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For the seventh episode of the <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Americans_(season_2)" title="The Americans (season 2)">second season</a> of the television series <i><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Americans_(2013_TV_series)" title="The Americans (2013 TV series)">The Americans</a></i>, see <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arpanet_(The_Americans)" title="Arpanet (The Americans)">Arpanet (The Americans)</a>.</div> <div class="hatnote boilerplate seealso">See also: <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">History of the Internet</a></div> <table class="infobox" style="width:22em"> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="text-align:center;font-size:125%;font-weight:bold;background: #eee;">ARPANET</th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arpanet_logical_map,_march_1977.png" class="image"><img alt="Arpanet logical map, march 1977.png" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Arpanet_logical_map%2C_march_1977.png/300px-Arpanet_logical_map%2C_march_1977.png" width="300" height="215" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Arpanet_logical_map%2C_march_1977.png/450px-Arpanet_logical_map%2C_march_1977.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326153311im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Arpanet_logical_map%2C_march_1977.png/600px-Arpanet_logical_map%2C_march_1977.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="716"/></a> <div>ARPANET logical map, March 1977</div> </td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left">Type</th> <td>data</td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left">Location</th> <td>United States</td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_protocol" title="Communications protocol">Protocols</a></th> <td><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_Control_Program" title="Network Control Program">NCP</a>, <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP" class="mw-redirect">TCP/IP</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left">Established</th> <td>1969</td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left">Current status</th> <td>evolved into <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Science_Foundation_Network" title="National Science Foundation Network">NSFNET</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left">Commercial?</th> <td>No</td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="text-align:left">Funding</th> <td><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DARPA" title="DARPA">Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA)</a></td> </tr> </table> <p>The <b>Advanced Research Projects Agency Network</b> (<b>ARPANET</b>) was an early <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet_switching" title="Packet switching">packet switching</a> network and the first network to implement the protocol suite <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP" class="mw-redirect">TCP/IP</a>. Both technologies became the technical foundation of the <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>. ARPANET was initially funded by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA, later <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DARPA" title="DARPA">Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)</a>) of the <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">United States Department of Defense</a>.</p> <p>Packet switching was based on concepts and designs by Americans <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Kleinrock" title="Leonard Kleinrock">Leonard Kleinrock</a> and <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Baran" title="Paul Baran">Paul Baran</a>, <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">British</a> scientist <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Davies" title="Donald Davies">Donald Davies</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Roberts_(scientist)" title="Lawrence Roberts (scientist)">Lawrence Roberts</a> of the <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincoln_Laboratory" title="Lincoln Laboratory" class="mw-redirect">Lincoln Laboratory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup> The TCP/IP communication protocols were developed for ARPANET by computer scientists <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Kahn" title="Bob Kahn">Robert Kahn</a> and <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vint_Cerf" title="Vint Cerf">Vint Cerf</a>, and incorporated concepts by <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Pouzin" title="Louis Pouzin">Louis Pouzin</a> for the French <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CYCLADES" title="CYCLADES">CYCLADES</a> project.</p> <p></p> <div id="toc" class="toc"> <div id="toctitle"> <h2>Contents</h2> </div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Creation"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Creation</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Misconceptions_of_design_goals"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Misconceptions of design goals</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#ARPANET_deployed"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">ARPANET deployed</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Growth_and_evolution"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Growth and evolution</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Rules_and_etiquette"><span class="tocnumber">1.5</span> <span class="toctext">Rules and etiquette</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Technology"><span class="tocnumber">1.6</span> <span class="toctext">Technology</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Software_and_protocols"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Software and protocols</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Network_applications"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Network applications</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Password_Protection"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Password Protection</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#ARPANET_in_popular_culture"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">ARPANET in popular culture</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Oral_histories"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Oral histories</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Detailed_technical_reference_works"><span class="tocnumber">6.2</span> <span class="toctext">Detailed technical reference works</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <p></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARPANET&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <p><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet_switching" title="Packet switching">Packet switching</a>—today the dominant basis for data communications worldwide—was a new concept at the time of the conception of the ARPANET. Prior to the advent of packet switching, both voice and data communications had been based on the idea of <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_switching" title="Circuit switching">circuit switching</a>, as in the traditional telephone circuit, wherein each telephone call is allocated a dedicated, end to end, electronic connection between the two communicating stations. Such stations might be telephones or computers. The (temporarily) dedicated line is typically composed of many intermediary lines which are assembled into a chain that stretches all the way from the originating station to the destination station. With packet switching, a data system could use a single communication link to communicate with more than one machine by collecting data into <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datagram" title="Datagram">datagrams</a> and transmitting these as <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet_(information_technology)" title="Packet (information technology)" class="mw-redirect">packets</a> onto the attached network link, as soon as the link becomes idle. Thus, not only can the link be shared, much as a single <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_box" title="Post box">post box</a> can be used to post letters to different destinations, but each packet can be routed independently of other packets.<sup id="cite_ref-LIPSH_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LIPSH-4"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>The earliest ideas for a computer network intended to allow general communications among computer users were formulated by <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer scientist</a> <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._C._R._Licklider" title="J. C. R. Licklider">J. C. R. Licklider</a> of <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolt,_Beranek_and_Newman" title="Bolt, Beranek and Newman" class="mw-redirect">Bolt, Beranek and Newman</a> (BBN), in April 1963, in memoranda discussing the concept of the "<a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intergalactic_Computer_Network" title="Intergalactic Computer Network">Intergalactic Computer Network</a>". Those ideas encompassed many of the features of the contemporary Internet. In October 1963, Licklider was appointed head of the Behavioral Sciences and Command and Control programs at the Defense Department's <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Research_Projects_Agency" title="Advanced Research Projects Agency" class="mw-redirect">Advanced Research Projects Agency</a> (ARPA). He convinced <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Sutherland" title="Ivan Sutherland">Ivan Sutherland</a> and <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Taylor_(computer_scientist)" title="Robert Taylor (computer scientist)">Bob Taylor</a> that this network concept was very important and merited development, although Licklider left ARPA before any contracts were assigned for development.<sup id="cite_ref-LIJCRL_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LIJCRL-5"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>Sutherland and Taylor continued their interest in creating the network, in part, to allow ARPA-sponsored researchers at various corporate and academic locales to utilize computer provide by ARPA, and, in part, to quickly distribute new software and other <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a> results.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup> Taylor had three computer terminals in his office, each connected to separate computers, which ARPA was funding: one for the <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_Development_Corporation" title="System Development Corporation">System Development Corporation</a> (SDC) <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q32" title="Q32" class="mw-redirect">Q-32</a> in <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Monica" title="Santa Monica" class="mw-redirect">Santa Monica</a>, one for <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Genie" title="Project Genie">Project Genie</a> at the <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a>, and another for <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multics" title="Multics">Multics</a> at the <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a>. Taylor recalls the circumstance: "For each of these three terminals, I had three different sets of user commands. So, if I was talking online with someone at S.D.C., and I wanted to talk to someone I knew at Berkeley, or M.I.T., about this, I had to get up from the S.D.C. terminal, go over and log into the other terminal and get in touch with them. I said, "Oh Man!", it's obvious what to do: If you have these three terminals, there ought to be one terminal that goes anywhere you want to go. That idea is the ARPANET".<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>Meanwhile, since the early 1960s, <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Baran" title="Paul Baran">Paul Baran</a> at the <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAND_Corporation" title="RAND Corporation">RAND Corporation</a> had been researching systems that could survive nuclear war<sup id="cite_ref-RAND_corporation_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RAND_corporation-8"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup> and presented in the United Kingdom <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Physical_Laboratory_(United_Kingdom)" title="National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)">National Physical Laboratory</a> (NPL) the first public demonstration of packet switching on 5 August 1968.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Creation">Creation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARPANET&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Creation">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leonard-Kleinrock-and-IMP1.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Leonard-Kleinrock-and-IMP1.png/200px-Leonard-Kleinrock-and-IMP1.png" width="200" height="256" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Leonard-Kleinrock-and-IMP1.png/300px-Leonard-Kleinrock-and-IMP1.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326153311im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Leonard-Kleinrock-and-IMP1.png/400px-Leonard-Kleinrock-and-IMP1.png 2x" data-file-width="444" data-file-height="568"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leonard-Kleinrock-and-IMP1.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Kleinrock" title="Leonard Kleinrock">Len Kleinrock</a> and the first <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interface_Message_Processor" title="Interface Message Processor">Interface Message Processor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup></div> </div> </div> <p>By mid-1968, Taylor had prepared a complete plan for a computer network, and, after ARPA's approval, a <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Request_for_Quotation" title="Request for Quotation" class="mw-redirect">Request for Quotation</a> (RFQ) was issued for 140 potential bidders. Most computer science companies regarded the ARPA–Taylor proposal as outlandish, and only twelve submitted bids to build a network; of the twelve, ARPA regarded only four as top-rank contractors. At year's end, ARPA considered only two contractors, and awarded the contract to build the network to <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBN_Technologies" title="BBN Technologies">BBN Technologies</a> on 7 April 1969. The initial, seven-person BBN team were much aided by the technical specificity of their response to the ARPA RFQ, and thus quickly produced the first working system. This team was led by Frank Heart. The BBN-proposed network closely followed Taylor's ARPA plan: a network composed of small computers called <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interface_Message_Processor" title="Interface Message Processor">Interface Message Processors</a>, similar to the later concept of a <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Router_(computing)" title="Router (computing)">routers</a>, that functioned as gateways interconnecting local resources. At each site, the IMPs performed store-and-forward packet switching functions, and were interconnected with <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leased_line" title="Leased line">leased lines</a> via telecommunication data sets (<a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modems" title="Modems" class="mw-redirect">modems</a>), with initial data rates of <span style="white-space:nowrap">50<span style="margin-left:0.2em"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilobit" title="Kilobit">kbit</a>/s</span></span>. The host computers were connected to the IMPs via custom <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_communication" title="Serial communication">serial communication</a> interfaces. The system, including the hardware and the packet switching software, was designed and installed in nine months.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>The first-generation IMPs were built by BBN Technologies using a <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugged_computer" title="Rugged computer">rugged computer</a> version of the <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honeywell" title="Honeywell">Honeywell</a> <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DDP-516" title="DDP-516" class="mw-redirect">DDP-516</a> computer configured with <span style="white-space:nowrap">24<span style="margin-left:0.2em"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilobyte" title="Kilobyte">KB</a></span></span> of expandable <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic-core_memory" title="Magnetic-core memory">magnetic-core memory</a>, and a 16-channel Direct Multiplex Control (DMC) <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_memory_access" title="Direct memory access">direct memory access</a> unit.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span>[</span>12<span>]</span></a></sup> The DMC established custom interfaces with each of the host computers and modems. In addition to the front-panel lamps, the DDP-516 computer also features a special set of 24 indicator lamps showing the status of the IMP communication channels. Each IMP could support up to four local hosts, and could communicate with up to six remote IMPs via leased lines. The network connected one computer in Utah with three in California. Later, the Department of Defense allowed the universities to join the network for sharing hardware and software resources.</p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Misconceptions_of_design_goals">Misconceptions of design goals</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARPANET&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Misconceptions of design goals">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>It is commonly stated that ARPANET was designed to survive a <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear attack</a>. In <i>A Brief History of the Internet</i>, the <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Society" title="Internet Society">Internet Society</a> denies this:</p> <dl> <dd>It was from the <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAND_Corporation" title="RAND Corporation">RAND</a> study that the false rumor started, claiming that the ARPANET was somehow related to building a network resistant to nuclear war. This was never true of the ARPANET; only the unrelated RAND study on secure voice considered nuclear war. However, the later work on Internetting did emphasize robustness and survivability, including the capability to withstand losses of large portions of the underlying networks.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup></dd> </dl> <p>The RAND study was conducted by <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Baran" title="Paul Baran">Paul Baran</a> and pioneered <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet_switching" title="Packet switching">packet switching</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-RAND_corporation_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RAND_corporation-8"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup> In an interview he confirmed that ARPANET did not share his project's goal, but also argued that his work had greatly contributed to the development of ARPANET.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup> Additionally, minutes taken by Elmer Shapiro of <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_Research_Institute" title="Stanford Research Institute" class="mw-redirect">Stanford Research Institute</a> at the ARPANET design meeting of Oct. 9-10 1967 indicate that a version of Baran's routing method and suggestion of using a fixed packet size was expected to be employed.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>The ARPANET incorporated distributed computation (and frequent re-computation) of routing tables. This was a major contribution to the good survivability that the ARPANET had, in the face of significant destruction - even by a nuclear attack. Such auto-routing was technically quite challenging to construct at the time. The fact that it was incorporated into the early ARPANET made many believe that this had been a design goal.</p> <p>The ARPANET was in fact designed to survive subordinate-network losses, but the principal reason was that the switching nodes and network links were unreliable, even without any nuclear attacks. About the resource scarcity that spurred the creation of the ARPANET, Charles Herzfeld, ARPA Director (1965–1967), said:</p> <dl> <dd>The ARPANET was not started to create a Command and Control System that would survive a nuclear attack, as many now claim. To build such a system was, clearly, a major military need, but it was not ARPA's mission to do this; in fact, we would have been severely criticized had we tried. Rather, the ARPANET came out of our frustration that there were only a limited number of large, powerful research computers in the country, and that many research investigators, who should have access to them, were geographically separated from them.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup></dd> </dl> <p>The ARPANET was operated by the military during the two decades of its existence, until 1990.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span>[</span>17<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span>[</span>18<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="ARPANET_deployed">ARPANET deployed</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARPANET&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: ARPANET deployed">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:First-arpanet-imp-log.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/First-arpanet-imp-log.jpg/300px-First-arpanet-imp-log.jpg" width="300" height="167" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/First-arpanet-imp-log.jpg/450px-First-arpanet-imp-log.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326153311im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/First-arpanet-imp-log.jpg 2x" data-file-width="504" data-file-height="281"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:First-arpanet-imp-log.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> <b>Historical document:</b> First ARPANET IMP log: the first message ever sent via the ARPANET, 10:30 pm, 29 October 1969. This IMP Log excerpt, kept at UCLA, describes setting up a message transmission from the UCLA SDS Sigma 7 Host computer to the SRI SDS 940 Host computer.</div> </div> </div> <p>The initial ARPANET consisted of four IMPs:<sup id="cite_ref-LIARPANETTheFirstInternet_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LIARPANETTheFirstInternet-19"><span>[</span>19<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_Los_Angeles" title="University of California, Los Angeles">University of California, Los Angeles</a> (UCLA), where <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Kleinrock" title="Leonard Kleinrock">Leonard Kleinrock</a> had established a Network Measurement Center, with an <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_Data_Systems" title="Scientific Data Systems">SDS</a> <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SDS_Sigma_series" title="SDS Sigma series">Sigma 7</a> being the first computer attached to it;</li> <li>The <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augmentation_Research_Center" title="Augmentation Research Center">Augmentation Research Center</a> at Stanford Research Institute (now <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SRI_International" title="SRI International">SRI International</a>), where <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Engelbart" title="Douglas Engelbart">Douglas Engelbart</a> had created the ground-breaking <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NLS_(computer_system)" title="NLS (computer system)">NLS</a> system, a very important early <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertext" title="Hypertext">hypertext</a> system, and would run the <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InterNIC" title="InterNIC">Network Information Center (NIC)</a>, with the <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SDS_940" title="SDS 940">SDS 940</a> that ran NLS, named "Genie", being the first host attached;</li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_Santa_Barbara" title="University of California, Santa Barbara">University of California, Santa Barbara</a> (UCSB), with the <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glen_Culler" title="Glen Culler">Culler</a>-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center's <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a> <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_360" title="System 360" class="mw-redirect">360/75</a>, running <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiprogramming_with_a_Variable_number_of_Tasks" title="Multiprogramming with a Variable number of Tasks" class="mw-redirect">OS/MVT</a> being the machine attached;</li> <li>The <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Utah" title="University of Utah">University of Utah</a>'s <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Utah_College_of_Engineering#School_of_Computing" title="University of Utah College of Engineering">Computer Science Department</a>, where <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Sutherland" title="Ivan Sutherland">Ivan Sutherland</a> had moved, running a <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation" title="Digital Equipment Corporation">DEC</a> <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDP-10" title="PDP-10">PDP-10</a> operating on <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOPS-20" title="TOPS-20">TENEX</a>.</li> </ul> <p>The first successful message on the ARPANET was sent by UCLA student programmer <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charley_Kline&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charley Kline (page does not exist)">Charley Kline</a>, at 10:30 pm on 29 October 1969, from Boelter Hall 3420.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup> Kline transmitted from the university's <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SDS_Sigma_7" title="SDS Sigma 7" class="mw-redirect">SDS Sigma 7</a> Host computer to the Stanford Research Institute's <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SDS_940" title="SDS 940">SDS 940</a> Host computer. The message text was the word <i>login</i>; on an earlier attempt the <i>l</i> and the <i>o</i> letters were transmitted, but the system then crashed. Hence, the literal first message over the ARPANET was <i>lo</i>. About an hour later, after the programmers repaired the code that caused the crash, the SDS Sigma 7 computer effected a full <i>login</i>. The first permanent ARPANET link was established on 21 November 1969, between the IMP at UCLA and the IMP at the Stanford Research Institute. By 5 December 1969, the entire four-node network was established.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span>[</span>21<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Growth_and_evolution">Growth and evolution</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARPANET&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Growth and evolution">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>In March 1970, the ARPANET reached the East Coast of the United States, when an IMP at <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBN_Technologies" title="BBN Technologies">BBN</a> in <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts" title="Cambridge, Massachusetts">Cambridge, Massachusetts</a> was connected to the network. Thereafter, the ARPANET grew: 9 IMPs by June 1970 and 13 IMPs by December 1970, then 18 by September 1971 (when the network included 23 university and government hosts); 29 IMPs by August 1972, and 40 by September 1973. By June 1974, there were 46 IMPs, and in July 1975, the network numbered 57 IMPs. By 1981, the number was 213 host computers, with another host connecting approximately every twenty days.<sup id="cite_ref-LIARPANETTheFirstInternet_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LIARPANETTheFirstInternet-19"><span>[</span>19<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>In 1973 a transatlantic satellite link connected the <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NORSAR" title="NORSAR">Norwegian Seismic Array</a> (NORSAR) to the ARPANET, making Norway the first country outside the US to be connected to the network. At about the same time a terrestrial circuit added a London IMP.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span>[</span>22<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>In 1975, the ARPANET was declared "operational". The <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_Information_Systems_Agency#Defense_Communications_Agency" title="Defense Information Systems Agency">Defense Communications Agency</a> took control since ARPA was intended to fund advanced research.<sup id="cite_ref-LIARPANETTheFirstInternet_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LIARPANETTheFirstInternet-19"><span>[</span>19<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>In 1983, the ARPANET was split with U.S. military sites on their own Military Network (<a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MILNET" title="MILNET">MILNET</a>) for unclassified defense department communications. The combination was called the <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_Data_Network" title="Defense Data Network">Defense Data Network</a> (DDN).<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span>[</span>23<span>]</span></a></sup> Separating the civil and military networks reduced the 113-node ARPANET by 68 nodes. <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gateway_(telecommunications)" title="Gateway (telecommunications)">Gateways</a> relayed <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_mail" title="Electronic mail" class="mw-redirect">electronic mail</a> between the two networks. MILNET later became the <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NIPRNet" title="NIPRNet">NIPRNet</a>.</p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Rules_and_etiquette">Rules and etiquette</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARPANET&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Rules and etiquette">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>Because of its government ties, certain forms of traffic were discouraged or prohibited. A 1982 handbook on computing at MIT's <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AI_Lab" title="AI Lab" class="mw-redirect">AI Lab</a> stated regarding network etiquette:<sup id="cite_ref-stacy1982_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stacy1982-24"><span>[</span>24<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <p>It is considered illegal to use the ARPANet for anything which is not in direct support of Government business ... personal messages to other ARPANet subscribers (for example, to arrange a get-together or check and say a friendly hello) are generally not considered harmful ... Sending electronic mail over the ARPANet for commercial profit or political purposes is both anti-social and illegal. By sending such messages, you can offend many people, and it is possible to get MIT in serious trouble with the Government agencies which manage the ARPANet.</p> </blockquote> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Technology">Technology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARPANET&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Technology">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>Support for inter-IMP circuits of up to 230.4 kbit/s was added in 1970, although considerations of cost and <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interface_Message_Processor" title="Interface Message Processor">IMP</a> processing power meant this capability was not actively used.</p> <p>1971 saw the start of the use of the non-ruggedized (and therefore significantly lighter) <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honeywell_316" title="Honeywell 316">Honeywell 316</a> as an IMP. It could also be configured as a Terminal Interface Processor (TIP), which provided <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_server" title="Terminal server">terminal server</a> support for up to 63 <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII" title="ASCII">ASCII</a> serial terminals through a multi-line controller in place of one of the hosts.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span>[</span>25<span>]</span></a></sup> The 316 featured a greater degree of integration than the 516, which made it less expensive and easier to maintain. The 316 was configured with 40 kB of core memory for a TIP. The size of core memory was later increased, to 32 kB for the IMPs, and 56 kB for TIPs, in 1973.</p> <p>In 1975, BBN introduced IMP software running on the <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluribus" title="Pluribus">Pluribus</a> <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-processor" title="Multi-processor" class="mw-redirect">multi-processor</a>. These appeared in a few sites. In 1981, BBN introduced <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interface_Message_Processor" title="Interface Message Processor">IMP</a> software running on its own C/30 processor product.</p> <p>In 1983, <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP" class="mw-redirect">TCP/IP</a> protocols replaced NCP as the ARPANET's principal protocol, and the ARPANET then became one subnet of the early Internet.<sup id="cite_ref-LINCP_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LINCP-26"><span>[</span>26<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-LITCPIP_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LITCPIP-27"><span>[</span>27<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p><br/> The original IMPs and TIPs were phased out as the ARPANET was shut down after the introduction of the <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NSFNet" title="NSFNet" class="mw-redirect">NSFNet</a>, but some IMPs remained in service as late as 1989.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span>[</span>28<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>The <i>ARPANET Completion Report</i>, jointly published by <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBN_Technologies" title="BBN Technologies">BBN</a> and <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DARPA" title="DARPA">ARPA</a>, concludes that:</p> <dl> <dd> ... it is somewhat fitting to end on the note that the ARPANET program has had a strong and direct feedback into the support and strength of computer science, from which the network, itself, sprang.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span>[</span>29<span>]</span></a></sup></dd> </dl> <p>In the wake of ARPANET being formally decommissioned on 28 February 1990, Vinton Cerf wrote the following lamentation, entitled "Requiem of the ARPANET":<sup id="cite_ref-Abbate_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abbate-30"><span>[</span>30<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <blockquote> <p>It was the first, and being first, was best,<br/> but now we lay it down to ever rest.<br/> Now pause with me a moment, shed some tears.<br/> For <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auld_lang_syne" title="Auld lang syne" class="mw-redirect">auld lang syne</a>, for love, for years and years<br/> of faithful service, duty done, I weep.<br/> Lay down <a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/thy" class="extiw" title="wikt:thy">thy</a> <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet_(information_technology)" title="Packet (information technology)" class="mw-redirect">packet</a>, now, O friend, and sleep.</p> <p>-<a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinton_Cerf" title="Vinton Cerf" class="mw-redirect">Vinton Cerf</a></p> </blockquote> <p>Senator <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Gore" title="Al Gore">Albert Gore, Jr.</a> began to craft the <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Performance_Computing_and_Communication_Act_of_1991" title="High Performance Computing and Communication Act of 1991" class="mw-redirect">High Performance Computing and Communication Act of 1991</a> (commonly referred to as "The Gore Bill") after hearing the 1988 report toward a National Research Network submitted to Congress by a group chaired by <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Kleinrock" title="Leonard Kleinrock">Leonard Kleinrock</a>, professor of computer science at UCLA. The bill was passed on 9 December 1991 and led to the <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Information_Infrastructure" title="National Information Infrastructure">National Information Infrastructure</a> (NII) which Al Gore called the "<a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_superhighway" title="Information superhighway">information superhighway</a>". ARPANET was the subject of two <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IEEE_milestones" title="List of IEEE milestones">IEEE Milestones</a>, both dedicated in 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span>[</span>31<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span>[</span>32<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Software_and_protocols">Software and protocols</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARPANET&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Software and protocols">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <p>The starting point for host-to-host communication on the ARPANET in 1969 was the <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBN_Report_1822" title="BBN Report 1822">1822 protocol</a>, which defined the transmission of messages to an IMP.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span>[</span>33<span>]</span></a></sup> The message format was designed to work unambiguously with a broad range of computer architectures. An 1822 message essentially consisted of a message type, a numeric host address, and a data field. To send a data message to another host, the transmitting host formatted a data message containing the destination host's address and the data message being sent, and then transmitted the message through the 1822 hardware interface. The IMP then delivered the message to its destination address, either by delivering it to a locally connected host, or by delivering it to another IMP. When the message was ultimately delivered to the destination host, the receiving IMP would transmit a <i>Ready for Next Message</i> (RFNM) acknowledgement to the sending, host IMP.</p> <p>Unlike modern Internet datagrams, the ARPANET was designed to reliably transmit 1822 messages, and to inform the host computer when it loses a message; the contemporary <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Protocol#Reliability" title="Internet Protocol">IP</a> is unreliable, whereas the <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_Control_Protocol" title="Transmission Control Protocol">TCP</a> is reliable. Nonetheless, the 1822 protocol proved inadequate for handling multiple connections among different applications residing in a host computer. This problem was addressed with the <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_Control_Program" title="Network Control Program">Network Control Program</a> (NCP), which provided a standard method to establish reliable, flow-controlled, bidirectional communications links among different processes in different host computers. The NCP interface allowed <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_software" title="Application software">application software</a> to connect across the ARPANET by implementing higher-level <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_protocols" title="Communication protocols" class="mw-redirect">communication protocols</a>, an early example of the <i>protocol layering</i> concept incorporated to the <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSI_model" title="OSI model">OSI model</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-LINCP_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LINCP-26"><span>[</span>26<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>In 1983, <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP" title="TCP/IP" class="mw-redirect">TCP/IP</a> protocols replaced NCP as the ARPANET's principal protocol, and the ARPANET then became one component of the early Internet.<sup id="cite_ref-LITCPIP_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LITCPIP-27"><span>[</span>27<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Network_applications">Network applications</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARPANET&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Network applications">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>NCP provided a standard set of network services that could be shared by several applications running on a single host computer. This led to the evolution of <i>application protocols</i> that operated, more or less, independently of the underlying network service. When the ARPANET migrated to the Internet protocols in 1983, the major application protocols migrated with it.</p> <dl> <dt>E-mail</dt> <dd>In 1971, <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Tomlinson" title="Ray Tomlinson">Ray Tomlinson</a>, of <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolt,_Beranek_and_Newman" title="Bolt, Beranek and Newman" class="mw-redirect">BBN</a> sent the first network <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-mail" title="E-mail" class="mw-redirect">e-mail</a> (<a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" rel="nofollow" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc524">RFC 524</a>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" rel="nofollow" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc561">RFC 561</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span>[</span>34<span>]</span></a></sup> By 1973, e-mail constituted 75 percent of ARPANET traffic.</dd> <dt>File transfer</dt> <dd>By 1973, the <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_Transfer_Protocol" title="File Transfer Protocol">File Transfer Protocol</a> (FTP) specification had been defined (<a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" rel="nofollow" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc354">RFC 354</a>) and implemented, enabling file transfers over the ARPANET.</dd> <dt>Voice traffic</dt> <dd>The <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_Voice_Protocol" title="Network Voice Protocol">Network Voice Protocol</a> (NVP) specifications were defined in 1977 (<a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" rel="nofollow" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc741">RFC 741</a>), then implemented, but, because of technical shortcomings, <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conference_call" title="Conference call">conference calls</a> over the ARPANET never worked well; the contemporary <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_over_Internet_Protocol" title="Voice over Internet Protocol" class="mw-redirect">Voice over Internet Protocol</a> (packet voice) was decades away.</dd> </dl> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Password_Protection">Password Protection</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARPANET&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Password Protection">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>The <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_B._Purdy#The_Purdy_Polynomial" title="George B. Purdy">Purdy Polynomial</a> hash algorithm was developed for ARPANET to protect passwords in 1971 at the request of Larry Roberts, head of ARPA at that time. It computed a polynomial of degree 2<sup>24</sup> + 17 modulo the 64-bit prime p = 2<sup>64</sup> - 59. The algorithm was later used by <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation" title="Digital Equipment Corporation">DEC</a> to hash passwords in their <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenVMS" title="OpenVMS">OpenVMS</a> operating system, and is still being used for this purpose.</p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="ARPANET_in_popular_culture">ARPANET in popular culture</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARPANET&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: ARPANET in popular culture">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <ul> <li><i><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Networks:_The_Heralds_of_Resource_Sharing" title="Computer Networks: The Heralds of Resource Sharing">Computer Networks: The Heralds of Resource Sharing</a></i>, a 30-minute documentary film <sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span>[</span>35<span>]</span></a></sup> featuring <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando_J._Corbato" title="Fernando J. Corbato" class="mw-redirect">Fernando J. Corbato</a>, <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.C.R._Licklider" title="J.C.R. Licklider" class="mw-redirect">J.C.R. Licklider</a>, <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_G._Roberts" title="Lawrence G. Roberts" class="mw-redirect">Lawrence G. Roberts</a>, <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Kahn" title="Bob Kahn">Robert Kahn</a>, Frank Heart, <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_R._Sutherland" title="William R. Sutherland" class="mw-redirect">William R. Sutherland</a>, Richard W. Watson, <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_R._Pasta" title="John R. Pasta" class="mw-redirect">John R. Pasta</a>, <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_W._Davies" title="Donald W. Davies" class="mw-redirect">Donald W. Davies</a>, and economist, <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_W._Mitchell_(economist)" title="George W. Mitchell (economist)" class="mw-redirect">George W. Mitchell</a>.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Benson_episodes#Season_6:_1984.E2.80.9385" title="List of Benson episodes">"Scenario"</a>, a February 1985 episode of the U.S. television sitcom <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benson_(TV_series)" title="Benson (TV series)"><i>Benson</i></a> (season 6, episode 20), was the first incidence of a popular TV show directly referencing the Internet or its progenitors. The show includes a scene in which the ARPANET is accessed.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span>[</span>36<span>]</span></a></sup></li> <li>There is an <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_music" title="Electronic music">electronic music</a> artist known as "Arpanet", <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald_Donald" title="Gerald Donald">Gerald Donald</a>, one of the members of <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drexciya" title="Drexciya">Drexciya</a>. The artist's 2002 album <i>Wireless Internet</i> features commentary on the expansion of the internet via wireless communication, with songs such as <i><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NTT_DoCoMo" title="NTT DoCoMo">NTT DoCoMo</a></i>, dedicated to the mobile communications giant based in Japan.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Pynchon" title="Thomas Pynchon">Thomas Pynchon</a> mentions ARPANET in his 2009 novel <i><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inherent_Vice" title="Inherent Vice">Inherent Vice</a></i>, which is set in Los Angeles in 1970, and in his 2013 novel <i><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bleeding_Edge" title="Bleeding Edge">Bleeding Edge</a></i>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>The 1993 television series "<a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_X-Files" title="The X-Files">The X-Files</a>" featured the ARPANET in a season 5 episode, titled, "<a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unusual_Suspects" title="Unusual Suspects">Unusual Suspects</a>". John Fitzgerald Byers offers to help Susan Modeski (known as Holly . . . "just like the sugar") by hacking into the ARPANET to obtain sensitive information.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span>[</span>37<span>]</span></a></sup></li> </ul> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARPANET&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.arpa" title=".arpa">.arpa</a>, a <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top-level_domain" title="Top-level domain">top-level domain</a> used exclusively for technical infrastructure purposes</li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMPRNet" title="AMPRNet">AMPRNet</a>, AMateur Packet Radio Network</li> <li><i><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Networks:_The_Heralds_of_Resource_Sharing" title="Computer Networks: The Heralds of Resource Sharing">Computer Networks: The Heralds of Resource Sharing</a></i>—1972 documentary film</li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Cybersyn" title="Project Cybersyn">Project Cybersyn</a>—1970 Chilean national net project</li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usenet" title="Usenet">Usenet</a>, "A Poor Man's ARPAnet"</li> </ul> <table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <td style="padding:2px"> <table class="nowraplinks noprint navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li style="display:inline;white-space:nowrap"><span style="margin:auto 0.5em"><a 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portal</a></span></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARPANET&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="reflist columns references-column-count references-column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2; list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.thocp.net/biographies/davies_donald.htm">http://www.thocp.net/biographies/davies_donald.htm</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.internethalloffame.org/inductees/donald-davies">http://www.internethalloffame.org/inductees/donald-davies</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii_roberts.htm">"Lawrence Roberts Manages The ARPANET Program"</a>. <i>Living Internet.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 November</span> 2008</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.atitle=Lawrence+Roberts+Manages+The+ARPANET+Program&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.livinginternet.com%2Fi%2Fii_roberts.htm&rft.jtitle=Living+Internet.com&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-LIPSH-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LIPSH_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.livinginternet.com/i/iw_packet_inv.htm">"Packet Switching History"</a>, Living Internet, retrieved 26 August 2012</span></li> <li id="cite_note-LIJCRL-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LIJCRL_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii_licklider.htm">"J.C.R. Licklider And The Universal Network"</a>, Living Internet</span></li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii_ipto.htm">"IPTO – Information Processing Techniques Office"</a>, Living Internet</span></li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation news">John Markoff (20 December 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://partners.nytimes.com/library/tech/99/12/biztech/articles/122099outlook-bobb.html">"An Internet Pioneer Ponders the Next Revolution"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://web.archive.org/web/20080922095019/http://partners.nytimes.com/library/tech/99/12/biztech/articles/122099outlook-bobb.html">Archived</a> from the original on 22 September 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 September</span> 2008</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.atitle=An+Internet+Pioneer+Ponders+the+Next+Revolution&rft.au=John+Markoff&rft.aulast=John+Markoff&rft.date=20+December+1999&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpartners.nytimes.com%2Flibrary%2Ftech%2F99%2F12%2Fbiztech%2Farticles%2F122099outlook-bobb.html&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-RAND_corporation-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RAND_corporation_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RAND_corporation_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.rand.org/about/history/baran.list.html">"Paul Baran and the Origins of the Internet"</a>. RAND corporation<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 March</span> 2011</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.btitle=Paul+Baran+and+the+Origins+of+the+Internet&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rand.org%2Fabout%2Fhistory%2Fbaran.list.html&rft.pub=RAND+corporation&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation news"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/7541123.stm">"The accelerator of the modern age"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 5 August 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://web.archive.org/web/20090610082212/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/7541123.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 10 June 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 May</span> 2009</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.atitle=The+accelerator+of+the+modern+age&rft.date=5+August+2008&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Ftechnology%2F7541123.stm&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Kleinrock" title="Leonard Kleinrock">Leonard Kleinrock</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.lk.cs.ucla.edu/personal_history.html">"The history of the Internet"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 May</span> 2009</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.aulast=Leonard+Kleinrock&rft.au=Leonard+Kleinrock&rft.btitle=The+history+of+the+Internet&rft.date=2005&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lk.cs.ucla.edu%2Fpersonal_history.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii_imp.htm">"IMP – Interface Message Processor"</a>, Living Internet</span></li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">Wise, Adrian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.old-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?c=551">"Honeywell DDP-516"</a>. Old-Computers.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 September</span> 2008</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rft.aulast=Wise&rft.au=Wise%2C+Adrian&rft.btitle=Honeywell+DDP-516&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.old-computers.com%2Fmuseum%2Fcomputer.asp%3Fc%3D551&rft.pub=Old-Computers.com&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.isoc.org/internet/history/brief.shtml">"A Brief History of the Internet"</a>. <i><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Society" title="Internet Society">Internet Society</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://web.archive.org/web/20080918213304/http://www.isoc.org/internet/history/brief.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 18 September 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 September</span> 2008</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.atitle=A+Brief+History+of+the+Internet&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.isoc.org%2Finternet%2Fhistory%2Fbrief.shtml&rft.jtitle=Internet+Society&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation news">Brand, Stewart (March 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/9.03/baran.html">"Founding Father"</a>. <i><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wired_(magazine)" title="Wired (magazine)">Wired</a></i> (9.03)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 December</span> 2011</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.atitle=Founding+Father&rft.au=Brand%2C+Stewart&rft.aufirst=Stewart&rft.aulast=Brand&rft.date=March+2001&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2Fwired%2Farchive%2F9.03%2Fbaran.html&rft.issue=9.03&rft.jtitle=Wired&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://web.stanford.edu/dept/SUL/library/extra4/sloan/mousesite/Archive/Post68/ARPANETMeeting1167.html">http://web.stanford.edu/dept/SUL/library/extra4/sloan/mousesite/Archive/Post68/ARPANETMeeting1167.html</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/bl_Charles_Herzfeld.htm">"Charles Herzfeld on ARPANET and Computers"</a>. <i><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/About.com" title="About.com">About.com</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 December</span> 2008</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.atitle=Charles+Herzfeld+on+ARPANET+and+Computers&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Finventors.about.com%2Flibrary%2Finventors%2Fbl_Charles_Herzfeld.htm&rft.jtitle=About.com&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Janet Abbate (2000) <i>Inventing the Internet</i> pp.194-5</span></li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vernon W. Ruttan (2005) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://books.google.it/books?id=Eopn-pYI1tsC&pg=PA125"><i>Is War Necessary for Economic Growth?</i></a> p.125</span></li> <li id="cite_note-LIARPANETTheFirstInternet-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LIARPANETTheFirstInternet_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LIARPANETTheFirstInternet_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LIARPANETTheFirstInternet_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii_arpanet.htm">"ARPANET – The First Internet"</a>, Living Internet</span></li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation news">Jessica Savio (1 April 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.dailybruin.com/index.php/article/2011/04/browsing_history">"Browsing history: A heritage site has been set up in Boelter Hall 3420, the room the first Internet message originated in"</a>. <i>Daily Bruin</i> (UCLA).</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.atitle=Browsing+history%3A+A+heritage+site+has+been+set+up+in+Boelter+Hall+3420%2C+the+room+the+first+Internet+message+originated+in&rft.au=Jessica+Savio&rft.aulast=Jessica+Savio&rft.date=1+April+2011&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dailybruin.com%2Findex.php%2Farticle%2F2011%2F04%2Fbrowsing_history&rft.jtitle=Daily+Bruin&rft.pub=UCLA&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">Chris Sutton (2 September 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://web.archive.org/web/20080308120314/http://www.engineer.ucla.edu/stories/2004/Internet35.htm">"Internet Began 35 Years Ago at UCLA with First Message Ever Sent Between Two Computers"</a>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.engineer.ucla.edu/stories/2004/Internet35.htm">the original</a> on 8 March 2008.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.au=Chris+Sutton&rft.aulast=Chris+Sutton&rft.btitle=Internet+Began+35+Years+Ago+at+UCLA+with+First+Message+Ever+Sent+Between+Two+Computers&rft.date=2+September+2004&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.engineer.ucla.edu%2Fstories%2F2004%2FInternet35.htm&rft.pub=UCLA&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.norsar.no/norsar/about-us/History/Internet/">"NORSAR and the Internet"</a>. NORSAR (Norway Seismic Array Research)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 August</span> 2012</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.btitle=NORSAR+and+the+Internet&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.norsar.no%2Fnorsar%2Fabout-us%2FHistory%2FInternet%2F&rft.pub=NORSAR+%28Norway+Seismic+Array+Research%29&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Fritz E. Froehlich; Allen Kent (1990). "ARPANET, the Defense Data Network, and Internet". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://books.google.com/books?id=gaRBTHdUKmgC&pg=PA341"><i>The Froehlich/Kent Encyclopedia of Telecommunications</i></a> <b>1</b>. CRC Press. pp. 341–375. <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8247-2900-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8247-2900-4">978-0-8247-2900-4</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.atitle=ARPANET%2C+the+Defense+Data+Network%2C+and+Internet&rft.au=Allen+Kent&rft.au=Fritz+E.+Froehlich&rft.aulast=Fritz+E.+Froehlich&rft.btitle=The+Froehlich%2FKent+Encyclopedia+of+Telecommunications&rft.date=1990&rft.genre=bookitem&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgaRBTHdUKmgC%26pg%3DPA341&rft.isbn=978-0-8247-2900-4&rft.pages=341-375&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.volume=1" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-stacy1982-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-stacy1982_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Stacy, Christopher C. (7 September 1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://independent.academia.edu/ChristopherStacy/Papers/1464820/Getting_Started_Computing_at_the_AI_Lab"><i>Getting Started Computing at the AI Lab</i></a>. AI Lab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. p. 9.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.aulast=Stacy%2C+Christopher+C.&rft.au=Stacy%2C+Christopher+C.&rft.btitle=Getting+Started+Computing+at+the+AI+Lab&rft.date=7+September+1982&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Findependent.academia.edu%2FChristopherStacy%2FPapers%2F1464820%2FGetting_Started_Computing_at_the_AI_Lab&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=AI+Lab%2C+Massachusetts+Institute+of+Technology&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_T._Kirstein" title="Peter T. Kirstein">Kirstein, Peter T.</a> (July–September 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/ahc/summary/v031/31.3.kirstein.html">"The Early Days of the Arpanet"</a>. <i>IEEE Annals of the History of Computing</i> <b>31</b> (3): 67. <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://dx.doi.org/10.1109%2Fmahc.2009.35">10.1109/mahc.2009.35</a>. <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.worldcat.org/issn/1058-6180">1058-6180</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.atitle=The+Early+Days+of+the+Arpanet&rft.aufirst=Peter+T.&rft.au=Kirstein%2C+Peter+T.&rft.aulast=Kirstein&rft.date=July-September+2009&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Fjournals%2Fahc%2Fsummary%2Fv031%2F31.3.kirstein.html&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2Fmahc.2009.35&rft.issn=1058-6180&rft.issue=3&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Annals+of+the+History+of+Computing&rft.pages=67&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=31" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-LINCP-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LINCP_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LINCP_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii_ncp.htm">"NCP – Network Control Program"</a>, Living Internet</span></li> <li id="cite_note-LITCPIP-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LITCPIP_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LITCPIP_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii_tcpip.htm">"TCP/IP Internet Protocol"</a>, Living Internet</span></li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii_nsfnet.htm">"NSFNET – National Science Foundation Network"</a>, Living Internet</span></li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation report">"III". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA115440">A History of the ARPANET: The First Decade</a> (Report). Arlington, VA: <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBN_Technologies" title="BBN Technologies">Bolt, Beranek & Newman Inc.</a> 1 April 1981. p. 132.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.atitle=III&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+ARPANET%3A+The+First+Decade&rft.date=1+April+1981&rft.genre=bookitem&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dtic.mil%2Fcgi-bin%2FGetTRDoc%3FLocation%3DU2%26doc%3DGetTRDoc.pdf%26AD%3DADA115440&rft.pages=132&rft.place=Arlington%2C+VA&rft.pub=Bolt%2C+Beranek+%26+Newman+Inc.&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span> section 2.3.4</span></li> <li id="cite_note-Abbate-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Abbate_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Abbate, Janet (11 June 1999). <i><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inventing_the_Internet" title="Inventing the Internet">Inventing the Internet</a></i>. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_Standard_Identification_Number" title="Amazon Standard Identification Number">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.amazon.com/dp/B003VPWY6E">B003VPWY6E</a>. <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-01172-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-01172-7">0-262-01172-7</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.au=Abbate%2C+Janet&rft.aufirst=Janet&rft.aulast=Abbate&rft.btitle=Inventing+the+Internet&rft.date=11+June+1999&rft.genre=book&rft_id=info%3Aasin%2FB003VPWY6E&rft.isbn=0-262-01172-7&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Milestones:Birthplace_of_the_Internet,_1969">"Milestones:Birthplace of the Internet, 1969"</a>. <i>IEEE Global History Network</i>. IEEE<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 August</span> 2011</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.atitle=Milestones%3ABirthplace+of+the+Internet%2C+1969&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ieeeghn.org%2Fwiki%2Findex.php%2FMilestones%3ABirthplace_of_the_Internet%2C_1969&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Global+History+Network&rft.pub=IEEE&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Milestones:Inception_of_the_ARPANET,_1969">"Milestones:Inception of the ARPANET, 1969"</a>. <i>IEEE Global History Network</i>. IEEE<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 August</span> 2011</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.atitle=Milestones%3AInception+of+the+ARPANET%2C+1969&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ieeeghn.org%2Fwiki%2Findex.php%2FMilestones%3AInception_of_the_ARPANET%2C_1969&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Global+History+Network&rft.pub=IEEE&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/bbn/imp/BBN1822_Jan1976.pdf"><i>Interface Message Processor: Specifications for the Interconnection of a Host and an IMP</i></a>, Report No. 1822, Bolt Beranek and Newman, Inc. (BBN)</span></li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">Tomlinson, Ray. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://openmap.bbn.com/~tomlinso/ray/firstemailframe.html">"The First Network Email"</a>. BBN<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 March</span> 2012</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.aulast=Tomlinson%2C+Ray&rft.au=Tomlinson%2C+Ray&rft.btitle=The+First+Network+Email&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fopenmap.bbn.com%2F~tomlinso%2Fray%2Ffirstemailframe.html&rft.pub=BBN&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation audio-visual">Steven King (Producer), Peter Chvany (Director/Editor) (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://documentary.operationreality.org/2011/08/27/computer-networks-the-heralds-of-resource-sharing"><i>Computer Networks: The Heralds of Resource Sharing</i></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 December</span> 2011</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.btitle=Computer+Networks%3A+The+Heralds+of+Resource+Sharing&rft.date=1972&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdocumentary.operationreality.org%2F2011%2F08%2F27%2Fcomputer-networks-the-heralds-of-resource-sharing&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0789851/">"Scenario"</a>, <i>Benson</i>, Season 6, Episode 132 of 158, American Broadcasting Company (ABC), Witt/Thomas/Harris Productions, 22 February 1985</span></li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The X-Files Season 5, Ep. 3 "Unusual Suspects".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (June 2014)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span></li> </ol> </div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARPANET&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <ul> <li><span class="citation book">Norberg, Arthur L.; O'Neill, Judy E. (1996). <i>Transforming Computer Technology: Information Processing for the Pentagon, 1962–1982</i>. Johns Hopkins University. pp. 153–196. <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6369-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6369-1">978-0-8018-6369-1</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.aufirst=Arthur+L.&rft.aulast=Norberg&rft.au=Norberg%2C+Arthur+L.&rft.au=O%27Neill%2C+Judy+E.&rft.btitle=Transforming+Computer+Technology%3A+Information+Processing+for+the+Pentagon%2C+1962%E2%80%931982&rft.date=1996&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-6369-1&rft.pages=153-196&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li> <li><span class="citation report"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA115440">A History of the ARPANET: The First Decade</a> (Report). Arlington, VA: <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBN_Technologies" title="BBN Technologies">Bolt, Beranek & Newman Inc.</a> 1 April 1981.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+ARPANET%3A+The+First+Decade&rft.date=1+April+1981&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dtic.mil%2Fcgi-bin%2FGetTRDoc%3FLocation%3DU2%26doc%3DGetTRDoc.pdf%26AD%3DADA115440&rft.place=Arlington%2C+VA&rft.pub=Bolt%2C+Beranek+%26+Newman+Inc.&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li> <li><span class="citation book">Hafner, Katie; Lyon, Matthew (1996). <i>Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins of the Internet</i>. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7434-6837-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7434-6837-6">0-7434-6837-6</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.aufirst=Katie&rft.au=Hafner%2C+Katie&rft.aulast=Hafner&rft.au=Lyon%2C+Matthew&rft.btitle=Where+Wizards+Stay+Up+Late%3A+The+Origins+of+the+Internet&rft.date=1996&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-7434-6837-6&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li> <li><span class="citation book">Abbate, Janet (11 June 1999). <i><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inventing_the_Internet" title="Inventing the Internet">Inventing the Internet</a></i>. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. pp. 36–111. <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_Standard_Identification_Number" title="Amazon Standard Identification Number">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.amazon.com/dp/B003VPWY6E">B003VPWY6E</a>. <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-01172-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-01172-7">0-262-01172-7</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.au=Abbate%2C+Janet&rft.aufirst=Janet&rft.aulast=Abbate&rft.btitle=Inventing+the+Internet&rft.date=11+June+1999&rft.genre=book&rft_id=info%3Aasin%2FB003VPWY6E&rft.isbn=0-262-01172-7&rft.pages=36-111&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li> <li><span class="citation book"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_A._Banks" title="Michael A. Banks">Banks, Michael A.</a> (2008). <i>On the Way to the Web: The Secret History of the Internet and Its Founders</i>. APress/Springer Verlag. <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4302-0869-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-4302-0869-4">1-4302-0869-4</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.au=Banks%2C+Michael+A.&rft.aufirst=Michael+A.&rft.aulast=Banks&rft.btitle=On+the+Way+to+the+Web%3A+The+Secret+History+of+the+Internet+and+Its+Founders&rft.date=2008&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=1-4302-0869-4&rft.pub=APress%2FSpringer+Verlag&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li> <li><span class="citation book"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_H._Salus" title="Peter H. Salus">Salus, Peter H.</a> (1 May 1995). <i>Casting the Net: from ARPANET to Internet and Beyond</i>. Addison-Wesley. <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-201-87674-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-201-87674-1">978-0-201-87674-1</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.aufirst=Peter+H.&rft.aulast=Salus&rft.au=Salus%2C+Peter+H.&rft.btitle=Casting+the+Net%3A+from+ARPANET+to+Internet+and+Beyond&rft.date=1+May+1995&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-201-87674-1&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li> <li><span class="citation book">Waldrop, M. Mitchell (23 August 2001). <i>The Dream Machine: J. C. R. Licklider and the Revolution That Made Computing Personal</i>. New York: Viking. <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_Standard_Identification_Number" title="Amazon Standard Identification Number">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.amazon.com/dp/B00008MNVW">B00008MNVW</a>. <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-89976-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-670-89976-3">0-670-89976-3</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.aufirst=M.+Mitchell&rft.aulast=Waldrop&rft.au=Waldrop%2C+M.+Mitchell&rft.btitle=The+Dream+Machine%3A+J.+C.+R.+Licklider+and+the+Revolution+That+Made+Computing+Personal&rft.date=23+August+2001&rft.genre=book&rft_id=info%3Aasin%2FB00008MNVW&rft.isbn=0-670-89976-3&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Viking&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li> <li><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.computerhistory.org/press/museum-celebrates-arpanet-anniversary.html">"The Computer History Museum, SRI International, and BBN Celebrate the 40th Anniversary of First ARPANET Transmission"</a>. Computer History Museum. 27 October 2009.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.btitle=The+Computer+History+Museum%2C+SRI+International%2C+and+BBN+Celebrate+the+40th+Anniversary+of+First+ARPANET+Transmission&rft.date=27+October+2009&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Fpress%2Fmuseum-celebrates-arpanet-anniversary.html&rft.pub=Computer+History+Museum&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li> </ul> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Oral_histories">Oral histories</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARPANET&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Oral histories">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <ul> <li><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://purl.umn.edu/107387">"Oral history interview with Robert E. Kahn"</a>. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis: <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Babbage_Institute" title="Charles Babbage Institute">Charles Babbage Institute</a>. 24 April 1990<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 May</span> 2008</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.btitle=Oral+history+interview+with+Robert+E.+Kahn&rft.date=24+April+1990&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpurl.umn.edu%2F107387&rft.place=University+of+Minnesota%2C+Minneapolis&rft.pub=Charles+Babbage+Institute&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span> Focuses on Kahn's role in the development of computer networking from 1967 through the early 1980s. Beginning with his work at <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolt_Beranek_and_Newman" title="Bolt Beranek and Newman" class="mw-redirect">Bolt Beranek and Newman</a> (BBN), Kahn discusses his involvement as the ARPANET proposal was being written and then implemented, and his role in the public demonstration of the ARPANET. The interview continues into Kahn's involvement with networking when he moves to IPTO in 1972, where he was responsible for the administrative and technical evolution of the ARPANET, including programs in packet radio, the development of a new network protocol (TCP/IP), and the switch to TCP/IP to connect multiple networks.</li> <li><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://purl.umn.edu/107214">"Oral history interview with Vinton Cerf"</a>. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis: <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Babbage_Institute" title="Charles Babbage Institute">Charles Babbage Institute</a>. 24 April 1990<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 July</span> 2008</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.btitle=Oral+history+interview+with+Vinton+Cerf&rft.date=24+April+1990&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpurl.umn.edu%2F107214&rft.place=University+of+Minnesota%2C+Minneapolis&rft.pub=Charles+Babbage+Institute&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span> Cerf describes his involvement with the ARPA network, and his relationships with Bolt Beranek and Newman, Robert Kahn, Lawrence Roberts, and the Network Working Group.</li> <li><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://purl.umn.edu/107101">"Oral history interview with Paul Baran"</a>. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis: <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Babbage_Institute" title="Charles Babbage Institute">Charles Babbage Institute</a>. 5 March 1990<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 July</span> 2008</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.btitle=Oral+history+interview+with+Paul+Baran&rft.date=5+March+1990&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpurl.umn.edu%2F107101&rft.place=University+of+Minnesota%2C+Minneapolis&rft.pub=Charles+Babbage+Institute&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span> Baran describes his work at RAND, and discusses his interaction with the group at ARPA who were responsible for the later development of the ARPANET.</li> <li><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://purl.umn.edu/107411">"Oral history interview with Leonard Kleinrock"</a>. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis: <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Babbage_Institute" title="Charles Babbage Institute">Charles Babbage Institute</a>. 3 April 1990<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 July</span> 2008</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.btitle=Oral+history+interview+with+Leonard+Kleinrock&rft.date=3+April+1990&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpurl.umn.edu%2F107411&rft.place=University+of+Minnesota%2C+Minneapolis&rft.pub=Charles+Babbage+Institute&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span> Kleinrock discusses his work on the ARPANET.</li> <li><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://purl.umn.edu/107608">"Oral history interview with Larry Roberts"</a>. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis: <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Babbage_Institute" title="Charles Babbage Institute">Charles Babbage Institute</a>. 4 April 1989<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 July</span> 2008</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.btitle=Oral+history+interview+with+Larry+Roberts&rft.date=4+April+1989&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpurl.umn.edu%2F107608&rft.place=University+of+Minnesota%2C+Minneapolis&rft.pub=Charles+Babbage+Institute&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li> <li><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://purl.umn.edu/107446">"Oral history interview with Stephen Lukasik"</a>. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis: <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Babbage_Institute" title="Charles Babbage Institute">Charles Babbage Institute</a>. 17 October 1991<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 July</span> 2008</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.btitle=Oral+history+interview+with+Stephen+Lukasik&rft.date=17+October+1991&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpurl.umn.edu%2F107446&rft.place=University+of+Minnesota%2C+Minneapolis&rft.pub=Charles+Babbage+Institute&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span> Lukasik discusses his tenure at the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), the development of computer networks and the ARPANET.</li> </ul> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Detailed_technical_reference_works">Detailed technical reference works</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARPANET&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Detailed technical reference works">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <ul> <li><span class="citation conference"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Roberts_(scientist)" title="Lawrence Roberts (scientist)">Roberts, Larry</a>; Marrill, Tom (October 1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.packet.cc/files/toward-coop-net.html"><i>Toward a Cooperative Network of Time-Shared Computers</i></a>. Fall AFIPS Conference.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.aufirst=Larry&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.au=Marrill%2C+Tom&rft.au=Roberts%2C+Larry&rft.btitle=Toward+a+Cooperative+Network+of+Time-Shared+Computers&rft.date=October+1966&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.packet.cc%2Ffiles%2Ftoward-coop-net.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li> <li><span class="citation conference"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Roberts_(scientist)" title="Lawrence Roberts (scientist)">Roberts, Larry</a> (October 1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.packet.cc/files/multi-net-inter-comm.html"><i>Multiple computer networks and intercomputer communication</i></a>. ACM Symposium on Operating System Principles.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.aufirst=Larry&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.au=Roberts%2C+Larry&rft.btitle=Multiple+computer+networks+and+intercomputer+communication&rft.date=October+1967&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.packet.cc%2Ffiles%2Fmulti-net-inter-comm.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li> <li><span class="citation conference"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Davies" title="Donald Davies">Davies, D. W.</a>; Bartlett, K. A.; Scantlebury, R. A.; Wilkinson, P. T. (October 1967). <i>A digital communications network for computers giving rapid response at remote terminals</i>. ACM Symposium on Operating Systems Principles.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.au=Bartlett%2C+K.+A.&rft.au=Davies%2C+D.+W.&rft.aufirst=D.+W.&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.au=Scantlebury%2C+R.+A.&rft.au=Wilkinson%2C+P.+T.&rft.btitle=A+digital+communications+network+for+computers+giving+rapid+response+at+remote+terminals&rft.date=October+1967&rft.genre=book&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li> <li><span class="citation conference"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Roberts_(scientist)" title="Lawrence Roberts (scientist)">Roberts, Larry</a>; Wessler, Barry (May 1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.packet.cc/files/arpa/comp-net-dev.html"><i>Computer Network Development to Achieve Resource Sharing</i></a>. Proceedings of the Spring Joint Computer Conference, Atlantic City, New Jersey.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.aufirst=Larry&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.au=Roberts%2C+Larry&rft.au=Wessler%2C+Barry&rft.btitle=Computer+Network+Development+to+Achieve+Resource+Sharing&rft.date=May+1970&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.packet.cc%2Ffiles%2Farpa%2Fcomp-net-dev.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li> <li><span class="citation conference">Heart, Frank; <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Kahn" title="Bob Kahn">Kahn, Robert</a>; <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severo_Ornstein" title="Severo Ornstein">Ornstein, Severo</a>; <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crowther_(programmer)" title="William Crowther (programmer)">Crowther, William</a>; Walden, David (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.walden-family.com/public/1970-imp-afips.pdf"><i>The Interface Message Processor for the ARPA Computer Network</i></a>. 1970 Spring Joint Computer Conference. <i>AFIPS Proc.</i> <b>36</b>: 551–567. <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://dx.doi.org/10.1145%2F1476936.1477021">10.1145/1476936.1477021</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.atitle=The+Interface+Message+Processor+for+the+ARPA+Computer+Network&rft.au=Crowther%2C+William&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft.au=Heart%2C+Frank&rft.au=Kahn%2C+Robert&rft.aulast=Heart&rft.au=Ornstein%2C+Severo&rft.au=Walden%2C+David&rft.date=1970&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.walden-family.com%2Fpublic%2F1970-imp-afips.pdf&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F1476936.1477021&rft.jtitle=AFIPS+Proc.&rft.pages=551-567&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=36" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li> <li><span class="citation conference">Carr, Stephen; <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Crocker" title="Stephen Crocker" class="mw-redirect">Crocker, Stephen</a>; <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vint_Cerf" title="Vint Cerf">Cerf, Vinton</a> (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://tools.ietf.org/pdf/rfc33"><i>Host-Host Communication Protocol in the ARPA Network</i></a>. 1970 Spring Joint Computer Conference. <i>AFIPS Proc.</i> <b>36</b>: 589–598. <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://dx.doi.org/10.1145%2F1476936.1477024">10.1145/1476936.1477024</a>. <a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" rel="nofollow" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc33">RFC 33</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.atitle=Host-Host+Communication+Protocol+in+the+ARPA+Network&rft.au=Carr%2C+Stephen&rft.au=Cerf%2C+Vinton&rft.au=Crocker%2C+Stephen&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft.aulast=Carr&rft.date=1970&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftools.ietf.org%2Fpdf%2Frfc33&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F1476936.1477024&rft.jtitle=AFIPS+Proc.&rft.pages=589-598&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=36" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li> <li><span class="citation conference"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severo_Ornstein" title="Severo Ornstein">Ornstein, Severo</a>; Heart, Frank; <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crowther_(programmer)" title="William Crowther (programmer)">Crowther, William</a>; Russell, S. B.; Rising, H. K.; Michel, A. (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/1478873.1478906"><i>The Terminal IMP for the ARPA Computer Network</i></a>. 1972 Spring Joint Computer Conference. <i>AFIPS Proc.</i> <b>40</b>: 243–254.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.atitle=The+Terminal+IMP+for+the+ARPA+Computer+Network&rft.au=Crowther%2C+William&rft.aufirst=Severo&rft.au=Heart%2C+Frank&rft.aulast=Ornstein&rft.au=Michel%2C+A.&rft.au=Ornstein%2C+Severo&rft.au=Rising%2C+H.+K.&rft.au=Russell%2C+S.+B.&rft.date=1972&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1145%2F1478873.1478906&rft.jtitle=AFIPS+Proc.&rft.pages=243-254&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=40" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li> <li><span class="citation conference"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_M._McQuillan" title="John M. McQuillan">McQuillan, John</a>; <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crowther_(programmer)" title="William Crowther (programmer)">Crowther, William</a>; Cosell, Bernard; Walden, David; Heart, Frank (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/1480083.1480096"><i>Improvements in the Design and Performance of the ARPA Network</i></a>. 1972 Fall Joint Computer Conference part II. <i>AFIPS Proc.</i> <b>41</b>: 741–754.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.atitle=Improvements+in+the+Design+and+Performance+of+the+ARPA+Network&rft.au=Cosell%2C+Bernard&rft.au=Crowther%2C+William&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Heart%2C+Frank&rft.aulast=McQuillan&rft.au=McQuillan%2C+John&rft.au=Walden%2C+David&rft.date=1972&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1145%2F1480083.1480096&rft.jtitle=AFIPS+Proc.&rft.pages=741-754&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=41" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li> <li><span class="citation book"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_J._Feinler" title="Elizabeth J. Feinler">Feinler, Elizabeth J.</a>; <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon_Postel" title="Jon Postel">Postel, Jonathan B.</a> (January 1978). <i>ARPANET Protocol Handbook, NIC 7104</i>. Menlo Park: Network Information Center (NIC), SRI International. <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_Standard_Identification_Number" title="Amazon Standard Identification Number">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.amazon.com/dp/B000EN742K">B000EN742K</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.au=Feinler%2C+Elizabeth+J.&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+J.&rft.aulast=Feinler&rft.au=Postel%2C+Jonathan+B.&rft.btitle=ARPANET+Protocol+Handbook%2C+NIC+7104&rft.date=January+1978&rft.genre=book&rft_id=info%3Aasin%2FB000EN742K&rft.place=Menlo+Park&rft.pub=Network+Information+Center+%28NIC%29%2C+SRI+International&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li> <li><span class="citation journal"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Roberts_(scientist)" title="Lawrence Roberts (scientist)">Roberts, Larry</a> (November 1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.packet.cc/files/ev-packet-sw.html">"The Evolution of Packet Switching"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the IEEE</i> <b>66</b> (11): 1307. <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://dx.doi.org/10.1109%2FPROC.1978.11141">10.1109/PROC.1978.11141</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.atitle=The+Evolution+of+Packet+Switching&rft.aufirst=Larry&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.au=Roberts%2C+Larry&rft.date=November+1978&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.packet.cc%2Ffiles%2Fev-packet-sw.html&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FPROC.1978.11141&rft.issue=11&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+IEEE&rft.pages=1307&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=66" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li> <li><span class="citation journal"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Roberts_(scientist)" title="Lawrence Roberts (scientist)">Roberts, Larry</a> (September 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.packet.cc/files/arpanet-computernet.html">"The ARPANET & Computer Networks"</a>. <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Computing_Machinery" title="Association for Computing Machinery">ACM</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.aufirst=Larry&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.au=Roberts%2C+Larry&rft.btitle=The+ARPANET+%26+Computer+Networks&rft.date=September+1986&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.packet.cc%2Ffiles%2Farpanet-computernet.html&rft.pub=ACM&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li> </ul> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ARPANET&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <table class="mbox-small plainlinks" style="border:1px solid #aaa;background-color:#f9f9f9"> <tr> <td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" width="30" height="40" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326153311im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"/></td> <td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <i><b><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:ARPANET" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:ARPANET">ARPANET</a></b></i>.</td> </tr> </table> <ul> <li><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://som.csudh.edu/cis/lpress/history/arpamaps/">"ARPANET Maps 1969 to 1977"</a>. <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_University,_Dominguez_Hills" title="California State University, Dominguez Hills">California State University, Dominguez Hills</a> (CSUDH). 4 January 1978<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2012</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.btitle=ARPANET+Maps+1969+to+1977&rft.date=4+January+1978&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsom.csudh.edu%2Fcis%2Flpress%2Fhistory%2Farpamaps%2F&rft.pub=California+State+University%2C+Dominguez+Hills+%28CSUDH%29&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li> <li><span class="citation web">Walden, David C. (February 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii_imp_walden.htm">"Looking back at the ARPANET effort, 34 years later"</a>. <i>Living Internet</i>. East Sandwich, Massachusetts: livinginternet.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 August</span> 2005</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.atitle=Looking+back+at+the+ARPANET+effort%2C+34+years+later&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rft.aulast=Walden&rft.au=Walden%2C+David+C.&rft.date=February+2003&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.livinginternet.com%2Fi%2Fii_imp_walden.htm&rft.jtitle=Living+Internet&rft.place=East+Sandwich%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=livinginternet.com&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li> <li><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.computerhistory.org/exhibits/internet_history/">"Images of ARPANET from 1964 onwards"</a>. The Computer History Museum<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 August</span> 2004</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.btitle=Images+of+ARPANET+from+1964+onwards&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Fexhibits%2Finternet_history%2F&rft.pub=The+Computer+History+Museum&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span> Timeline.</li> <li><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.rand.org/about/history/baran.html">"Paul Baran and the Origins of the Internet"</a>. <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAND_Corporation" title="RAND Corporation">RAND Corporation</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 September</span> 2005</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.btitle=Paul+Baran+and+the+Origins+of+the+Internet&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rand.org%2Fabout%2Fhistory%2Fbaran.html&rft.pub=RAND+Corporation&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li> <li><span class="citation web"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Kleinrock" title="Leonard Kleinrock">Kleinrock, Leonard</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.lk.cs.ucla.edu/internet_first_words.html">"The Day the Infant Internet Uttered its First Words"</a>. <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_Los_Angeles" title="University of California, Los Angeles">UCLA</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 November</span> 2004</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.aufirst=Leonard&rft.au=Kleinrock%2C+Leonard&rft.aulast=Kleinrock&rft.btitle=The+Day+the+Infant+Internet+Uttered+its+First+Words&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lk.cs.ucla.edu%2Finternet_first_words.html&rft.pub=UCLA&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span> Personal anecdote of the first message ever sent over the ARPANET</li> <li><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.dougengelbart.org/firsts/internet.html">"Doug Engelbart's Role in ARPANET History"</a>. 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 September</span> 2009</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.btitle=Doug+Engelbart%27s+Role+in+ARPANET+History&rft.date=2008&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dougengelbart.org%2Ffirsts%2Finternet.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li> <li><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.juliantrubin.com/schooldirectory/internet_milestones_pioneers.html">"Internet Milestones: Timeline of Notable Internet Pioneers and Contributions"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 January</span> 2012</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.btitle=Internet+Milestones%3A+Timeline+of+Notable+Internet+Pioneers+and+Contributions&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.juliantrubin.com%2Fschooldirectory%2Finternet_milestones_pioneers.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span> Timeline.</li> <li><span class="citation web">Waldrop, Mitch (April 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.darpa.mil/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx?id=2554">"DARPA and the Internet Revolution"</a>. <i>50 years of Bridging the Gap</i>. DARPA. pp. 78–85<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 August</span> 2012</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.atitle=DARPA+and+the+Internet+Revolution&rft.aufirst=Mitch&rft.aulast=Waldrop&rft.au=Waldrop%2C+Mitch&rft.date=April+2008&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.darpa.mil%2FWorkArea%2FDownloadAsset.aspx%3Fid%3D2554&rft.jtitle=50+years+of+Bridging+the+Gap&rft.pages=78-85&rft.pub=DARPA&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li> <li><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.softwarepricing.com/wp-content/uploads/imp-team-jhg20hilite.jpg">"A picture of the ARPANET team"</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AARPANET&rft.btitle=A+picture+of+the+ARPANET+team&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.softwarepricing.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fimp-team-jhg20hilite.jpg&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></li> </ul> <table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <td style="padding:2px"> <table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#C8DDF2; color:black;"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:DARPA" title="Template:DARPA"><span title="View this template" style=";background:#C8DDF2; color:black;;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</span></a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:DARPA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:DARPA (page does not exist)"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";background:#C8DDF2; color:black;;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:DARPA&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template" style=";background:#C8DDF2; color:black;;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DARPA" title="DARPA">Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)</a></div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#C8DDF2; line-height:1.2em;">Offices</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_Execution_Office" title="Adaptive Execution Office">Adaptive Execution</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_Sciences_Office" title="Defense Sciences Office">Defense Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Information_Innovation_Office&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Information Innovation Office (page does not exist)">Information Innovation</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsystems_Technology_Office" title="Microsystems Technology Office">Microsystems Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Strategic_Technology_Office_(DARPA)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Strategic Technology Office (DARPA) (page does not exist)">Strategic Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tactical_Technology_Office_(DARPA)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tactical Technology Office (DARPA) (page does not exist)">Tactical Technology</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#C8DDF2; line-height:1.2em;">Directors</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roy_W._Johnson_(DARPA_director)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Roy W. Johnson (DARPA director) (page does not exist)">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Austin_W._Betts&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Austin W. Betts (page does not exist)">Betts</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Ruina" title="Jack Ruina">Ruina</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Sproull" title="Robert Sproull">Sproull</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_M._Herzfeld" title="Charles M. Herzfeld">Herzfeld</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eberhardt_Rechtin" title="Eberhardt Rechtin">Rechtin</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steve_J._Lukasik&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Steve J. Lukasik (page does not exist)">Lukasik</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_H._Heilmeier" title="George H. Heilmeier">Heilmeier</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_R._Fossum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert R. Fossum (page does not exist)">Fossum</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_S._Cooper&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert S. Cooper (page does not exist)">Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_C._Duncan_(engineer)" title="Robert C. Duncan (engineer)">Duncan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ray_S._Colladay&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ray S. Colladay (page does not exist)">Colladay</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Craig_I._Fields&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Craig I. Fields (page does not exist)">Fields</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_H._Reis" title="Victor H. Reis">Reis</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gary_L._Denman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gary L. Denman (page does not exist)">Denman</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Verne_L._%22Larry%22_Lynn&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Verne L. "Larry" Lynn (page does not exist)">Lynn</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fernando_L._%22Frank%22_Fernandez&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fernando L. "Frank" Fernandez (page does not exist)">Fernandez</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_J._Tether" title="Anthony J. Tether" class="mw-redirect">Tether</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regina_E._Dugan" title="Regina E. Dugan">Dugan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arati_Prabhakar" title="Arati Prabhakar">Prabhakar</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#C8DDF2; line-height:1.2em;">History</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><strong class="selflink">ARPANET</strong></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mother_of_All_Demos" title="The Mother of All Demos">The Mother of All Demos</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_AGILE" title="Project AGILE">Project AGILE</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakey_the_robot" title="Shakey the robot">Shakey the robot</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspen_Movie_Map" title="Aspen Movie Map">Aspen Movie Map</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DARPA_Network_Challenge" title="DARPA Network Challenge">Network Challenge</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DARPA_Grand_Challenge" title="DARPA Grand Challenge">Grand Challenge</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#C8DDF2;"> <div><b>Annual budget</b> $2.8 billion <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">USD</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;">   </span><b>Employees</b> 240 <span style="white-space:nowrap;">   </span><b>Website</b> <span class="url"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.darpa.mil/">www<wbr/>.darpa<wbr/>.mil</a></span></div> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> <table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <td style="padding:2px"> <table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Telecommunications" title="Template:Telecommunications"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</span></a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Telecommunications" title="Template talk:Telecommunications"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Telecommunications&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunication" title="Telecommunication">Telecommunications</a></div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">History</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <div class="floatright"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Telecom-icon.svg" class="image" title="Telecommunications symbol"><img alt="Telecommunications symbol" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/50px-Telecom-icon.svg.png" width="50" height="50" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/75px-Telecom-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326153311im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/100px-Telecom-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500"/></a></div> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beacon#For_defensive_communications" title="Beacon">Beacon</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_broadcasting" title="History of broadcasting">Broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_satellite#History" title="Communications satellite">Communications satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network#History" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drums_in_communication" title="Drums in communication">Drums</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_telegraph#History" title="Electrical telegraph">Electrical telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fax#History" title="Fax">Fax</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliograph#History" title="Heliograph">Heliographs</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_telegraph#Greek_hydraulic_semaphore_system" title="Hydraulic telegraph">Hydraulic telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_media#History" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mobile_phones" title="History of mobile phones">Mobile phone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_communication" title="Optical communication">Optical telecommunication</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semaphore_line#History" title="Semaphore line">Optical telegraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photophone" title="Photophone">Photophone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_prepaid_mobile_phone" title="History of the prepaid mobile phone">Prepaid mobile phone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radio" title="History of radio">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiotelephone" title="Radiotelephone">Radiotelephone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Satellite communications</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoke_signal" title="Smoke signal">Smoke signals</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">Telecommunications history</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">Telegraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_telephone" title="History of the telephone">Telephone</a></li> <li><i><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Telephone_Cases" title="The Telephone Cases">The Telephone Cases</a></i></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_television" title="History of television">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_communication_technology" title="Timeline of communication technology">Timeline of communication technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable#Early_history:_telegraph_and_coaxial_cables" title="Submarine communications cable">Undersea telegraph line</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videoconferencing#History" title="Videoconferencing">Videoconferencing</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videophone#Early_history" title="Videophone">Videophone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_videotelephony" title="History of videotelephony">Videotelephony</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Pioneers</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Howard_Armstrong" title="Edwin Howard Armstrong">Edwin Howard Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Logie_Baird" title="John Logie Baird">John Logie Baird</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jagadish_Chandra_Bose" title="Jagadish Chandra Bose">Jagadish Chandra Bose</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vint_Cerf" title="Vint Cerf">Vint Cerf</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Chappe" title="Claude Chappe">Claude Chappe</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_de_Forest" title="Lee de Forest">Lee de Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philo_Farnsworth" title="Philo Farnsworth">Philo Farnsworth</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden" title="Reginald Fessenden">Reginald Fessenden</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elisha_Gray" title="Elisha Gray">Elisha Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Stepanovich_Popov" title="Alexander Stepanovich Popov">Alexander Stepanovich Popov</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Philipp_Reis" title="Johann Philipp Reis">Johann Philipp Reis</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camille_Papin_Tissot" title="Camille Papin Tissot">Camille Papin Tissot</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Vail" title="Alfred Vail">Alfred Vail</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Wheatstone" title="Charles Wheatstone">Charles Wheatstone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_K._Zworykin" title="Vladimir K. Zworykin">Vladimir K. Zworykin</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_medium" title="Transmission medium">Transmission<br/> media</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coaxial_cable" title="Coaxial cable">Coaxial cable</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free-space_optical_communication" title="Free-space optical communication">Free-space optical</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">Optical fiber</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">Radio waves</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_line" title="Telephone line">Telephone lines</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave#Communication" title="Microwave">Terrestrial microwave</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_P1906.1" title="IEEE P1906.1">Molecules</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_topology" title="Network topology">Network topology</a><br/> and switching</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_link" title="Telecommunications link">Links</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Node_(networking)" title="Node (networking)">Nodes</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_(telecommunication)" title="Terminal (telecommunication)">Terminal node</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_switch" title="Network switch">Network switching</a> (<a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_switching" title="Circuit switching">circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet_switching" title="Packet switching">packet</a>)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_exchange" title="Telephone exchange">Telephone exchange</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplexing" title="Multiplexing">Multiplexing</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-user_MIMO#SDMA" title="Multi-user MIMO">Space-division</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency-division_multiplexing" title="Frequency-division multiplexing">Frequency-division</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-division_multiplexing" title="Time-division multiplexing">Time-division</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polarization-division_multiplexing" title="Polarization-division multiplexing">Polarization-division</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_angular_momentum_multiplexing" title="Orbital angular momentum multiplexing">Orbital angular-momentum</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_division_multiple_access" title="Code division multiple access">Code-division</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Networks</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><strong class="selflink">ARPANET</strong></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BITNET" title="BITNET">BITNET</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">Computer</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FidoNet" title="FidoNet">FidoNet</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_Services_Digital_Network" title="Integrated Services Digital Network">ISDN</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">LAN</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_telephony" title="Mobile telephony">Mobile</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next-generation_network" title="Next-generation network">NGN</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_switched_telephone_network" title="Public switched telephone network">Public Switched Telephone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_network" title="Radio network">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_equipment" title="Telecommunications equipment">Telecommunications equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_network" title="Television network">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telex" title="Telex">Telex</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wide_area_network" title="Wide area network">WAN</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_network" title="Wireless network">Wireless</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">By continent</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div> <table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Africa_topic" title="Template:Africa topic"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</span></a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Africa_topic" title="Template talk:Africa topic"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Africa_topic&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%">Telecommunications in Africa</div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">Sovereign states</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Algeria" title="Telecommunications in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Angola" title="Telecommunications in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Benin" title="Telecommunications in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Botswana" title="Telecommunications in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Burkina_Faso" title="Telecommunications in Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Burundi" title="Telecommunications in Burundi" class="mw-redirect">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cameroon" title="Telecommunications in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cape_Verde" title="Telecommunications in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Central_African_Republic" title="Telecommunications in the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Chad" title="Telecommunications in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Comoros" title="Telecommunications in Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Telecommunications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Telecommunications in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Djibouti" title="Telecommunications in Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Egypt" title="Telecommunications in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Equatorial_Guinea" title="Telecommunications in Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Eritrea" title="Telecommunications in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ethiopia" title="Telecommunications in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Gabon" title="Telecommunications in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Gambia" title="Telecommunications in the Gambia">The Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ghana" title="Telecommunications in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guinea" title="Telecommunications in Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="Telecommunications in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ivory_Coast" title="Telecommunications in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast (Côte d'Ivoire)</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kenya" title="Telecommunications in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Lesotho" title="Telecommunications in Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Liberia" title="Telecommunications in Liberia" class="mw-redirect">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Libya" title="Telecommunications in Libya" class="mw-redirect">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Madagascar" title="Telecommunications in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Malawi" title="Telecommunications in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mali" title="Telecommunications in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mauritania" title="Telecommunications in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mauritius" title="Telecommunications in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Morocco" title="Telecommunications in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mozambique" title="Telecommunications in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Namibia" title="Telecommunications in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Niger" title="Telecommunications in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Nigeria" title="Telecommunications in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Rwanda" title="Telecommunications in Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="Telecommunications in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Senegal" title="Telecommunications in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Seychelles" title="Telecommunications in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Sierra_Leone" title="Telecommunications in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Somalia" title="Telecommunications in Somalia" class="mw-redirect">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_South_Africa" title="Telecommunications in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_South_Sudan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in South Sudan (page does not exist)">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Sudan" title="Telecommunications in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Swaziland" title="Telecommunications in Swaziland">Swaziland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tanzania" title="Telecommunications in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Togo" title="Telecommunications in Togo">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tunisia" title="Telecommunications in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Uganda" title="Telecommunications in Uganda" class="mw-redirect">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Zambia" title="Telecommunications in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Zimbabwe" title="Telecommunications in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"> <div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with limited<br/> recognition</a></div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic" title="Telecommunications in the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic" class="mw-redirect">Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Somaliland" title="Telecommunications in Somaliland">Somaliland</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"> <div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br/> other territories</div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <div> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Canary_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Canary Islands" class="mw-redirect">Canary Islands</a> / <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ceuta" title="Telecommunications in Ceuta" class="mw-redirect">Ceuta</a> / <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Melilla" title="Telecommunications in Melilla" class="mw-redirect">Melilla</a> / <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Plazas_de_soberan%C3%ADa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Plazas de soberanía (page does not exist)">Plazas de soberanía</a> <small style="font-size:85%;">(Spain)</small></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Madeira" title="Telecommunications in Madeira" class="mw-redirect">Madeira</a> <small style="font-size:85%;">(Portugal)</small></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mayotte" title="Telecommunications in Mayotte">Mayotte</a> / <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_R%C3%A9union" title="Telecommunications in Réunion">Réunion</a> <small style="font-size:85%;">(France)</small></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Helena" title="Telecommunications in Saint Helena" class="mw-redirect">Saint Helena</a> / <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ascension_Island" title="Telecommunications in Ascension Island" class="mw-redirect">Ascension Island</a> / <a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tristan_da_Cunha" title="Telecommunications in Tristan da Cunha" class="mw-redirect">Tristan da Cunha</a> <small style="font-size:85%;">(United Kingdom)</small></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Western_Sahara" title="Telecommunications in Western Sahara">Western Sahara</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </td> </tr> </table> <table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Asia_topic" title="Template:Asia topic"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</span></a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Asia_topic" title="Template talk:Asia topic"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Asia_topic&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%">Telecommunications in Asia</div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Afghanistan" title="Telecommunications in Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Armenia" title="Telecommunications in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Azerbaijan" title="Telecommunications in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bahrain" title="Telecommunications in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bangladesh" title="Telecommunications in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bhutan" title="Telecommunications in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Brunei" title="Telecommunications in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Burma" title="Telecommunications in Burma">Burma (Myanmar)</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cambodia" title="Telecommunications in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_China" title="Telecommunications in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cyprus" title="Telecommunications in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_East_Timor" title="Telecommunications in East Timor">East Timor (Timor-Leste)</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Egypt" title="Telecommunications in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Telecommunications in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_India" title="Telecommunications in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Indonesia" title="Telecommunications in Indonesia" class="mw-redirect">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Iran" title="Telecommunications in Iran" class="mw-redirect">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Iraq" title="Telecommunications in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Israel" title="Telecommunications in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Japan" title="Telecommunications in Japan" class="mw-redirect">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Jordan" title="Telecommunications in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kazakhstan" title="Telecommunications in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_North_Korea" title="Telecommunications in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_South_Korea" title="Telecommunications in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kuwait" title="Telecommunications in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Telecommunications in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Laos" title="Telecommunications in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Lebanon" title="Telecommunications in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Malaysia" title="Telecommunications in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Maldives" title="Telecommunications in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mongolia" title="Telecommunications in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Nepal" title="Telecommunications in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Oman" title="Telecommunications in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Pakistan" title="Telecommunications in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Philippines" title="Telecommunications in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Qatar" title="Telecommunications in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Russia" title="Telecommunications in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Telecommunications in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Singapore" title="Telecommunications in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Telecommunications in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Syria" title="Telecommunications in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tajikistan" title="Telecommunications in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Thailand" title="Telecommunications in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Turkey" title="Telecommunications in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Turkmenistan" title="Telecommunications in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Telecommunications in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Uzbekistan" title="Telecommunications in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Vietnam" title="Telecommunications in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Yemen" title="Telecommunications in Yemen">Yemen</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with<br/> limited recognition</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Nagorno-Karabakh_Republic" title="Telecommunications in the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic" class="mw-redirect">Nagorno-Karabakh</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Northern_Cyprus" title="Telecommunications in Northern Cyprus" class="mw-redirect">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Palestinian_territories" title="Telecommunications in the Palestinian territories" class="mw-redirect">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Taiwan" title="Telecommunications in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br/> other territories</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_the_British_Indian_Ocean_Territory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the British Indian Ocean Territory (page does not exist)">British Indian Ocean Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Christmas_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Christmas Island (page does not exist)">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (page does not exist)">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Hong_Kong" title="Telecommunications in Hong Kong" class="mw-redirect">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Macau" title="Telecommunications in Macau">Macau</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> <table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Europe_topic" title="Template:Europe topic"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</span></a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Europe_topic" title="Template talk:Europe topic"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Europe_topic&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Europe" title="Telecommunications in Europe" class="mw-redirect">Telecommunications in Europe</a></div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">Sovereign states</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Albania" title="Telecommunications in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Andorra" title="Telecommunications in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Armenia" title="Telecommunications in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Austria" title="Telecommunications in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Azerbaijan" title="Telecommunications in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Belarus" title="Telecommunications in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Belgium" title="Telecommunications in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Telecommunications in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bulgaria" title="Telecommunications in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Croatia" title="Telecommunications in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cyprus" title="Telecommunications in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Telecommunications in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Denmark" title="Telecommunications in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Estonia" title="Telecommunications in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Finland" title="Telecommunications in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_France" title="Telecommunications in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Telecommunications in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Germany" title="Telecommunications in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Greece" title="Telecommunications in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Hungary" title="Telecommunications in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Iceland" title="Telecommunications in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Telecommunications in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Italy" title="Telecommunications in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kazakhstan" title="Telecommunications in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Latvia" title="Telecommunications in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Liechtenstein" title="Telecommunications in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Lithuania" title="Telecommunications in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Luxembourg" title="Telecommunications in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Republic_of_Macedonia" title="Telecommunications in the Republic of Macedonia">Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Malta" title="Telecommunications in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Moldova" title="Telecommunications in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Monaco" title="Telecommunications in Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Montenegro" title="Telecommunications in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Netherlands" title="Telecommunications in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Norway" title="Telecommunications in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Poland" title="Telecommunications in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Portugal" title="Telecommunications in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Romania" title="Telecommunications in Romania" class="mw-redirect">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Russia" title="Telecommunications in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_San_Marino" title="Telecommunications in San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Serbia" title="Telecommunications in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Slovakia" title="Telecommunications in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Slovenia" title="Telecommunications in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Spain" title="Telecommunications in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Sweden" title="Telecommunications in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Switzerland" title="Telecommunications in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Turkey" title="Telecommunications in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ukraine" title="Telecommunications in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Telecommunications in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"> <div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with limited<br/> recognition</a></div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kosovo" title="Telecommunications in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Nagorno-Karabakh_Republic" title="Telecommunications in the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic" class="mw-redirect">Nagorno-Karabakh</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Northern_Cyprus" title="Telecommunications in Northern Cyprus" class="mw-redirect">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Transnistria" title="Telecommunications in Transnistria">Transnistria</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"> <div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br/> other territories</div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_%C3%85land&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Åland (page does not exist)">Åland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Faroe_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Gibraltar" title="Telecommunications in Gibraltar" class="mw-redirect">Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Guernsey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Guernsey (page does not exist)">Guernsey</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Jersey" title="Telecommunications in Jersey">Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Isle_of_Man" title="Telecommunications in the Isle of Man" class="mw-redirect">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Svalbard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Svalbard (page does not exist)">Svalbard</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Other entities</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_European_Union" title="Telecommunications in the European Union" class="mw-redirect">European Union</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> <table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:North_America_topic" title="Template:North America topic"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</span></a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:North_America_topic" title="Template talk:North America topic"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:North_America_topic&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%">Telecommunications in North America</div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Sovereign states</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Telecommunications in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Bahamas" title="Telecommunications in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Barbados" title="Telecommunications in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Belize" title="Telecommunications in Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Canada" title="Telecommunications in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Costa_Rica" title="Telecommunications in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cuba" title="Telecommunications in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Dominica" title="Telecommunications in Dominica">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Telecommunications in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_El_Salvador" title="Telecommunications in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Grenada" title="Telecommunications in Grenada">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guatemala" title="Telecommunications in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Haiti" title="Telecommunications in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Honduras" title="Telecommunications in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Jamaica" title="Telecommunications in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mexico" title="Telecommunications in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Nicaragua" title="Telecommunications in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Panama" title="Telecommunications in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" title="Telecommunications in Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Lucia" title="Telecommunications in Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" title="Telecommunications in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Telecommunications in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_States" title="Telecommunications in the United States" class="mw-redirect">United States</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"> <div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Dependencies and<br/> other territories</div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Anguilla" title="Telecommunications in Anguilla">Anguilla</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Aruba" title="Telecommunications in Aruba">Aruba</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bermuda" title="Telecommunications in Bermuda">Bermuda</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Bonaire&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Bonaire (page does not exist)">Bonaire</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Cayman_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cura%C3%A7ao" title="Telecommunications in Curaçao">Curaçao</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Greenland" title="Telecommunications in Greenland">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guadeloupe" title="Telecommunications in Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Martinique" title="Telecommunications in Martinique">Martinique</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Montserrat" title="Telecommunications in Montserrat">Montserrat</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Navassa_Island" title="Telecommunications in Navassa Island" class="mw-redirect">Navassa Island</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Telecommunications in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy" title="Telecommunications in Saint Barthélemy" class="mw-redirect">Saint Barthélemy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_the_Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the Collectivity of Saint Martin (page does not exist)">Saint Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon" title="Telecommunications in Saint Pierre and Miquelon">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Saba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Saba (page does not exist)">Saba</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Sint_Eustatius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Sint Eustatius (page does not exist)">Sint Eustatius</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Sint_Maarten&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Sint Maarten (page does not exist)">Sint Maarten</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Turks_and_Caicos_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Turks and Caicos Islands">Turks and Caicos Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the United States Virgin Islands">United States Virgin Islands</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> <table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Oceania_topic" title="Template:Oceania topic"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</span></a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Oceania_topic" title="Template talk:Oceania topic"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Oceania_topic&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%">Telecommunications in Oceania</div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">Sovereign states</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Australia" title="Telecommunications in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Fiji" title="Telecommunications in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Indonesia" title="Telecommunications in Indonesia" class="mw-redirect">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kiribati" title="Telecommunications in Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Marshall Islands" class="mw-redirect">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Telecommunications in the Federated States of Micronesia">Federated States of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Nauru" title="Telecommunications in Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_New_Zealand" title="Telecommunications in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Palau" title="Telecommunications in Palau">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Telecommunications in Papua New Guinea" class="mw-redirect">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Samoa" title="Telecommunications in Samoa">Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Solomon_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tonga" title="Telecommunications in Tonga">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tuvalu" title="Telecommunications in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Vanuatu" title="Telecommunications in Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realm_of_New_Zealand" title="Realm of New Zealand">Associated states<br/> of New Zealand</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Cook_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Niue" title="Telecommunications in Niue" class="mw-redirect">Niue</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a><br/> and other territories</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_American_Samoa" title="Telecommunications in American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Christmas_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Christmas Island (page does not exist)">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (page does not exist)">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Easter_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Easter Island (page does not exist)">Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_French_Polynesia" title="Telecommunications in French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guam" title="Telecommunications in Guam" class="mw-redirect">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Hawaii&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Hawaii (page does not exist)">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_New_Caledonia" title="Telecommunications in New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Norfolk_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Norfolk Island (page does not exist)">Norfolk Island</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the Northern Mariana Islands (page does not exist)">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_the_Pitcairn_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the Pitcairn Islands (page does not exist)">Pitcairn Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Tokelau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Tokelau (page does not exist)">Tokelau</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Wallis_and_Futuna&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Wallis and Futuna (page does not exist)">Wallis and Futuna</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> <table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:South_America_topic" title="Template:South America topic"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</span></a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:South_America_topic" title="Template talk:South America topic"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:South_America_topic&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%">Telecommunications in South America</div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Argentina" title="Telecommunications in Argentina" class="mw-redirect">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bolivia" title="Telecommunications in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Brazil" title="Telecommunications in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Chile" title="Telecommunications in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Colombia" title="Telecommunications in Colombia" class="mw-redirect">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ecuador" title="Telecommunications in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guyana" title="Telecommunications in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Paraguay" title="Telecommunications in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Peru" title="Telecommunications in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Suriname" title="Telecommunications in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Uruguay" title="Telecommunications in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Venezuela" title="Telecommunications in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"> <div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br/> other territories</div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Falkland_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_French_Guiana" title="Telecommunications in French Guiana">French Guiana</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326153311/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands" title="Telecommunications in South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands" class="mw-redirect"><span style="white-space:normal;">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"> <div> <ul> <li><img alt="Category" 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href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Alemannisch" lang="als" hreflang="als">Alemannisch</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="أربانت – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar">العربية</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg">Български</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca">Català</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs">Čeština</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arpanet" title="Arpanet – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da">Dansk</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arpanet" title="Arpanet – German" lang="de" hreflang="de">Deutsch</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et">Eesti</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el">Ελληνικά</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es">Español</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo">Esperanto</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu">Euskara</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%B1%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="آرپانت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa">فارسی</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr">Français</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl">Galego</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%84%ED%8C%8C%EB%84%B7" title="아파넷 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko">한국어</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr">Hrvatski</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is">Íslenska</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it">Italiano</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he">עברית</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B0%D2%93%D1%8B_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%82%D1%96%D0%B3%D1%96_%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%81%D1%96" title="Болашағы бар зерттеулер агенттігі желісі – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk">Қазақша</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku">Kurdî</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv">Latviešu</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arpanet" title="Arpanet – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt">Lietuvių</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu">Magyar</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE-%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Мрежа на агенции за напредно-истражувачки проекти – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk">Македонски</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D" title="അർപ്പാനെറ്റ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml">മലയാളം</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms">Bahasa Melayu</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl">Nederlands</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja">日本語</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Norwegian (bokmål)" lang="no" hreflang="no">Norsk bokmål</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl">Polski</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt">Português</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro">Română</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru">Русский</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco">Scots</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang="simple">Simple English</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk">Slovenčina</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arpanet" title="Arpanet – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl">Slovenščina</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr">Српски / srpski</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi">Suomi</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv">Svenska</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arpanet" title="Arpanet – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr">Türkçe</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk">Українська</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi">Tiếng Việt</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh">中文</a></li> <li class="uls-p-lang-dummy"><a href="#"></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326153311/http://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q177524#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="footer" role="contentinfo"> <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last modified on 13 March 2015, at 21:24.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a rel="license" 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