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id="toc-Important_factors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Income" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Income"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Income</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Income-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Female_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Female_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Female education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Female_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Occupation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Occupation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Occupation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Occupation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_variables" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_variables"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Other variables</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_variables-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Other variables subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Other_variables-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Wealth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wealth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Wealth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wealth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Effects</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Effects subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Health</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_participation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_participation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Political participation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_participation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crime" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crime"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Crime</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crime-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychological" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychological"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Psychological</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Psychological-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Psychological subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Psychological-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Language_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Language development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Home_environment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Home_environment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>Home environment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Home_environment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Parental_interactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Parental_interactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2</span> <span>Parental interactions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Parental_interactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disparities_in_language_acquisition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disparities_in_language_acquisition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Disparities in language acquisition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disparities_in_language_acquisition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Semantics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Semantics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Semantics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Semantics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>Syntax</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syntax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3</span> <span>Morphology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.4</span> <span>Phonology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Positive_outcomes_of_low_SES" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Positive_outcomes_of_low_SES"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.5</span> <span>Positive outcomes of low SES</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Positive_outcomes_of_low_SES-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literacy_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literacy_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Literacy development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literacy_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Home_environment_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Home_environment_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>Home environment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Home_environment_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neighborhood_influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neighborhood_influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.2</span> <span>Neighborhood influence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neighborhood_influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-School_influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#School_influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.3</span> <span>School influence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-School_influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influences_on_nonverbal_behavior" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influences_on_nonverbal_behavior"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Influences on nonverbal behavior</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influences_on_nonverbal_behavior-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div 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class="mw-page-title-main">Socioeconomic status</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 17 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-17" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">17 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="حالة اجتماعية اقتصادية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حالة اجتماعية اقتصادية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statws_economaidd-gymdeithasol" title="Statws economaidd-gymdeithasol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Statws economaidd-gymdeithasol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sozio%C3%B6konomischer_Status" title="Sozioökonomischer Status – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Sozioökonomischer Status" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nivel_socioecon%C3%B3mico" title="Nivel socioeconómico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Nivel socioeconómico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%AC%ED%9A%8C_%EA%B2%BD%EC%A0%9C%EC%A0%81_%EC%A7%80%EC%9C%84" title="사회 경제적 지위 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="사회 경제적 지위" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%B8%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%AC-%D5%BF%D5%B6%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AF%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A3%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%AB%D5%B3%D5%A1%D5%AF" title="Սոցիալ-տնտեսական կարգավիճակ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սոցիալ-տնտեսական կարգավիճակ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="सामाजिक आर्थिक स्थिति – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सामाजिक आर्थिक स्थिति" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socioekonomin%C4%97_pad%C4%97tis" title="Socioekonominė padėtis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Socioekonominė padėtis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociaal-economische_status" title="Sociaal-economische status – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Sociaal-economische status" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E7%B5%8C%E6%B8%88%E7%8A%B6%E6%B3%81" title="社会経済状況 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="社会経済状況" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijtimoiy-iqtisodiy_holat" title="Ijtimoiy-iqtisodiy holat – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ijtimoiy-iqtisodiy holat" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Status_socjoekonomiczny" title="Status socjoekonomiczny – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Status socjoekonomiczny" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Status_socioecon%C3%B3mico" title="Status socioeconómico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Status socioeconómico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosioekonominen_asema" title="Sosioekonominen asema – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Sosioekonominen asema" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%8Ba_v%E1%BB%8B_kinh_t%E1%BA%BF_x%C3%A3_h%E1%BB%99i" title="Địa vị kinh tế xã hội – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Địa vị kinh tế xã hội" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E7%B6%93%E5%9C%B0%E4%BD%8D" title="社經地位 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="社經地位" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E7%BB%8F%E6%B5%8E%E5%9C%B0%E4%BD%8D" title="社会经济地位 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" 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data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Economic and social measure of a person's affluence and/or influence</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean_Eug%C3%A8ne_Buland_Almosen_eines_Bettlers_1880.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Jean_Eug%C3%A8ne_Buland_Almosen_eines_Bettlers_1880.jpg/220px-Jean_Eug%C3%A8ne_Buland_Almosen_eines_Bettlers_1880.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Jean_Eug%C3%A8ne_Buland_Almosen_eines_Bettlers_1880.jpg/330px-Jean_Eug%C3%A8ne_Buland_Almosen_eines_Bettlers_1880.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Jean_Eug%C3%A8ne_Buland_Almosen_eines_Bettlers_1880.jpg/440px-Jean_Eug%C3%A8ne_Buland_Almosen_eines_Bettlers_1880.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3816" data-file-height="5051" /></a><figcaption>An 1880 painting by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Eug%C3%A8ne_Buland" title="Jean-Eugène Buland">Jean-Eugène Buland</a> showing a stark contrast in socioeconomic status</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Socioeconomic status</b> (<b>SES</b>) is an <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociological</a> combined total measure of a person's work experience and of an individual's or family's access to economic resources and social position in relation to others.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When analyzing a family's SES, the household income and the <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a> and occupations of its members are examined, whereas for an individual's SES only their own attributes are assessed. Recently, research has revealed a lesser-recognized attribute of SES as perceived financial stress, as it defines the "balance between income and necessary expenses".<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Perceived financial stress can be tested by deciphering whether a person at the end of each month has more than enough, just enough, or not enough money or resources.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, SES is more commonly used to depict an economic difference in society as a whole.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Socioeconomic status is typically broken into three levels (<a href="/wiki/Upper_class" title="Upper class">high</a>, <a href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">middle</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Working_class" title="Working class">low</a>) to describe the three places a family or an individual may fall into. When placing a family or individual into one of these categories, any or all of the three variables (income, education, and occupation) can be assessed. </p><p>Education in higher socioeconomic families is typically stressed as much more important, both within the household as well as the local community. In poorer areas, where food, shelter and safety are a priority, education is typically regarded as less important. Youth in poorer households are particularly at risk for many health and social problems in the United States, such as <a href="/wiki/Unwanted_pregnancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Unwanted pregnancy">unwanted pregnancies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Addiction" title="Addiction">addiction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drug_abuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug abuse">drug abuse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diabetes" title="Diabetes">diabetes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">obesity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Additionally, low income and education have been shown to be strong predictors of a range of physical and <a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic_status_and_mental_health" title="Socioeconomic status and mental health">mental health problems</a>, including, meningitis, respiratory viruses, <a href="/wiki/Arthritis" title="Arthritis">arthritis</a>, coronary disease, and psychosis, <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a>. These problems may result from environmental conditions at home or in the workplaces, or using the social causation model where disability or mental illness, may be the precursor leading to a person's social status including freedoms and liberties. <sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-apa_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-apa-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Important_factors">Important factors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomic_status&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Important factors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Income">Income</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomic_status&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Income"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Income</i> refers to <a href="/wiki/Wage" title="Wage">wages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Salaries">salaries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Profit_(accounting)" title="Profit (accounting)">profits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Renting" title="Renting">rents</a>, and any flow of earnings received. Income can also come in the form of <a href="/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">unemployment</a> or worker's compensation, social security, pensions, interests or dividends, royalties, trusts, alimony, or other governmental, public, or family financial assistance. It can also come from monetary winnings, like <a href="/wiki/Lottery" title="Lottery">lotteries</a> and other games or contests where money is awarded as a prize. </p><p>Income can be looked at in two terms: relative and absolute. Absolute income, as theorized by economist <a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a>, is the relationship in which as income increases, so will consumption, but not at the same rate.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Relative_poverty" class="mw-redirect" title="Relative poverty">Relative income</a> dictates a person's or family's savings and consumption based on the family's income in relation to others. Income is a commonly used measure of SES because it is relatively easy to figure for most individuals. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality" class="mw-redirect" title="Income inequality">Income inequality</a> is most commonly measured around the world by the <a href="/wiki/Gini_coefficient" title="Gini coefficient">Gini coefficient</a>, where 0 corresponds to perfect equality and 1 means perfect inequality. Low-income families focus on meeting immediate needs and do not accumulate wealth that could be passed on to future generations, thus increasing inequality. Families with higher and expendable income can accumulate <a href="/wiki/Wealth" title="Wealth">wealth</a> and focus on meeting immediate needs while being able to consume and enjoy luxuries and weather crises.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomic_status&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Cleanup plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-Cleanup" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section may <b>require <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Cleanup" title="Wikipedia:Cleanup">cleanup</a></b> to meet Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style">quality standards</a>. The specific problem is: <b>section not using <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_Point_of_View" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Neutral Point of View">a neutral point of view</a>.</b><span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Socioeconomic_status" title="Special:EditPage/Socioeconomic status">improve this section</a> if you can.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Education also plays a role in determining income. Median earnings increase with each level of <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>. As conveyed in the chart, the highest degrees, professional and doctoral degrees, make the highest weekly earnings while those without a high school diploma earn less. Higher levels of education are associated with better economic and psychological outcomes (i.e.: more income, more control, and greater social support and networking).<sup id="cite_ref-apa_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-apa-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Education plays a pivotal role in skillsets for acquiring jobs, as well as specific qualities that <a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">stratify</a> people with higher SES from lower SES. Annette Lareau speaks on the idea of <a href="/wiki/Concerted_cultivation" title="Concerted cultivation">concerted cultivation</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">middle class</a> parents take an active role in their children's education and development by using controlled organized activities and fostering a sense of entitlement through encouraging discussion. Laureau argues that families with lower income do not participate in this movement, causing their children to have a sense of constraint. An interesting observation that studies have noted is that parents from lower SES households are more likely to give orders to their children in their interactions while parents with a higher SES are more likely to interact and play with their children. A division in education attainment is thus born out of these two differences in child-rearing. Research has shown how children who are born in lower SES households have weaker language skills compared to children raised in higher SES households. These language skills affect their abilities to learn and thus exacerbate the problem of education disparity between low and high SES neighbourhoods. Lower-income families can have children who do not succeed to the levels of the middle-income children, who can have a greater sense of entitlement, be more argumentative, or be better prepared for adult life.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Research shows that lower SES students have lower and slower academic achievement as compared with students of higher SES.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When educators form judgments about students based on their socioeconomic status (SES), it may limit students' access to equal opportunities for academic achievement. Efforts to reduce the stigma surrounding poverty can support a more inclusive learning environment. Viewing students as individuals rather than associating them with a specific SES group may help mitigate potential biases and contribute to more equitable educational outcomes.<sup id="cite_ref-chinn_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chinn-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This approach fosters a more objective evaluation of each student's capabilities and needs, rather than being influenced by their socioeconomic background. Raising the level of instruction can help to create equality in student achievement. Teachers relating the content taught to students' prior knowledge and relating it to real-world experiences can improve achievement.<sup id="cite_ref-chinn_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chinn-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Educators also need to be open and discuss class and SES differences. It is important that all are educated, understand, and be able to speak openly about SES.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Female_education">Female education</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomic_status&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Female education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic_impact_of_female_education" title="Socioeconomic impact of female education">Socioeconomic impact of female education</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomic_impact_of_female_education&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> The <a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic_impact_of_female_education" title="Socioeconomic impact of female education">socioeconomic impact of female education</a> constitutes a significant area of research within <a href="/wiki/International_development" title="International development">international development</a>. Increases in the amount of female education in regions tends to correlate with high levels of development. Some of the effects are related to <a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">economic development</a>. Women's education increases the income of women and leads to growth in <a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a>. Other effects are related to <a href="/wiki/Social_change" title="Social change">social development</a>. Educating girls leads to a number of social benefits, including many related to women's empowerment.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Occupation">Occupation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomic_status&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Occupation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Occupational_prestige" title="Occupational prestige">Occupational prestige</a>, as one component of SES, encompasses both income and <a href="/wiki/Educational_attainment" title="Educational attainment">educational attainment</a>. The occupational status reflects the educational attainment required to obtain the job and income levels that vary with different jobs and within ranks of occupations. Additionally, it shows achievement in skills required for the job. Occupational status measures social position by describing job characteristics, decision-making ability and control, and psychological demands on the job<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. </p><p>Occupations are ranked by the Census (among other organizations) and opinion polls from the general population are surveyed. Some of the most prestigious occupations are physicians and surgeons, lawyers, chemical and biomedical engineers, university professors, and communications analysts. These jobs, considered to be grouped in the high SES classification, provide more challenging work and greater control over working conditions but require more ability. The jobs with lower rankings include food preparation workers, counter attendants, bartenders and helpers, dishwashers, janitors, maids and housekeepers, vehicle cleaners, and parking lot attendants. The jobs that are less valued also offer significantly lower wages, and often are more laborious, very hazardous, and provide less autonomy.<sup id="cite_ref-apa_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-apa-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Occupation is the most difficult factor to measure because so many exist, and there are so many competing scales. Many scales rank occupations based on the level of skill involved, from unskilled to skilled manual labour to professional, or use a combined measure using the education level needed and income involved. </p><p>In sum, the majority of researchers agree that income, education and occupation together best represent SES, while some others feel that changes in family structure should also be considered.<sup id="cite_ref-Milne,_A._2006_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Milne,_A._2006-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> SES affects students' cognitive abilities and academic success.<sup id="cite_ref-Milne,_A._2006_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Milne,_A._2006-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several researchers have found that SES affects students' abilities.<sup id="cite_ref-Milne,_A._2006_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Milne,_A._2006-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_variables">Other variables</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomic_status&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Other variables"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wealth">Wealth</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomic_status&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Wealth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="PieChartTemplate thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px"> <div class="mw-no-invert" style="background-color:white;margin:auto;position:relative;width:200px;height:200px;overflow:hidden;border-radius:100px;border:1px solid black;transform:scaleX(-1)rotate(-90deg)"> <div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:0; top:0; border-width:0 200px 200px 0; border-color:green; z-index:-1"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:0; top:0; border-width:0 200px 200px 0; border-color:#bc514c; z-index:-1"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 389.47428549299px; border-left-color:orange"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:orange"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:orange"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 73.618653272908px; border-left-color:#96b2da"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:#96b2da"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:#96b2da"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;right:100px; top:100px; border-width:99.288260456981px 11.909716009487px 0 0; border-top-color:#588cdb"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:#588cdb"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;right:100px; top:100px; border-width:67.995337872242px 73.325534622256px 0 0; border-top-color:#385f96"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:#385f96"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;right:100px; top:0; border-width:0 68.882391633355px 100px 0; border-right-color:#273f64"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;right:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 100px 0;border-color:#273f64"></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption"> <p><a href="/wiki/Wealth_distribution_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Wealth distribution in the United States">Wealth distribution in the United States</a> by net worth (2007).<sup id="cite_ref-levyinstitute.org_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-levyinstitute.org-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The net wealth of many people in the lowest 20% is negative because of debt.<sup id="cite_ref-levyinstitute.org_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-levyinstitute.org-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 2014 the wealth gap deepened. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#273f64; color:white;"> </span> Top 1% (34.6%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#385f96; color:white;"> </span> Next 4% (27.3%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#588cdb; color:black;"> </span> Next 5% (11.2%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#96b2da; color:black;"> </span> Next 10% (12%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:orange; color:black;"> </span> <b>Upper Middle 20%</b> (10.9%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#bc514c; color:white;"> </span> <b>Middle 20%</b> (4%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:green; color:white;"> </span> <b>Bottom 40%</b> (0.2%)</div> </div> </div></div> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Wealth" title="Wealth">Wealth</a></i>, a set of economic reserves or assets, presents a source of security providing a measure of a household's ability to meet emergencies, absorb economic shocks, or provide the means to live comfortably. Wealth reflects intergenerational transitions as well as accumulation of income and savings.<sup id="cite_ref-apa_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-apa-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Income, age, marital status, family size, religion, occupation, and education are all predictors of wealth attainment. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Wealth_gap" class="mw-redirect" title="Wealth gap">wealth gap</a>, like income inequality, is very large in the United States. <a href="/wiki/Racial_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Racial inequality in the United States">There exists a racial wealth gap</a> due in part to income disparities and differences in achievement resulting from institutional discrimination. According to <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Shapiro" title="Thomas Shapiro">Thomas Shapiro</a>, differences in savings (due to different rates of incomes), inheritance factors, and discrimination in the housing market lead to the racial wealth gap. Shapiro claims that savings increase with increasing income, but African Americans cannot participate in this, because they make significantly less than Americans of European descent (whites). Additionally, rates of inheritance dramatically differ between African Americans and Americans of European descent. The amount a person inherits, either during a lifetime or after death, can create different starting points between two different individuals or families. These different starting points also factor into housing, education, and <a href="/wiki/Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">employment discrimination</a>. A third reason Shapiro offers for the racial wealth gap are the various discriminations African Americans must face, like <a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">redlining</a> and higher interest rates in the housing market. These types of discrimination feed into the other reasons why African Americans end up having different starting points and therefore fewer assets.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects">Effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomic_status&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health">Health</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomic_status&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Health"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Socioeconomic_status" title="Special:EditPage/Socioeconomic status">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Recently, there has been increasing interest from <a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">epidemiologists</a> on the subject of <a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">economic inequality</a> and its relation to the <a href="/wiki/Population_health" title="Population health">health of populations</a>. Socioeconomic status has long been related to health, those higher in the social hierarchy typically enjoy better health than those below.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Socioeconomic status is an important source of <a href="/wiki/Health_equity" title="Health equity">health inequity</a>, as there is a very robust positive correlation between socioeconomic status and health. This correlation suggests that it is not only the poor who tend to be sick when everyone else is healthy, but that there is a continual gradient, from the top to the bottom of the socio-economic ladder, relating status to health. Parents with a low socioeconomic status cannot afford many of the health care resources which is the reason that their children may have a more advanced illness because of the lack of treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-Bradley_371&issn=0066-4308_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bradley_371&issn=0066-4308-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This phenomenon is often called the "SES Gradient" or according to the World Health Organisation the "Social Gradient". Lower socioeconomic status has been linked to chronic <a href="/wiki/Stress_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress (medicine)">stress</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heart_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart disease">heart disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peptic_ulcer" class="mw-redirect" title="Peptic ulcer">ulcers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Type_2_diabetes" title="Type 2 diabetes">type 2 diabetes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rheumatoid_arthritis" title="Rheumatoid arthritis">rheumatoid arthritis</a>, certain types of <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Premature_aging" class="mw-redirect" title="Premature aging">premature aging</a>. </p><p>There is debate regarding the cause of the SES Gradient. Researchers see a definite link between economic status and mortality due to the greater economic resources of the wealthy, but they find little correlation due to <a href="/wiki/Social_status" title="Social status">social status</a> differences.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other researchers such as <a href="/wiki/Richard_G._Wilkinson" title="Richard G. Wilkinson">Richard G. Wilkinson</a>, J. Lynch, and G.A. Kaplan have found that socioeconomic status strongly affects health even when controlling for economic resources and access to health care.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most famous for linking social status with health are the <a href="/wiki/Whitehall_Study" title="Whitehall Study">Whitehall studies</a>—a series of studies conducted on <a href="/wiki/Civil_servants" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil servants">civil servants</a> in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>. The studies found that although all civil servants in England have the same access to health care, there was a strong correlation between social status and health. The studies found that this relationship remained strong even when controlling for health-affecting habits such as <a href="/wiki/Exercise" title="Exercise">exercise</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_smoking" title="Tobacco smoking">smoking</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alcoholic_beverage" title="Alcoholic beverage">drinking</a>. Furthermore, it has been noted that no amount of medical attention will help decrease the likelihood of someone getting <a href="/wiki/Type_2_diabetes" title="Type 2 diabetes">type 2 diabetes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Rheumatoid_arthritis" title="Rheumatoid arthritis">rheumatoid arthritis</a>—yet both are more common among populations with lower socioeconomic status. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_participation">Political participation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomic_status&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Political participation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomic_status&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2014</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Political scientists have established a consistent relationship between <a href="/wiki/Public_participation_(decision_making)#Civic_opportunity_gap" title="Public participation (decision making)">SES and political participation</a>. For example, in 2004, the American Political Science Task Force on Inequality and American Democracy has found that those with higher socioeconomic status participate at higher rates than those with lower status.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crime">Crime</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomic_status&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Crime"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Correlates_of_crime#Socioeconomic_factors" title="Correlates of crime">Correlates of crime § Socioeconomic factors</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Correlates_of_crime&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <p>Socioeconomic status (usually measured using the three variables income or wealth, occupational level, and years of education) correlates negatively with criminality, except for self-reported illegal drug use. Higher parental socioeconomic status probably has an inverse relationship with crime. Unstable employment and high frequency of unemployment correlate positively with criminality.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Low socioeconomic status is thought to be positively correlated with higher levels of stress, and therefore the mental and psychological ill-effects of stress.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indeed, higher stress levels have been positively associated with a propensity to commit crime.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Somewhat inconsistent evidence indicates a positive relationship between low income levels, the percentage of population under the poverty line, low education levels, and high <a href="/wiki/Income_inequality" class="mw-redirect" title="Income inequality">income inequality</a> in an area with more crime in said area.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllisBeaverWright2009-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2013 study from Sweden argued that there was little effect of neighbourhood deprivation on criminality per se and rather that the higher rates of crime were due to observed and unobserved family and individual level factors, indicating that high-risk individuals were being selected into economically deprived areas.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> study said, “Crime rates and inequality are positively correlated within countries and, particularly, between countries, and this correlation reflects causation from inequality to crime rates, even after controlling for other crime determinants.”<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Researchers in criminology have argued the effect of poverty upon crime is contextual:<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>As Levi (1997: 860) noted, macrolevel accounts ‘seldom generate anything close to a causal account which makes sense of nonviolence as well as of violence’. Put another way, the vast majority of individuals who live in conditions of poverty or disadvantage do not resort to violence at any time. Hence, in order to understand the patterns of violence that actually occur, it is imperative to study the social experiences of those who engage in it (Athens 1992).</p></blockquote></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Psychological">Psychological</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomic_status&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Psychological"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language_development">Language development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomic_status&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Language development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomic_status&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2016</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Home_environment">Home environment</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomic_status&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Home environment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The environment of low SES children is characterized by less dialogue from parents, minimal amounts of book reading, and few instances of <a href="/wiki/Joint_attention" title="Joint attention">joint attention</a>, the shared focus of the child and adult on the same object or event, when compared to the environment of high SES children. In contrast, infants from high SES families experience more child-directed speech. At 10 months, children of high SES hear on average 400 more words than their low SES peers.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Language ability differs sharply as a function of SES, for example, the average vocabulary size of 3-year-old children from professional families was more than twice as large as for those on welfare.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Children from lower income households had greater media access in their bedrooms but lower access to portable play equipment compared to higher income children.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This eventually leads children from lower socioeconomic backgrounds to be at a disadvantage when comparing them with their counterparts in terms of access to physical activities. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Parental_interactions">Parental interactions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomic_status&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Parental interactions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In addition to the amount of language input from parents, SES heavily influences the type of <a href="/wiki/Parenting_styles" title="Parenting styles">parenting style</a> a family chooses to practice. These different parenting styles shape the tone and purpose of verbal interactions between parent and child. For example, parents of high SES tend toward more <a href="/wiki/Authoritative_Parenting" class="mw-redirect" title="Authoritative Parenting">authoritative</a> or <a href="/wiki/Permissive_Parenting" class="mw-redirect" title="Permissive Parenting">permissive parenting</a> styles.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoff_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoff-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These parents pose more open-ended questions to their children to encourage the latter's speech growth.<sup id="cite_ref-Clark_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clark-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, parents of low SES tend toward more <a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_Parent" class="mw-redirect" title="Authoritarian Parent">authoritarian styles</a> of address. Their conversations with their children contain more <a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">imperatives</a> and yes/no questions that inhibits child responses and speech development.<sup id="cite_ref-Clark_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clark-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Parental differences in addressing children may be traced to the position of their respective groups within society. Working class individuals often hold low-power, subordinate positions in the occupational world. This standing in the social <a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">hierarchy</a> requires a personality and interaction style that is relational and capable of adjusting to circumstances.<sup id="cite_ref-Markus_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Markus-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An <a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_Parent" class="mw-redirect" title="Authoritarian Parent">authoritarian style</a> of address prepares children for these types of roles, which require a more accommodating and compliant personality. Therefore, low-SES parents see the family as more hierarchical, with the parents at the top of the power structure, which shapes verbal interaction.<sup id="cite_ref-Kusserow_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kusserow-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This power differential emulates the circumstances of the working class world, where individuals are ranked and discouraged from questioning authority. </p><p>Conversely, high-SES individuals occupy high-power positions that call for greater expressivity. High-SES parents encourage their children to question the world around them.<sup id="cite_ref-Markus_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Markus-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to asking their children more questions, these parents push their children to create questions of their own.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoff_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoff-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast with low-SES parents, these individuals often view the power disparity between parent and child as detrimental to the family. Opting instead to treat children as equals, high-SES conversations are characterized by a give and take between parent and child.<sup id="cite_ref-Kusserow_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kusserow-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These interactions help prepare these children for occupations that require greater expressivity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disparities_in_language_acquisition">Disparities in language acquisition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomic_status&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Disparities in language acquisition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The linguistic environment of low and high SES children differs substantially, which affects many aspects of language and literacy development such as semantics, syntax, morphology, and phonology. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Semantics">Semantics</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomic_status&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Semantics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Semantics is the study of the meaning of words and phrases. Semantics covers vocabulary, which is affected by SES. Children of high SES have larger expressive vocabularies by the age of 24 months due to more efficient processing of familiar words. By age 3, there are significant differences in the amount of dialogue and vocabulary growth between children of low and high SES.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The effects of SES on vocabulary extend from childhood to adolescence and even into early adulthood according to a large socioeconomically diverse study.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A lack of joint attention in children contributes to poor vocabulary growth when compared to their high SES peers. Joint attention and book reading are important factors that affect children's vocabulary growth.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With joint attention, a child and adult can focus on the same object, allowing the child to map out words. For example, a child sees an animal running outside and the mom points to it and says, "Look, a dog." The child will focus its attention to where its mother is pointing and map the word dog to the pointed animal. Joint attention thus facilitates word learning for children. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Syntax">Syntax</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomic_status&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Syntax"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">Syntax</a> refers to the arrangement of words and phrases to form sentences. SES affects the production of sentence structures. Although 22- to 44-month-old children's production of <a href="/wiki/Simple_sentence" class="mw-redirect" title="Simple sentence">simple sentence</a> structures does not vary by SES, low SES does contribute to difficulty with <a href="/wiki/Complex_sentence" class="mw-redirect" title="Complex sentence">complex sentence</a> structures. Complex sentences include sentences that have more than one <a href="/wiki/Verb_phrase" title="Verb phrase">verb phrase</a>. An example of a complex sentence is, "I want you to sit there".<sup id="cite_ref-Vasilyeva_2008_84–97_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vasilyeva_2008_84–97-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The emergence of simple sentence structures is seen as a structure that is obligatory in everyday speech. Complex sentence structures are optional and can only be mastered if the environment fosters its development.<sup id="cite_ref-Vasilyeva_2008_84–97_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vasilyeva_2008_84–97-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This lag in the sentence formation abilities of low SES children may be caused by less frequent exposure to complex syntax through parental speech. Low SES parents ask fewer response-coaxing questions of their children which limits the opportunities of these children to practice more complex speech patterns.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoff_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoff-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead, these parents give their children more direct orders, which has been found to negatively influence the acquisition of more difficult <a href="/wiki/Noun_phrase" title="Noun phrase">noun</a> and <a href="/wiki/Verb_phrase" title="Verb phrase">verb phrases</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Clark_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clark-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, high SES households ask their children broad questions to cultivate speech development. Exposure to more questions positively contributes to children's vocabulary growth and complex noun phrase constructions.<sup id="cite_ref-Clark_41-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clark-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Morphology">Morphology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomic_status&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Children's grasp of morphology, the study of how words are formed, is affected by SES. Children of high SES have advantages in applying grammatical rules, such as the pluralization of nouns and adjectives compared to children of low SES. Pluralizing nouns consists of understanding that some nouns are regular and -s denotes more than one, but also understanding how to apply different rules to irregular nouns. Learning and understanding how to use plural rules is an important tool in conversation and writing. In order to communicate successfully that there is more than one dog running down the street, an -s must be added to dog. Research also finds that the gap in ability to pluralize nouns and adjectives does not diminish by age or schooling because low SES children's reaction times to pluralize nouns and adjectives do not decrease.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Phonology">Phonology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomic_status&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Phonological awareness, the ability to recognize that words are made up of different sound units, is also affected by SES. Children of low SES between the second and sixth grades are found to have low phonological awareness. The gap in phonological awareness increases by grade level.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This gap is even more problematic if children of low SES are already born with low levels of phonological awareness and their environment does not foster its growth. Children who have high phonological awareness from an early age are not affected by SES.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Positive_outcomes_of_low_SES">Positive outcomes of low SES</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomic_status&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Positive outcomes of low SES"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Given the large amount of research on the setbacks children of low SES face, there is a push by child developmental researchers to steer research to a more positive direction regarding low SES. The goal is to highlight the strengths and assets low income families possess in raising children. For example, African American preschoolers of low SES exhibit strengths in oral narrative, or storytelling, that may promote later success in reading. These children have better narrative comprehension when compared to peers of higher SES.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since 2012, there has also been some research on the <a href="/wiki/Shift-and-persist_model" title="Shift-and-persist model">Shift-and-persist model</a>, which attempts to account for the counterintuitive positive health outcomes that can occur in individuals who grow up in low SES families.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literacy_development">Literacy development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomic_status&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Literacy development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A gap in reading growth exists between low SES and high SES children, which widens as children move on to higher grades. Reading assessments that test reading growth include measures on basic reading skills (i.e., print familiarity, letter recognition, beginning and ending sounds, rhyming sounds, word recognition), vocabulary (receptive vocabulary), and reading comprehension skills (i.e., listening comprehension, words in context).<sup id="cite_ref-Benson_&_Borman,_2010_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benson_&_Borman,_2010-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reading growth gap is apparent between the spring of kindergarten and the spring of first-grade, the time when children rely more on the school for reading growth and less on their parents. Initially, high SES children begin as better readers than their low SES counterparts. As children get older, high SES children progress more rapidly in reading growth rates than low SES children. These early reading outcomes affect later academic success. The further children fall behind, the more difficult it is to catch up and the more likely they will continue to fall behind. By the time students enter high school in the United States, low SES children are considerably behind their high SES peers in reading growth.<sup id="cite_ref-Aikens_&_Barbarin,_2008_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aikens_&_Barbarin,_2008-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Home_environment_2">Home environment</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomic_status&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Home environment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Home environment is one of the leading factors of a child's well-being. Children living in a poor home with inadequate living conditions are more likely to be susceptible to illness and injuries.<sup id="cite_ref-Bradley_371&issn=0066-4308_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bradley_371&issn=0066-4308-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The disparities in experiences in the home environment between children of high and low SES affect reading outcomes. The home environment is considered the main contributor to SES reading outcomes.<sup id="cite_ref-Aikens_&_Barbarin,_2008_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aikens_&_Barbarin,_2008-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Children of low SES status are read to less often and have fewer books in the home than their high SES peers, which suggests an answer to why children of low SES status have lower initial reading scores than their high SES counterparts upon entering kindergarten.<sup id="cite_ref-Aikens_&_Barbarin,_2008_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aikens_&_Barbarin,_2008-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Evans,_2004_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Evans,_2004-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Low SES parents are also less involved in their children's schooling.<sup id="cite_ref-Evans,_2004_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Evans,_2004-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fact that many students go to school outside of their home to learn does not mean that it is the only determinant of their literacy growth. Parenting at home plays a role in shaping emotional, physical and mental health, all things that are extremely important to educational success in the classroom. This is a crucial factor that must be acknowledged by educators because boundaries such as constant <a href="/wiki/Parenting_stress" title="Parenting stress">parenting stress</a> and approach to learning, for example, have a major impact on the students' literacy development.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The home environment makes the largest contribution to the prediction of initial kindergarten reading disparities. Characteristics of the home environment include home literacy environment and parental involvement in school. Home literacy environment is characterized by the frequency with which parents engage in joint book reading with the child, the frequency with which children read books outside of school, and the frequency with which household members visited the library with the child. Parental involvement in school is characterized by attending a parent–teacher conference, attending a <a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93teacher_association" title="Parent–teacher association">parent–teacher association</a> (PTA) meeting, attending an open house, volunteering, participating in fundraising, and attending a school event. Resources, experiences, and relationships associated with the family are most closely associated with reading gaps when students' reading levels are first assessed in kindergarten. The influence of family factors on initial reading level may be due to children experiencing little schooling before kindergarten—they mainly have their families to rely on for their reading growth.<sup id="cite_ref-Aikens_&_Barbarin,_2008_54-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aikens_&_Barbarin,_2008-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Socioeconomic status plays a role in the involvement of certain parents over others. It affects parenting practices and as a result proves to be a strong predictor of child achievement when comparing households.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A parent’s involvement in their child's reading literacy performance progress is often overcome by demographic factors such as poverty, racial and ethnic identity, family and parenting stress, and the parent's educational level.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies show that when parents become involved in reading-related activities with their children outside of school, reading performance, literacy, love for reading and language skills are more likely to improve.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parent involvement in students’ education is a large factor in their literacy achievement, but the way they parent has a large impact on the overall development of the child. These kinds of involvements are often determined by <a href="/wiki/Social_privilege" title="Social privilege">privilege</a> and the level of stress that a parent must endure, especially when of low socioeconomic status. The reading literacy gap has been further exposed by the enhancement of these already existing inequalities. Studies have found a direct link between Family Processes (including parenting stress and discipline practices), Social-Emotional Readiness (including approaches to learning and self control), and Reading Literacy.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_56-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although seeming unrelated, the way that a parent interacts with their child and their child's learning at home sets the stage for how well they will be able to improve their reading literacy in school. </p><p>The disadvantages of the achievement gap have exposed itself further for students and children as students have been forced to practice remote learning of the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">2020 pandemic.</a><sup id="cite_ref-:3_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Limited access to the correct school resources affects a child's literacy level dramatically, even more so during the switch to <a href="/wiki/Distance_education" title="Distance education">online learning</a>, given the combination of decreased parent involvement and access to outdoor play. Low to lower-middle class households had the highest rate of employment change during the pandemic, which includes loss of employment, reduced hours and/or reduced pay.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Large historical events like this one have only extenuated and exposed already existing inequities and in turn have negatively affected students of these demographics. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Labor" title="United States Department of Labor">US Department of Labor</a> revealed that layoffs that occurred during the COVID 19 pandemic had the biggest impact on historically minorities groups, which include Black, Latino, low income workers, and women.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_59-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This means that children of these same working adults experienced disparities as well. In a 2013 report by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Commerce" title="United States Department of Commerce">US Department of Commerce</a>, it was found that only 55% of <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African American</a> and 58% of <a href="/wiki/Rural_area" title="Rural area">rural</a> households had any internet access in their home.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can be compared to the 74% of white and 81% of <a href="/wiki/Asian_Americans" title="Asian Americans">Asian American</a> homes that had reliable internet.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Comparing this 2013 report to the occurrences existing in 2020 are not very different given that the demographic students still experience this "digital gap" and disproportionate lack in access to the internet and/or technological equipment necessary.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_59-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Without access to the correct materials at home, including books and digital tools, students cannot perform as well in reading literacy as their more privileged classmates. </p><p>Family SES is also associated with reading achievement growth during the summer. Students from high SES families continue to grow in their ability to read after kindergarten and students from low SES families fall behind in their reading growth at a comparable amount.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, the summer setback disproportionately affects African American and Hispanic students because they are more likely than White students to come from low SES families. Also, low SES families typically lack the appropriate resources to continue reading growth when school is not in session. After the long summer break, it is found that the reading literacy gap between middle and lower class students is about 3 months long.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is a substantial amount of skills lost over a period of break from classes that, if not addressed, can grow extremely worse over time. It is especially important to address this issue and create solutions for young students of low SES in order to address the cycle of disadvantages faced by these communities. Studies show that by providing books to disadvantaged students over the summer, the reading achievement dramatically improves for elementary school students.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_61-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Specifically, providing access to self-selected books consistently over the months of summers is successful in limiting reading setbacks.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_61-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of these students continue to feel discouraged, have less motivation and therefore fall more behind. By providing encouragement through opportunity, there is more chance of future success in literacy development. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Neighborhood_influence">Neighborhood influence</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomic_status&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Neighborhood influence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The neighborhood setting in which children grow up contributes to reading disparities between low and high SES children. These neighborhood qualities include but are not limited to garbage or litter in the street, individuals selling or using drugs in the street, burglary or robbery in the area, violent crime in the area, vacant homes in the area, and how safe it is to play in the neighborhood. Low SES children are more likely to grow up in such neighborhood conditions than their high SES peers. Community support for the school and poor physical conditions surrounding the school are also associated with children's reading. Neighborhood factors help explain the variation in reading scores in school entry, and especially as children move on to higher grades. As low SES children in poor neighborhood environments get older, they fall further behind their high SES peers in reading growth and thus have a more difficult time developing reading skills at grade level.<sup id="cite_ref-Aikens_&_Barbarin,_2008_54-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aikens_&_Barbarin,_2008-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a study by M. Keels, it was determined that when low-income families are moved from poor neighborhoods to suburban neighborhoods, there are reductions in delinquency in children.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When comparing different social statuses of families, the environment of a neighborhood turns out to be a major factor in contributing to the growth of a child. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="School_influence">School influence</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomic_status&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: School influence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>School characteristics, including characteristics of peers and teachers, contribute to reading disparities between low and high SES children. For instance, peers play a role in influencing early reading proficiency. In low SES schools, there are higher concentrations of less skilled, lower SES, and minority peers who have lower gains in reading. The number of children reading below grade and the presence of low-income peers were consistently associated with initial achievement and growth rates. Low SES peers tend to have limited skills and fewer economic resources than high SES children, which makes it difficult for children to grow in their reading ability. The most rapid growth of reading ability happens between the spring of kindergarten and the spring of first grade. Teacher experience (number of years teaching at a particular school and the number of years teaching a particular grade level), teacher preparation to teach (based on the number of courses taken on early education, elementary education, and child development), the highest degree earned, and the number of courses taken on teaching reading all determine whether or not a reading teacher is qualified. Low SES students are more likely to have less qualified teachers, which is associated with their reading growth rates being significantly lower than the growth rates of their high SES counterparts.<sup id="cite_ref-Aikens_&_Barbarin,_2008_54-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aikens_&_Barbarin,_2008-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Influences_on_nonverbal_behavior">Influences on nonverbal behavior</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomic_status&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Influences on nonverbal behavior"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Children of parents with a high SES tended to express more disengagement behaviors than their peers of low SES.<sup id="cite_ref-Kraus2008_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kraus2008-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This study by Michael Kraus and Dacher Keltner was published in the December 2008 issue of <i>Psychological Science.</i> In this context, disengagement behaviors included self-grooming, fidgeting with nearby objects, and doodling while being addressed. In contrast, engagement behaviors included head nods, eyebrow raises, laughter and gazes at one's partner. These cues indicated an interest in one's partner and the desire to deepen and enhance the relationship. Participants of low SES tended to express more engagement behaviors toward their conversational partners, while their high SES counterparts displayed more disengagement behaviors. Authors hypothesized that, as SES rises, the capacity to fulfill one's needs also increases. This may lead to greater feelings of independence, making individuals of high SES less inclined to gain <a href="/wiki/Rapport" title="Rapport">rapport</a> with conversational partners because they are less likely to need their assistance in the future.<sup id="cite_ref-Kraus2008_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kraus2008-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomic_status&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" 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model</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomic_status&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PsycEXTRA+Dataset&rft.atitle=WWC+Quick+Review+of+the+Report+%22Addressing+Summer+Reading+Setback+Among+Economically+Disadvantaged+Elementary+Students%22&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fe596832011-001&rft.aulast=Allington&rft.aufirst=R.+L.&rft.au=McGill-Franzen%2C+A.&rft.au=Camilli%2C+G.&rft.au=Williams%2C+L.&rft.au=Graff%2C+J.&rft.au=Zeig%2C+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1037%2Fe596832011-001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocioeconomic+status" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSantiagoWadsworthStump2011" class="citation journal cs1">Santiago, Catherine DeCarlo; Wadsworth, Martha E.; Stump, Jessica (1 March 2011). "Socioeconomic status, neighborhood disadvantage, and poverty-related stress: Prospective effects on psychological syndromes among diverse low-income families". <i>Journal of Economic Psychology</i>. Special Issue on The Psychology and Behavioural Economics of Poverty. <b>32</b> (2): 218–230. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.joep.2009.10.008">10.1016/j.joep.2009.10.008</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+Psychology&rft.atitle=Socioeconomic+status%2C+neighborhood+disadvantage%2C+and+poverty-related+stress%3A+Prospective+effects+on+psychological+syndromes+among+diverse+low-income+families&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=218-230&rft.date=2011-03-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.joep.2009.10.008&rft.aulast=Santiago&rft.aufirst=Catherine+DeCarlo&rft.au=Wadsworth%2C+Martha+E.&rft.au=Stump%2C+Jessica&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocioeconomic+status" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kraus2008-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kraus2008_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kraus2008_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrausKeltner2008" class="citation cs2">Kraus, M.W.; Keltner, D. (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/121549448/abstract">"Signs of Socioeconomic Status: A Thin-Slicing Approach"</a>, <i>Psychological Science</i>, <b>20</b> (1): 99–106, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9280.2008.02251.x">10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02251.x</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19076316">19076316</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9308617">9308617</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Science&rft.atitle=Signs+of+Socioeconomic+Status%3A+A+Thin-Slicing+Approach&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=99-106&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A9308617%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19076316&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-9280.2008.02251.x&rft.aulast=Kraus&rft.aufirst=M.W.&rft.au=Keltner%2C+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww3.interscience.wiley.com%2Fjournal%2F121549448%2Fabstract&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocioeconomic+status" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged February 2019">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged February 2021">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Socioeconomic_status&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/p20-550.pdf">US Census Bureau report on educational attainment in the United States</a>, 2003. 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