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id="toc-Metaphysics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metaphysics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Metaphysics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Metaphysics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Metaphysics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Metaphysics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sixteen_categories_(padārthas)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sixteen_categories_(padārthas)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Sixteen categories (<i>padārthas</i>)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sixteen_categories_(padārthas)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_self" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_self"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>The self</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_self-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epistemology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epistemology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Epistemology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Epistemology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Epistemology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Epistemology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pratyaksha_(perception)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pratyaksha_(perception)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span><i>Pratyaksha</i> (perception)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pratyaksha_(perception)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Determinate_and_indeterminate_perception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Determinate_and_indeterminate_perception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>Determinate and indeterminate perception</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Determinate_and_indeterminate_perception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anumāna_(inference)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anumāna_(inference)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span><i>Anumāna</i> (inference)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anumāna_(inference)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Theory_of_inference" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theory_of_inference"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Theory of inference</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theory_of_inference-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inference_Fallacies_(hetvābhasa)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inference_Fallacies_(hetvābhasa)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>Inference Fallacies (<i>hetvābhasa</i>)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inference_Fallacies_(hetvābhasa)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Upamāna_(comparison,_analogy)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Upamāna_(comparison,_analogy)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span><i>Upamāna</i> (comparison, analogy)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Upamāna_(comparison,_analogy)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Śabda_(word,_testimony)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Śabda_(word,_testimony)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span><i>Śabda</i> (word, testimony)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Śabda_(word,_testimony)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Direct_Realism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Direct_Realism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Direct Realism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Direct_Realism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparison_with_other_schools_of_Hinduism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison_with_other_schools_of_Hinduism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Comparison with other schools of Hinduism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparison_with_other_schools_of_Hinduism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theory_of_causation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theory_of_causation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Theory of causation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theory_of_causation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anyathakhyativada_(theory_of_error)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anyathakhyativada_(theory_of_error)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span><i>Anyathakhyativada</i> (theory of error)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anyathakhyativada_(theory_of_error)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-On_God_and_liberation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#On_God_and_liberation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>On God and liberation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-On_God_and_liberation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle On God and liberation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-On_God_and_liberation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Arguments_that_God_does_not_exist" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arguments_that_God_does_not_exist"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Arguments that God does not exist</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arguments_that_God_does_not_exist-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arguments_that_God_exists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arguments_that_God_exists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Arguments that God exists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arguments_that_God_exists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Liberation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liberation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Liberation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liberation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Literature-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Literature subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Commentaries_on_the_Nyaya-Sutra" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commentaries_on_the_Nyaya-Sutra"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Commentaries on the Nyaya-Sutra</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commentaries_on_the_Nyaya-Sutra-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Differences_from_Western_Philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Differences_from_Western_Philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Differences from Western Philosophy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Differences_from_Western_Philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Differences from Western Philosophy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Differences_from_Western_Philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-A_priori_knowledge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#A_priori_knowledge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span><i>A priori</i> knowledge</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-A_priori_knowledge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Logic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Logic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Logic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Logic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Navya-Nyaya_school" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Navya-Nyaya_school"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Navya-Nyaya school</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Navya-Nyaya_school-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><i>Nyaya</i></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 43 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-43" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">43 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Nyaya" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="نيايا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نيايا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Nyaya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_(%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8)" title="ন্যায় (দর্শন) – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ন্যায় (দর্শন)" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF" title="न्याय – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="न्याय" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%8F%D1%8F" title="Няя – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Няя" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Nyaya" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nj%C3%A1ja" title="Njája – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Njája" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Nyaya" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Njaaja" title="Njaaja – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Njaaja" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_(hinduismo)" title="Nyāya (hinduismo) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Nyāya (hinduismo)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Njaja" title="Njaja – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Njaja" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="نیایا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نیایا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ny%C3%A2ya" title="Nyâya – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Nyâya" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8B%88%EC%95%BC%EC%95%BC_%ED%95%99%ED%8C%8C" title="니야야 학파 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="니야야 학파" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%86%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%A1" title="Նյայա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Նյայա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="न्याय दर्शन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="न्याय दर्शन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Nyaya" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya" title="Nyāya – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Nyāya" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%AF_%E0%B2%A6%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%A8" title="ನ್ಯಾಯ ದರ್ಶನ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ನ್ಯಾಯ ದರ್ಶನ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%8C%D1%8F%D1%8F" title="Ньяя – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Ньяя" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Njaja" title="Njaja – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Njaja" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nj%C3%A1ja" title="Njája – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Njája" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82_(%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4)" title="ന്യായം (തത്ത്വചിന്ത) – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ന്യായം (തത്ത്വചിന്ത)" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF_(%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%82_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE)" title="न्याय (हिंदू धर्म) – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="न्याय (हिंदू धर्म)" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Nyaya" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="न्याय दर्शन – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="न्याय दर्शन" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF_(%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8)" title="न्याय (दर्शन) – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="न्याय (दर्शन)" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8B%E3%83%A4%E3%83%BC%E3%83%A4%E5%AD%A6%E6%B4%BE" title="ニヤーヤ学派 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ニヤーヤ学派" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Nyaya" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Nyaya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%8F" title="ਨਿਆਏ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਨਿਆਏ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Njaja" title="Njaja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Njaja" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niaia" title="Niaia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Niaia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%8C%D1%8F%D1%8F" title="Ньяя – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ньяя" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="न्यायदर्शनम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="न्यायदर्शनम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nj%C3%A1ja" title="Njája – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Njája" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Nyaya" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_(%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D)" title="நியாயம் (இந்து தத்துவம்) – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நியாயம் (இந்து தத்துவம்)" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B0" title="นยายะ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="นยายะ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%8C%D1%8F%D1%8F" title="Ньяя – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ньяя" data-language-autonym="Українська" 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#FFC569;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Hinduism" title="Category:Hinduism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#FFC569;"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.3em 0.3em 0.4em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Om" title="Om"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Om_symbol.svg/120px-Om_symbol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="82" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Om_symbol.svg/250px-Om_symbol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="356" data-file-height="367" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#FFC569;"> <a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika" title="Āstika and nāstika">Orthodox</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.3em 0.5em 0.75em;"> <table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Yoga_(philosophy)" title="Yoga (philosophy)">Yoga</a></b></li> <li><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nyaya</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a></b></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#FFC569;"> <a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika" title="Āstika and nāstika">Heterodox</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.3em 0.5em 0.75em;"> <table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Charvaka</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></b></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.3em 0.5em 0.75em;;padding:1px 0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFC569;;font-weight:normal;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><b>Sub-schools</b></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Smarta_tradition" title="Smarta tradition">Smartist</a></dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavite</a></dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Achintya Bheda Abheda</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Svabhavika_Bhedabheda" class="mw-redirect" title="Svabhavika Bhedabheda">Svabhavika Bhedabheda</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mahanubhava" title="Mahanubhava">Mahanubhava</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ekasarana_Dharma" title="Ekasarana Dharma">Ekasarana Dharma</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Akshar_Purushottam_Darshan" title="Akshar Purushottam Darshan">Akshar Purushottam Darshan</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivite</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Shaiva_Siddhanta" title="Shaiva Siddhanta">Shaiva Siddhanta</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pratyabhijna" title="Pratyabhijna">Pratyabhijna</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pashupata_Shaivism" title="Pashupata Shaivism">Panchartika</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalamukha" title="Kalamukha">Pramanavada</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Veerashaiva" class="mw-redirect" title="Veerashaiva">Shakti Vishishtadvaita</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nath" class="mw-redirect" title="Nath">Shiva Bhedabeda</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shiva_Advaita" title="Shiva Advaita">Shiva Advaita</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Neo-Vedanta" title="Neo-Vedanta">Neo-Vedanta</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Integral_yoga" title="Integral yoga">Integral yoga</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.3em 0.5em 0.75em;;padding:1px 0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFC569;;font-weight:normal;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><b>Teachers</b> (<a href="/wiki/Acharya" title="Acharya">Acharyas</a>)</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;padding-bottom:0;;padding-top:0.2em;"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nyaya</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.5em 0.65em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Akṣapāda Gotama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jayanta_Bhatta" title="Jayanta Bhatta">Jayanta Bhatta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raghunatha_Siromani" title="Raghunatha Siromani">Raghunatha Siromani</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.5em 0.65em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jaimini" title="Jaimini">Jaimini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81rila_Bha%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADa" title="Kumārila Bhaṭṭa">Kumārila Bhaṭṭa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prabh%C4%81kara" title="Prabhākara">Prabhākara</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a> (Mayavada)</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.5em 0.65em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%81chaspati_Misra" title="Vāchaspati Misra">Vāchaspati Misra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.5em 0.65em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ramanuja" title="Ramanuja">Ramanuja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta_Desika" title="Vedanta Desika">Vedanta Desika</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a> (Tattvavada)</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.5em 0.65em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Madhvacharya" title="Madhvacharya">Madhvacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jayatirtha" title="Jayatirtha">Jayatirtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vyasatirtha" title="Vyasatirtha">Vyasatirtha</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.5em 0.65em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vallabha" title="Vallabha">Vallabha</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Achintya Bheda Abheda</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.5em 0.65em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chaitanya_Mahaprabhu" title="Chaitanya Mahaprabhu">Chaitanya Mahaprabhu</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Svabhavika_Bhedabheda" class="mw-redirect" title="Svabhavika Bhedabheda">Svabhavika Bhedabheda</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.5em 0.65em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka" title="Nimbarka">Nimbarka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srinivasacharya" title="Srinivasacharya">Srinivasacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purushottam" class="mw-redirect" title="Purushottam">Purushottam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keshav_Kashmiri" title="Keshav Kashmiri">Keshav Kashmiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harivyas_devacharya" title="Harivyas devacharya">Harivyas devacharya</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Mahanubhava" title="Mahanubhava">Mahanubhava</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.5em 0.65em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chakradhar_Swami" title="Chakradhar Swami">Chakradhara</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Ekasarana_Dharma" title="Ekasarana Dharma">Ekasarana Dharma</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.5em 0.65em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sankardev" title="Sankardev">Sankardev</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Akshar_Purushottam_Darshan" title="Akshar Purushottam Darshan">Akshar Purushottam Darshan</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.5em 0.65em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swaminarayan" title="Swaminarayan">Swaminarayan</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;padding-bottom:0;"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">Tantra</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Shaktism" title="Shaktism">Shakta</a></li></ul></div></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.5em 0.65em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhinavagupta" title="Abhinavagupta">Abhinavagupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigamananda_Paramahansa" title="Nigamananda Paramahansa">Nigamananda Paramahansa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramprasad_Sen" title="Ramprasad Sen">Ramprasad Sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bamakhepa" title="Bamakhepa">Bamakhepa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamalakanta_Bhattacharya_(Bengal)" title="Kamalakanta Bhattacharya (Bengal)">Kamalakanta Bhattacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anandamayi_Ma" title="Anandamayi Ma">Anandamayi Ma</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Neo-Vedanta" title="Neo-Vedanta">Neo-Vedanta</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.5em 0.65em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Aurobindo" title="Sri Aurobindo">Aurobindo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-style:italic;padding-bottom:0;;font-weight:normal;"> Others</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0 0.5em 0.65em;"> <table class="infobox" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-style:italic;padding-right:1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kapila" title="Kapila">Kapila</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-style:italic;padding-right:1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patanjali" title="Patanjali">Patanjali</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-style:italic;padding-right:1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ka%E1%B9%87%C4%81da" title="Kaṇāda">Kaṇāda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prashastapada" title="Prashastapada">Prashastapada</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-style:italic;padding-right:1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/Secular" class="mw-redirect" title="Secular">Secular</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Valluvar" class="mw-redirect" title="Valluvar">Valluvar</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.3em 0.5em 0.75em;;padding:1px 0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFC569;;font-weight:normal;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><b><a href="/wiki/Hindu_texts" title="Hindu texts">Major texts</a></b></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aruti" title="Śruti">Śruti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Smṛti">Smṛti</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a></b></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Yajurveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaveda" title="Samaveda">Samaveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a></b></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Principal_Upanishads" title="Principal Upanishads">Principal Upanishads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upanishads#Classification" title="Upanishads">Minor Upanishads</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><i>Other scriptures</i></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agama_(Hinduism)" title="Agama (Hinduism)">Agama (Hinduism)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vachanamrut" title="Vachanamrut">Vachanamrut</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dd><i><b><a href="/wiki/Shastra" title="Shastra">Shastras</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">Sutras</a></b></i></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Sutras" title="Brahma Sutras">Brahma Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samkhyakarika" title="Samkhyakarika">Samkhya Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purva_Mimamsa_Sutras" title="Purva Mimamsa Sutras">Mimamsa Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vai%C5%9Be%E1%B9%A3ika_S%C5%ABtra" title="Vaiśeṣika Sūtra">Vaiśeṣika Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga Sutras</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pramana" title="Pramana">Pramana Sutras</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Puranas" title="Puranas">Puranas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma%C5%9B%C4%81stra" title="Dharmaśāstra">Dharmaśāstra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthashastra" title="Arthashastra">Arthashastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kama_Sutra" title="Kama Sutra">Kama Sutra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naalayira_Divya_Prabandham" title="Naalayira Divya Prabandham">Naalayira Divya Prabandham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirumurai" title="Tirumurai">Tirumurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiva_Samhita" title="Shiva Samhita">Shiva Samhita</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dd><b><a href="/wiki/Secular_ethics" title="Secular ethics">Secular ethics</a></b></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kural" title="Kural">Kural</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Other Indian philosophies</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Hindu_philosophy" title="Template:Hindu philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Hindu_philosophy" title="Template talk:Hindu philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Hindu_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Hindu philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Nyāya</b> (<a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>: न्यायः, <a href="/wiki/IAST" class="mw-redirect" title="IAST">IAST</a>: nyāyaḥ), literally meaning "justice", "rules", "method" or "judgment",<sup id="cite_ref-mmw_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mmw-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nyabri_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyabri-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is one of the six orthodox (<a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika" class="mw-redirect" title="Āstika">Āstika</a>) schools of <a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-nyabri_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyabri-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nyāya's most significant contributions to Indian philosophy were systematic development of the theory of logic, methodology, and its treatises on <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nyāya school's <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> accepts four out of six <i><a href="/wiki/Pramana" title="Pramana">Pramanas</a></i> as reliable means of gaining knowledge – <i>Pratyakṣa</i> (perception), <i>Anumāṇa</i> (inference), <i>Upamāna</i> (comparison and analogy) and <i>Śabda</i> (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).<sup id="cite_ref-jag_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jag-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dpsb_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dpsb-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gflood_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gflood-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In its <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, Nyāya school is closer to the <a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a> school of Hinduism than others.<sup id="cite_ref-nyabri_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyabri-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It holds that human suffering results from mistakes/defects produced by activity under wrong knowledge (notions and ignorance).<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moksha (liberation), it states, is gained through right knowledge. This premise led <i>Nyāya</i> to concern itself with epistemology, that is the reliable means to gain correct knowledge and to remove wrong notions. False knowledge is not merely ignorance to Naiyyayikas, it includes delusion. Correct knowledge is discovering and overcoming one's delusions, and understanding true nature of soul, self and reality.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Naiyyayika scholars approached philosophy as a form of direct <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">realism</a>, stating that anything that really exists is in principle humanly knowable. To them, correct knowledge and understanding is different from simple, reflexive cognition; it requires <i><a href="/wiki/Anuvyavasaya" title="Anuvyavasaya">Anuvyavasaya</a></i> (अनुव्यवसाय, cross-examination of cognition, reflective cognition of what one thinks one knows).<sup id="cite_ref-olil_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-olil-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An influential collection of texts on logic and reason is the <i><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a></i>, attributed to <a href="/wiki/Aksapada_Gautama" class="mw-redirect" title="Aksapada Gautama">Aksapada Gautama</a>, variously estimated to have been composed between 6th-century BCE and 2nd-century CE.<sup id="cite_ref-jfowlerpor129_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jfowlerpor129-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bkmxiv_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bkmxiv-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Nyāya</i> school shares some of its methodology and human suffering foundations with <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>; however, a key difference between the two is that Buddhism believes that there is neither a soul nor self;<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Nyāya</i> school like some other schools of Hinduism such as <i>Dvaita</i> and <i>Viśiṣṭādvaita</i> believes that there is a soul and self, with liberation (<i>mokṣa</i>) as a state of removal of ignorance, wrong knowledge, the gain of correct knowledge, and unimpeded continuation of self.<sup id="cite_ref-bkm_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bkm-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Nyaya</i> (न्याय) is a Sanskrit word which means justice, equality for all being, specially a collection of general or universal rules.<sup id="cite_ref-mmw_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mmw-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some contexts, it means model, axiom, plan, legal proceeding, judicial sentence, or judgment. Nyaya could also mean, "that which shows the way" tracing its Sanskrit etymology. In the theory of logic, and Indian texts discussing it, the term also refers to an argument consisting of an <a href="/wiki/Enthymeme" title="Enthymeme">enthymeme</a> or sometimes for any <a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">syllogism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-mmw_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mmw-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In philosophical context, <i>Nyaya</i> encompasses propriety, logic and method.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Panini</a>, revered Sanskrit grammarian, derives the "<i>Nyaya</i>" from the root "i" which conveys the same meaning as "gam" – to go. "<i>Nyaya</i>" signifying logic is there etymologically identical with "nigama" the conclusion of a syllogism.<sup id="cite_ref-978-81-7110-629-5_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-978-81-7110-629-5-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Nyaya</i> is related to several other concepts and words used in Indian philosophies: <i>Hetu-vidya</i> (science of causes), <i><a href="/wiki/Anviksiki" title="Anviksiki">Anviksiki</a></i> (science of inquiry, systematic philosophy), <i>Pramana-sastra</i> (epistemology, science of correct knowledge), <i>Tattva-sastra</i> (science of categories), <i>Tarka-vidya</i> (science of reasoning, innovation, synthesis), <i>Vadartha</i> (science of discussion) and <i>Phakkika-sastra</i> (science of uncovering sophism, fraud, error, finding fakes).<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of these subsume or deploy the tools of <i>Nyaya</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development">Development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style=";"> <div class="quotebox-title" style="">Nasadiya Sukta</div> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>Then was not non-existent nor existent:<br /> there was no realm of air, no sky beyond it.<br /> What covered in, and where? and what gave shelter?<br /> Was water there, unfathomed depth of water?<br /> ...<br /> Who really knows? Who will here proclaim it? <br /> Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation? <br /> The gods came after this world's production,<br />Who knows then whence it first came into being?" </p> </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="left-aligned" style=""><a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rig Veda</a>, <i>Creation....10:129–1, 10:129–6</i> <sup id="cite_ref-Christian2011_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Christian2011-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div> </div> <p>The historical development of Nyāya school is unclear, although <i><a href="/wiki/Nasadiya_sukta" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasadiya sukta">Nasadiya</a></i> hymns of Book 10 Chapter 129 of <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a> recite its spiritual questions in logical propositions.<sup id="cite_ref-Christian2011_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Christian2011-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In early centuries BCE, states <a href="/wiki/Francis_Xavier_Clooney" title="Francis Xavier Clooney">Clooney</a>, the early Nyāya scholars began compiling the science of rational, coherent inquiry and pursuit of knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-fxc_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fxc-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foundational_Text">Foundational Text</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Foundational Text"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aksapada Gautama composed the <i>Nyāya Sūtras</i> (by 2nd century CE), a foundational text for Nyāya, that primarily discusses logic, methodology and epistemology.<sup id="cite_ref-bkmxiv_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bkmxiv-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gautama is also known as Aksapada and Dirghatapas.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The names Gotama and Gautama points to the family to which he belonged while the names Aksapada and Dirghatapas refer respectively to his meditative habit and practice of long penance.<sup id="cite_ref-978-81-7110-629-5_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-978-81-7110-629-5-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The people of Mithila (modern Darbhanga in North Bihar) ascribe the foundation of Nyāya philosophy to <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Maharishi" title="Gautama Maharishi">Gautama</a>, husband of <a href="/wiki/Ahalya" title="Ahalya">Ahalya</a>, and point out as the place of his birth a village named <a href="/wiki/Gautam_Ashram" title="Gautam Ashram">Gautamasthana</a> where a fair is held every year on the 9th day of the lunar month of <a href="/wiki/Chaitra" title="Chaitra">Chaitra</a> (March–April). It is situated 28 miles north-east of <a href="/wiki/Darbhanga" title="Darbhanga">Darbhanga</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-978-81-7110-629-5_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-978-81-7110-629-5-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commentarial_Tradition">Commentarial Tradition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Commentarial Tradition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Concepts in the foundational text, the Nyaya Sutras, were clarified through a tradition of commentaries. Commentaries were also a means to defend the philosophy from misinterpretations by scholars of other traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Nyāya scholars that followed refined, expanded, and applied the <i>Nyaya Sutras</i> to spiritual questions. While the early Nyaya scholars published little to no analysis on whether supernatural power or God exists, they did apply their insights into reason and reliable means to knowledge to the questions of nature of existence, spirituality, happiness and <a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">moksha</a>. Later Nyāya scholars, such as <a href="/wiki/Udayana" title="Udayana">Udayana</a>, examined various arguments on theism and attempted to prove existence of God.<sup id="cite_ref-csharma_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-csharma-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other Nyāya scholars offered arguments to disprove the existence of God.<sup id="cite_ref-fxc_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fxc-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most important contribution made by the Nyāya school to Hindu thought has been its treatises on <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> and <a href="/wiki/System_of_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="System of logic">system of logic</a> that, subsequently, has been adopted by the majority of the other Indian schools.<sup id="cite_ref-olil_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-olil-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Metaphysics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sixteen_categories_(padārthas)"><span id="Sixteen_categories_.28pad.C4.81rthas.29"></span>Sixteen categories (<i>padārthas</i>)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Sixteen categories (padārthas)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Nyāya metaphysics recognizes sixteen <i><a href="/wiki/Padartha" class="mw-redirect" title="Padartha">padarthas</a></i> or categories and includes all six (or seven) categories of the <a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a> in the second one of them, called <i>prameya</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These sixteen categories are: </p> <ul><li>Methods and objects of inquiry <ol><li><i>pramāṇa</i> (valid means of knowledge or knowledge sources),</li> <li><i>prameya</i> (objects of valid knowledge),</li></ol></li> <li>Conditions and the components of inquiry <ol><li><i>saṁśaya</i> (doubt),</li> <li><i>prayojana</i> (aim),</li> <li><i>dṛṣṭānta</i> (example),</li> <li><i>siddhānta</i> (conclusion or accepted position),</li> <li><i>avayava</i> (members of syllogism or inferential components),</li> <li><i>tarka</i> (hypothetical/suppositional reasoning),</li> <li><i>nirṇaya</i> (settlement or certainty),</li></ol></li> <li>Forms of and strategies for debate <ol><li><i>vāda</i> (truth-directed debate),</li> <li><i>jalpa</i> (victory-directed debate),</li> <li><i>vitaṇḍā</i> (destructive debate),</li> <li><i>hetvābhāsa</i> (defective reasons),</li> <li><i>chala</i> (tricks),</li> <li><i>jāti</i> (sophisticated refutation or misleading/futile objections) and</li> <li><i>nigrahasthāna</i> (point of defeat or clinchers).<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ch_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ch-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol></li></ul> <p>According to Matthew Dasti and Stephen Phillips, it may be useful to interpret the word <i>jnana</i> as cognition rather than knowledge when studying the Nyāya system.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_self">The self</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The self"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nyaya posits that there exists a self distinct from the mind, which is distinct from the body.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The self is a nonphysical substance and is not inherently conscious.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Epistemology">Epistemology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Epistemology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><style 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href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:4_Pramanas,_epistemology_according_to_ancient_Nyayasutras.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/4_Pramanas%2C_epistemology_according_to_ancient_Nyayasutras.svg/220px-4_Pramanas%2C_epistemology_according_to_ancient_Nyayasutras.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="351" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/4_Pramanas%2C_epistemology_according_to_ancient_Nyayasutras.svg/330px-4_Pramanas%2C_epistemology_according_to_ancient_Nyayasutras.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/4_Pramanas%2C_epistemology_according_to_ancient_Nyayasutras.svg/440px-4_Pramanas%2C_epistemology_according_to_ancient_Nyayasutras.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="817" /></a><figcaption>The Nyaya school considers perception, inference, comparison/analogy, and testimony from reliable sources as four means to correct knowledge, holding that perception is the ultimate source of such knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-jag_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jag-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gflood_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gflood-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Nyāya treatises on <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a> widely influenced other schools of Hinduism.<sup id="cite_ref-jalo_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jalo-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Nyaya philosophy, knowledge is a type of "awareness event that is in accordance with its object by virtue of having been produced by a well-functioning epistemic instrument."<sup id="cite_ref-:1_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Pramāṇa</i>, a Sanskrit word, literally is "means of knowledge". It encompasses one or more reliable and valid means by which human beings gain accurate, true knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-jalo_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jalo-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The focus of Pramana is how correct knowledge can be acquired, how one knows, how one doesn't, and to what extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something can be acquired.<sup id="cite_ref-dpsb_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dpsb-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-kp_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kp-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By definition, <i>pramāṇas</i> are factive i.e. they cannot produce false belief. So, while statements can be false, testimony cannot be false. <sup id="cite_ref-:1_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nyāya scholars accepted four valid means (<i>pramāṇa</i>) of obtaining valid knowledge (<i>prameya</i>) – </p> <ol><li>perception (<i>pratyakṣa</i>),</li> <li>inference (<i>anumāna</i>),</li> <li>comparison (<i><a href="/wiki/Upam%C4%81na" class="mw-redirect" title="Upamāna">upamāna</a></i>), and</li> <li>word/testimony of reliable sources (<i>śabda</i>).</li></ol> <p>The Nyāya scholars, along with those from other schools of Hinduism, also developed a theory of error, to methodically establish means to identify errors and the process by which errors are made in human pursuit of knowledge. These include <i>saṁśaya</i> (problems, inconsistencies, doubts) and <i>viparyaya</i> (contrariness, errors)<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which can be corrected or resolved by a systematic process of <i>tarka</i> (reasoning, technique).<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pratyaksha_(perception)"><span id="Pratyaksha_.28perception.29"></span><i>Pratyaksha</i> (perception)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Pratyaksha (perception)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Pratyakṣa</i> (perception) occupies the foremost position in the <i>Nyāya</i> epistemology. Perception can be of two types, <i>laukika</i> (ordinary) and <i>alaukika</i> (extraordinary).<sup id="cite_ref-tror_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tror-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ordinary perception is defined by Akṣapāda Gautama in his <i>Nyāya Sutra</i> (I, i.4) as a 'non-erroneous cognition which is produced by the intercourse of sense-organs with the objects'. </p><p>Indian texts identify four requirements for correct perception:<sup id="cite_ref-kpmat_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kpmat-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Indriyarthasannikarsa</i> (direct experience by one's sensory organ(s) with the object, whatever is being studied), <i>Avyapadesya</i> (non-verbal; correct perception is not through <a href="/wiki/Hearsay" title="Hearsay">hearsay</a>, according to ancient Indian scholars, where one's sensory organ relies on accepting or rejecting someone else's perception), <i>Avyabhicara</i> (does not wander; correct perception does not change, nor is it the result of deception because one's sensory organ or means of observation is drifting, defective, suspect) and <i>Vyavasayatmaka</i> (definite; correct perception excludes judgments of doubt, either because of one's failure to observe all the details, or because one is mixing inference with observation and observing what one wants to observe, or not observing what one does not want to observe).<sup id="cite_ref-kpmat_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kpmat-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ordinary perception to Nyāya scholars was based on direct experience of reality by eyes, ears, nose, touch and taste.<sup id="cite_ref-tror_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tror-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Extraordinary perception included <i>yogaja</i> or <i>pratibha</i> (intuition), <i>samanyalaksanapratyaksa</i> (a form of induction from perceived specifics to a universal), and <i>jnanalaksanapratyaksa</i> (a form of perception of prior processes and previous states of a 'topic of study' by observing its current state).<sup id="cite_ref-tror_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tror-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Determinate_and_indeterminate_perception">Determinate and indeterminate perception</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Determinate and indeterminate perception"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Naiyyayika maintains two modes or stages in perception. The first is called <i><a href="/wiki/Nirvikalpa" class="mw-redirect" title="Nirvikalpa">nirvikalpa</a></i> (indeterminate), when one just perceives an object without being able to know its features, and the second <i><a href="/wiki/Savikalpa" class="mw-redirect" title="Savikalpa">savikalpa</a></i> (determinate), when one is able to clearly know an object.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All <i>laukika</i> and <i>alaukika</i> <i>pratyakshas</i> are <i>savikalpa</i>, but it is necessarily preceded by an earlier stage when it is indeterminate. Vātsāyana says that if an object is perceived with its name we have determinate perception but if it is perceived without a name, we have indeterminate perception. <a href="/wiki/Jayanta_Bhatta" title="Jayanta Bhatta">Jayanta Bhatta</a> says that indeterminate perception apprehends substance, qualities and actions and universals as separate and indistinct, without any association with any names, whereas determinate perception apprehends them all together with a name. There is yet another stage called <i>Pratyabhijñā</i>, when one is able to re-recognise something on the basis of memory.<sup id="cite_ref-c_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-c-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anumāna_(inference)"><span id="Anum.C4.81na_.28inference.29"></span><i>Anumāna</i> (inference)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Anumāna (inference)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Anumāna</i> (inference) is one of the most important contributions of the Nyāya. It can be of two types: inference for oneself (<i>Svarthanumana</i>, where one does not need any formal procedure, and at the most the last three of their 5 steps), and inference for others (<i>Parathanumana</i>, which requires a systematic methodology of 5 steps). Inference can also be classified into 3 types: <i>Purvavat</i> (inferring an unperceived effect from a perceived cause), <i>Sheshavat</i> (inferring an unperceived cause from a perceived effect) and <i>Samanyatodrishta</i> (when inference is not based on causation but on uniformity of co-existence). A detailed analysis of error is also given, explaining when anumana could be false.<sup id="cite_ref-c_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-c-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Theory_of_inference">Theory of inference</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Theory of inference"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The methodology of inference involves a combination of induction and deduction by moving from particular to particular via generality. It has five steps, as in the example shown:<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TS-AB_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TS-AB-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>There is fire on the hill (called <i>Pratijñā</i>, required to be proved)</li> <li>Because there is smoke there (called <i>Hetu</i>, reason)</li> <li>Wherever there is smoke, there is fire, e.g. in a kitchen (called <i>Udāhārana</i>, example of vyāpti)</li> <li>The hill has smoke that is pervaded by fire (called <i>Upanaya</i>, reaffirmation or application)</li> <li>Therefore, there is fire on the hill (called <i>Nigamana</i>, conclusion)</li></ul> <p>In Nyāya terminology for this example, the hill would be the <i>paksha</i> (minor term),<sup id="cite_ref-TS-AB_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TS-AB-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 31">: 31 </span></sup> the fire is the <i>sādhya</i> (major term),<sup id="cite_ref-TS-AB_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TS-AB-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 21">: 21 </span></sup> the smoke is <i>hetu</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-TS-AB_47-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TS-AB-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 31">: 31 </span></sup> and the relationship between the smoke and the fire is <i><a href="/wiki/Vyapti" title="Vyapti">vyapti</a></i>(middle term).<sup id="cite_ref-TS-AB_47-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TS-AB-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 19">: 19 </span></sup> </p><p>Hetu further has five characteristics<sup id="cite_ref-Matilal_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matilal-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>It must be present in the <i>Paksha</i> (the case under consideration),</li> <li>It must be present in all positive instances (<i>sapaksha</i>, or homologues),</li> <li>It must be absent in all negative instances</li> <li>It must not be incompatible with an established truth, (<i>abādhitatva</i>)</li> <li>Absence of another evidence for the opposite thesis (<i>asatpratipakshitva</i>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Inference_Fallacies_(hetvābhasa)"><span id="Inference_Fallacies_.28hetv.C4.81bhasa.29"></span>Inference Fallacies (<i>hetvābhasa</i>)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Inference Fallacies (hetvābhasa)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The fallacies in Anumana (<i>hetvābhasa</i>) may occur due to the following<sup id="cite_ref-Jadunath_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jadunath-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><i>Asiddha</i>: It is the unproved <i>hetu</i> that results in this fallacy. <ul><li><i>Ashrayasiddha</i>: If Paksha [minor term] itself is unreal, then there cannot be locus of the hetu. e.g. The sky-lotus is fragrant, because it is a lotus like any other lotus.</li> <li><i>Svarupasiddha</i>: Hetu cannot exist in paksa at all. E.g. Sound is a quality, because it is visible.</li> <li><i>Vyapyatvasiddha</i>: Conditional hetu. `Wherever there is fire, there is smoke'. The presence of smoke is due to wet fuel.</li></ul></li> <li><i>Savyabhichara</i>: This is the fallacy of irregular hetu. <ul><li><i>Sadharana</i>: The hetu is too wide. It is present in both sapaksa and vipaksa. `The hill has fire because it is knowable'.</li> <li><i>Asadharana</i>: The hetu is too narrow. It is only present in the Paksha, it is not present in the Sapaksa and in the Vipaksha. `Sound is eternal because it is audible'.</li> <li><i>Anupasamhari</i>: Here the hetu is non-exclusive. The hetu is all-inclusive and leaves nothing by way of sapaksha or vipaksha. e.g. 'All things are non-ternal, because they are knowable'.</li></ul></li> <li><i>Satpratipaksa</i>: Here the hetu is contradicted by another hetu. If both have equal force, then nothing follows. 'Sound is eternal, because it is audible', and 'Sound is non-eternal, because it is produced'. Here 'audible' is counterbalanced by 'produced' and both are of equal force.</li> <li><i>Badhita</i>: When another proof (as by perception) definitely contradicts and disproves the middle term (hetu). 'Fire is cold because it is a substance'.</li> <li><i>Viruddha</i>: Instead of proving something it is proving the opposite. 'Sound is eternal because it is produced'.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Upamāna_(comparison,_analogy)"><span id="Upam.C4.81na_.28comparison.2C_analogy.29"></span><i>Upamāna</i> (comparison, analogy)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Upamāna (comparison, analogy)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Upamāna</i> (उपमान) means comparison and analogy.<sup id="cite_ref-dpsb_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dpsb-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gflood_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gflood-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Upamāna</i>, states Lochtefeld,<sup id="cite_ref-jl721_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jl721-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> may be explained with the example of a traveller who has never visited lands or islands with endemic population of wildlife. He or she is told, by someone who has been there, that in those lands you see an animal that sort of looks like a cow, grazes like cow but is different from a cow in such and such way. Such use of analogy and comparison is, state the Indian epistemologists, a valid means of conditional knowledge, as it helps the traveller identify the new animal later.<sup id="cite_ref-jl721_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jl721-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The subject of comparison is formally called <i>upameyam</i>, the object of comparison is called <i>upamānam</i>, while the attribute(s) are identified as <i>sāmānya</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-mw457_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mw457-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, explains <a href="/wiki/Monier_Monier-Williams" title="Monier Monier-Williams">Monier Williams</a>, if a boy says "her face is like the moon in charmingness", "her face" is <i>upameyam</i>, the moon is <i>upamānam</i>, and charmingness is <i>sāmānya</i>. The 7th century text <a href="/wiki/Bha%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADik%C4%81vya" title="Bhaṭṭikāvya">Bhaṭṭikāvya</a> in verses 10.28 through 10.63 discusses many types of comparisons and analogies, identifying when this epistemic method is more useful and reliable, and when it is not.<sup id="cite_ref-mw457_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mw457-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In various ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism, 32 types of <i>Upamāna</i> and their value in epistemology are debated.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Śabda_(word,_testimony)"><span id=".C5.9Aabda_.28word.2C_testimony.29"></span><i>Śabda</i> (word, testimony)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Śabda (word, testimony)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Śabda</i> (शब्द) means relying on word, testimony of past or present reliable experts.<sup id="cite_ref-dpsb_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dpsb-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-eliottjag_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eliottjag-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hiriyanna explains <i>Sabda-pramana</i> as a concept which means testimony of a reliable and trustworthy person (<i>āptavākya</i>). The schools of Hinduism which consider it epistemically valid suggest that a human being needs to know numerous facts, and with the limited time and energy available, he can learn only a fraction of those facts and truths directly.<sup id="cite_ref-mhir_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mhir-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He must rely on others, his parent, family, friends, teachers, ancestors and kindred members of society to rapidly acquire and share knowledge and thereby enrich each other's lives. This means of gaining proper knowledge is either spoken or written, but through <i>Sabda</i> (words).<sup id="cite_ref-mhir_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mhir-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reliability of the source is important, and legitimate knowledge can only come from the <i>Sabda</i> of reliable sources.<sup id="cite_ref-eliottjag_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eliottjag-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-mhir_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mhir-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The disagreement between the schools of Hinduism has been on how to establish reliability. Some schools, such as <a href="/wiki/Carvaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Carvaka">Carvaka</a>, state that this is never possible, and therefore <i>Sabda</i> is not a proper <i>pramana</i>. Other schools debate means to establish reliability.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Testimony can be of two types, <i>Vaidika</i> (<a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedic</a>), which are the words of the four sacred Vedas, and <i>Laukika</i>, or words and writings of trustworthy human beings. <i>Vaidika</i> testimony is preferred over <i>Laukika</i> testimony. Laukika-sourced knowledge must be questioned and revised as more trustworthy knowledge becomes available.<sup id="cite_ref-SC-Nyaya_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SC-Nyaya-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-KLD-LnO_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KLD-LnO-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Aphor-Gau_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aphor-Gau-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Direct_Realism">Direct Realism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Direct Realism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Nyaya philosophy, direct realism asserts that our cognitions are informational states revealing external objects. According to Nyaya, the world consists of stable, three-dimensional objects, and their system of categories accurately mirrors reality's structure. Nyaya philosophy emphasizes the importance of universals, qualities, and relations in understanding the organization of the world. These foundational elements are believed to play essential roles in determining the <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenological</a>, causal, and logical organization of the world, playing a crucial role in the classification of objects.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparison_with_other_schools_of_Hinduism">Comparison with other schools of Hinduism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Comparison with other schools of Hinduism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Each school of Hinduism has its own treatises on epistemology, with different number of <i><a href="/wiki/Pramana" title="Pramana">Pramanas</a></i>. For example, compared to Nyāya school's four <i>pramanas</i>, <a href="/wiki/Carvaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Carvaka">Carvaka</a> school has just one (perception), while <a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita Vedanta</a> school recognizes six means to reliable knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-jag_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jag-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-eliottjag_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eliottjag-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theory_of_causation">Theory of causation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Theory of causation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176" /><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:26em; ; color: #202122;background-color: #FFE0BB;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p><b>Metaphysics</b><br /> Nyaya-Vaisheshika offers one of the most vigorous efforts at the construction of a substantialist, realist ontology that the world has ever seen. It provides an extended critique of event-ontologies and idealist metaphysics. (...) This ontology is Platonistic, realistic, but neither exclusively physicalistic nor phenomenalistic. </p> </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="right-aligned" style="">— <a href="/wiki/Karl_Harrington_Potter" title="Karl Harrington Potter">Karl Potter</a>, The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div> </div> <p>A <i>cause</i> is defined as an unconditional and invariable antecedent of an <i>effect</i> and an effect as an unconditional and invariable consequent of a cause. The same cause produces the same effect; and the same effect is produced by the same cause. The cause is <i>not</i> present in any hidden form whatsoever in its effect. </p><p>The following conditions should be met: </p> <ol><li>The cause must be antecedent [Purvavrtti]</li> <li>Invariability [Niyatapurvavrtti]</li> <li>Unconditionality [Ananyathasiddha]</li></ol> <p>Nyaya recognizes five kinds of accidental antecedents [Anyathasiddha] </p> <ol><li>Mere accidental antecedent. E.g., The colour of the potter's cloth.</li> <li>Remote cause is not a cause because it is not unconditional. E.g., The father of the potter.</li> <li>The co-effects of a cause are not causally related.</li> <li>Eternal substances, or eternal conditions are not unconditional antecedents, e.g. space.</li> <li>Unnecessary things, e.g. the donkey of the potter.</li></ol> <p>Nyaya recognizes three kinds of cause: </p> <ol><li><i>Samavayi</i>, material cause, e.g. thread of a cloth.</li> <li><i>Asamavayi</i>, colour of the thread which gives the colour of the cloth.</li> <li><i>Nimitta</i>, efficient cause, e.g. the weaver of the cloth.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Anyathakhyativada_(theory_of_error)"><span id="Anyathakhyativada_.28theory_of_error.29"></span><i>Anyathakhyativada</i> (theory of error)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Anyathakhyativada (theory of error)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Nyāya theory of error is similar to that of Kumarila's Viparita-khyati (see <a href="/wiki/Mimamsa" class="mw-redirect" title="Mimamsa">Mimamsa</a>). The Naiyyayikas also believe, like Kumarila, that error is due to a wrong synthesis of the presented and represented objects. The represented object is confused with the presented one. The word '<i>anyatha</i>' means 'elsewise' and 'elsewhere' and both of these meanings are brought out in error. The presented object is perceived elsewise and the represented object exists elsewhere. They further maintain that knowledge is not intrinsically valid but becomes so due to extraneous conditions (<i>paratah pramana</i> during both validity and invalidity). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="On_God_and_liberation">On God and liberation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: On God and liberation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Early Naiyyayikas wrote very little about <a href="/wiki/Ishvara" title="Ishvara">Ishvara</a> (literally, the Supreme Soul). Evidence available suggests that early Nyāya scholars were non-theistic or atheists.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, and over time, Nyāya scholars tried to apply some of their epistemological insights and methodology to the question: does God exist? Some offered arguments against and some in favor.<sup id="cite_ref-fxc_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fxc-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arguments_that_God_does_not_exist">Arguments that God does not exist</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Arguments that God does not exist"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Nyāya Sūtra's Book 4, Chapter 1, verses 19–21, postulates God exists, states a consequence, then presents contrary evidence, and from contradiction concludes that the postulate must be invalid.<sup id="cite_ref-fxc2_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fxc2-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"> <p>The Lord is the cause, since we see that human action lacks results.<br /> This is not so since, as a matter of fact, no result is accomplished without human action.<br /> Since this is efficacious, the reason lacks force. </p> <div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Nyaya Sutra, IV.1.19 – IV.1.21 <sup id="cite_ref-fxc2_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fxc2-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>A literal interpretation of the three verses suggests that Nyāya school rejected the need for a God for the efficacy of human activity. Since human action and results do not require assumption or need of the existence of God, sutra IV.1.21 is seen as a criticism of the "existence of God and theism postulate".<sup id="cite_ref-fxc2_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fxc2-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The context of the above verses includes various efficient causes. Nyāya Sūtra verses IV.1.22 to IV.1.24, for example, examine the hypothesis that "random chance" explains the world, after these Indian scholars had rejected God as the efficient cause.<sup id="cite_ref-fxc_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fxc-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arguments_that_God_exists">Arguments that God exists</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Arguments that God exists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Nyayakusumanjali" title="Nyayakusumanjali">Nyayakusumanjali</a>,</i> <a href="/wiki/Udayana" title="Udayana">Udayana</a> gives the following nine arguments to prove the existence of creative God and also refutes the existing objections and questions by atheistic systems of Carvaka, Mimamsa, Buddhists, Jains and Samkhya:<sup id="cite_ref-csharma_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-csharma-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><i>Kāryāt</i> (lit. "from effect"): The world is an effect. All effects have efficient cause. Hence the world must have an efficient cause. That efficient cause is God.<sup id="cite_ref-csharma_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-csharma-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Āyojanāt</i> (lit., from combination): Atoms are inactive. To form a substance, they must combine. To combine, they must move. Nothing moves without intelligence and source of motion. Since we perceive substance, some intelligent source must have moved the inactive atoms. That intelligent source is God.<sup id="cite_ref-csharma_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-csharma-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Dhŗtyādéḥ</i> (lit., from support): Something sustains this world. Something destroys this world. Unintelligent <i>Adrsta</i> (unseen principles of nature) cannot do this. We must infer that something intelligent is behind. That is God.<sup id="cite_ref-csharma_24-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-csharma-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Padāt</i> (lit., from word): Each word has meaning and represents an object. This representational power of words has a cause. That cause is God.</li> <li><i>Pratyayataḥ</i> (lit, from faith): Vedas are infallible. Human beings are fallible. Infallible Vedas cannot have been authored by fallible human beings. Someone authored the infallible Vedas. That author is God.<sup id="cite_ref-csharma_24-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-csharma-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Shrutéḥ</i> (lit., from scriptures): The infallible Vedas testify to the existence of God. Thus God exists.<sup id="cite_ref-csharma_24-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-csharma-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Vākyāt</i> (lit., from precepts): Vedas deal with moral laws. These are divine. Divine injunctions and prohibitions can only come from a divine creator of laws. That divine creator is God.<sup id="cite_ref-csharma_24-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-csharma-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Samkhyāviśeşāt</i> (lit., from the specialty of numbers): By rules of perception, only number "one" can ever be directly perceived. All other numbers other than one, are inferences and concepts created by consciousness. When man is born, his mind is incapable of inferences and concepts. He develops consciousness as he develops. The consciousness development is self-evident and proven because of man's ability with perfect numerical conception. This ability to conceive numerically perfect concepts must depend on something. That something is divine consciousness. So God must exist.<sup id="cite_ref-csharma_24-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-csharma-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Adŗşţāt</i> (lit., from the unforeseen): Everybody reaps the fruits of his own actions. Merits and demerits accrue from his own actions. An Unseen Power keeps a balance sheet of the merit and demerit. But since this Unseen Power is Unintelligent, it needs intelligent guidance to work. That intelligent guide is God.<sup id="cite_ref-csharma_24-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-csharma-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Naiyyayikas characterize Ishvara as absent of <i><a href="/wiki/Adharma" title="Adharma">adharma</a></i>, false knowledge, and error; and possessing <i><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">dharma</a></i>, right knowledge, and equanimity. Additionally, Ishvara is omnipotent and acts in a way that is good for his creatures.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Liberation">Liberation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Liberation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Naiyyayikas believe that the bondage of the world is due to false knowledge, which can be removed by constantly thinking of its opposite (<i>pratipakshabhavana</i>), namely, the true knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The opening aphorism of the <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Nyāya Sūtra</i></span></i> states that only the true knowledge leads to <i>niḥśreyasa</i> (liberation).<sup id="cite_ref-ch_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ch-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the Nyāya school also maintains that God's grace is essential for obtaining true knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jayanta_Bhatta" title="Jayanta Bhatta">Jayanta</a>, in his <i>Nyayamanjari</i> describes salvation as a passive stage of the self in its natural purity, unassociated with pleasure, pain, knowledge and willingness.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literature">Literature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <i><a href="/wiki/Y%C4%81j%C3%B1avalkya_Sm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Yājñavalkya Smṛti">Yājñavalkya Smṛti</a></i>, Nyāya is mentioned as one of the fourteen principal branches of learning. The <i><a href="/wiki/Matsya_Purana" title="Matsya Purana">Matsya-Purāṇa</a></i> states that knowledge of Nyāya came from the mouth of <a href="/wiki/Brahma" title="Brahma">Brahmā</a>. The <i><a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahābhārata</a></i> also mentions principles of Nyāya.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest text of the Nyāya School is the <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Nyāya Sūtra</i></span></i> of <a href="/wiki/Ak%E1%B9%A3ap%C4%81da_Gautama" class="mw-redirect" title="Akṣapāda Gautama"><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Akṣapāda Gautama</i></span></a>. The text is divided into five books, each having two sections. <a href="/wiki/V%C4%81tsy%C4%81yana" title="Vātsyāyana">Vatsyayana's</a> <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Nyāya Bhāṣya</i></span></i> is a classic commentary on the <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Nyāya Sūtra</i></span></i>. <a href="/wiki/Udyotakara" title="Udyotakara">Udyotakara</a>'s <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Nyāya Vārttika</i></span></i> (6th century CE) is written to defend <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Vātsāyana</i></span> against the attacks made by <a href="/wiki/Dign%C4%81ga" title="Dignāga">Dignāga</a>. <a href="/wiki/Vacaspati_Misra" class="mw-redirect" title="Vacaspati Misra"><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Vācaspati Miśra</i></span></a>'s <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Nyāyavārttikatātparyaṭīkā</i></span></i> (9th century CE) is the next major exposition of this school. Two other texts, <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Nyāyaṣūcinibandha</i></span></i> and <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Nyāyasūtraddhāra</i></span></i> are also attributed to him. <a href="/wiki/Udayana" title="Udayana">Udayana</a>'s (984 CE) <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Nyāyatātparyapariśuddhi</i></span></i> is an important commentary on <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Vācaspati</i></span>'s treatise. His <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Nyāyakusumāñjali</i></span></i> is the first systematic account of theistic <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Nyāya</i></span></i>. His other works include <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Ātmatattvaviveka</i></span></i>, <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Kiraṇāvali</i></span></i> and <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Nyāyapariśiṣṭa</i></span></i>. <a href="/wiki/Jayanta_Bhatta" title="Jayanta Bhatta">Jayanta Bhatta</a>'s <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Nyāyamañjari</i></span></i> (10th century CE) is basically an independent work. <a href="/wiki/Bhasarvajna" title="Bhasarvajna">Bhasarvajna</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Nyayasara" title="Nyayasara">Nyayasara</a></i> (10th century CE) is a survey of <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Nyāya</i></span></i> philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The later works on <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Nyāya</i></span></i> accepted the <i><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika"><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Vaiśeṣika</i></span></a></i> categories and <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Varadarāja</i></span>'s <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Tārkikarakṣā</i></span></i> (12th century CE) is a notable treatise of this syncretist school. <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Keśava Miśra</i></span>'s <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Tārkabhaṣā</i></span></i> (13th century CE) is another important work of this school.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Gangesha_Upadhyaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Gangesha Upadhyaya">Gangeśa Upādhyāya</a></i></span>'s <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Tattvacintāmaṇi</i></span></i> (14th century CE) is the first major treatise of the new school of <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></i></span></i>. His son, <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Vardhamāna Upādhyāya</i></span>'s <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Nyāyanibandhaprakāśa</i></span></i>, though a commentary on <a href="/wiki/Udayana" title="Udayana">Udayana</a>'s <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Nyāyatātparyapariśuddhi</i></span></i>, incorporated his father's views. Jayadeva wrote a commentary on <i><a href="/wiki/Tattvacint%C4%81ma%E1%B9%87i" class="mw-redirect" title="Tattvacintāmaṇi"><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Tattvacintāmaṇi</i></span></a></i> known as <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Āloka</i></span></i> (14th century CE). <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Vāsudeva Sārvabhauma</i></span>'s <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Tattvacintāmaṇivyākhyā</i></span></i> (16th century CE) is first great work of <a href="/wiki/Nabadwip" title="Nabadwip">Navadvipa</a> school of <span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></i></span>. <a href="/wiki/Raghunatha_Siromani" title="Raghunatha Siromani"><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Raghunātha Śiromaṇi</i></span></a>'s <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Tattvacintāmaṇidīdhiti</i></span></i> and <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Padārthakhaṇḍana</i></span></i> are the next important works of this school. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Visvanatha_Panchanana_Bhattacharya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Visvanatha Panchanana Bhattacharya (page does not exist)"><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Viśvanatha</i></span></a>'s <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Nyāyasūtravṛtti</i></span></i> (17th century CE) is also a notable work.<sup id="cite_ref-Radhakrishnan,_S._2006,_p.41_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Radhakrishnan,_S._2006,_p.41-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Commentaries on <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Tattvacintāmaṇidīdhiti</i></span></i> by Jagadish Tarkalankar (17th century CE) and Gadadhar Bhattacharya (17th century CE) are the last two notable works of this school. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Annambhatta" class="mw-redirect" title="Annambhatta"><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Annaṁbhatta</i></span></a> (17th century CE) tried to develop a consistent system by combining the ancient and the new schools, <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Prācina nyāya</i></span></i> and <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></i></span></i> and <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Vaiśeṣika</i></span></i> to develop the <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">nyāya-vaiśeṣika</i></span></i> school. His <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Tarkasaṁgraha</i></span></i> and <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Dīpikā</i></span></i> are the popular manuals of this school.<sup id="cite_ref-Radhakrishnan,_S._2006,_p.41_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Radhakrishnan,_S._2006,_p.41-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commentaries_on_the_Nyaya-Sutra">Commentaries on the Nyaya-Sutra</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Commentaries on the Nyaya-Sutra"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Numerous commentaries have been written on Nyāya-Sutra since its composition. Some of these commentaries are available on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/">www.archive.org</a> for reference. A few of the commentaries are mentioned below:<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Nyaya-Sutra by Gotama or Aksapada</li> <li>Nyaya-Bhasya by Vatsyayana</li> <li>Nyaya-Varttika by Udyotakar</li> <li>Nyaya-Varttika tatparya-tika by Vacaspati Misra</li> <li>Nyaya-Varttika-tatparayatika-parisuddhi by Udayans</li> <li>Parisuddhiprakasa by Vardhamana</li> <li>Vardhamanedu by Padmanabha Misra</li> <li>Nyayalankara by Srikantha</li> <li>Nyayalankara Vrtti by Jayanta</li> <li>Nyaya-manjari by Jayanta</li> <li>Nyaya-Vrtti by Abhayatilakopadhyaya</li> <li>Nyaya-Vrtti by Visvanatha</li> <li>Mitabhasini Vrtti by Mahadeva Vedanti</li> <li>Nyayaprakasa by Kesava Misra</li> <li>Nyayabodhini by Govardhana</li> <li>Nyaya Sutra Vyakhya by Mathuranatha</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Differences_from_Western_Philosophy">Differences from Western Philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Differences from Western Philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid 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role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The article's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section">lead section</a> <b>may need to be rewritten</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit">improve the lead</a> and read the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section">lead layout guide</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-Original_research plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Original_research" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>possibly contains <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research">original research</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit">improve it</a> by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verifying</a> the claims made and adding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a>. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Nyaya" title="Special:EditPage/Nyaya">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Nyaya%22">"Nyaya"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Nyaya%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Nyaya%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Nyaya%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Nyaya%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Nyaya%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="A_priori_knowledge"><i>A priori</i> knowledge</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: A priori knowledge"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nyaya philosophy does not establish a category of <i>a priori</i> knowledge. This choice may be due to only considering <i><a href="/wiki/De_dicto_and_de_re" title="De dicto and de re">de re</a></i> knowledge, not <i><a href="/wiki/De_dicto_and_de_re" title="De dicto and de re">de dicto</a></i> knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Logic">Logic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Logic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It is significant that the name <i>logic</i> is etymologically connected with the Greek word <i>logos</i>, which denotes both 'thought' and 'word' or 'discourse'. The significance of this etymological connection can be adequately appreciated if it is remembered that <i>logic</i>, in its rise and development in the western world, particularly in Greece, was closely connected with <i>rhetoric</i>. Thus the name <i>logic</i> is of a tell-tale character in its application to logic in the West; and it may be taken to indicate how, almost from its very rise, western logic found itself in the firm grip of formalism and how it took more than twenty centuries for the scientific method underlying <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle's</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Organon" title="Organon">Organon</a></i> to be redeemed, brought into prominence and implemented in the <i><a href="/wiki/Novum_Organum" title="Novum Organum">Novum Organum</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a> (1561–1626). The term <i>logic</i> should not be taken to carry with it all these implications of European history when it is used in the phrase <i><a href="/wiki/Indian_logic" title="Indian logic">Indian logic</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The essential features of logic in the Western tradition are well captured in the following statement by a famous logician <a href="/wiki/Alonzo_Church" title="Alonzo Church">Alonzo Church</a>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Logic is the systematic study of the structure of propositions and of the general conditions of valid inference by a method, which abstracts from the content or matter of the propositions and deals only with their logical form. This distinction between form and matter is made whenever we distinguish between the logical soundness or validity of a piece of reasoning and the truth of the premises from which it proceeds and in this sense is familiar from everyday usage. However, a precise statement of the distinction must be made with reference to a particular language or system of notation, a formalised language, which shall avoid the inexactness and systematically misleading irregularities of structure and expression that are found in ordinary (colloquial or literary) English and other natural languages and shall follow or reproduce the logical form.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Thus, the basic features of Western logic are: It deals with a study of ‘propositions’, specially their ‘logical form’ as abstracted from their ‘content’ or ‘matter’. It deals with ‘general conditions of valid inference’, wherein the truth or otherwise of the premises have no bearing on the ‘logical soundness or validity’ of an inference. It achieves this by taking recourse to a symbolic language that has little to do with natural languages. The main concern of Western logic, in its entire course of development, has been one of systematising patterns of mathematical reasoning, with the mathematical objects being thought of as existing either in an independent ideal world or in a formal domain. <a href="/wiki/Indian_logic" title="Indian logic">Indian logic</a> however, does not deal with ideal entities, such as propositions, logical truth as distinguished from material truth, or with purely symbolic languages that apparently have nothing to do with natural languages. </p><p>The central concern of Indian logic as founded in <i>nyāya</i> is epistemology, or the theory of knowledge. Thus Indian logic is not concerned merely with making arguments in formal mathematics rigorous and precise, but attends to the much larger issue of providing rigour to the arguments encountered in natural sciences (including mathematics, which in Indian tradition has the attributes of a natural science and not that of a collection of context free formal statements), and in philosophical discourse. Inference in Indian logic is ‘deductive and inductive’, ‘formal as well as material’. In essence, it is the method of scientific enquiry. Indian ‘formal logic’ is thus not ‘formal’, in the sense generally understood: in Indian logic ‘form’ cannot be entirely separated from ‘content’. In fact, great care is exercised to exclude from logical discourse terms, which have no referential content. No statement, which is known to be false, is admitted as a premise in a valid argument. Thus, the ‘method of indirect proof’ (<a href="/wiki/Reductio_ad_absurdum" title="Reductio ad absurdum">reductio ad absurdum</a>) is not accepted as a valid method−neither in Indian philosophy nor in Indian mathematics−for proving the existence of an entity whose existence is not demonstrable (even in principle) by other (direct) means of proof. </p><p>Indian logic does not make any attempt to develop a purely symbolic and content independent or ‘formal language’ as the vehicle of logical analysis. Instead, what Indian logic, especially in its later phase of <i>Navya-Nyāya</i> starting with the work of <a href="/wiki/Gangesha_Upadhyaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Gangesha Upadhyaya">Gāngeśa Upādhyāya</a> of the 14th century, has developed is a technical language, which is based on the natural language <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>, yet avoids ‘inexactness’ and ‘misleading irregularities’ by various technical devices. This technical language, being based on the natural language Sanskrit, inherits a certain natural structure and interpretation, and sensitivity to the context of enquiry. On the other hand, the symbolic formal systems of Western logic, though considerably influenced in their structure (say, in quantification, etc.) by the basic patterns discernible in European languages, are professedly purely symbolic, carrying no interpretation whatsoever−such interpretations are supposed to be supplied separately in the specific context of the particular field of enquiry ‘employing’ the symbolic formal system.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mithila_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Mithila University">Ancient Mithila University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Maharishi" title="Gautama Maharishi">Gautama Maharishi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_teachers_of_Nyaya" title="List of teachers of Nyaya">List of teachers of Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neti_neti" title="Neti neti">Neti neti</a> "not this", "neither this" (<i>neti</i> is <a href="/wiki/Sandhi" title="Sandhi">sandhi</a> from <i>na-iti</i> "not so").</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81stra_pram%C4%81%E1%B9%87am_in_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="Śāstra pramāṇam in Hinduism">Śāstra pramāṇam in Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarka-Sangraha" title="Tarka-Sangraha">Tarka-Sangraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pad%C4%81rtha" title="Padārtha">Padārtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika#The_Categories_or_Padārtha" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika#The Categories or Padārtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Categories_(Aristotle)" title="Categories (Aristotle)">Categories (Aristotle)</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-mmw-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mmw_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mmw_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mmw_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html">nyAya</a> Monier-Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nyabri-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nyabri_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nyabri_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nyabri_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nyaya">"Nyaya | Logic, Epistemology, Ethics | Britannica"</a>. <i>www.britannica.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Nyaya+%7C+Logic%2C+Epistemology%2C+Ethics+%7C+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FNyaya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANyaya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">B Gupta (2012), <i>An Introduction to Indian Philosophy: Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge and Freedom</i>, Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-80003-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-80003-7">978-0-415-80003-7</a>, pages 171–189</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought: Toward a Constructive Postmodern Ethics, State University of New York Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88706-139-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88706-139-4">978-0-88706-139-4</a>, page 223</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jag-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jag_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jag_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jag_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-3067-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-3067-5">978-0-7914-3067-5</a>, page 238</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dpsb-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dpsb_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dpsb_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dpsb_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-dpsb_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">DPS Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Indian Psychology (Editor: Anthony Marsella), Springer, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-8109-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-8109-7">978-1-4419-8109-7</a>, page 172</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gflood-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gflood_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gflood_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gflood_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Gavin_Flood" title="Gavin Flood">Gavin Flood</a>, An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43878-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43878-0">978-0-521-43878-0</a>, page 225</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vassilis Vitsaxis (2009), Thought and Faith, Somerset Hall Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-935244-04-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-935244-04-2">978-1-935244-04-2</a>, page 131</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">BK Matilal (1997), Logic, Language and Reality: Indian Philosophy and Contemporary Issues, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0717-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0717-4">978-81-208-0717-4</a>, pages 353–357</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-olil-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-olil_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-olil_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Oliver Leaman (2006), Nyaya, in <i>Encyclopaedia of Asian Philosophy</i>, Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-86253-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-86253-0">978-0-415-86253-0</a>, pages 405–407</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jfowlerpor129-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jfowlerpor129_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-898723-94-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-898723-94-3">978-1-898723-94-3</a>, page 129</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bkmxiv-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bkmxiv_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bkmxiv_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">B. K. Matilal "Perception. An Essay on Classical Indian Theories of Knowledge" (Oxford University Press, 1986), p. xiv.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">KN Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0619-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0619-1">978-81-208-0619-1</a>, pages 246–249, from note 385 onwards;<br />Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-2217-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-2217-5">978-0-7914-2217-5</a>, page 64; Quote: "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of <a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">ātman</a> is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence.";<br />Edward Roer (Translator), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3uwDAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA2">Shankara's Introduction</a></i>, p. 2, at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>, pages 2–4<br />Katie Javanaud (2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philosophynow.org/issues/97/Is_The_Buddhist_No-Self_Doctrine_Compatible_With_Pursuing_Nirvana">Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?</a>, Philosophy Now;<br />John C. Plott et al (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0158-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0158-5">978-81-208-0158-5</a>, page 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bkm-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bkm_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Bimal_Krishna_Matilal" title="Bimal Krishna Matilal">BK Matilal</a> (1997), Logic, Language and Reality: Indian Philosophy and Contemporary Issues, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0717-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0717-4">978-81-208-0717-4</a>, pages 354–355</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Ambeul (1998), Ontology in Indian Philosophy, in Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Editor: Edward Craig), Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-07310-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-07310-3">978-0-415-07310-3</a>, pages 118–127</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XtUhAQAAMAAJ">The Spectator</a></i> at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>, <i>Hindu Philosophy</i>, Volume 32, page 1260</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-978-81-7110-629-5-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-978-81-7110-629-5_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-978-81-7110-629-5_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-978-81-7110-629-5_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">The Nyaya Sutras of Gautama (Original Text, English Translation & Commentary) Translated & English Commentary by M.M. Satisa Candra Vidyabhusana Edited with a Sanskrit Preface by Dr. Sukhram <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7110-629-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7110-629-5">978-81-7110-629-5</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">N Sinha (1990), The Nyaya Sutras of Gotama, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0748-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0748-8">978-81-208-0748-8</a>, see Introduction, pages i–ii</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Christian2011-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Christian2011_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Christian2011_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Christian2011" class="citation book cs1">David Christian (1 September 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7RdVmDjwTtQC&pg=PA18"><i>Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History</i></a>. University of California Press. pp. 18–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-95067-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-95067-2"><bdi>978-0-520-95067-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Maps+of+Time%3A+An+Introduction+to+Big+History&rft.pages=18-&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2011-09-01&rft.isbn=978-0-520-95067-2&rft.au=David+Christian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7RdVmDjwTtQC%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANyaya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKenneth_Kramer1986" class="citation book cs1">Kenneth Kramer (January 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RzUAu-43W5oC&pg=PA34"><i>World Scriptures: An Introduction to Comparative Religions</i></a>. Paulist Press. pp. 34 ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8091-2781-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8091-2781-8"><bdi>978-0-8091-2781-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+Scriptures%3A+An+Introduction+to+Comparative+Religions&rft.pages=34+ff&rft.pub=Paulist+Press&rft.date=1986-01&rft.isbn=978-0-8091-2781-8&rft.au=Kenneth+Kramer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRzUAu-43W5oC%26pg%3DPA34&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANyaya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fxc-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fxc_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-fxc_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-fxc_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-fxc_21-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Francis X. Clooney (2010), Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries, Oxford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-973872-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-973872-4">978-0-19-973872-4</a>, pages 18–19, 35–39</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Padmapurana Uttarakhanda, Chapter 263</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPicascia2023" class="citation journal cs1">Picascia, Rosanna (18 April 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/jhs/article-abstract/17/1/62/7128281?redirectedFrom=fulltext">"Our epistemic dependence on others: Nyāya and Buddhist accounts of testimony as a source of knowledge"</a>. <i>Journal of Hindu Studies</i>. <b>17</b> (1): 63. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjhs%2Fhiad003">10.1093/jhs/hiad003</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1756-4263">1756-4263</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Hindu+Studies&rft.atitle=Our+epistemic+dependence+on+others%3A+Ny%C4%81ya+and+Buddhist+accounts+of+testimony+as+a+source+of+knowledge&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=63&rft.date=2023-04-18&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjhs%2Fhiad003&rft.issn=1756-4263&rft.aulast=Picascia&rft.aufirst=Rosanna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fjhs%2Farticle-abstract%2F17%2F1%2F62%2F7128281%3FredirectedFrom%3Dfulltext&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANyaya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-csharma-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-csharma_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-csharma_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-csharma_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-csharma_24-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-csharma_24-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-csharma_24-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-csharma_24-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-csharma_24-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-csharma_24-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-csharma_24-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sharma, C. (1997). <i>A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy</i>, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-0365-5" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-0365-5">81-208-0365-5</a>, pp.209–10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">G. Jha (1919), <i>Original atheism of the Nyaya, in Indian Thought – Proceedings and Transactions of the First Oriental Congress</i>, Vol ii, pages 281–285</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dale Riepe (1979), <i>Indian Philosophy Since Independence</i>, Volume 1, BR Grüner Netherlands, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-6032-113-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-6032-113-3">978-90-6032-113-3</a>, page 38</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sharma, C. (1997). <i>A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy</i>, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-0365-5" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-0365-5">81-208-0365-5</a>, p.192</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hiriyanna, M. (1993, reprint 2000). <i>Outlines of Indian Philosophy</i>, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-1099-6" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-1099-6">81-208-1099-6</a>, pp.245,245n</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ch-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ch_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ch_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Chattopadhyaya, D. (1986), <i>Indian Philosophy: A Popular Introduction</i>, People's Publishing House, New Delhi, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7007-023-6" title="Special:BookSources/81-7007-023-6">81-7007-023-6</a>, p.163</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDas2023" class="citation journal cs1">Das, Nilanjan (1 March 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10781-022-09530-4">"The Search for Definitions in Early Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika"</a>. <i>Journal of Indian Philosophy</i>. <b>51</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">133–</span>196. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10781-022-09530-4">10.1007/s10781-022-09530-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-0395">1573-0395</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Indian+Philosophy&rft.atitle=The+Search+for+Definitions+in+Early+Ny%C4%81ya-Vai%C5%9Be%E1%B9%A3ika&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E133-%3C%2Fspan%3E196&rft.date=2023-03-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10781-022-09530-4&rft.issn=1573-0395&rft.aulast=Das&rft.aufirst=Nilanjan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%2Fs10781-022-09530-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANyaya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRoe.2010" class="citation book cs1">Roe., Dasti, Matthew (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/664141068"><i>Rational belief in classical India : Nyāya's epistemology and defense of theism</i></a>. [University of Texas]. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/664141068">664141068</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rational+belief+in+classical+India+%3A+Ny%C4%81ya%27s+epistemology+and+defense+of+theism&rft.pub=%5BUniversity+of+Texas%5D&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F664141068&rft.aulast=Roe.&rft.aufirst=Dasti%2C+Matthew&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F664141068&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANyaya" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLaine2019" class="citation journal cs1">Laine, Joy (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.5840/teachphil20194216">"The Nyaya-sutra: Selections with Early Commentaries, by Matthew Dasti and Stephen Phillips"</a>. <i>Teaching Philosophy</i>. <b>42</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">73–</span>77. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5840%2Fteachphil20194216">10.5840/teachphil20194216</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0145-5788">0145-5788</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:150789983">150789983</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Teaching+Philosophy&rft.atitle=The+Nyaya-sutra%3A+Selections+with+Early+Commentaries%2C+by+Matthew+Dasti+and+Stephen+Phillips&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E73-%3C%2Fspan%3E77&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A150789983%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0145-5788&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5840%2Fteachphil20194216&rft.aulast=Laine&rft.aufirst=Joy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.5840%2Fteachphil20194216&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANyaya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAdamsonGaneri2020" class="citation book cs1">Adamson, Peter; Ganeri, Jonardon (26 March 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NcjXDwAAQBAJ"><i>Classical Indian Philosophy: A history of philosophy without any gaps, Volume 5</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 189. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-259267-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-259267-5"><bdi>978-0-19-259267-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classical+Indian+Philosophy%3A+A+history+of+philosophy+without+any+gaps%2C+Volume+5&rft.pages=189&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020-03-26&rft.isbn=978-0-19-259267-5&rft.aulast=Adamson&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Ganeri%2C+Jonardon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNcjXDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANyaya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThompson2014" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, Evan (18 November 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q_vpBAAAQBAJ"><i>Waking, Dreaming, Being: Self and Consciousness in Neuroscience, Meditation, and Philosophy</i></a>. Columbia University Press. p. 244. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-53831-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-53831-2"><bdi>978-0-231-53831-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Waking%2C+Dreaming%2C+Being%3A+Self+and+Consciousness+in+Neuroscience%2C+Meditation%2C+and+Philosophy&rft.pages=244&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2014-11-18&rft.isbn=978-0-231-53831-2&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Evan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dq_vpBAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANyaya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jalo-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jalo_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jalo_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">James Lochtefeld, "Pramana" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8239-2287-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8239-2287-1">0-8239-2287-1</a>, pages 520–521</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPicascia2023" class="citation journal cs1">Picascia, Rosanna (18 April 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/jhs/article-abstract/17/1/62/7128281?redirectedFrom=fulltext">"Our epistemic dependence on others: Nyāya and Buddhist accounts of testimony as a source of knowledge"</a>. <i>Journal of Hindu Studies</i>. <b>17</b> (1): 64. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjhs%2Fhiad003">10.1093/jhs/hiad003</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1756-4263">1756-4263</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Hindu+Studies&rft.atitle=Our+epistemic+dependence+on+others%3A+Ny%C4%81ya+and+Buddhist+accounts+of+testimony+as+a+source+of+knowledge&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=64&rft.date=2023-04-18&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjhs%2Fhiad003&rft.issn=1756-4263&rft.aulast=Picascia&rft.aufirst=Rosanna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fjhs%2Farticle-abstract%2F17%2F1%2F62%2F7128281%3FredirectedFrom%3Dfulltext&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANyaya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kp-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-kp_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karl Potter (2002), Presuppositions of India's Philosophies, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-0779-0" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-0779-0">81-208-0779-0</a>, pages 25–26</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karl Potter and Sibajiban Bhattacharya (1994), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 6, Princeton University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-07384-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-07384-2">978-0-691-07384-2</a>, page 422</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karl Potter and Sibajiban Bhattacharya (1994), Logical Theory & Gangesa & Other chapters, in The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 6, 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Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0008-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0008-3"><bdi>978-81-208-0008-3</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Agra: Lakshmi Narain Agarwal. pp. <span class="nowrap">53–</span>58.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Indian+Philosophy&rft.place=Agra&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E53-%3C%2Fspan%3E58&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Lakshmi+Narain+Agarwal&rft.date=1949&rft.aulast=Sinha&rft.aufirst=Jadunath&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.17403%2Fpage%2Fn63%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANyaya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jl721-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jl721_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jl721_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">James Lochtefeld, "Upamana" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8239-2287-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8239-2287-1">0-8239-2287-1</a>, page 721</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mw457-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mw457_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mw457_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Monier Williams (1893), Indian Wisdom – Religious, Philosophical and Ethical Doctrines of the Hindus, Luzac & Co, London, pages 457–458</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-eliottjag-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-eliottjag_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-eliottjag_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-eliottjag_52-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <ul><li>Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion : Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-3611-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-3611-2">978-0-8153-3611-2</a>, pages 245–248;</li> <li>John A. 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New Delhi: Northern Book Centre. p. 71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7211-228-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7211-228-8"><bdi>978-81-7211-228-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+and+Ontology&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=Northern+Book+Centre&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-81-7211-228-8&rft.aulast=Das&rft.aufirst=Kanti+Lal&rft.au=Mukherjee%2C+Anirban&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCkG_SxiE4-AC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANyaya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Aphor-Gau-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Aphor-Gau_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4C5Tsfe4bF4C"><i>The Aphorisms of the Nyaya Philosophy by Gautama</i></a>. Allahabad: Presbyterian Mission Press. 1850. p. 51<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Aphorisms+of+the+Nyaya+Philosophy+by+Gautama&rft.place=Allahabad&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Presbyterian+Mission+Press&rft.date=1850&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4C5Tsfe4bF4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANyaya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBartley2011" class="citation book cs1">Bartley, C. J. (2011). <i>An introduction to Indian philosophy</i>. London; New York: Continuum. p. 91. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84706-448-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84706-448-6"><bdi>978-1-84706-448-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+introduction+to+Indian+philosophy&rft.place=London%3B+New+York&rft.pages=91&rft.pub=Continuum&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-84706-448-6&rft.aulast=Bartley&rft.aufirst=C.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANyaya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karl Potter (2004), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Indian metaphysics and epistemology, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0309-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0309-1">978-81-208-0309-1</a>, page 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Clayton (2010), Religions, Reasons and Gods: Essays in Cross-cultural Philosophy of Religion, Cambridge University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-12627-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-12627-4">978-0-521-12627-4</a>, page 150</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">G Oberhammer (1965), Zum problem des Gottesbeweises in der Indischen Philosophie, Numen, 12: 1–34</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fxc2-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fxc2_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-fxc2_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-fxc2_62-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Original Sanskrit: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/Anandashram_Samskrita_Granthavali_Anandashram_Sanskrit_Series">Nyayasutra</a>, Anandashram Sanskrit Granthvali, pages 290–292;<br />English translation: Francis X. Clooney (2010), Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries, Oxford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-973872-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-973872-4">978-0-19-973872-4</a>, page 37</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKlostermaier2010" class="citation book cs1">Klostermaier, Klaus K. (10 March 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8CVviRghVtIC"><i>A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition</i></a>. State University of New York Press. p. 340. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-8011-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-8011-3"><bdi>978-0-7914-8011-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Survey+of+Hinduism%3A+Third+Edition&rft.pages=340&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=2010-03-10&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-8011-3&rft.aulast=Klostermaier&rft.aufirst=Klaus+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8CVviRghVtIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANyaya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dasgupta, Surendranath (1975). <i>A History of Indian Philosophy</i>, Vol. I, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0412-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0412-8">978-81-208-0412-8</a>, p.365</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sharma, C. (1997). <i>A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy</i>, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-0365-5" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-0365-5">81-208-0365-5</a>, p.208</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dasgupta, Surendranath (1975). <i>A History of Indian Philosophy</i>, Vol. I, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0412-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0412-8">978-81-208-0412-8</a>, p.366</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGoswami2014" class="citation thesis cs1">Goswami, Diptimani (May 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.handle.net/10603/64250"><i>A Study of Nyayavaisesika Categories with Special Reference to Tarkasamgraha</i></a> (PhD thesis). Gauhati University. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10603%2F64250">10603/64250</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=A+Study+of+Nyayavaisesika+Categories+with+Special+Reference+to+Tarkasamgraha&rft.degree=PhD&rft.inst=Gauhati+University&rft.date=2014-05&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10603%2F64250&rft.aulast=Goswami&rft.aufirst=Diptimani&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhdl.handle.net%2F10603%2F64250&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANyaya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Radhakrishnan, S. <i>Indian Philosophy</i>, Vol. II, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2006, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-563820-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-563820-4">0-19-563820-4</a>, pp.36–40</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Radhakrishnan, S. <i>Indian Philosophy</i>, Vol. II, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2006, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-563820-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-563820-4">0-19-563820-4</a>, p.40</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Radhakrishnan,_S._2006,_p.41-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Radhakrishnan,_S._2006,_p.41_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Radhakrishnan,_S._2006,_p.41_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Radhakrishnan, S. <i>Indian Philosophy</i>, Vol. II, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2006, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-563820-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-563820-4">0-19-563820-4</a>, p.41</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDr._Sukram2018" class="citation book cs1">Dr. Sukram, ed. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1175607882"><i>The Nyāya-Sutras of Gautama: original text, English translation & notes</i></a>. Translated by Satis Chandra Vidyabhusana (First ed.). Delhi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7110-629-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7110-629-5"><bdi>978-81-7110-629-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1175607882">1175607882</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ny%C4%81ya-Sutras+of+Gautama%3A+original+text%2C+English+translation+%26+notes&rft.place=Delhi&rft.edition=First&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1175607882&rft.isbn=978-81-7110-629-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1175607882&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANyaya" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPhillips2012" class="citation book cs1">Phillips, Stephen H. (2012). <i>Epistemology in classical India: the knowledge sources of the Nyāya school</i>. New York: Routledge. p. 102. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-89554-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-89554-5"><bdi>978-0-415-89554-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epistemology+in+classical+India%3A+the+knowledge+sources+of+the+Ny%C4%81ya+school&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=102&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-415-89554-5&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=Stephen+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANyaya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKuppuswami_Sastri1951" class="citation book cs1">Kuppuswami Sastri, S. (1951). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/primerofindianlo032215mbp"><i>A Primer Of Indian Logic</i></a>. Osmania University, Digital Library Of India. The Kuppuswami Sastri Research Institute.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Primer+Of+Indian+Logic&rft.pub=The+Kuppuswami+Sastri+Research+Institute.&rft.date=1951&rft.aulast=Kuppuswami+Sastri&rft.aufirst=S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprimerofindianlo032215mbp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANyaya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAlonzo1959" class="citation journal cs1">Alonzo, Church (1959). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Logic', in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, XIV Edition, Chicago 1959". <i>The Journal of Symbolic Logic</i>. <b>23</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">22–</span>29. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2964454">10.2307/2964454</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-4812">0022-4812</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2964454">2964454</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:117854610">117854610</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Symbolic+Logic&rft.atitle=%27Logic%27%2C+in+the+Encyclopaedia+Britannica%2C+XIV+Edition%2C+Chicago+1959&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E22-%3C%2Fspan%3E29&rft.date=1959&rft.issn=0022-4812&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A117854610%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2964454%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2964454&rft.aulast=Alonzo&rft.aufirst=Church&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANyaya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMatilal" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bimal_Krishna_Matilal" title="Bimal Krishna Matilal">Matilal, Bimal Krishna</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cpsindia.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/logic-c2.pdf">"Indian Approach to Logic"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>cpsindia.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cpsindia.org&rft.atitle=Indian+Approach+to+Logic&rft.aulast=Matilal&rft.aufirst=Bimal+Krishna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcpsindia.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2023%2F06%2Flogic-c2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANyaya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Kisor Kumar Chakrabarti (1995), <i>Definition and induction: a historical and comparative study</i>, University of Hawaii Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-585-30953-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-585-30953-8">978-0-585-30953-8</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/45728618">45728618</a></li> <li>Gangesa (2010), <i>Classical Indian philosophy of induction: the Nyāya viewpoint</i>, (Translator: Kisor Kumar Chakrabarti), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-4705-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-4705-4">978-0-7391-4705-4</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/665834163">665834163</a></li> <li>Gangesa (2020), <i>Tattva-cintā-maṇi</i>, (“Jewel”), translated by Stephen Phillips, <i>Jewel of Reflection on the Truth about Epistemology</i>. 3 volumes, London: Bloomsbury.</li> <li>Gopi Kaviraj (1961), <i>Gleanings from the history and bibliography of the Nyaya-Vaisesika literature</i>, Indian Studies: Past & Present, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/24469380">24469380</a></li> <li>Arthur Keith (1921), <i>Indian logic and atomism: an exposition of the Nyāya and Vaiçeṣika systems</i>, Greenwood Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/451428">451428</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimal_Krishna_Matilal" title="Bimal Krishna Matilal">Bimal Matilal</a> (1977), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JyJ--9uUtx0C"><i>A History of Indian Literature – Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika</i></a>, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-01807-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-01807-4">978-3-447-01807-4</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/489575550">489575550</a></li> <li>Stephen Phillips (2012), <i>Epistemology in classical India: the knowledge sources of the Nyāya school</i>, Routledge, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-89554-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-89554-5">978-0-415-89554-5</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/701015636">701015636</a></li> <li>Karl Potter (1977), <i>Indian metaphysics and epistemology: the tradition of Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika up to Gaṅgeśa</i>, Princeton University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/3933891">3933891</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Navya-Nyaya_school">Navya-Nyaya school</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Navya-Nyaya school"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bimal Matilal, <i>The Navya-nyāya doctrine of negation: the semantics and ontology of negative statements</i>, Harvard University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/606911358">606911358</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_H._H._Ingalls,_Sr." class="mw-redirect" title="Daniel H. H. Ingalls, Sr.">Daniel H.H. Ingalls</a>, <i>Materials for the study of Navya-nyāya logic</i>, Harvard University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1907221">1907221</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyaya&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZalta" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/early-modern-india/">"Analytic Philosophy in Early Modern India"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Analytic+Philosophy+in+Early+Modern+India&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fearly-modern-india%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANyaya" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZalta" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-india/">"Epistemology in Classical Indian Philosophy"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Epistemology+in+Classical+Indian+Philosophy&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fepistemology-india%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANyaya" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/nyaya">"Nyaya"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nyaya&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fnyaya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANyaya" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ochs.org.uk/lectures/by-topic/201">Lectures on Nyaya</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210121215816/https://ochs.org.uk/lectures/by-topic/201">Archived</a> 21 January 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> The Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies, Oxford University</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonardon_Ganeri" title="Jonardon Ganeri">Ganeri, Jonardon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Edward N. Zalta</a> (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2019/entries/early-modern-india/.">"Analytic Philosophy in Early Modern India"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>.</i></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Aum_Om_red.svg/40px-Aum_Om_red.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="356" data-file-height="367" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:HinduSwastika.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/HinduSwastika.svg/20px-HinduSwastika.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/HinduSwastika.svg/40px-HinduSwastika.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="142" data-file-height="145" /></a></span> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#FFC569;;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Hinduism_terms" title="Glossary of Hinduism terms">Glossary</a></li> <li>Index</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of Hinduism">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Hinduism_terms" title="Glossary of Hinduism terms">Concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Om" title="Om">Om</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ishvara" title="Ishvara">Ishvara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">Atman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_(religion)" title="Maya (religion)">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra" title="Saṃsāra">Saṃsāra</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Puru%E1%B9%A3%C4%81rtha" title="Puruṣārtha">Puruṣārthas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artha" title="Artha">Artha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kama" title="Kama">Kama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">Moksha</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion#Hindu_ethics" title="Ethics in religion">Niti</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achourya" title="Achourya">Asteya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aparigraha" class="mw-redirect" title="Aparigraha">Aparigraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmacarya" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmacarya">Brahmacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)#Hinduism" title="Temperance (virtue)">Damah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion#Hinduism" title="Compassion">Dayā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akrodha" title="Akrodha">Akrodha</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Schools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika" title="Āstika and nāstika">Āstika</a>: <a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Sv%C4%81bh%C4%81vika_Bhed%C4%81bheda" class="mw-redirect" title="Svābhāvika Bhedābheda">Svābhāvika Bhedābheda</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika" title="Āstika and nāstika">Nāstika</a>: <a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Charvaka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Hindu "Om" symbol"><img alt="Hindu "Om" symbol" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Aum_Om_navy_blue_circle_hollow_coral.svg/100px-Aum_Om_navy_blue_circle_hollow_coral.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Aum_Om_navy_blue_circle_hollow_coral.svg/150px-Aum_Om_navy_blue_circle_hollow_coral.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Aum_Om_navy_blue_circle_hollow_coral.svg/200px-Aum_Om_navy_blue_circle_hollow_coral.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="507" /></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_texts" title="Hindu texts">Texts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;">Classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aruti" title="Śruti">Śruti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Smṛti">Smṛti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Yajurveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaveda" title="Samaveda">Samaveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atharvaveda" title="Atharvaveda">Atharvaveda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;">Divisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_chant" title="Vedic chant">Samhita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmana" title="Brahmana">Brahmana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aranyaka" title="Aranyaka">Aranyaka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aitareya_Upanishad" title="Aitareya Upanishad">Aitareya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaushitaki_Upanishad" title="Kaushitaki Upanishad">Kaushitaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brihadaranyaka_Upanishad" title="Brihadaranyaka Upanishad">Brihadaranyaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isha_Upanishad" title="Isha Upanishad">Isha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taittiriya_Upanishad" title="Taittiriya Upanishad">Taittiriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katha_Upanishad" title="Katha Upanishad">Katha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitrayaniya_Upanishad" title="Maitrayaniya Upanishad">Maitrayaniya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shvetashvatara_Upanishad" title="Shvetashvatara Upanishad">Shvetashvatara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandogya_Upanishad" title="Chandogya Upanishad">Chandogya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kena_Upanishad" title="Kena Upanishad">Kena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mundaka_Upanishad" title="Mundaka Upanishad">Mundaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandukya_Upanishad" title="Mandukya Upanishad">Mandukya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prashna_Upanishad" title="Prashna Upanishad">Prashna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Upaveda" class="mw-redirect" title="Upaveda">Upavedas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Ayurveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_martial_arts" title="Indian martial arts">Dhanurveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natya_Shastra" title="Natya Shastra">Natyaveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple_architecture" title="Hindu temple architecture">Sthapatyaveda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Vedanga" title="Vedanga">Vedanga</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shiksha" title="Shiksha">Shiksha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_prosody" title="Sanskrit prosody">Chandas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vy%C4%81kara%E1%B9%87a" title="Vyākaraṇa">Vyākaraṇa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirukta" title="Nirukta">Nirukta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(Vedanga)" title="Kalpa (Vedanga)">Kalpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jyotisha" class="mw-redirect" title="Jyotisha">Jyotisha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_texts" title="List of Hindu texts">Other</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agama_(Hinduism)" title="Agama (Hinduism)">Agamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itihasa-Purana" title="Itihasa-Purana">Itihasas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puranas" title="Puranas">Puranas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upanishads#Classification" title="Upanishads">Minor Upanishads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthashastra" title="Arthashastra">Arthashastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitisara" title="Nitisara">Nitisara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma%C5%9B%C4%81stra" title="Dharmaśāstra">Dharmaśāstra</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manusmriti" title="Manusmriti">Manusmriti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C4%81radasm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Nāradasmṛti">Nāradasmṛti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y%C4%81j%C3%B1avalkya_Sm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Yājñavalkya Smṛti">Yājñavalkya Smṛti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stotra" title="Stotra">Stotras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subhashita" title="Subhashita">Subhashita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantras_(Hinduism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tantras (Hinduism)">Tantras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Vasistha" title="Yoga Vasistha">Yoga Vasistha</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga Sutras of Patanjali</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Sangam literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tirumurai" title="Tirumurai">Tirumurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divya_Prabandham" class="mw-redirect" title="Divya Prabandham">Divya Prabandham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirumuruk%C4%81%E1%B9%9F%E1%B9%9Fuppa%E1%B9%ADai" title="Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai">Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruppugal" class="mw-redirect" title="Thiruppugal">Thiruppugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirukkural" class="mw-redirect" title="Thirukkural">Thirukkural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamba_Ramayanam" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamba Ramayanam">Kamba Ramayanam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Great_Epics" title="Five Great Epics">Five Great Epics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Greater_Texts" title="Eighteen Greater Texts">Eighteen Greater Texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighteen_Lesser_Texts" title="Eighteen Lesser Texts">Eighteen Lesser Texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athichudi" title="Athichudi">Athichudi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraiyanar_Akapporul" title="Iraiyanar Akapporul">Iraiyanar Akapporul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhirami_Antati" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhirami Antati">Abhirami Antati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvilaiyadal_Puranam" title="Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam">Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinayagar_Agaval" title="Vinayagar Agaval">Vinayagar Agaval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedarthasamgraha" title="Vedarthasamgraha">Vedarthasamgraha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_deities" title="Hindu deities">Deities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Deva_(Hinduism)" title="Deva (Hinduism)">Gods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trimurti" title="Trimurti">Trimurti</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahma" title="Brahma">Brahma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Vishnu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agni" title="Agni">Agni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dattatreya" title="Dattatreya">Dattatreya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganesha" title="Ganesha">Ganesha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanuman" title="Hanuman">Hanuman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indra" title="Indra">Indra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kartikeya" title="Kartikeya">Kartikeya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krishna" title="Krishna">Krishna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rama" title="Rama">Rama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surya" title="Surya">Surya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varuna" title="Varuna">Varuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vayu" title="Vayu">Vayu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hindu_gods" title="Category:Hindu gods"><i>more</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Devi" title="Devi">Goddesses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tridevi" title="Tridevi">Tridevi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saraswati" title="Saraswati">Saraswati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakshmi" title="Lakshmi">Lakshmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parvati" title="Parvati">Parvati</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhumi_(goddess)" title="Bhumi (goddess)">Bhumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durga" title="Durga">Durga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kali" title="Kali">Kali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahavidya" title="Mahavidya">Mahavidya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrika" class="mw-redirect" title="Matrika">Matrika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radha" title="Radha">Radha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rukmini" title="Rukmini">Rukmini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(Hindu_goddess)" title="Sati (Hindu goddess)">Sati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakti" title="Shakti">Shakti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shashthi" title="Shashthi">Shashthi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sita" title="Sita">Sita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hindu_goddesses" title="Category:Hindu goddesses"><i>more</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%">Practices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Worship_in_Hinduism" title="Worship in Hinduism">Worship</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple" title="Hindu temple">Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murti" title="Murti">Murti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puja_(Hinduism)" title="Puja (Hinduism)">Puja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhakti" title="Bhakti">Bhakti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japa" title="Japa">Japa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhajan" title="Bhajan">Bhajan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naivedhya" class="mw-redirect" title="Naivedhya">Naivedhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yajna" title="Yajna">Yajna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homa_(ritual)" title="Homa (ritual)">Homa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapas_(Indian_religions)" title="Tapas (Indian religions)">Tapas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhy%C4%81na_in_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhyāna in Hinduism">Dhyāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_pilgrimage_sites_in_India" title="Hindu pilgrimage sites in India">Tirthatana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sanskara_(rite_of_passage)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskara (rite of passage)">Sanskaras</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Garbhadhana" title="Garbhadhana">Garbhadhana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumsavana" title="Pumsavana">Pumsavana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumsavana_Simantonayana" title="Pumsavana Simantonayana">Simantonayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jatakarma" title="Jatakarma">Jatakarma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C4%81makara%E1%B9%87a" title="Nāmakaraṇa">Namakarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nishkramana" title="Nishkramana">Nishkramana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annaprashana" title="Annaprashana">Annaprashana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chudakarana" title="Chudakarana">Chudakarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karnavedha" title="Karnavedha">Karnavedha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vidy%C4%81ra%E1%B9%83bha%E1%B9%83" title="Vidyāraṃbhaṃ">Vidyarambha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upanayana" title="Upanayana">Upanayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keshanta" title="Keshanta">Keshanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritu_Kala_Samskaram" title="Ritu Kala Samskaram">Ritushuddhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samavartanam" title="Samavartanam">Samavartanam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivaah" class="mw-redirect" title="Vivaah">Vivaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antyesti" title="Antyesti">Antyeshti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;">Varnashrama</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Varna_(Hinduism)" title="Varna (Hinduism)">Varna</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">Brahmin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">Kshatriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaishya" title="Vaishya">Vaishya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shudra" title="Shudra">Shudra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashrama_(stage)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashrama (stage)">Ashrama</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahmacarya" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmacarya">Brahmacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grihastha" title="Grihastha">Grihastha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanaprastha" title="Vanaprastha">Vanaprastha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sannyasa" title="Sannyasa">Sannyasa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_festivals" title="List of Hindu festivals">Festivals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diwali" title="Diwali">Diwali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holi" title="Holi">Holi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maha_Shivaratri" title="Maha Shivaratri">Shivaratri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raksha_Bandhan" title="Raksha Bandhan">Raksha Bandhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navaratri" title="Navaratri">Navaratri</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durga_Puja" title="Durga Puja">Durga Puja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramlila" title="Ramlila">Ramlila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayadashami" title="Vijayadashami">Vijayadashami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganesh_Chaturthi" title="Ganesh Chaturthi">Ganesh Chaturthi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rama_Navami" title="Rama Navami">Rama Navami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krishna_Janmashtami" title="Krishna Janmashtami">Janmashtami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onam" title="Onam">Onam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pongal_(festival)" title="Pongal (festival)">Pongal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makar_Sankranti" title="Makar Sankranti">Makar Sankranti</a></li> <li>New Year <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bihu" title="Bihu">Bihu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gudi_Padwa" title="Gudi Padwa">Gudi Padwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahela_Baishakh" class="mw-redirect" title="Pahela Baishakh">Pahela Baishakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puthandu" title="Puthandu">Puthandu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisakhi" title="Vaisakhi">Vaisakhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishu" title="Vishu">Vishu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugadi" title="Ugadi">Ugadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumbh_Mela" title="Kumbh Mela">Kumbh Mela</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haridwar_Kumbh_Mela" title="Haridwar Kumbh Mela">Haridwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashik-Trimbakeshwar_Simhastha" title="Nashik-Trimbakeshwar Simhastha">Nashik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayag_Kumbh_Mela" title="Prayag Kumbh Mela">Prayag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ujjain_Simhastha" title="Ujjain Simhastha">Ujjain</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ratha_Yatra_(Puri)" title="Ratha Yatra (Puri)">Ratha Yatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teej" title="Teej">Teej</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasant_Panchami" title="Vasant Panchami">Vasant Panchami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Hindu_festivals" title="Template:Hindu festivals">Others</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC569;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sv%C4%81dhy%C4%81ya" title="Svādhyāya">Svādhyāya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namaste" title="Namaste">Namaste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bindi_(decoration)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bindi (decoration)">Bindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tilaka" title="Tilaka">Tilaka</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFC569;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Hinduism" title="Portal:Hinduism">Related</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindus" title="Hindus">Hindus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindus#Etymology" title="Hindus">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Hindus" title="Lists of Hindus">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_denominations" title="Hindu denominations">Denominations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_law" title="Hindu law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_calendar" title="Hindu calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Anti-Hindu sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Hinduism" title="Criticism of Hinduism">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_gurus_and_sants" title="List of Hindu gurus and sants">Hindu gurus and sants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_studies" title="Hindu studies">Hindu studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_iconography" title="Hindu iconography">Iconography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_mythology" title="Hindu mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_nationalism" title="Hindu nationalism">Nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindutva" title="Hindutva">Hindutva</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_pilgrimage_sites" title="Hindu pilgrimage sites">Pilgrimage sites</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_pilgrimage_sites_in_India" title="Hindu pilgrimage sites in India">India</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_other_religions" title="Hinduism and other religions">Relations with other religions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_Hinduism" title="Baháʼí Faith and Hinduism">Baháʼí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Hinduism" title="Buddhism and Hinduism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Islamic_relations" title="Hindu–Islamic relations">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_and_Hinduism" class="mw-redirect" title="Jainism and Hinduism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Judaism" title="Hinduism and Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Sikhism" title="Hinduism and Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Theosophy" title="Hinduism and Theosophy">Theosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Hinduism_terms" title="Glossary of Hinduism terms">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_by_country" title="Hinduism by country">Hinduism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_temples" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu temples">Hindu temples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hindu_temples" title="List of Hindu temples">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_temple_architecture" title="Hindu temple architecture">Architecture</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#FFC569;;font-weight:bold;"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/20px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/20px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/40px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Hinduism" title="Portal:Hinduism">Portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Hinduism" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Hinduism">WikiProject</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Indian_philosophy73" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Indian_philosophy" title="Template:Indian philosophy"><abbr title="View this 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idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_logic" title="Indian logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_views_on_monotheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu views on monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion#Philosophy" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kama" title="Kama">Kama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artha" title="Artha">Artha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">Moksha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Āstika</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a>: <a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaiva" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaiva">Shaiva</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rase%C5%9Bvara" title="Raseśvara">Raseśvara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashupata_Shaivism" title="Pashupata Shaivism">Pashupata Shaivism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇiniya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika" title="Āstika and nāstika">Nāstika</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Charvaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada#Syādvāda" title="Anekantavada">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">Early Buddhist schools</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogachara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika" class="mw-redirect" title="Svatantrika">Svatantrika</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svabhavika_Bhedabheda" class="mw-redirect" title="Svabhavika Bhedabheda">Svabhavika Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism#Philosophy_and_teachings" title="Sikhism">Sikh Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaiva" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaiva">Shaiva</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pratyabhijna" title="Pratyabhijna">Pratyabhijna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashupata_Shaivism" title="Pashupata Shaivism">Pashupata Shaivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaiva_Siddhanta" title="Shaiva Siddhanta">Shaiva Siddhanta</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Integral_yoga" title="Integral yoga">Integral yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhism" title="Gandhism">Gandhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M._N._Roy#Radical_humanist" title="M. N. Roy">Radical Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_utilization_theory" title="Progressive utilization theory">Progressive utilization theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Texts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Abhinavabharati" title="Abhinavabharati">Abhinavabharati</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arthashastra" title="Arthashastra">Arthashastra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bhagavata_Purana" title="Bhagavata Purana">Bhagavata Purana</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Sutras" title="Brahma Sutras"><i>Brahma Sutra</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Buddhist texts</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dharmashastra" class="mw-redirect" title="Dharmashastra">Dharmashastra</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_texts" title="Hindu texts">Hindu texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_Agamas_(%C5%9Av%C4%93t%C4%81mbara)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jain Agamas (Śvētāmbara)">Jain Agamas</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kamasutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamasutra">Kamasutra</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mimamsa_Sutras" class="mw-redirect" title="Mimamsa Sutras">Mimamsa Sutras</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muktik%C4%81" title="Muktikā">All 108 texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukhya_Upanishads" class="mw-redirect" title="Mukhya Upanishads">Principal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyayakusumanjali" title="Nyayakusumanjali">Nyayakusumanjali</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Panchadasi" title="Panchadasi">Panchadasi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Samkhyapravachana_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Samkhyapravachana Sutra">Samkhyapravachana Sutra</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangam_literature" title="Sangam literature">Sangam texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha" title="Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha">Sarvadarsanasangraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiva_Sutras_of_Vasugupta" title="Shiva Sutras of Vasugupta">Shiva Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarka-Sangraha" title="Tarka-Sangraha">Tarka-Sangraha</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tattvacint%C4%81ma%E1%B9%87i" class="mw-redirect" title="Tattvacintāmaṇi">Tattvacintāmaṇi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tirukku%E1%B9%9Fa%E1%B8%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirukkuṟaḷ">Tirukkuṟaḷ</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upanishads#Classification" title="Upanishads">Minor</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vai%C5%9Be%E1%B9%A3ika_S%C5%ABtra" title="Vaiśeṣika Sūtra">Vaiśeṣika Sūtra</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedanga" title="Vedanga">Vedangas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga Sutras of Patanjali</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Vasistha" title="Yoga Vasistha">Yoga Vasistha</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">More...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhinavagupta" title="Abhinavagupta">Abhinavagupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81rila_Bha%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADa" title="Kumārila Bhaṭṭa">Kumārila Bhaṭṭa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma%E1%B9%87%E1%B8%8Dana_Mi%C5%9Bra" title="Maṇḍana Miśra">Maṇḍana Miśra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valluvar" class="mw-redirect" title="Valluvar">Valluvar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avatsara" title="Avatsara">Avatsara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%81chaspati_Misra" title="Vāchaspati Misra">Vāchaspati Misra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aruni" class="mw-redirect" title="Aruni">Uddalaka Aruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yajnavalkya" title="Yajnavalkya">Yājñavalkya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C4%81rg%C4%AB_V%C4%81chaknav%C4%AB" title="Gārgī Vāchaknavī">Gārgī Vāchaknavī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhaghosa" title="Buddhaghosa">Buddhaghosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patanjali" title="Patanjali">Patañjali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ka%E1%B9%87%C4%81da_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaṇāda (philosopher)">Kanada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapila" title="Kapila">Kapila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brihadratha_Ikshvaku" title="Brihadratha Ikshvaku">Brihadratha Ikshvaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaimini" title="Jaimini">Jaimini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vyasa" title="Vyasa">Vyasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakirti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akshapada_Gotama" class="mw-redirect" title="Akshapada Gotama">Akshapada Gotama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padmasambh%C4%81va" class="mw-redirect" title="Padmasambhāva">Padmasambhāva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramana_Maharshi" title="Ramana Maharshi">Ramana Maharshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayananda_Saraswati" title="Dayananda Saraswati">Dayananda Saraswati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramanuja" title="Ramanuja">Ramanuja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta_Desika" title="Vedanta Desika">Vedanta Desika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raikva" title="Raikva">Raikva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadananda_(of_Vedantasara)" title="Sadananda (of Vedantasara)">Sadananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakayanya" title="Sakayanya">Sakayanya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyakama_Jabala" class="mw-redirect" title="Satyakama Jabala">Satyakama Jabala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhvacharya" title="Madhvacharya">Madhvacharya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahavira" title="Mahavira">Mahavira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guru_Nanak" title="Guru Nanak">Guru Nanak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indian_philosophers" title="Category:Indian philosophers">More...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhava" title="Abhava">Abhava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhasavada" title="Abhasavada">Abhasavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-difference_(Abheda)" title="Non-difference (Abheda)">Abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adarsana" title="Adarsana">Adarsana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrishta" class="mw-redirect" title="Adrishta">Adrishta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aham_(Kashmir_Shaivism)" title="Aham (Kashmir Shaivism)">Aham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aishvarya" class="mw-redirect" title="Aishvarya">Aishvarya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akrodha" title="Akrodha">Akrodha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aksara" class="mw-redirect" title="Aksara">Aksara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatta" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatta">Anatta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ananta_(infinite)" title="Ananta (infinite)">Ananta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anavastha" title="Anavastha">Anavastha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anupalabdhi" title="Anupalabdhi">Anupalabdhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apauru%E1%B9%A3hey%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Apauruṣheyā">Apauruṣheyā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artha" title="Artha">Artha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asiddhatva" title="Asiddhatva">Asiddhatva</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Asatkalpa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Asatkalpa (page does not exist)">Asatkalpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">Ātman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avyakta" title="Avyakta">Avyakta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhrama_(Hinduism)" title="Bhrama (Hinduism)">Bhrama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhuman" title="Bhuman">Bhuman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhumika" title="Bhumika">Bhumika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catu%E1%B9%A3ko%E1%B9%ADi" title="Catuṣkoṭi">Catuṣkoṭi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaitanya_(consciousness)" title="Chaitanya (consciousness)">Chaitanya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chidabhasa" title="Chidabhasa">Chidabhasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cittabhumi" title="Cittabhumi">Cittabhumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deva_(Hinduism)" title="Deva (Hinduism)">Devatas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhi_(Hindu_thought)" title="Dhi (Hindu thought)">Dhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravya" title="Dravya">Dravya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhrti" title="Dhrti">Dhrti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekagrata" title="Ekagrata">Ekagrata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gu%E1%B9%87a" title="Guṇa">Guṇa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hit%C4%81&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hitā (page does not exist)">Hitā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idam" title="Idam">Idam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikshana" title="Ikshana">Ikshana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ishvaratva" title="Ishvaratva">Ishvaratva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jivatva" title="Jivatva">Jivatva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kama" title="Kama">Kama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasaya_(attachment)" title="Kasaya (attachment)">Kasaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kshetrajna" title="Kshetrajna">Kshetrajna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakshana" title="Lakshana">Lakshana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matsya_Nyaya" title="Matsya Nyaya">Matsya Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithyatva" class="mw-redirect" title="Mithyatva">Mithyatva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">Mokṣa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nididhyasana" class="mw-redirect" title="Nididhyasana">Nididhyasana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvāṇa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niyama" title="Niyama">Niyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pad%C4%81rtha" title="Padārtha">Padārtha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paramatman" title="Paramatman">Paramatman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paramananda_(Hinduism)" title="Paramananda (Hinduism)">Paramananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parameshashakti" title="Parameshashakti">Parameshashakti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parinama-vada_(Hindu_thought)" class="mw-redirect" title="Parinama-vada (Hindu thought)">Parinama-vada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pradhana" title="Pradhana">Pradhana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prajna_(Vedic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prajna (Vedic)">Prajna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prak%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Prakṛti">Prakṛti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratibimbavada" title="Pratibimbavada">Pratibimbavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">Pratītyasamutpāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purusha" title="Purusha">Puruṣa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajamandala" title="Rajamandala">Rājamaṇḍala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%9Ata" title="Ṛta">Ṛta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakshi_(Witness)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakshi (Witness)">Sakshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">Samadhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra" title="Saṃsāra">Saṃsāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satkaryavada" title="Satkaryavada">Satkaryavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shabda_Brahman" title="Shabda Brahman">Shabda Brahman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spho%E1%B9%ADa" title="Sphoṭa">Sphoṭa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sthiti" title="Sthiti">Sthiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutram" class="mw-redirect" title="Sutram">Sutram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrya" title="Svatantrya">Svātantrya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svecchamrityu_(Iccha-mrityu)" class="mw-redirect" title="Svecchamrityu (Iccha-mrityu)">Iccha-mrityu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada#Syādvāda" title="Anekantavada">Syādvāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taijasa" title="Taijasa">Taijasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajjalan" title="Tajjalan">Tajjalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanmatras" title="Tanmatras">Tanmatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ty%C4%81ga" title="Tyāga">Tyāga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uparati" title="Uparati">Uparati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upekkha" class="mw-redirect" title="Upekkha">Upekkhā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utsaha" class="mw-redirect" title="Utsaha">Utsaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivartavada" title="Vivartavada">Vivartavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vir%C4%81ja" title="Virāja">Viraj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamas" title="Yamas">Yamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Hindu_philosophical_concepts" title="Category:Hindu philosophical concepts">More...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><link 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navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_philosophy" title="Applied philosophy">Applied philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era269" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_pessimism" title="Philosophical pessimism">Pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" 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title="Mathematical logic">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-classical_logic" title="Non-classical logic">Non-classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argumentation_theory" title="Argumentation theory">Argumentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metalogic" title="Metalogic">Metalogic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamathematics" title="Metamathematics">Metamathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Set_theory" title="Set theory">Set</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 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