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<span>Phonology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Phonology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Benedict_(1972)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Benedict_(1972)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Benedict (1972)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Benedict_(1972)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peiros_&_Starostin_(1996)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peiros_&_Starostin_(1996)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Peiros & Starostin (1996)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peiros_&_Starostin_(1996)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hill_(2019)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hill_(2019)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Hill (2019)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hill_(2019)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sound_changes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sound_changes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Sound changes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sound_changes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sound changes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sound_changes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Final_consonant_changes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Reconstructed ancestor of the Sino-Tibetan languages</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width:22em;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: salmon;">Proto-Sino-Tibetan</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="background-color: salmon;">PST, Proto-Trans-Himalayan</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Reconstruction of</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan languages</a></td></tr><tr class="plainlist"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Lower-order reconstructions</th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li>Proto-Sinitic (see <a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Tibeto-Burman_language" title="Proto-Tibeto-Burman language">Proto-Tibeto-Burman</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Proto-Sino-Tibetan</b> (<b>PST</b>) is the <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_reconstruction" title="Linguistic reconstruction">linguistic reconstruction</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a> <a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">proto-language</a> and the common ancestor of all languages in it, including the <a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic languages</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tibetic_languages" title="Tibetic languages">Tibetic languages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yi language">Yi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bai_language" title="Bai language">Bai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Burmese_language" title="Burmese language">Burmese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karen_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Karen language">Karen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tangut_language" title="Tangut language">Tangut</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Naga_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Naga language">Naga</a>. <a href="/wiki/Paul_K._Benedict" title="Paul K. Benedict">Paul K. Benedict</a> (1972) placed a particular emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Classical_Tibetan" title="Classical Tibetan">Classical Tibetan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jingpho_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Jingpho language">Jingpho</a>, <a href="/wiki/Written_Burmese" class="mw-redirect" title="Written Burmese">Written Burmese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Garo_language" title="Garo language">Garo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mizo_language" title="Mizo language">Mizo</a> in his discussion of Proto-Sino-Tibetan.<sup id="cite_ref-benedict1972_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-benedict1972-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While Proto-Sino-Tibetan is commonly considered to have two direct descendants, <a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Proto-Sinitic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proto-Tibeto-Burman" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Tibeto-Burman">Proto-Tibeto-Burman</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in recent years several scholars have argued that this was not well-substantiated,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and have taken to calling the group "Trans-Himalayan".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill2019_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill2019-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this case, Proto-Tibeto-Burman may be considered as equivalent to Proto-Sino-Tibetan if <a href="/wiki/Sinitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinitic">Sinitic</a> is indeed not the first branch to split from Proto-Sino-Tibetan.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Features">Features</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Sino-Tibetan_language&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Features"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Reconstructed features include prefixes such as the causative <i>s-</i>, the intransitive <i>m-</i>, the miscellaneous <i>b-</i>, <i>d-</i>, <i>g-</i>, and <i>r-</i>, suffixes <i>-s</i>, <i>-t,</i> and <i>-n</i>, and a set of conditioning factors that resulted in the development of <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tone</a> in most languages of the family.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The existence of such elaborate system of inflectional changes in Proto-Sino-Tibetan makes the language distinctive from some of its modern descendants, such as the <a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic languages</a>, which have mostly or completely become <a href="/wiki/Analytic_language" title="Analytic language">analytic</a>. </p><p>Proto-Sino-Tibetan, like <a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a>, also included numerous consonant clusters, and was not a <a href="/wiki/Tonal_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tonal language">tonal language</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Sino-Tibetan_language&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Benedict_(1972)"><span id="Benedict_.281972.29"></span>Benedict (1972)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Sino-Tibetan_language&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Benedict (1972)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The table below shows consonant phonemes reconstructed by Benedict.<sup id="cite_ref-benedict1972_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-benedict1972-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (September 2023)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2">Plosive </th> <th colspan="2">Fricative </th> <th colspan="2">Sonorant </th></tr> <tr> <th>Voiceless</th> <th>Voiced</th> <th>Voiceless</th> <th>Voiced</th> <th>Nasal</th> <th>Other </th></tr> <tr> <th>Labial </th> <td>p</td> <td>b</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>m</td> <td>w </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dental </th> <td>t</td> <td>d</td> <td>s</td> <td>z</td> <td>n</td> <td>r </td></tr> <tr> <th>Palatal </th> <td>c</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>ʒ</td> <td></td> <td>y </td></tr> <tr> <th>Lateral </th> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>l </td></tr> <tr> <th>Velar </th> <td>k</td> <td>g</td> <td>h</td> <td></td> <td>ŋ</td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Peiros_&_Starostin_(1996)"><span id="Peiros_.26_Starostin_.281996.29"></span>Peiros & Starostin (1996)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Sino-Tibetan_language&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Peiros & Starostin (1996)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The reconstruction by Peiros & Starostin suggests a much more complex consonant inventory.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The phonemes in brackets are reconstructions that are considered dubious. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="4"> </th> <th colspan="5">Plosive/Affricate </th> <th colspan="2" rowspan="2">Fricative </th> <th colspan="2" rowspan="4">Sonorant </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">Unaspirated </th> <th colspan="2">Aspirated </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Voiceless </th> <th colspan="2">Voiced </th> <th rowspan="2">Voiceless </th> <th rowspan="2">Voiced </th> <th rowspan="2">Voiceless </th> <th rowspan="2">Voiced </th></tr> <tr> <th>Oral</th> <th>Nasal </th></tr> <tr> <th>Labial </th> <td>p</td> <td>b</td> <td>m</td> <td>pʰ</td> <td>(bʰ)</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>w </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dental </th> <td>t</td> <td>d</td> <td>n</td> <td>tʰ</td> <td>(dʰ)</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>r </td></tr> <tr> <th>Alveolar </th> <td>c</td> <td>ʒ</td> <td></td> <td>cʰ</td> <td>(ʒʰ)</td> <td>s</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Palatal </th> <td>ć</td> <td>ʒ́</td> <td>ń</td> <td>ćʰ</td> <td>ʒ́ʰ</td> <td>ś</td> <td></td> <td>y </td></tr> <tr> <th>Lateral </th> <td>(ƛ)</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>l </td></tr> <tr> <th>Velar </th> <td>k</td> <td>g</td> <td>ŋ</td> <td>kʰ</td> <td>(gʰ)</td> <td>x</td> <td>ɣ</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Uvular </th> <td>(q)</td> <td>(ɢ)</td> <td></td> <td>(qʰ)</td> <td>(ɢʰ)</td> <td>(χ)</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Laryngeal </th> <td>ʔ</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hill_(2019)"><span id="Hill_.282019.29"></span>Hill (2019)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Sino-Tibetan_language&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Hill (2019)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following tables show the reconstruction of Proto-Sino-Tibetan phonemes by Nathan Hill (2019).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill2019211_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill2019211-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">Consonants </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Coronal_consonant" title="Coronal consonant">Coronal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labialized_velar_consonant" title="Labialized velar consonant">Labiovelar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">Uvular</a> </th> <th>Labiouvular </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <td>*<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a></span> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a></span> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">ŋʷ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Plosive_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Plosive consonant">Plosive</a> </th> <th><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a></span> </th> <td>*<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a></span> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">g</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_plosive" title="Voiced uvular plosive">ɢ</a></span> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">ɢʷ</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a></span> </th> <td>*<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a></span> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a></span> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">kʷ</a></span> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">Affricate</a> </th> <th><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Voicing_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Voicing (phonetics)">voiced</a></span> </th> <td> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiced alveolar affricate">dz</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a></span> </th> <td> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">ts</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricatives</a> </th> <td> </td> <td>*(<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a></span>)<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Approximant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Approximant consonant">Approximant</a> </th> <td> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a></span> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a></span><sup id="cite_ref-coda_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-coda-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Rhotic_consonant" title="Rhotic consonant">Rhotic</a> </th> <td> </td> <td>*<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">r</span><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The sibilant correspondences are simply presented according to their proto-Burmish outcomes, as no patterns could be found by Hill.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill2019234-235_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill2019234-235-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-coda-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-coda_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This consonant can only exist as a coda.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This phonetic nature of this rhotic is unknown.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <p>The consonants <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p<span class="wrap"> </span>t<span class="wrap"> </span>k<span class="wrap"> </span>q<span class="wrap"> </span>ʔ<span class="wrap"> </span>m<span class="wrap"> </span>n<span class="wrap"> </span>ŋ<span class="wrap"> </span>l<span class="wrap"> </span>r<span class="wrap"> </span>j/</span> can take coda position, as well as the cluster <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/rl/</span>. While Hill does not reconstruct <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span> as an initial consonant due to Baxter and Sagart's Old Chinese reconstruction lacking such a phoneme, he mentions that Jacques and Schuessler suggest a <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span> initial for some Old Chinese words due to potential Tibetan or Rgyalrongic cognates.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill2019216_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill2019216-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Vowels </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a></span></td> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Mid front unrounded vowel">e</a></span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a></span></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Mid back rounded vowel">o</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Open central unrounded vowel">a</a></span></td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Hill also claims that his reconstruction is incomplete, as it does not account for Tibetic palatalization, proto-Burmish preglottalization, Sinitic aspirates, and the Sinitic <a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese_phonology#Type_A_and_B_syllables" title="Old Chinese phonology">type A and B</a> distinction of syllables. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sound_changes">Sound changes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Sino-Tibetan_language&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Sound changes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Final_consonant_changes">Final consonant changes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Sino-Tibetan_language&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Final consonant changes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Gong Huangcheng's reconstruction of the Proto-Sino-Tibetan language, the finals *-p, *-t, *-k, *-m, *-n, and *-ŋ in Proto-Sino-Tibetan remained in Proto-Sinitic and Proto-Tibeto-Burman. However, in Old Chinese, the finals *-k and *-ŋ that came after the close vowel *-i- underwent an irregular change of *-k＞*-t and *-ŋ ＞*-n. In Proto-Tibeto-Burman, *-kw and *-ŋw underwent a sound change to become *-k and *-ŋ respectively, while in Old Chinese those finals remained until Middle Chinese, where the finals underwent the same sound change.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Furthermore, in Proto-Tibeto-Burman, the finals *-g, *-gw, and *-d underwent the following changes: </p> <ol><li>*-d＞*-y</li> <li>*-gw＞*-w</li> <li>*-g＞*-w when it follows the vowel *-u-</li> <li>*-g＞*-∅ when it follows the vowel *a and *-a-.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Example_of_sound_changes">Example of sound changes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Sino-Tibetan_language&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Example of sound changes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Voiceless_plosive_finals">Voiceless plosive finals</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Sino-Tibetan_language&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Voiceless plosive finals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Proto-Sino-Tibetan </th> <th>Old Chinese (Li Fang-Kuei) </th> <th>Proto-Tibeto-Burman </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="5">*-p </td> <td rowspan="3">*-jəp </td> <td>汲 *kjəp </td> <td>*ka·p </td></tr> <tr> <td>泣 *khrjəp </td> <td>*krap </td></tr> <tr> <td>立 *(g-)rjəp </td> <td>*g-ryap </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-jap </td> <td>接 *tsjap </td> <td>*tsyap </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-jup </td> <td>入 *njəp </td> <td>*nup~ *nip </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">*-t </td> <td rowspan="2">*-iat </td> <td>八 *priat </td> <td>*b-r-gyat </td></tr> <tr> <td>殺 *r-siat </td> <td>*g-sat </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-uat </td> <td>脫 *hluat </td> <td>*g-lwat </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-jit </td> <td>一 *·jit </td> <td>*it </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="9">*-k </td> <td>*-ək </td> <td>翼 *lək </td> <td>*lak </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">*-jək </td> <td>織 *tjək </td> <td>*tak </td></tr> <tr> <td>息 *sjək </td> <td>*sak </td></tr> <tr> <td>食 *N-ljək </td> <td>*(m-)lyak </td></tr> <tr> <td>飼 *s-ljəks </td> <td>*(s-)lyak </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">*-ik </td> <td>節 *tsik＞*tsit </td> <td>*tsik </td></tr> <tr> <td>縊 *·iks, *·jiks </td> <td>*ik </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-jik </td> <td>蝨 *srjik＞*srjit </td> <td>*s-rik </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-juk </td> <td>曲 *khjuk </td> <td>*guk~kuk </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">*-kw </td> <td>*-əkw </td> <td>毒 *dəkw </td> <td>*duk~*tuk </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">*-jəkw </td> <td>腹 *phjəkw, *bjəkw </td> <td>*pu·k~*buk </td></tr> <tr> <td>六 *drjəkw </td> <td>*d-ruk </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nasal_finals">Nasal finals</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Sino-Tibetan_language&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Nasal finals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Proto-Sino-Tibetan </th> <th>Old Chinese (Li Fang-Kuei) </th> <th>Proto-Tibeto-Burman </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="7">*-m </td> <td rowspan="2">*-əm </td> <td>含 *gəm </td> <td>*gam </td></tr> <tr> <td>頷 *gəm </td> <td>*gam </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">*-jəm </td> <td>飲 *·jəmx </td> <td>*am </td></tr> <tr> <td>尋 *ljəm </td> <td>*la[·]m </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-jim </td> <td>坅 *khjamx “pit” </td> <td>*kim </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-um </td> <td>三 *səm </td> <td>*g-sum </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-jum </td> <td>尋 *ljəm </td> <td>*lum </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">*-n </td> <td>*-an </td> <td>乾 *kan </td> <td>*kan </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-jin </td> <td>辛 *sjin </td> <td>*m-sin </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="11">*-ng </td> <td rowspan="2">*-jəng </td> <td>夢 *mjəngs </td> <td>*mang </td></tr> <tr> <td>蒸 *tjəng </td> <td>*tang </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">*-jang </td> <td>紡 *phjangx </td> <td>*pang </td></tr> <tr> <td>涼 *grjang </td> <td>*grang </td></tr> <tr> <td>迎 *ngrjang </td> <td>*ngang </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-ing </td> <td>盈 *bling </td> <td>*bling~pling </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="5">*-jing </td> <td>年 *ning＞*nin </td> <td>*ning </td></tr> <tr> <td>名 *mjing </td> <td>*r-ming </td></tr> <tr> <td>甥 *srjing </td> <td>*sring </td></tr> <tr> <td>薪 *sjing＞*sjin </td> <td>*sing </td></tr> <tr> <td>仁 *njing＞*njin </td> <td>*s-ning </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-ngw </td> <td>*-jəngw </td> <td>躬 *kjəngw </td> <td>*gung </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Voiced_plosive_finals">Voiced plosive finals</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Sino-Tibetan_language&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Voiced plosive finals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Proto-Sino-Tibetan </th> <th>Old Chinese (Li Fang-Kuei) </th> <th>Proto-Tibeto-Burman </th></tr> <tr> <td>*-b </td> <td>*-əb </td> <td>柔 *njəb＞*njəgw </td> <td>*nəw </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="12">*-d </td> <td>*-əd </td> <td>𤈦 *smjədx </td> <td>*məy </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="5">*-ad </td> <td>簸 *padx/s </td> <td>*pwa·y </td></tr> <tr> <td>太  *tads </td> <td>*tay </td></tr> <tr> <td>蜾 *kwadx </td> <td>*kwa·y </td></tr> <tr> <td>我 *ngadx </td> <td>*ngay </td></tr> <tr> <td>移 *lad </td> <td>*lay </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-id </td> <td>四 *sjids </td> <td>*b-liy </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="5">*-jid </td> <td>妣 *pjidx </td> <td>*piy </td></tr> <tr> <td>畀 *sbjids </td> <td>*biy </td></tr> <tr> <td>几 *krjidx </td> <td>*kriy </td></tr> <tr> <td>屎 *skhljidx </td> <td>*kliy </td></tr> <tr> <td>死 *sjidx </td> <td>*siy </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="24">*-g </td> <td>*-əg        </td> <td>母 *məgx </td> <td>*ma </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="6">*-jəg      </td> <td>負 *bjəgx </td> <td>*ba, *bak </td></tr> <tr> <td>子 *tsjəgx </td> <td>*tsa </td></tr> <tr> <td>慈 *dzjəg </td> <td>*m-dza </td></tr> <tr> <td>孳 *dzjəgs </td> <td>*za </td></tr> <tr> <td>耳 *njəgx </td> <td>*r-na~*g-na </td></tr> <tr> <td>牛 *ngwjəg </td> <td>*ngwa </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="5">*-ag </td> <td>補 *pagx </td> <td>*pa </td></tr> <tr> <td>苦 *khagx </td> <td>*ka </td></tr> <tr> <td>吾 *ngag </td> <td>*nga </td></tr> <tr> <td>五 *ngagx </td> <td>*l-nga~*b-nga </td></tr> <tr> <td>狐 *gwag </td> <td>*gwa </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="7">*-jag </td> <td>斧 *pjagx </td> <td>*r-pwa </td></tr> <tr> <td>夫 *pjag </td> <td>*(p)wa </td></tr> <tr> <td>父 *bjagx </td> <td>*pa </td></tr> <tr> <td>無 *mjag </td> <td>*ma </td></tr> <tr> <td>魚 *ngjag </td> <td>*ngya </td></tr> <tr> <td>咀 *dzjag </td> <td>*dza </td></tr> <tr> <td>汝 *njagx </td> <td>*na </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">*-ug </td> <td>口 *khugx </td> <td>*kuw </td></tr> <tr> <td>寇 *khugs </td> <td>*r-kuw </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">*-jug </td> <td>霧 *m(r)jugs </td> <td>*(r-)muw </td></tr> <tr> <td>軀 *khjug </td> <td>*(s-)kuw </td></tr> <tr> <td>乳 *njugx </td> <td>*nuw </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="10">*-gw </td> <td rowspan="2">*-əgw </td> <td>寶 *pəgwx </td> <td>*puw </td></tr> <tr> <td>抱 *bəgwx </td> <td>*buw </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">*-jəgw </td> <td>鳩 *kjəgw </td> <td>*kuw </td></tr> <tr> <td>九 *kjəgwx </td> <td>*d-kuw </td></tr> <tr> <td>舅 *gjəgwx </td> <td>*kuw </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">*-agw </td> <td>豪 *gagw </td> <td>*m/s-gaw </td></tr> <tr> <td>號 *gagws </td> <td>*gaw </td></tr> <tr> <td>熬 *ngagw </td> <td>*r-ngaw </td></tr> <tr> <td>臊 *sagw </td> <td>*sa·w </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-jagw </td> <td>飄/漂 *phjagw </td> <td>*pyaw </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Liquid_finals">Liquid finals</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Sino-Tibetan_language&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Liquid finals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Proto-Sino-Tibetan </th> <th>Old Chinese (Li Fang-Kuei) </th> <th>Proto-Tibeto-Burman </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="6">*-l </td> <td>*-al </td> <td>肝 *kan </td> <td>*m-kal </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-ul </td> <td>本 *pən </td> <td>*bul~*pul </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">*-jul </td> <td>銀 *ngjən </td> <td>*(d)-ngul </td></tr> <tr> <td>閩 *mjən </td> <td>*s-brul </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-jal </td> <td>疲 *brjal </td> <td>*bal </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-il </td> <td>洒 *silx </td> <td>*(m-)s(y)il </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="6">*-r </td> <td rowspan="2">*-ar </td> <td>播 *s-bars </td> <td>*bwar </td></tr> <tr> <td>皤 *bar, *par </td> <td>*pwa:r </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">*-jar </td> <td>販 *pjans </td> <td>*par </td></tr> <tr> <td>鮮 *sjan </td> <td>*sar </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-uar </td> <td>酸 *suan </td> <td>*swa·r </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-jur </td> <td>飛 *pjər </td> <td>*pur~*pir </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vocabulary">Vocabulary</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Sino-Tibetan_language&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Vocabulary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Words which do not have reliable Sinitic parallels are accompanied by a (TB). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_terms">Social terms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Sino-Tibetan_language&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Social terms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">English </th> <th colspan="2">Reconstruction by </th> <th rowspan="2">Old Chinese (Baxter-Sagart)<sup id="cite_ref-notation_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-notation-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <th>I. Peiros & S. Starostin </th> <th>J. Matisoff </th></tr> <tr> <td>Person (in general) </td> <td>*mĭ</td> <td>*mi</td> <td>民 *mi[ŋ] </td></tr> <tr> <td>Male </td> <td>*pă</td> <td>*pʷa</td> <td>父 *p(r)aʔ </td></tr> <tr> <td>Female </td> <td>*mǝw</td> <td>*mow</td> <td>母 *mˤoʔ (or məʔ) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Name (of a person) </td> <td>*miǝŋ</td> <td>*miŋ</td> <td>名 *C.meŋ </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural_phenomena">Natural phenomena</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Sino-Tibetan_language&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Natural phenomena"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">English </th> <th colspan="2">Reconstruction by </th> <th rowspan="2">Old Chinese (Baxter-Sagart)<sup id="cite_ref-notation_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-notation-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <th>I. Peiros & S. Starostin </th> <th>J. Matisoff </th></tr> <tr> <th>Earth </th> <td>*ƛăy </td> <td>*ley ~ *lǝy</td> <td>地 *[l]ˤej-s </td></tr> <tr> <th>Stone </th> <td>*ƛɨāŋ ~ *ƛɨāk</td> <td>*luŋ ~ *luk</td> <td>琭 *[r]ˤok </td></tr> <tr> <th>Sand </th> <td>*srāy</td> <td>*sa</td> <td>沙 *sˤraj </td></tr> <tr> <th>Fire </th> <td>*mēyH</td> <td>*mey</td> <td>火 *[qʷʰ]ˤəjʔ <sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>i<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Smoke </th> <td>*gʰiw</td> <td>*kǝw</td> <td>熏 *qʰu[n] </td></tr> <tr> <th>Water </th> <td>*tujʔ</td> <td>*t(w)i(y)</td> <td>水 *s.turʔ </td></tr> <tr> <th>Rain </th> <td>*(r-)qʰʷăH</td> <td>*rwa ~ *wa</td> <td>雨 *C.ɢʷ(r)aʔ </td></tr> <tr> <th>Sun </th> <td>*nĭy</td> <td>*nǝy</td> <td>日 *C.nik </td></tr> <tr> <th>Moon (TB) </th> <td>*(s-)lăH</td> <td>*la</td> <td>N/A<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>ii<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Star </th> <td>*(s-)q(ʰ)ār</td> <td>*kar</td> <td>扈 *m-qˤaʔ <sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>iii<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Night </th> <td>*yăH</td> <td>*ya</td> <td>夜 *[ɢ]Ak-s </td></tr> <tr> <th>Tree </th> <td>*sĭŋ</td> <td>*siŋ ~ *sik</td> <td>薪 *[s]i[n] </td></tr> <tr> <th>Leaf </th> <td>*lăp</td> <td>*lap</td> <td>葉 *l[a]p </td></tr> <tr> <th>Plant root </th> <td>*bʰūl</td> <td>*bul ~ *pul</td> <td>本 *C.pˤə[n]ʔ </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-roman"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See also the dialectal 𤈦 /*m̥əjʔ/ and 燬 /*m̥ajʔ/.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chinese 月 /*[ŋ]ʷat/ is a descendant of another PST word, *s-ŋʷ(j)a-t.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Unclear. The more common word is 星 /*s-tsʰˤeŋ/, which is possibly related to 清 /*tsʰeŋ/, in turn from PST *(t)s(j)aŋ.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Qualitative_features_of_an_object">Qualitative features of an object</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Sino-Tibetan_language&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Qualitative features of an object"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">English </th> <th colspan="2">Reconstruction by </th> <th rowspan="2">Old Chinese (Baxter-Sagart)<sup id="cite_ref-notation_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-notation-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <th>I. Peiros & S. Starostin </th> <th>J. Matisoff </th></tr> <tr> <th>Black, dark (TB) </th> <td>*nǝk</td> <td>*nak</td> <td>黑 *m̥ˤək<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>i<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th>White </th> <td>wār</td> <td>*hwār</td> <td>皤 *[b]ˤar<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>ii<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Big </th> <td>*tayH</td> <td>*tay</td> <td>大 *lˤa[t]-s </td></tr> <tr> <th>Cold </th> <td>*(k-)răŋ ~ *(k-)răk</td> <td>*glak ~ *glaŋ ~ *graŋ</td> <td>涼 *C.raŋ </td></tr> <tr> <th>Warm </th> <td>*lɨm</td> <td>*lim ~ *lum</td> <td>融 *luŋ </td></tr> <tr> <th>Long (TB) </th> <td>*rĭŋ</td> <td>*riŋ</td> <td>N/A </td></tr> <tr> <th>New </th> <td>*cʰăr</td> <td>*sar</td> <td>鮮 *s[a]r </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-roman"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">It is possible that *s-nak is a descendant of *s-maŋ ~ s-mak (whence OC /*m̥ˤək/).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The more commonly used 白 /*bˤrak/ might be a derivation of it.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verb_stems">Verb stems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Sino-Tibetan_language&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Verb stems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">English </th> <th colspan="2">Reconstruction by </th> <th rowspan="2">Old Chinese (Baxter-Sagart)<sup id="cite_ref-notation_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-notation-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <th>I. Peiros & S. Starostin </th> <th>J. Matisoff </th></tr> <tr> <th>To eat </th> <td>*ʒʰa</td> <td>*dzya</td> <td>咀 *dzaɁ </td></tr> <tr> <th>To drink </th> <td>*dʰɨn ~ *dʰɨŋ</td> <td>*daŋ ~ *doŋ</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>To bite/chew </th> <td>*wā</td> <td>*wa</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>To die </th> <td>*sĭy(H)</td> <td>*sǝy</td> <td>死 *sijʔ </td></tr> <tr> <th>To know, to think </th> <td>*siǝH</td> <td>*syey</td> <td>悉 *[s]i[t] </td></tr> <tr> <th>To hear (TB) </th> <td>*tʰa(s)</td> <td>*ta</td> <td>N/A </td></tr> <tr> <th>To sleep </th> <td>*mĭyH</td> <td>*mwǝy</td> <td>寐 *mi[t]-s </td></tr> <tr> <th>To stand </th> <td>*ryǝp</td> <td>*r(y)ap</td> <td>立 *k.rәp </td></tr> <tr> <th>To sit </th> <td>*tūŋ ~ *tūk</td> <td>*duŋ ~ *duk ~ *tuŋ ~ *tuk</td> <td>住 *dro(ʔ)-s </td></tr> <tr> <th>Give </th> <td>*pĭy</td> <td>*bǝy</td> <td>畀 *pi[k]‑s </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Numbers">Numbers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Sino-Tibetan_language&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Numbers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Number </th> <th colspan="2">Reconstruction by </th> <th rowspan="2">Old Chinese (Baxter-Sagart)<sup id="cite_ref-notation_15-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-notation-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th rowspan="2">Old Tibetan <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill2012_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill2012-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th rowspan="2">Old Burmese <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill2012_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill2012-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <th>I. Peiros & S. Starostin </th> <th>J. Matisoff </th></tr> <tr> <th>1 </th> <td>*dyiǝk</td> <td>*dik ~ *t(y)ik ~ *t(y)ak</td> <td>一 *ʔi[t], 隻 *tek</td> <td>gcig</td> <td>ac, tac </td></tr> <tr> <th>2 </th> <td>*nĭy</td> <td>*ni</td> <td>二 *ni[j]-s</td> <td>gnyis</td> <td>nhac < *nhik </td></tr> <tr> <th>3 </th> <td>*sɨm</td> <td>*sum</td> <td>三 *s.rum</td> <td>gsum</td> <td>sumḥ </td></tr> <tr> <th>4 </th> <td>*lĭy</td> <td>*lǝy</td> <td>四 *s.li[j]-s</td> <td>bzhi</td> <td>liy </td></tr> <tr> <th>5 </th> <td>*ŋāH</td> <td>*ŋa</td> <td>五 *C.ŋˤaʔ</td> <td>lnga</td> <td>ṅāḥ </td></tr> <tr> <th>6 </th> <td>*rŭk</td> <td>*ruk</td> <td>六 *k.ruk</td> <td>drug</td> <td>khrok < *khruk </td></tr> <tr> <th>7 </th> <td>*(s-)nĭt</td> <td>*ni</td> <td>七 *[tsʰ]i[t]</td> <td>N/A<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>i<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>khu-nac </td></tr> <tr> <th>8 </th> <td>*ryēt</td> <td>*gyat ~ *ryat ~ *rit</td> <td>八 *pˤret</td> <td>brgyad</td> <td>rhac < rhyat </td></tr> <tr> <th>9 </th> <td>*kwɨH</td> <td>*gǝw ~ *kǝw</td> <td>九 *[k]uʔ</td> <td>dgu</td> <td>kuiḥ </td></tr> <tr> <th>10 </th> <td>*k(ʰ)ĭp</td> <td>*g(y)ip</td> <td>十 *t.[g]әp</td> <td>N/A<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>ii<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>kip </td></tr> <tr> <th>100 </th> <td>*(p-)ryā</td> <td>*gya</td> <td>百 *pˤrak</td> <td>brgya</td> <td>ryā </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-roman"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tibetan <i>bdun</i> has unknown origins, likely used to avoid confusion with the similar-sounding "two".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tibetan <i>bcu</i> is a descendant of another PST root, *tsjaj.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-notation-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-notation_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-notation_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-notation_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-notation_15-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-notation_15-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> For Old Chinese notations in the Baxter–Sagart system: <ul><li>Parentheses "()" indicate uncertain presence;</li> <li>Square brackets "[]" indicate uncertain identity, e.g. *[t] as coda may in fact be *-t or *-p;</li> <li>Angle brackets "<>" indicate infix;</li> <li>Hyphen "-" indicates morpheme boundary;</li> <li>Period "." indicates syllable boundary.</li></ul> </span></li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Sino-Tibetan_language&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Tibeto-Burman_language" title="Proto-Tibeto-Burman language">Proto-Tibeto-Burman language</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Sino-Tibetan_language&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">For a list of words relating to Proto-Sino-Tibetan language, see the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Proto-Sino-Tibetan_language" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Category:Proto-Sino-Tibetan language"><i><b>Proto-Sino-Tibetan language</b></i> category of words</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wiktionary" title="Wiktionary">Wiktionary</a>, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-benedict1972-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-benedict1972_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-benedict1972_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBenedict1972" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Paul_K._Benedict" title="Paul K. Benedict">Benedict, Paul K.</a> (1972), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://stedt.berkeley.edu/pubs_and_prods/Benedict_1972_Sino-Tibetan-Conspectus.pdf"><i>Sino-Tibetan: A Conspectus</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-08175-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-08175-7"><bdi>978-0-521-08175-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sino-Tibetan%3A+A+Conspectus&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0-521-08175-7&rft.aulast=Benedict&rft.aufirst=Paul+K.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fstedt.berkeley.edu%2Fpubs_and_prods%2FBenedict_1972_Sino-Tibetan-Conspectus.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Sino-Tibetan+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSagartJacquesLaiRyder2019" class="citation journal cs1">Sagart, Laurent; Jacques, Guillaume; Lai, Yunfan; Ryder, Robin J.; Thouzeau, Valentin; Greenhill, Simon J.; List, Johann-Mattis (6 May 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6534992">"Dated language phylogenies shed light on the ancestry of Sino-Tibetan"</a>. <i>Proc. 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"Once again on the history and validity of the Sino-Tibetan bifurcate model". <i>Journal of Language Relationship</i>. <b>19</b> (4): 263–292.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Language+Relationship&rft.atitle=Once+again+on+the+history+and+validity+of+the+Sino-Tibetan+bifurcate+model&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=263-292&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Orlandi&rft.aufirst=Georg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Sino-Tibetan+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill2019-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill2019_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHill2019">Hill 2019</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_Driem2007" class="citation journal cs1">van Driem, George (2007). "The diversity of the Tibeto-Burman language family and the linguistic ancestry of Chinese". <i>Bulletin of Chinese Linguistics</i>. <b>1</b> (2): 211–270. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F2405478X-90000023">10.1163/2405478X-90000023</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+Chinese+Linguistics&rft.atitle=The+diversity+of+the+Tibeto-Burman+language+family+and+the+linguistic+ancestry+of+Chinese&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=211-270&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F2405478X-90000023&rft.aulast=van+Driem&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Sino-Tibetan+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEgerod" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Egerod, Søren Christian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sino-Tibetan-languages/Linguistic-characteristics">"Sino-Tibetan languages - Linguistic characteristics"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Online" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Online">Encyclopædia Britannica Online</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sino-Tibetan+languages+-+Linguistic+characteristics&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Online&rft.aulast=Egerod&rft.aufirst=S%C3%B8ren+Christian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FSino-Tibetan-languages%2FLinguistic-characteristics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Sino-Tibetan+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeirosStarostin1996" class="citation book cs1">Peiros, Ilia; Starostin, S.A. (1996). <i>A comparative vocabulary of five Sino-Tibetan languages</i>. Parkville, VIC: Univ. of Melbourne, Dept. of Linguistics and Applied Linguistics. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780732513504" title="Special:BookSources/9780732513504"><bdi>9780732513504</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+comparative+vocabulary+of+five+Sino-Tibetan+languages&rft.place=Parkville%2C+VIC&rft.pub=Univ.+of+Melbourne%2C+Dept.+of+Linguistics+and+Applied+Linguistics&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780732513504&rft.aulast=Peiros&rft.aufirst=Ilia&rft.au=Starostin%2C+S.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Sino-Tibetan+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill2019211-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill2019211_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHill2019">Hill 2019</a>, p. 211.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill2019234-235-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill2019234-235_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHill2019">Hill 2019</a>, p. 234-235.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill2019216-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill2019216_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHill2019">Hill 2019</a>, p. 216.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHwang-cherng2003" class="citation conference cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Gong Huangcheng (龔煌城) (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201103131246/http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/files/publication/o0005_08_4369.pdf"><bdi lang="zh">從原始漢藏語到上古漢語以及原始藏緬語的韻母演變</bdi></a> [Final changes from Proto-Sino-Tibetan to Old Chinese and Proto-Tibeto-Burman] <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <bdi lang="zh">古今通塞：漢語的歷史與發展</bdi>. <bdi lang="zh">第㆔屆國際漢學會議論文集語言組</bdi> (in Chinese). pp. 187–223. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/files/publication/o0005_08_4369.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2020-11-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 October</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=%E5%BE%9E%E5%8E%9F%E5%A7%8B%E6%BC%A2%E8%97%8F%E8%AA%9E%E5%88%B0%E4%B8%8A%E5%8F%A4%E6%BC%A2%E8%AA%9E%E4%BB%A5%E5%8F%8A%E5%8E%9F%E5%A7%8B%E8%97%8F%E7%B7%AC%E8%AA%9E%E7%9A%84%E9%9F%BB%E6%AF%8D%E6%BC%94%E8%AE%8A&rft.btitle=%E5%8F%A4%E4%BB%8A%E9%80%9A%E5%A1%9E%EF%BC%9A%E6%BC%A2%E8%AA%9E%E7%9A%84%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2%E8%88%87%E7%99%BC%E5%B1%95&rft.pages=187-223&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Hwang-cherng&rft.aufirst=Gong&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ling.sinica.edu.tw%2Ffiles%2Fpublication%2Fo0005_08_4369.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Sino-Tibetan+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaxterSagart" class="citation web cs1">Baxter, William H.; Sagart, Laurent. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ocbaxtersagart.lsait.lsa.umich.edu/">"The Baxter-Sagart reconstruction of Old Chinese"</a>. <i>The Baxter-Sagart reconstruction of Old Chinese</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Baxter-Sagart+reconstruction+of+Old+Chinese&rft.atitle=The+Baxter-Sagart+reconstruction+of+Old+Chinese&rft.aulast=Baxter&rft.aufirst=William+H.&rft.au=Sagart%2C+Laurent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Focbaxtersagart.lsait.lsa.umich.edu%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Sino-Tibetan+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill2012-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill2012_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill2012_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHill2012">Hill (2012)</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Sino-Tibetan_language&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHill2012" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Nathan_W._Hill" title="Nathan W. Hill">Hill, Nathan W.</a> (2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/15863/">"The six vowel hypothesis of Old Chinese in comparative context"</a>, <i>Bulletin of Chinese Linguistics</i>, <b>6</b> (2): 1–69, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F2405478x-90000100">10.1163/2405478x-90000100</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+Chinese+Linguistics&rft.atitle=The+six+vowel+hypothesis+of+Old+Chinese+in+comparative+context&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=1-69&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F2405478x-90000100&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=Nathan+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feprints.soas.ac.uk%2F15863%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Sino-Tibetan+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHill2019" class="citation book cs1">Hill, Nathan W. (2019). <i>The Historical Phonology of Tibetan, Burmese, and Chinese</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781316550939">10.1017/9781316550939</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-316-55093-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-316-55093-9"><bdi>978-1-316-55093-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Historical+Phonology+of+Tibetan%2C+Burmese%2C+and+Chinese&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781316550939&rft.isbn=978-1-316-55093-9&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=Nathan+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Sino-Tibetan+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatisoff2003" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/James_Matisoff" title="James Matisoff">Matisoff, James A.</a> (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://escholarship.org/uc/item/19d79619"><i>Handbook of Proto-Tibeto-Burman: System and Philosophy of Sino-Tibetan Reconstruction</i></a>, Berkeley: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-09843-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-09843-5"><bdi>978-0-520-09843-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Proto-Tibeto-Burman%3A+System+and+Philosophy+of+Sino-Tibetan+Reconstruction&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-520-09843-5&rft.aulast=Matisoff&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fescholarship.org%2Fuc%2Fitem%2F19d79619&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Sino-Tibetan+language" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output 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class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sino-Tibetan_branches" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sino-Tibetan branches"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Sino-Tibetan_branches" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a> branches</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a> (<a href="/wiki/Himachal_Pradesh" title="Himachal Pradesh">Himachal</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Uttarakhand" title="Uttarakhand">Uttarakhand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sikkim" title="Sikkim">Sikkim</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/West_Himalayish_languages" title="West Himalayish languages">West Himalayish</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Tamangic_languages" title="Tamangic languages">Tamangic</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newaric_languages" title="Newaric languages">Newaric</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Newar_language" title="Newar language">Newar</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baram%E2%80%93Thangmi_languages" title="Baram–Thangmi languages">Baram–Thangmi</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Kiranti_languages" title="Kiranti languages">Kiranti</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhimalish_languages" title="Dhimalish languages">Dhimalish</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dhimal_language" title="Dhimal language">Dhimal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Toto_language" title="Toto language">Toto</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lhokpu_language" title="Lhokpu language">Lhokpu</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lepcha_language" title="Lepcha language">Lepcha</a></i></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Greater_Magaric" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Greater_Magaric_languages" title="Greater Magaric languages">Greater Magaric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magaric_languages" title="Magaric languages">Magaric</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Magar_language" title="Magar language">Magar</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kham_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kham language">Kham</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chepangic_languages" title="Chepangic languages">Chepangic</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chepang_language" title="Chepang language">Chepang</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bhujel_language" title="Bhujel language">Bhujel</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raji%E2%80%93Raute_languages" title="Raji–Raute languages">Raji–Raute</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dura_language" title="Dura language">Dura</a></i>–<i><a href="/wiki/Tandrange_language" title="Tandrange language">Tandrange</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of Sino-Tibetan languages"><img alt="Map of Sino-Tibetan languages" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png/200px-Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png/300px-Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png/400px-Sino-Tibetan_Languages_Map.png 2x" data-file-width="2115" data-file-height="2792" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arunachal_Pradesh" title="Arunachal Pradesh">Arunachal</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Bodish_languages" title="Bodish languages">Bodish</a></b> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Tibetic_languages" title="Tibetic languages">Tibetic</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Bodish_languages" title="East Bodish languages">East Bodish</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tshangla_language" title="Tshangla language">Tshangla</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Basum_language" title="Basum language">Basum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nam_language" title="Nam language">Nam</a></i>?</li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gongduk_language" title="Gongduk language">Gongduk</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/%CA%BCOle_language" title="ʼOle language">ʼOle</a></i></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Tani_languages" title="Tani languages">Tani</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamdo_languages" title="Chamdo languages">Chamdo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a> and Indo-<br />Burmese border</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Karbi_language" title="Karbi language">Karbi</a></i></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Kuki-Chin_languages" title="Kuki-Chin languages">Kuki-Chin</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mruic_languages" title="Mruic languages">Mruic</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Mru_language" title="Mru language">Mru</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Anu-Hkongso_language" title="Anu-Hkongso language">Hkongso</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pyu_language_(Sino-Tibetan)" title="Pyu language (Sino-Tibetan)">Pyu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Taman_language_(Myanmar)" title="Taman language (Myanmar)">Taman</a></i></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">"<a href="/wiki/Naga_languages" title="Naga languages">Naga</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ao_languages" title="Ao languages">Ao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angami%E2%80%93Pochuri_languages" title="Angami–Pochuri languages">Angami–Pochuri</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Meitei_language" title="Meitei language">Meitei</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangkhulic_languages" title="Tangkhulic languages">Tangkhulic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zemeic_languages" title="Zemeic languages">Zeme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sal_languages" title="Sal languages">Sal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boro%E2%80%93Garo_languages" title="Boro–Garo languages">Boro–Garo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konyak_languages" title="Konyak languages">Konyak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jingpho%E2%80%93Luish_languages" title="Jingpho–Luish languages">Jingpho–Luish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic</a></b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bai_language" title="Bai language">Bai</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tujia_language" title="Tujia language">Tujia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nungish_languages" title="Nungish languages">Nungish</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Karenic_languages" title="Karenic languages">Karenic</a></b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gong_language" title="Gong language">Gong</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kathu_language" title="Kathu language">Kathu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cai%E2%80%93Long_languages" title="Cai–Long languages">Cai–Long</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Caijia_language" title="Caijia language">Caijia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Longjia_language" title="Longjia language">Longjia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Luren_language" title="Luren language">Luren</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Burmo-Qiangic" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Burmo-Qiangic_languages" title="Burmo-Qiangic languages">Burmo-Qiangic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Qiangic_languages" title="Qiangic languages">Qiangic</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gyalrongic_languages" title="Gyalrongic languages">Gyalrongic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ersuic_languages" title="Ersuic languages">Ersuic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naic_languages" title="Naic languages">Naic</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Lolo-Burmese_languages" title="Lolo-Burmese languages">Lolo-Burmese</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mondzish_languages" title="Mondzish languages">Mondzish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmish_languages" title="Burmish languages">Burmish</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Loloish_languages" title="Loloish languages">Loloish</a></b></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Language_isolates_and_independent_language_families_in_Arunachal" class="mw-redirect" title="Language isolates and independent language families in Arunachal">Dubious</a> (possible<br /><a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">isolates</a>) (<a href="/wiki/Language_isolates_and_independent_language_families_in_Arunachal" class="mw-redirect" title="Language isolates and independent language families in Arunachal">Arunachal</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hrusish_languages" title="Hrusish languages">Hrusish</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Hruso_language" title="Hruso language">Hruso</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mijiic_languages" title="Mijiic languages">Mijiic</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Kho-Bwa_languages" title="Kho-Bwa languages">Kho-Bwa</a></b> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Puroik_language" title="Puroik language">Puroik</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miju_languages" title="Miju languages">Miju–Meyor</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Songlin_language" title="Songlin language">Songlin</a></i></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Greater_Siangic" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Greater_Siangic_languages" title="Greater Siangic languages">Greater Siangic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siangic_languages" title="Siangic languages">Siangic</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Koro_language_(India)" title="Koro language (India)">Koro</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Milang_language" title="Milang language">Milang</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digaro_languages" title="Digaro languages">Idu–Taraon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proposed groupings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Central Tibeto-Burman languages">Central Tibeto-Burman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuki-Chin%E2%80%93Naga_languages" title="Kuki-Chin–Naga languages">Kuki-Chin–Naga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro-Bai_languages" title="Macro-Bai languages">Macro-Bai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahakiranti_languages" title="Mahakiranti languages">Mahakiranti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rung_languages" title="Rung languages">Rung</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Tibeto-Burman languages">Tibeto-Burman</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Kanauri_languages" title="Tibeto-Kanauri languages">Tibeto-Kanauri</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">Proto-languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Proto-Sino-Tibetan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Tibeto-Burman_language" title="Proto-Tibeto-Burman language">Proto-Tibeto-Burman</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Loloish_language" title="Proto-Loloish language">Proto-Loloish</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Karenic_language" title="Proto-Karenic language">Proto-Karenic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Min" title="Proto-Min">Proto-Min</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Hakka" title="Proto-Hakka">Proto-Hakka</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><i>Italics</i> indicates single languages that are also considered to be separate branches.</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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