistria</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"> <div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br/> other territories</div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_%C3%85land&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Åland (page does not exist)">Åland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Faroe_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Gibraltar" title="Telecommunications in Gibraltar" class="mw-redirect">Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Guernsey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Guernsey (page does not exist)">Guernsey</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Jersey" title="Telecommunications in Jersey">Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Isle_of_Man" title="Telecommunications in the Isle of Man" class="mw-redirect">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Svalbard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Svalbard (page does not exist)">Svalbard</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Other entities</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_European_Union" title="Telecommunications in the European Union" class="mw-redirect">European Union</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> <table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:North_America_topic" title="Template:North America topic"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</span></a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:North_America_topic" title="Template talk:North America topic"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:North_America_topic&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%">Telecommunications in North America</div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Sovereign states</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Telecommunications in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Bahamas" title="Telecommunications in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Barbados" title="Telecommunications in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Belize" title="Telecommunications in Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Canada" title="Telecommunications in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Costa_Rica" title="Telecommunications in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cuba" title="Telecommunications in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Dominica" title="Telecommunications in Dominica">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Telecommunications in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_El_Salvador" title="Telecommunications in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Grenada" title="Telecommunications in Grenada">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guatemala" title="Telecommunications in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Haiti" title="Telecommunications in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Honduras" title="Telecommunications in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Jamaica" title="Telecommunications in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mexico" title="Telecommunications in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Nicaragua" title="Telecommunications in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Panama" title="Telecommunications in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" title="Telecommunications in Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Lucia" title="Telecommunications in Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" title="Telecommunications in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Telecommunications in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_States" title="Telecommunications in the United States" class="mw-redirect">United States</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"> <div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Dependencies and<br/> other territories</div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Anguilla" title="Telecommunications in Anguilla">Anguilla</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Aruba" title="Telecommunications in Aruba">Aruba</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bermuda" title="Telecommunications in Bermuda">Bermuda</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Bonaire&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Bonaire (page does not exist)">Bonaire</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Cayman_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cura%C3%A7ao" title="Telecommunications in Curaçao">Curaçao</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Greenland" title="Telecommunications in Greenland">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guadeloupe" title="Telecommunications in Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Martinique" title="Telecommunications in Martinique">Martinique</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Montserrat" title="Telecommunications in Montserrat">Montserrat</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Navassa_Island" title="Telecommunications in Navassa Island" class="mw-redirect">Navassa Island</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Telecommunications in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy" title="Telecommunications in Saint Barthélemy" class="mw-redirect">Saint Barthélemy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_the_Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the Collectivity of Saint Martin (page does not exist)">Saint Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon" title="Telecommunications in Saint Pierre and Miquelon">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Saba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Saba (page does not exist)">Saba</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Sint_Eustatius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Sint Eustatius (page does not exist)">Sint Eustatius</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Sint_Maarten&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Sint Maarten (page does not exist)">Sint Maarten</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Turks_and_Caicos_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Turks and Caicos Islands">Turks and Caicos Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the United States Virgin Islands">United States Virgin Islands</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> <table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Oceania_topic" title="Template:Oceania topic"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</span></a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Oceania_topic" title="Template talk:Oceania topic"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Oceania_topic&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%">Telecommunications in Oceania</div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">Sovereign states</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Australia" title="Telecommunications in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Fiji" title="Telecommunications in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Indonesia" title="Telecommunications in Indonesia" class="mw-redirect">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kiribati" title="Telecommunications in Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Marshall Islands" class="mw-redirect">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Telecommunications in the Federated States of Micronesia">Federated States of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Nauru" title="Telecommunications in Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_New_Zealand" title="Telecommunications in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Palau" title="Telecommunications in Palau">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Telecommunications in Papua New Guinea" class="mw-redirect">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Samoa" title="Telecommunications in Samoa">Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Solomon_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tonga" title="Telecommunications in Tonga">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tuvalu" title="Telecommunications in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Vanuatu" title="Telecommunications in Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realm_of_New_Zealand" title="Realm of New Zealand">Associated states<br/> of New Zealand</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Cook_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Niue" title="Telecommunications in Niue" class="mw-redirect">Niue</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a><br/> and other territories</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_American_Samoa" title="Telecommunications in American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Christmas_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Christmas Island (page does not exist)">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (page does not exist)">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Easter_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Easter Island (page does not exist)">Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_French_Polynesia" title="Telecommunications in French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guam" title="Telecommunications in Guam" class="mw-redirect">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Hawaii&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Hawaii (page does not exist)">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_New_Caledonia" title="Telecommunications in New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Norfolk_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Norfolk Island (page does not exist)">Norfolk Island</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the Northern Mariana Islands (page does not exist)">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_the_Pitcairn_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the Pitcairn Islands (page does not exist)">Pitcairn Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Tokelau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Tokelau (page does not exist)">Tokelau</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Wallis_and_Futuna&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Wallis and Futuna (page does not exist)">Wallis and Futuna</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> <table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:South_America_topic" title="Template:South America topic"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</span></a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:South_America_topic" title="Template talk:South America topic"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:South_America_topic&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none 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hreflang="fr">Français</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lascadh_paic%C3%A9ad" title="Lascadh paicéad – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga">Gaeilge</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conmutaci%C3%B3n_de_paquetes" title="Conmutación de paquetes – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl">Galego</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8C%A8%ED%82%B7_%EA%B5%90%ED%99%98" title="패킷 교환 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko">한국어</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sambungan_paket" title="Sambungan paket – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutation_de_pacchettos" title="Commutation de pacchettos – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia">Interlingua</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutazione_di_pacchetto" title="Commutazione di pacchetto – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it">Italiano</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%92_%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%AA" title="מיתוג מנות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he">עברית</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permutatio_fasciculorum" title="Permutatio fasciculorum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la">Latina</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pake%C5%A1u_komut%C4%81cija" title="Pakešu komutācija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv">Latviešu</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Комутација на пакети – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk">Македонски</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pensuisan_paket" title="Pensuisan paket – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms">Bahasa Melayu</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakketgeschakeld_netwerk" title="Pakketgeschakeld netwerk – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl">Nederlands</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%91%E3%82%B1%E3%83%83%E3%83%88%E9%80%9A%E4%BF%A1" title="パケット通信 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja">日本語</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakkesvitsjing" title="Pakkesvitsjing – Norwegian (bokmål)" lang="no" hreflang="no">Norsk bokmål</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komutacja_pakiet%C3%B3w" title="Komutacja pakietów – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl">Polski</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comuta%C3%A7%C3%A3o_de_pacotes" title="Comutação de pacotes – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt">Português</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comuta%C8%9Bie_de_pachete" title="Comutație de pachete – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro">Română</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2" title="Коммутация пакетов – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru">Русский</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet_switchin" title="Packet switchin – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco">Scots</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prep%C3%ADnanie_paketov" title="Prepínanie paketov – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk">Slovenčina</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tehnologija_paketnog_prenosa" title="Tehnologija paketnog prenosa – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr">Српски / srpski</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakettikytkent%C3%A4" title="Pakettikytkentä – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi">Suomi</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paketf%C3%B6rmedlande_n%C3%A4tverk" title="Paketförmedlande nätverk – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv">Svenska</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%B2_%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="பொட்டல நிலைமாற்றல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta">தமிழ்</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9E%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%81%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%87" title="แพ็กเกตสวิตชิง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th">ไทย</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paket_anahtarlama" title="Paket anahtarlama – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr">Türkçe</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%96%D0%B2" title="Комутація пакетів – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk">Українська</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%B2%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84" title="رزمی بدیل – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur">اردو</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuy%E1%BB%83n_m%E1%BA%A1ch_g%C3%B3i" title="Chuyển mạch gói – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi">Tiếng Việt</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%86%E7%BB%84%E4%BA%A4%E6%8D%A2" title="分组交换 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh">中文</a></li> <li class="uls-p-lang-dummy"><a href="#"></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a action="edit" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150325101139/https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q193446#sitelinks-wikipedia" text="Edit links" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit 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