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subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Signs_and_symptoms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Local_symptoms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Local_symptoms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Local symptoms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Local_symptoms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Systemic_symptoms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Systemic_symptoms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Systemic symptoms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Systemic_symptoms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metastasis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metastasis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Metastasis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metastasis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Causes </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Causes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Causes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Chemicals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemicals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Chemicals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chemicals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diet_and_exercise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diet_and_exercise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Diet and exercise </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diet_and_exercise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Infection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Infection </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radiation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radiation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Radiation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radiation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heredity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heredity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Heredity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heredity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physical_agents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physical_agents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Physical agents </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physical_agents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hormones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hormones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Hormones </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hormones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Autoimmune_diseases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Autoimmune_diseases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8 Autoimmune diseases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Autoimmune_diseases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pathophysiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pathophysiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Pathophysiology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Pathophysiology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Pathophysiology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Pathophysiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Genetics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epigenetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epigenetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Epigenetics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epigenetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metastasis_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metastasis_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Metastasis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metastasis_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metabolism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metabolism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Metabolism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metabolism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diagnosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diagnosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Diagnosis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diagnosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Classification </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prevention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prevention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Prevention </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Prevention-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Prevention subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Prevention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dietary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dietary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Dietary </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dietary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Medication </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vaccination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vaccination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Vaccination </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vaccination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Screening" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Screening"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Screening </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Screening-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Screening subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Screening-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Recommendations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recommendations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Recommendations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recommendations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-U.S._Preventive_Services_Task_Force" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#U.S._Preventive_Services_Task_Force"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1.1 U.S. Preventive Services Task Force </div> </a> <ul id="toc-U.S._Preventive_Services_Task_Force-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1.2 Japan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetic_testing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_testing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Genetic testing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_testing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Management </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Management-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Management subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Chemotherapy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemotherapy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Chemotherapy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chemotherapy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radiation_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radiation_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Radiation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radiation_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Surgery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surgery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Surgery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surgery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Palliative_care" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Palliative_care"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4 Palliative care </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Palliative_care-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Immunotherapy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immunotherapy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.5 Immunotherapy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immunotherapy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Laser_therapy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Laser_therapy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.6 Laser therapy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Laser_therapy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alternative_medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternative_medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.7 Alternative medicine </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alternative_medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prognosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prognosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Prognosis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prognosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epidemiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epidemiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Epidemiology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epidemiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Society and culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Society and culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Economic_effect" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_effect"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.1 Economic effect </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_effect-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Workplace" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Workplace"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.2 Workplace </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Workplace-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effect_on_divorce" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effect_on_divorce"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.3 Effect on divorce </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effect_on_divorce-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Research </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pregnancy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pregnancy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Pregnancy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pregnancy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 Other animals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 18 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 19 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Cancer</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 165 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-165" aria-hidden="true" > 165 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanker" title="Kanker – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kanker" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krebs_(Medizin)" title="Krebs (Medizin) – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Krebs (Medizin)" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%AB%E1%8A%95%E1%88%B0%E1%88%AD" title="ካንሰር – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ካንሰር" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97" title="कर्कट रोग – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="कर्कट रोग" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%86" title="سرطان – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سرطان" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A1ncer" title="Cáncer – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Cáncer" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%AC%DC%A0%DC%97%DC%9D%DC%90" title="ܬܠܗܝܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܬܠܗܝܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%94%D5%A1%D5%B2%D6%81%D5%AF%D5%A5%D5%B2" title="Քաղցկեղ – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Քաղցկեղ" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%9F_%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%97" title="কৰ্কট ৰোগ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="কৰ্কট ৰোগ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A1ncanu" title="Cáncanu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Cáncanu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akyt%C3%A3%27ai" title="Akytã'ai – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Akytã'ai" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/X%C9%99r%C3%A7%C9%99ng_x%C9%99st%C9%99liyi" title="Xərçəng xəstəliyi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Xərçəng xəstəliyi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%86" title="سرطان – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="سرطان" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0" title="ক্যান্সার – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ক্যান্সার" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A2m" title="Gâm – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Gâm" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D1%88%D0%B5%D1%88" title="Яман шеш – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Яман шеш" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%8F%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D1%83%D1%85%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Злаякасная пухліна – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Злаякасная пухліна" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BA_(%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B5)" title="Рак (захворваньне) – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Рак (захворваньне)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0" title="कैंसर – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="कैंसर" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanser" title="Kanser – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Kanser" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BA_(%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82)" title="Рак (болест) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Рак (болест)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%96%E0%BE%B2%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A6%E0%BE%90%E0%BE%B2%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8D" title="འབྲས་སྐྲན། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="འབྲས་སྐྲན།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rak_(bolest)" title="Rak (bolest) – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Rak (bolest)" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krign-bev" title="Krign-bev – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Krign-bev" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE_%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Хорото хабдар – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Хорото хабдар" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A0ncer" title="Càncer – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Càncer" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakovina" title="Rakovina – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Rakovina" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gomarara_(Chirwere)" title="Gomarara (Chirwere) – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Gomarara (Chirwere)" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canser" title="Canser – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Canser" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kr%C3%A6ft" title="Kræft – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kræft" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boras" title="Boras – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Boras" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Davvisámegiella</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krebs_(Medizin)" title="Krebs (Medizin) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Krebs (Medizin)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%86%DE%AC%DE%82%DE%B0%DE%90%DE%A6%DE%83%DE%AA" title="ކެންސަރު – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ކެންސަރު" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ދިވެހިބަސް</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dty mw-list-item"><a href="https://dty.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97" title="कर्कट रोग – Doteli" lang="dty" hreflang="dty" data-title="कर्कट रोग" data-language-autonym="डोटेली" data-language-local-name="Doteli" class="interlanguage-link-target">डोटेली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A4hk_(haigus)" title="Vähk (haigus) – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Vähk (haigus)" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BA%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Καρκίνος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Καρκίνος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A1ncer" title="Cáncer – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cáncer" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kancero" title="Kancero – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kancero" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancru" title="Cancru – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Cancru" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minbizi" title="Minbizi – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Minbizi" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%86" title="سرطان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سرطان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Cancer" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Cancer" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanker" title="Kanker – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Kanker" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ff mw-list-item"><a href="https://ff.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sa%27%C9%93ere" title="Sa'ɓere – Fula" lang="ff" hreflang="ff" data-title="Sa'ɓere" data-language-autonym="Fulfulde" data-language-local-name="Fula" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fulfulde</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ailse" title="Ailse – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ailse" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanghyr" title="Kanghyr – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Kanghyr" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aillse" title="Aillse – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Aillse" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancro" title="Cancro – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Cancro" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%81" title="Боглус – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Боглус" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%99%8C" title="癌 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="癌" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%95%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%95%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%8B%E0%AA%97_(%E0%AA%95%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%A8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B8%E0%AA%B0)" title="કર્કરોગ (કેન્સર) – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="કર્કરોગ (કેન્સર)" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-guw mw-list-item"><a href="https://guw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kans%E1%BA%B9%E1%BA%B9-z%E1%BB%8D%CC%80n" title="Kansẹẹ-zọ̀n – Gun" lang="guw" hreflang="guw" data-title="Kansẹẹ-zọ̀n" data-language-autonym="Gungbe" data-language-local-name="Gun" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gungbe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%C3%A0m" title="Ngàm – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Ngàm" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%94" title="암 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="암" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sankara" title="Sankara – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Sankara" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%94%D5%A1%D5%B2%D6%81%D5%AF%D5%A5%D5%B2" title="Քաղցկեղ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Քաղցկեղ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97" title="कर्कट रोग – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कर्कट रोग" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rak_(bolest)" title="Rak (bolest) – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Rak (bolest)" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kancero" title="Kancero – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Kancero" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanser" title="Kanser – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Kanser" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanker" title="Kanker – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kanker" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancere" title="Cancere – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Cancere" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krabbamein" title="Krabbamein – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Krabbamein" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoplasia_maligna" title="Neoplasia maligna – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Neoplasia maligna" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%A8%D7%98%D7%9F_(%D7%9E%D7%97%D7%9C%D7%94)" title="סרטן (מחלה) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="סרטן (מחלה)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanker" title="Kanker – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Kanker" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C9%A9j%C9%9B%C9%96%C9%9B_k%CA%8Ad%C9%94%C5%8B_(Cancer_-_maladie)" title="Pɩjɛɖɛ kʊdɔŋ (Cancer - maladie) – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Pɩjɛɖɛ kʊdɔŋ (Cancer - maladie)" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D" title="ಕ್ಯಾನ್ಸರ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಕ್ಯಾನ್ಸರ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Cancer" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%95%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94" title="სიმსივნე – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="სიმსივნე" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%8E%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8E%D8%B1" title="کَنسَر – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="کَنسَر" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%9A%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D1%96_%D1%96%D1%81%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Қатерлі ісік – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Қатерлі ісік" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saratani" title="Saratani – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Saratani" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kans%C3%A8" title="Kansè – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Kansè" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kans%C3%A8r" title="Kansèr – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Kansèr" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9E%C3%AArpence" title="Şêrpence – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Şêrpence" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer_(morbus)" title="Cancer (morbus) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Cancer (morbus)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C4%93zis_(slim%C4%ABba)" title="Vēzis (slimība) – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Vēzis (slimība)" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriibs_(Krankheet)" title="Kriibs (Krankheet) – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Kriibs (Krankheet)" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Рак – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Рак" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C4%97%C5%BEys_(liga)" title="Vėžys (liga) – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Vėžys (liga)" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaanker" title="Kaanker – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Kaanker" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruakku" title="Ruakku – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Ruakku" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Livvinkarjala</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lg mw-list-item"><a href="https://lg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kokolo" title="Kokolo – Ganda" lang="lg" hreflang="lg" data-title="Kokolo" data-language-autonym="Luganda" data-language-local-name="Ganda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Luganda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancher_(medesina)" title="Cancher (medesina) – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Cancher (medesina)" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A1k_(betegs%C3%A9g)" title="Rák (betegség) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Rák (betegség)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BA_(%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82)" title="Рак (болест) – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Рак (болест)" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A6%E0%B4%82" title="അർബുദം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അർബുദം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97" title="कर्करोग – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="कर्करोग" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%98%E1%83%91%E1%83%9D" title="კიბო – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="კიბო" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%86" title="سرطان – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="سرطان" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mnw mw-list-item"><a href="https://mnw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%80%E1%80%B1%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC%E1%81%8A_%E1%80%9A%E1%80%B2" title="ကေန်သာ၊ ယဲ – Mon" lang="mnw" hreflang="mnw" data-title="ကေန်သာ၊ ယဲ" data-language-autonym="ဘာသာမန်" data-language-local-name="Mon" class="interlanguage-link-target">ဘာသာမန်</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barah" title="Barah – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Barah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%C3%A0ng" title="Ngàng – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Ngàng" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82_%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Хорт хавдар – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хорт хавдар" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%80%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%86%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%82%E1%80%AB" title="ကင်ဆာရောဂါ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ကင်ဆာရောဂါ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanker" title="Kanker – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kanker" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaanker" title="Kaanker – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Kaanker" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0" title="क्यान्सर – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="क्यान्सर" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0" title="क्यान्सर – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="क्यान्सर" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%82%AA%E6%80%A7%E8%85%AB%E7%98%8D" title="悪性腫瘍 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="悪性腫瘍" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreeft" title="Kreeft – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Kreeft" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreft" title="Kreft – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kreft" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreft" title="Kreft – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kreft" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A0ncer" title="Càncer – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Càncer" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%95%E0%AC%B0%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%95%E0%AC%9F_%E0%AC%B0%E0%AD%8B%E0%AC%97" title="କର୍କଟ ରୋଗ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="କର୍କଟ ରୋଗ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaansarii" title="Kaansarii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Kaansarii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saraton_(kasallik)" title="Saraton (kasallik) – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Saraton (kasallik)" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%95%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%82%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%B0" title="ਕੈਂਸਰ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਕੈਂਸਰ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%86" title="سرطان – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="سرطان" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%86" title="سرطان – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="سرطان" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiansa" title="Kiansa – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Kiansa" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kensa" title="Kensa – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Kensa" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tok Pisin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreevt_(Medizin)" title="Kreevt (Medizin) – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Kreevt (Medizin)" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nowotw%C3%B3r_z%C5%82o%C5%9Bliwy" title="Nowotwór złośliwy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Nowotwór złośliwy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A2ncer" title="Câncer – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Câncer" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Cancer" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apanqara_unquy" title="Apanqara unquy – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Apanqara unquy" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Раковіна – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Раковіна" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%83%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Злокачественная опухоль – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Злокачественная опухоль" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/ugang" title="ugang – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="ugang" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sakizaya</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83" title="कर्कटरोगः – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="कर्कटरोगः" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%B1" title="کینسر – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="کینسر" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target">سرائیکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Cancer" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanceri" title="Kanceri – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Kanceri" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%85%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8F" title="පිළිකා – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="පිළිකා" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Cancer" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AA%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%B1" title="ڪينسر – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ڪينسر" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhubn%C3%BD_n%C3%A1dor" title="Zhubný nádor – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Zhubný nádor" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rak_(bolezen)" title="Rak (bolezen) – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Rak (bolezen)" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansar" title="Kansar – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Kansar" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DB%8E%D8%B1%D9%BE%DB%95%D9%86%D8%AC%DB%95" title="شێرپەنجە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="شێرپەنجە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BA_(%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82)" title="Рак (болест) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Рак (болест)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rak_(medicina)" title="Rak (medicina) – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Rak (medicina)" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kangker" title="Kangker – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Kangker" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sy%C3%B6p%C3%A4" title="Syöpä – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Syöpä" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Cancer" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanser" title="Kanser – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kanser" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D" title="புற்றுநோய் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="புற்றுநோய்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D1%88%D0%B5%D1%88" title="Яман шеш – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Яман шеш" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D" title="కాన్సర్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="కాన్సర్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%87" title="มะเร็ง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="มะเร็ง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Саратон – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Саратон" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy mw-list-item"><a href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D" title="ಕ್ಯಾನ್ಸರ್ – Tulu" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy" data-title="ಕ್ಯಾನ್ಸರ್" data-language-autonym="ತುಳು" data-language-local-name="Tulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">ತುಳು</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanser" title="Kanser – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kanser" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tw mw-list-item"><a href="https://tw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kokoram" title="Kokoram – Twi" lang="tw" hreflang="tw" data-title="Kokoram" data-language-autonym="Twi" data-language-local-name="Twi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Twi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%8F%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%83%D1%85%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Злоякісна пухлина – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Злоякісна пухлина" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%86_(%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B6%DB%81)" title="سرطان (عارضہ) – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="سرطان (عارضہ)" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bingh%27aizcwng" title="Bingh'aizcwng – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Bingh'aizcwng" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A0ncaro" title="Càncaro – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Càncaro" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ung_th%C6%B0" title="Ung thư – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Ung thư" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanser" title="Kanser – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Kanser" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A4hkt%C3%B5bi" title="Vähktõbi – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Vähktõbi" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnant_m%C3%A5" title="Magnant må – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Magnant må" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%99%8C" title="癌 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="癌" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanser" title="Kanser – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Kanser" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%99%8C" title="癌 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="癌" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fukuzana" title="Fukuzana – Tsonga" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Fukuzana" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="Tsonga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Xitsonga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%A2%D7%A0%D7%A1%D7%A2%D7%A8" title="קענסער – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="קענסער" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%99%8C" title="癌 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="癌" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qanser" title="Qanser – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Qanser" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vie%C5%BE%C4%ABs_(l%C4%97ga)" title="Viežīs (lėga) – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Viežīs (lėga)" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%99%8C%E7%97%87" title="癌症 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="癌症" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iba mw-list-item"><a href="https://iba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riman" title="Riman – Iban" lang="iba" hreflang="iba" data-title="Riman" data-language-autonym="Jaku Iban" data-language-local-name="Iban" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jaku Iban</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q12078#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> 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For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Cancer_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Cancer (disambiguation)">Cancer (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical condition</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox ib-medical-condition"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#ccc">Cancer</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other names</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Malignancy" title="Malignancy">Malignant</a> <a href="/wiki/Neoplasm" title="Neoplasm">tumor</a>, malignant <a href="/wiki/Neoplasm" title="Neoplasm">neoplasm</a></td></tr><tr style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Tumor_Mesothelioma2_legend.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Tumor_Mesothelioma2_legend.jpg/220px-Tumor_Mesothelioma2_legend.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Tumor_Mesothelioma2_legend.jpg/330px-Tumor_Mesothelioma2_legend.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Tumor_Mesothelioma2_legend.jpg/440px-Tumor_Mesothelioma2_legend.jpg 2x" data-file-width="496" data-file-height="557" /></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">A coronal <a href="/wiki/CT_scan" title="CT scan">CT scan</a> showing a malignant <a href="/wiki/Mesothelioma" title="Mesothelioma">mesothelioma</a> Legend: → <a href="/wiki/Tumor" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumor">tumor</a> ←, ✱ central <a href="/wiki/Pleural_effusion" title="Pleural effusion">pleural effusion</a>, 1 & 3 <a href="/wiki/Lung" title="Lung">lungs</a>, 2 <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" title="Vertebral column">spine</a>, 4 <a href="/wiki/Rib" title="Rib">ribs</a>, 5 <a href="/wiki/Aorta" title="Aorta">aorta</a>, 6 <a href="/wiki/Spleen" title="Spleen">spleen</a>, 7 & 8 <a href="/wiki/Kidney" title="Kidney">kidneys</a>, 9 <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Pronunciation</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈkænsər/</a> <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/7\/7b\/En-us-cancer.ogg\/En-us-cancer.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"En-us-cancer.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7b/En-us-cancer.ogg/En-us-cancer.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a><a href="/wiki/File:En-us-cancer.ogg" title="File:En-us-cancer.ogg">ⓘ</a> </li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialty</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Oncology" title="Oncology">Oncology</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Signs_and_symptoms" title="Signs and symptoms">Symptoms</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Lump, abnormal bleeding, prolonged cough, unexplained <a href="/wiki/Weight_loss" title="Weight loss">weight loss</a>, change in <a href="/wiki/Bowel_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Bowel movement">bowel movements</a><a href="#cite_note-NHS2012-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Risk_factor" title="Risk factor">Risk factors</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Exposure to <a href="/wiki/Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen">carcinogens</a>, tobacco, <a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">obesity</a>, poor <a href="/wiki/Diet_(nutrition)" title="Diet (nutrition)">diet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lack_of_physical_activity" class="mw-redirect" title="Lack of physical activity">lack of physical activity</a>, excessive <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">alcohol</a>, certain infections<a href="#cite_note-WHO2018-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Enviro2008-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Treatment</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Radiation therapy</a>, surgery, <a href="/wiki/Chemotherapy" title="Chemotherapy">chemotherapy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Targeted_therapy" title="Targeted therapy">targeted therapy</a><a href="#cite_note-WHO2018-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-TCT2018-4">[4]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Prognosis" title="Prognosis">Prognosis</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Average <a href="/wiki/Five-year_survival" class="mw-redirect" title="Five-year survival">five-year survival</a> 66% (USA)<a href="#cite_note-Seer2014-5">[5]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Frequency</th><td class="infobox-data">24 million annually (2019)<a href="#cite_note-kocarnik-6">[6]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Deaths</th><td class="infobox-data">10 million annually (2019)<a href="#cite_note-kocarnik-6">[6]</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Cancer is a group of diseases involving <a href="/wiki/Cell_growth#Disorders" title="Cell growth">abnormal cell growth</a> with the potential to <a href="/wiki/Invasion_(cancer)" title="Invasion (cancer)">invade</a> or <a href="/wiki/Metastasis" title="Metastasis">spread</a> to other parts of the body.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2018-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-NCI2014-7">[7]</a> These contrast with <a href="/wiki/Benign_tumor" title="Benign tumor">benign tumors</a>, which do not spread.<a href="#cite_note-NCI2014-7">[7]</a> Possible <a href="/wiki/Signs_and_symptoms_of_cancer" title="Signs and symptoms of cancer">signs and symptoms</a> include a lump, abnormal bleeding, prolonged cough, unexplained weight loss, and a change in <a href="/wiki/Defecation" title="Defecation">bowel movements</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NHS2012-1">[1]</a> While these symptoms may indicate cancer, they can also have other causes.<a href="#cite_note-NHS2012-1">[1]</a> Over <a href="/wiki/List_of_cancer_types" title="List of cancer types">100 types</a> of cancers affect humans.<a href="#cite_note-NCI2014-7">[7]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_use" class="mw-redirect" title="Tobacco use">Tobacco use</a> is the cause of about 22% of cancer deaths.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2018-2">[2]</a> Another 10% are due to <a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">obesity</a>, poor <a href="/wiki/Diet_(nutrition)" title="Diet (nutrition)">diet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sedentary_lifestyle" title="Sedentary lifestyle">lack of physical activity</a> or <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_abuse" title="Alcohol abuse">excessive alcohol consumption</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2018-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Other factors include certain infections, exposure to <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a>, and environmental pollutants.<a href="#cite_note-Enviro2008-3">[3]</a> <a href="/wiki/Infectious_causes_of_cancer" title="Infectious causes of cancer">Infection</a> with specific viruses, bacteria and parasites is an environmental factor causing approximately 16-18% of cancers worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> These infectious agents include <a href="/wiki/Helicobacter_pylori" title="Helicobacter pylori">Helicobacter pylori</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_B" title="Hepatitis B">hepatitis B</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_C" title="Hepatitis C">hepatitis C</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_papillomavirus_infection" title="Human papillomavirus infection">human papillomavirus infection</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epstein%E2%80%93Barr_virus" title="Epstein–Barr virus">Epstein–Barr virus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_T-lymphotropic_virus_1" title="Human T-lymphotropic virus 1">Human T-lymphotropic virus 1</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kaposi%27s_sarcoma-associated_herpesvirus" title="Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus">Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Merkel_cell_polyomavirus" title="Merkel cell polyomavirus">Merkel cell polyomavirus</a>. <a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">Human immunodeficiency virus</a> (HIV) does not directly cause cancer but it causes immune deficiency that can magnify the risk due to other infections, sometimes up to several thousand fold (in the case of <a href="/wiki/Kaposi%27s_sarcoma" title="Kaposi's sarcoma">Kaposi's sarcoma</a>). Importantly, vaccination against <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_B" title="Hepatitis B">hepatitis B</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_papillomavirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Human papillomavirus">human papillomavirus</a> have been shown to nearly eliminate risk of cancers caused by these viruses in persons successfully vaccinated prior to infection. These environmental factors act, at least partly, by changing the <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> of a cell.<a href="#cite_note-WCR2014Bio-11">[11]</a> Typically, many genetic changes are required before cancer develops.<a href="#cite_note-WCR2014Bio-11">[11]</a> Approximately 5–10% of cancers are due to inherited genetic defects.<a href="#cite_note-ACS-heredity-12">[12]</a> Cancer can be detected by certain signs and symptoms or screening tests.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2018-2">[2]</a> It is then typically further investigated by <a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">medical imaging</a> and confirmed by <a href="/wiki/Biopsy" title="Biopsy">biopsy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> The risk of developing certain cancers can be reduced by not smoking, maintaining a healthy weight, limiting alcohol intake, eating plenty of vegetables, fruits, and <a href="/wiki/Whole_grain" title="Whole grain">whole grains</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">vaccination</a> against certain infectious diseases, limiting consumption of <a href="/wiki/Processed_meat" title="Processed meat">processed meat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Red_meat" title="Red meat">red meat</a>, and limiting exposure to direct sunlight.<a href="#cite_note-Kushi2012-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Early detection through screening is useful for <a href="/wiki/Cervical_cancer" title="Cervical cancer">cervical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Colorectal_cancer" title="Colorectal cancer">colorectal cancer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WCR2014Scr-16">[16]</a> The benefits of screening for breast cancer are controversial.<a href="#cite_note-WCR2014Scr-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Got2013-17">[17]</a> Cancer is often treated with some combination of <a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">radiation therapy</a>, surgery, <a href="/wiki/Chemotherapy" title="Chemotherapy">chemotherapy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Targeted_therapy" title="Targeted therapy">targeted therapy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2018-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-TCT2018-4">[4]</a> Pain and symptom management are an important part of care.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2018-2">[2]</a> <a href="/wiki/Palliative_care" title="Palliative care">Palliative care</a> is particularly important in people with advanced disease.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2018-2">[2]</a> The chance of survival depends on the type of cancer and <a href="/wiki/Cancer_staging" title="Cancer staging">extent of disease</a> at the start of treatment.<a href="#cite_note-WCR2014Bio-11">[11]</a> In children under 15 at diagnosis, the <a href="/wiki/Five-year_survival_rate" title="Five-year survival rate">five-year survival rate</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Developed_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Developed world">developed world</a> is on average 80%.<a href="#cite_note-WCR2014Peads-18">[18]</a> For cancer in the United States, the average five-year survival rate is 66% for all ages.<a href="#cite_note-Seer2014-5">[5]</a> In 2015, about 90.5 million people worldwide had cancer.<a href="#cite_note-GBD2015Pre-19">[19]</a> In 2019, annual cancer cases grew by 23.6 million people, and there were 10 million deaths worldwide, representing over the previous decade increases of 26% and 21%, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-kocarnik-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> The most common types of cancer in males are <a href="/wiki/Lung_cancer" title="Lung cancer">lung cancer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prostate_cancer" title="Prostate cancer">prostate cancer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colorectal_cancer" title="Colorectal cancer">colorectal cancer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Stomach_cancer" title="Stomach cancer">stomach cancer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WCR2014-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto-22">[22]</a> In females, the most common types are <a href="/wiki/Breast_cancer" title="Breast cancer">breast cancer</a>, colorectal cancer, lung cancer, and <a href="/wiki/Cervical_cancer" title="Cervical cancer">cervical cancer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WCR2014Bio-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto-22">[22]</a> If <a href="/wiki/Skin_cancer" title="Skin cancer">skin cancer</a> other than <a href="/wiki/Melanoma" title="Melanoma">melanoma</a> were included in total new cancer cases each year, it would account for around 40% of cases.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cak2012-24">[24]</a> In children, <a href="/wiki/Acute_lymphoblastic_leukemia" title="Acute lymphoblastic leukemia">acute lymphoblastic leukemia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brain_tumors" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain tumors">brain tumors</a> are most common, except in Africa, where <a href="/wiki/Non-Hodgkin_lymphoma" title="Non-Hodgkin lymphoma">non-Hodgkin lymphoma</a> occurs more often.<a href="#cite_note-WCR2014Peads-18">[18]</a> In 2012, about 165,000 children under 15 years of age were diagnosed with cancer.<a href="#cite_note-WCR2014-21">[21]</a> The risk of cancer increases significantly with age, and many cancers occur more commonly in developed countries.<a href="#cite_note-WCR2014Bio-11">[11]</a> Rates are increasing as <a href="/wiki/Population_ageing" title="Population ageing">more people live to an old age</a> and as lifestyle changes occur in the developing world.<a href="#cite_note-Epi11-25">[25]</a> The global total economic costs of cancer were estimated at <a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">US$</a>1.16 trillion (equivalent to $1.62 trillion in 2023) per year as of 2010<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cancer&action=edit">[update]</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WCR2014Eco-26">[26]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Cancer.webm/300px-seek%3D32-En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Cancer.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="300" height="169" data-durationhint="250" data-mwtitle="En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Cancer.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Cancer.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/36/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Cancer.webm/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Cancer.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Cancer.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-width="1067" data-height="600" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/36/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Cancer.webm/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Cancer.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/36/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Cancer.webm/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Cancer.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/36/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Cancer.webm/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Cancer.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/36/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Cancer.webm/En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Cancer.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AEn.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Cancer.webm&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video><figcaption>Video summary (<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:VideoWiki/Cancer" title="Wikipedia:VideoWiki/Cancer">script</a>)</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology_and_definitions">Etymology and definitions</h2></div> The word comes from the ancient Greek καρκίνος, meaning 'crab' and 'tumor'. Greek physicians <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a>, among others, noted the similarity of crabs to some tumors with swollen veins. The word was introduced in English in the modern medical sense around 1600.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> Cancers comprise a large family of diseases that involve abnormal <a href="/wiki/Cell_growth" title="Cell growth">cell growth</a> with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2018-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-NCI2014-7">[7]</a> They form a subset of <a href="/wiki/Neoplasm" title="Neoplasm">neoplasms</a>. A neoplasm or tumor is a group of cells that have undergone unregulated growth and will often form a mass or lump, but may be distributed diffusely.<a href="#cite_note-ACSglossary-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-NCIdefinition-29">[29]</a> All tumor cells show the <a href="/wiki/The_Hallmarks_of_Cancer" title="The Hallmarks of Cancer">six hallmarks of cancer</a>. These characteristics are required to produce a malignant tumor. They include:<a href="#cite_note-Han2000-30">[30]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_growth" title="Cell growth">Cell growth</a> and division absent the proper signals</li> <li>Continuous growth and division even given contrary signals</li> <li>Avoidance of <a href="/wiki/Apoptosis" title="Apoptosis">programmed cell death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_immortality" title="Biological immortality">Limitless number of cell divisions</a></li> <li>Promoting <a href="/wiki/Angiogenesis" title="Angiogenesis">blood vessel construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_(cancer)" title="Invasion (cancer)">Invasion</a> of tissue and formation of <a href="/wiki/Metastasis" title="Metastasis">metastases</a><a href="#cite_note-Han2000-30">[30]</a></li></ul> The progression from normal cells to cells that can form a detectable mass to cancer involves multiple steps known as malignant progression.<a href="#cite_note-Han2000-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-Han2011-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Signs_and_symptoms">Signs and symptoms</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Signs_and_symptoms_of_cancer" title="Signs and symptoms of cancer">Signs and symptoms of cancer</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Symptoms_of_cancer_metastasis.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Symptoms_of_cancer_metastasis.svg/300px-Symptoms_of_cancer_metastasis.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="410" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Symptoms_of_cancer_metastasis.svg/450px-Symptoms_of_cancer_metastasis.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Symptoms_of_cancer_metastasis.svg/600px-Symptoms_of_cancer_metastasis.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="814" data-file-height="1113" /></a><figcaption>Symptoms of cancer <a href="/wiki/Metastasis" title="Metastasis">metastasis</a> depend on the location of the tumor.</figcaption></figure> When cancer begins, it produces no symptoms. Signs and symptoms appear as the mass grows or <a href="/wiki/Ulcer_(dermatology)" title="Ulcer (dermatology)">ulcerates</a>. The findings that result depend on cancer's type and location. Few symptoms are <a href="/wiki/Non-specific_symptom" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-specific symptom">specific</a>. Many frequently occur in individuals who have other conditions. Cancer can be difficult to diagnose and can be considered a "<a href="/wiki/The_great_imitator" class="mw-redirect" title="The great imitator">great imitator</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Card10-32">[32]</a> People may become anxious or depressed post-diagnosis. The risk of suicide in people with cancer is approximately double.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Local_symptoms">Local symptoms</h3></div> Local symptoms may occur due to the mass of the tumor or its ulceration. For example, mass effects from lung cancer can block the <a href="/wiki/Bronchus" title="Bronchus">bronchus</a> resulting in cough or <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a>; <a href="/wiki/Esophageal_cancer" title="Esophageal cancer">esophageal cancer</a> can cause narrowing of the <a href="/wiki/Esophagus" title="Esophagus">esophagus</a>, making it difficult or painful to swallow; and <a href="/wiki/Colorectal_cancer" title="Colorectal cancer">colorectal cancer</a> may lead to narrowing or blockages in the <a href="/wiki/Bowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Bowel">bowel</a>, affecting bowel habits. Masses in breasts or testicles may produce observable lumps. <a href="/wiki/Ulcer_(dermatology)" title="Ulcer (dermatology)">Ulceration</a> can cause bleeding that can lead to symptoms such as <a href="/wiki/Hemoptysis" title="Hemoptysis">coughing up blood</a> (lung cancer), <a href="/wiki/Anemia" title="Anemia">anemia</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lower_gastrointestinal_bleeding" title="Lower gastrointestinal bleeding">rectal bleeding</a> (colon cancer), <a href="/wiki/Hematuria" title="Hematuria">blood in the urine</a> (bladder cancer), or <a href="/wiki/Abnormal_vaginal_bleeding" class="mw-redirect" title="Abnormal vaginal bleeding">abnormal vaginal bleeding</a> (endometrial or cervical cancer). Although localized pain may occur in advanced cancer, the initial tumor is usually painless. Some cancers can cause a buildup of fluid within the chest or <a href="/wiki/Ascites" title="Ascites">abdomen</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Card10-32">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Systemic_symptoms">Systemic symptoms</h3></div> Systemic symptoms may occur due to the body's response to the cancer. This may include fatigue, unintentional weight loss, or skin changes.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Some cancers can cause a systemic inflammatory state that leads to ongoing muscle loss and weakness, known as <a href="/wiki/Cachexia" title="Cachexia">cachexia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Some cancers, such as <a href="/wiki/Hodgkin%27s_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Hodgkin's disease">Hodgkin's disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leukemia" title="Leukemia">leukemias</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Liver_cancer" title="Liver cancer">liver</a> or <a href="/wiki/Kidney_cancer" title="Kidney cancer">kidney cancers</a>, can cause a persistent <a href="/wiki/Fever_of_unknown_origin" title="Fever of unknown origin">fever</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Card10-32">[32]</a> Shortness of breath, called <a href="/wiki/Shortness_of_breath" title="Shortness of breath">dyspnea</a>, is a common symptom of cancer and its treatment. The causes of cancer-related dyspnea can include tumors in or around the lung, blocked airways, fluid in the lungs, pneumonia, or treatment reactions including an <a href="/wiki/Allergic_response" title="Allergic response">allergic response</a>.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Treatment for dyspnea in patients with advanced cancer can include <a href="/wiki/Fan_(machine)" title="Fan (machine)">fans</a>, bilevel ventilation, <a href="/wiki/Acupressure" title="Acupressure">acupressure</a>/<a href="/wiki/Reflexology" title="Reflexology">reflexology</a> and multicomponent <a href="/wiki/Non-pharmaceutical_intervention" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-pharmaceutical intervention">nonpharmacological interventions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Some systemic symptoms of cancer are caused by hormones or other molecules produced by the tumor, known as <a href="/wiki/Paraneoplastic_syndromes" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraneoplastic syndromes">paraneoplastic syndromes</a>. Common paraneoplastic syndromes include <a href="/wiki/Hypercalcemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypercalcemia">hypercalcemia</a>, which can cause <a href="/wiki/Altered_mental_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Altered mental state">altered mental state</a>, constipation and dehydration, or <a href="/wiki/Hyponatremia" title="Hyponatremia">hyponatremia</a>, which can also cause altered mental status, vomiting, headaches, or seizures.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metastasis">Metastasis</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Metastasis" title="Metastasis">Metastasis</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Metastasis" title="Metastasis">Metastasis</a> is the spread of cancer to other locations in the body. The dispersed tumors are called metastatic tumors, while the original is called the primary tumor. Almost all cancers can metastasize.<a href="#cite_note-metastasis-39">[39]</a> Most cancer deaths are due to cancer that has metastasized.<a href="#cite_note-What_is_Metastasized_Cancer-40">[40]</a> Metastasis is common in the late stages of cancer and it can occur via the blood or the <a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_system" title="Lymphatic system">lymphatic system</a> or both. The typical steps in metastasis are local <a href="/wiki/Invasion_(cancer)" title="Invasion (cancer)">invasion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intravasation" title="Intravasation">intravasation</a> into the blood or lymph, circulation through the body, <a href="/wiki/Extravasation" title="Extravasation">extravasation</a> into the new tissue, proliferation and <a href="/wiki/Angiogenesis" title="Angiogenesis">angiogenesis</a>. Different types of cancers tend to metastasize to particular organs, but overall the most common places for metastases to occur are the <a href="/wiki/Lung" title="Lung">lungs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a>, brain, and the <a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">bones</a>.<a href="#cite_note-metastasis-39">[39]</a> While some cancers can be cured if detected early, metastatic cancer is more difficult to treat and control. Nevertheless, some recent treatments are demonstrating encouraging results.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Causes_of_cancer" title="Causes of cancer">Causes of cancer</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GHS-pictogram-silhouette.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/GHS-pictogram-silhouette.svg/220px-GHS-pictogram-silhouette.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/GHS-pictogram-silhouette.svg/330px-GHS-pictogram-silhouette.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/GHS-pictogram-silhouette.svg/440px-GHS-pictogram-silhouette.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="724" data-file-height="724" /></a><figcaption>The GHS <a href="/wiki/Hazard_symbol" title="Hazard symbol">Hazard pictogram</a> for carcinogenic substances</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Share-of-cancer-deaths-attributed-to-tobacco.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Share-of-cancer-deaths-attributed-to-tobacco.png/350px-Share-of-cancer-deaths-attributed-to-tobacco.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Share-of-cancer-deaths-attributed-to-tobacco.png/525px-Share-of-cancer-deaths-attributed-to-tobacco.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Share-of-cancer-deaths-attributed-to-tobacco.png/700px-Share-of-cancer-deaths-attributed-to-tobacco.png 2x" data-file-width="3371" data-file-height="1872" /></a><figcaption>Share of cancer deaths attributed to tobacco in 2016.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></figcaption></figure> The majority of cancers, some 90–95% of cases, are due to genetic mutations from environmental and lifestyle factors.<a href="#cite_note-Enviro2008-3">[3]</a> The remaining 5–10% are due to <a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">inherited genetics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Enviro2008-3">[3]</a> <a href="/wiki/Environment_(biophysical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Environment (biophysical)">Environmental</a> refers to any cause that is not <a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">inherited</a>, such as lifestyle, economic, and behavioral factors and not merely pollution.<a href="#cite_note-isbn0-387-78192-7-43">[43]</a> Common environmental factors that contribute to cancer death include tobacco use (25–30%), diet and <a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">obesity</a> (30–35%), infections (15–20%), <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">radiation</a> (both ionizing and non-ionizing, up to 10%), lack of <a href="/wiki/Physical_exercise" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical exercise">physical activity</a>, and pollution.<a href="#cite_note-Enviro2008-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Psychological stress does not appear to be a risk factor for the onset of cancer,<a href="#cite_note-Cohen2019-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid23393080-46">[46]</a> though it may worsen outcomes in those who already have cancer.<a href="#cite_note-Cohen2019-45">[45]</a> Environmental or lifestyle factors that caused cancer to develop in an individual can be identified by analyzing mutational signatures from genomic sequencing of tumor DNA. For example, this can reveal if lung cancer was caused by tobacco smoke, if skin cancer was caused by UV radiation, or if <a href="/wiki/Secondary_malignant_neoplasm" title="Secondary malignant neoplasm">secondary cancers</a> were caused by previous chemotherapy treatment.<a href="#cite_note-cds-47">[47]</a> Cancer is generally not a <a href="/wiki/Transmission_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (medicine)">transmissible disease</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Tolar-48">[48]</a> Exceptions include rare transmissions that occur with pregnancies and occasional <a href="/wiki/Organ_donation" title="Organ donation">organ donors</a>. However, transmissible infectious diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_B" title="Hepatitis B">hepatitis B</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epstein-Barr_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Epstein-Barr virus">Epstein-Barr virus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_Papilloma_Virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Human Papilloma Virus">Human Papilloma Virus</a> and <a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a>, can contribute to the development of cancer.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemicals">Chemicals</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_cancer" title="Alcohol and cancer">Alcohol and cancer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Smoking_and_cancer" class="mw-redirect" title="Smoking and cancer">Smoking and cancer</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cancer_smoking_lung_cancer_correlation_from_NIH.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Cancer_smoking_lung_cancer_correlation_from_NIH.svg/300px-Cancer_smoking_lung_cancer_correlation_from_NIH.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Cancer_smoking_lung_cancer_correlation_from_NIH.svg/450px-Cancer_smoking_lung_cancer_correlation_from_NIH.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Cancer_smoking_lung_cancer_correlation_from_NIH.svg/600px-Cancer_smoking_lung_cancer_correlation_from_NIH.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="318" /></a><figcaption>The incidence of lung cancer is highly correlated with smoking.</figcaption></figure> Exposure to particular substances have been linked to specific types of cancer. These substances are called <a href="/wiki/Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen">carcinogens</a>. <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_smoking" title="Tobacco smoking">Tobacco smoke</a>, for example, causes 90% of lung cancer.<a href="#cite_note-pmid9594919-49">[49]</a> Tobacco use can cause cancer throughout the body including in the mouth and throat, <a href="/wiki/Larynx" title="Larynx">larynx</a>, <a href="/wiki/Esophagus" title="Esophagus">esophagus</a>, stomach, bladder, kidney, cervix, colon/rectum, liver and <a href="/wiki/Pancreas" title="Pancreas">pancreas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid12270001-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Tobacco smoke contains over fifty known carcinogens, including <a href="/wiki/Nitrosamine" title="Nitrosamine">nitrosamines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbon" title="Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon">polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kuper-52">[52]</a> Tobacco is responsible for about one in five cancer deaths worldwide<a href="#cite_note-Kuper-52">[52]</a> and about one in three in the developed world.<a href="#cite_note-Sasco-53">[53]</a> Lung cancer death rates in the United States have mirrored <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_smoking" title="Tobacco smoking">smoking</a> patterns, with increases in smoking followed by dramatic increases in lung cancer death rates and, more recently, decreases in smoking rates since the 1950s followed by decreases in lung cancer death rates in men since 1990.<a href="#cite_note-pmid16998161-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid18434333-55">[55]</a> In Western Europe, 10% of cancers in males and 3% of cancers in females are attributed to alcohol exposure, especially liver and digestive tract cancers.<a href="#cite_note-pmid21474525-56">[56]</a> Cancer from work-related substance exposures may cause between 2 and 20% of cases,<a href="#cite_note-pmid18055160-57">[57]</a> causing at least 200,000 deaths.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_occup-58">[58]</a> Cancers such as lung cancer and <a href="/wiki/Mesothelioma" title="Mesothelioma">mesothelioma</a> can come from inhaling tobacco smoke or <a href="/wiki/Asbestos" title="Asbestos">asbestos</a> fibers, or <a href="/wiki/Leukemia" title="Leukemia">leukemia</a> from exposure to <a href="/wiki/Benzene" title="Benzene">benzene</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_occup-58">[58]</a> Exposure to <a href="/wiki/Perfluorooctanoic_acid" title="Perfluorooctanoic acid">perfluorooctanoic acid</a> (PFOA), which is predominantly used in the production of <a href="/wiki/Polytetrafluoroethylene" title="Polytetrafluoroethylene">Teflon</a>, is known to cause two kinds of cancer.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Chemotherapy drugs such as <a href="/wiki/Platinum-based_antineoplastic" title="Platinum-based antineoplastic">platinum-based</a> compounds are <a href="/wiki/Carcinogens" class="mw-redirect" title="Carcinogens">carcinogens</a> that increase the risk of <a href="/wiki/Secondary_malignant_neoplasm" title="Secondary malignant neoplasm">secondary cancers</a><a href="#cite_note-cds-47">[47]</a> <a href="/wiki/Azathioprine" title="Azathioprine">Azathioprine</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Immunosuppressive_medication" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunosuppressive medication">immunosuppressive medication</a>, is a <a href="/wiki/Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen">carcinogen</a> that can cause <a href="/wiki/Primary_tumors" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary tumors">primary tumors</a> to develop.<a href="#cite_note-cds-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diet_and_exercise">Diet and exercise</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Diet_and_cancer" title="Diet and cancer">Diet and cancer</a></div> Diet, <a href="/wiki/Sedentary_lifestyle" title="Sedentary lifestyle">physical inactivity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">obesity</a> are related to up to 30–35% of cancer deaths.<a href="#cite_note-Enviro2008-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nutri06-61">[61]</a> In the United States, excess body weight is associated with the development of many types of cancer and is a factor in 14–20% of cancer deaths.<a href="#cite_note-Nutri06-61">[61]</a> A UK study including data on over 5 million people showed higher <a href="/wiki/Body_mass_index" title="Body mass index">body mass index</a> to be related to at least 10 types of cancer and responsible for around 12,000 cases each year in that country.<a href="#cite_note-BhaskaranLancet-62">[62]</a> Physical inactivity is believed to contribute to cancer risk, not only through its effect on body weight but also through negative effects on the <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a> and <a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">endocrine system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Nutri06-61">[61]</a> More than half of the effect from the diet is due to <a href="/wiki/Overnutrition" title="Overnutrition">overnutrition</a> (eating too much), rather than from eating too few vegetables or other healthful foods.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Some specific foods are linked to specific cancers. A high-salt diet is linked to <a href="/wiki/Gastric_cancer" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastric cancer">gastric cancer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid18990005-63">[63]</a> <a href="/wiki/Aflatoxin_B1" title="Aflatoxin B1">Aflatoxin B1</a>, a frequent food contaminant, causes liver cancer.<a href="#cite_note-pmid18990005-63">[63]</a> <a href="/wiki/Betel_nut" class="mw-redirect" title="Betel nut">Betel nut</a> chewing can cause oral cancer.<a href="#cite_note-pmid18990005-63">[63]</a> National differences in dietary practices may partly explain differences in cancer incidence. For example, <a href="/wiki/Gastric_cancer" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastric cancer">gastric cancer</a> is more common in Japan due to its high-salt diet<a href="#cite_note-pmid19107449-64">[64]</a> while <a href="/wiki/Colorectal_cancer" title="Colorectal cancer">colon cancer</a> is more common in the United States. Immigrant cancer profiles mirror those of their new country, often within one generation.<a href="#cite_note-pmid14278899-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Infection">Infection</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Infectious_causes_of_cancer" title="Infectious causes of cancer">Infectious causes of cancer</a></div> Worldwide, approximately 18% of cancer deaths are related to <a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease">infectious diseases</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Enviro2008-3">[3]</a> This proportion ranges from a high of 25% in Africa to less than 10% in the developed world.<a href="#cite_note-Enviro2008-3">[3]</a> Viruses<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> are the usual infectious agents that cause cancer but <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parasites" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasites">parasites</a> may also play a role. <a href="/wiki/Oncovirus" title="Oncovirus">Oncoviruses</a> (viruses that can cause human cancer) include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_papillomavirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Human papillomavirus">Human papillomavirus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cervical_cancer" title="Cervical cancer">cervical cancer</a>),</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epstein%E2%80%93Barr_virus" title="Epstein–Barr virus">Epstein–Barr virus</a> (<a href="/wiki/B-cell_lymphoproliferative_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="B-cell lymphoproliferative disease">B-cell lymphoproliferative disease</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nasopharyngeal_carcinoma" title="Nasopharyngeal carcinoma">nasopharyngeal carcinoma</a>),</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaposi%27s_sarcoma_herpesvirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus">Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kaposi%27s_sarcoma" title="Kaposi's sarcoma">Kaposi's sarcoma</a> and primary effusion lymphomas),</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_B" title="Hepatitis B">Hepatitis B</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_C" title="Hepatitis C">hepatitis C</a> viruses (<a href="/wiki/Hepatocellular_carcinoma" title="Hepatocellular carcinoma">hepatocellular carcinoma</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_T-cell_leukemia_virus-1" class="mw-redirect" title="Human T-cell leukemia virus-1">Human T-cell leukemia virus-1</a> (T-cell leukemias).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merkel_cell_polyomavirus" title="Merkel cell polyomavirus">Merkel cell polyomavirus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Merkel_cell_carcinoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Merkel cell carcinoma">Merkel cell carcinoma</a>)</li></ul> Bacterial infection may also increase the risk of cancer, as seen in <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Helicobacter_pylori" title="Helicobacter pylori">Helicobacter pylori</a>-induced <a href="/wiki/Gastric_carcinoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastric carcinoma">gastric carcinoma</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Viral04-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-LjubojevicSkerlev2014-68">[68]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colibactin" title="Colibactin">Colibactin</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Genotoxin" class="mw-redirect" title="Genotoxin">genotoxin</a> associated with <a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli</a> infection (<a href="/wiki/Colorectal_cancer" title="Colorectal cancer">colorectal cancer</a>)<a href="#cite_note-cds-47">[47]</a></li></ul> Parasitic infections associated with cancer include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Schistosoma_haematobium" title="Schistosoma haematobium">Schistosoma haematobium</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bladder_cancer" title="Bladder cancer">squamous cell carcinoma of the bladder</a>)</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Liver_fluke" title="Liver fluke">liver flukes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Opisthorchis_viverrini" title="Opisthorchis viverrini">Opisthorchis viverrini</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clonorchis_sinensis" title="Clonorchis sinensis">Clonorchis sinensis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cholangiocarcinoma" title="Cholangiocarcinoma">cholangiocarcinoma</a>).<a href="#cite_note-pmid20539059-69">[69]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radiation">Radiation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Radiation-induced_cancer" title="Radiation-induced cancer">Radiation-induced cancer</a></div> Radiation exposure such as <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet radiation">ultraviolet radiation</a> and radioactive material is a risk factor for cancer.<a href="#cite_note-NCI2019Rad-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-WHO2019-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Many <a href="/wiki/Non-melanoma_skin_cancer" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-melanoma skin cancer">non-melanoma skin cancers</a> are due to ultraviolet radiation, mostly from sunlight.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2019-71">[71]</a> Sources of ionizing radiation include <a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">medical imaging</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">radon</a> gas.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2019-71">[71]</a> Ionizing radiation is not a particularly strong <a href="/wiki/Mutagen" title="Mutagen">mutagen</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Little-73">[73]</a> Residential exposure to <a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">radon</a> gas, for example, has similar cancer risks as <a href="/wiki/Passive_smoking" title="Passive smoking">passive smoking</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Little-73">[73]</a> Radiation is a more potent source of cancer when combined with other cancer-causing agents, such as radon plus tobacco smoke.<a href="#cite_note-Little-73">[73]</a> Radiation can cause cancer in most parts of the body, in all animals and at any age. Children are twice as likely to develop radiation-induced leukemia as adults; radiation exposure before birth has ten times the effect.<a href="#cite_note-Little-73">[73]</a> Medical use of ionizing radiation is a small but growing source of radiation-induced cancers. Ionizing radiation may be used to treat other cancers, but this may, in some cases, induce a second form of cancer.<a href="#cite_note-Little-73">[73]</a> It is also used in some kinds of <a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">medical imaging</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid18046031-74">[74]</a> Prolonged exposure to <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet radiation">ultraviolet radiation</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">sun</a> can lead to <a href="/wiki/Melanoma" title="Melanoma">melanoma</a> and other skin malignancies.<a href="#cite_note-Cleaver-75">[75]</a> Clear evidence establishes ultraviolet radiation, especially the non-ionizing medium wave <a href="/wiki/UVB" class="mw-redirect" title="UVB">UVB</a>, as the cause of most non-melanoma <a href="/wiki/Skin_cancer" title="Skin cancer">skin cancers</a>, which are the most common forms of cancer in the world.<a href="#cite_note-Cleaver-75">[75]</a> Non-ionizing <a href="/wiki/Radio_frequency" title="Radio frequency">radio frequency</a> radiation from mobile phones, <a href="/wiki/Electric_power_transmission" title="Electric power transmission">electric power transmission</a> and other similar sources has been described as a <a href="/wiki/Possible_carcinogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Possible carcinogen">possible carcinogen</a> by the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a>'s <a href="/wiki/International_Agency_for_Research_on_Cancer" title="International Agency for Research on Cancer">International Agency for Research on Cancer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Evidence, however, has not supported a concern.<a href="#cite_note-NCI2019EF-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-NCI2019Rad-70">[70]</a> This includes that studies have not found a consistent link between mobile phone radiation and cancer risk.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heredity">Heredity</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cancer_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Cancer syndrome">Cancer syndrome</a></div> The vast majority of cancers are non-hereditary (sporadic). <a href="/wiki/Hereditary_cancer" class="mw-redirect" title="Hereditary cancer">Hereditary cancers</a> are primarily caused by an inherited genetic defect. Less than 0.3% of the population are carriers of a genetic mutation that has a large effect on cancer risk and these cause less than 3–10% of cancer.<a href="#cite_note-Expert09-79">[79]</a> Some of these <a href="/wiki/Syndrome" title="Syndrome">syndromes</a> include: certain inherited mutations in the genes <a href="/wiki/BRCA1" title="BRCA1">BRCA1</a> and <a href="/wiki/BRCA2" title="BRCA2">BRCA2</a> with a more than 75% risk of breast cancer and <a href="/wiki/Ovarian_cancer" title="Ovarian cancer">ovarian cancer</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Expert09-79">[79]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hereditary_nonpolyposis_colorectal_cancer" title="Hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer">hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer</a> (HNPCC or Lynch syndrome), which is present in about 3% of people with <a href="/wiki/Colorectal_cancer" title="Colorectal cancer">colorectal cancer</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Lancet10-80">[80]</a> among others. Statistically for cancers causing most mortality, the <a href="/wiki/Relative_risk" title="Relative risk">relative risk</a> of developing <a href="/wiki/Colorectal_cancer" title="Colorectal cancer">colorectal cancer</a> when a <a href="/wiki/First-degree_relative" class="mw-redirect" title="First-degree relative">first-degree relative</a> (parent, sibling or child) has been diagnosed with it is about 2.<a href="#cite_note-Kampman2007-81">[81]</a> The corresponding relative risk is 1.5 for lung cancer,<a href="#cite_note-CotéLiu2012-82">[82]</a> and 1.9 for <a href="/wiki/Prostate_cancer" title="Prostate cancer">prostate cancer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Watkins_BrunerMoore2003-83">[83]</a> For breast cancer, the relative risk is 1.8 with a first-degree relative having developed it at 50 years of age or older, and 3.3 when the relative developed it when being younger than 50 years of age.<a href="#cite_note-Singletary2003-84">[84]</a> Taller people have an increased risk of cancer because they have more cells than shorter people. Since height is genetically determined to a large extent, taller people have a heritable increase of cancer risk.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physical_agents">Physical agents</h3></div> Some substances cause cancer primarily through their physical, rather than chemical, effects.<a href="#cite_note-Maltoni-86">[86]</a> A prominent example of this is prolonged exposure to <a href="/wiki/Asbestos" title="Asbestos">asbestos</a>, naturally occurring mineral fibers that are a major cause of <a href="/wiki/Mesothelioma" title="Mesothelioma">mesothelioma</a> (cancer of the <a href="/wiki/Serous_membrane" title="Serous membrane">serous membrane</a>) usually the serous membrane surrounding the lungs.<a href="#cite_note-Maltoni-86">[86]</a> Other substances in this category, including both naturally occurring and synthetic asbestos-like fibers, such as <a href="/wiki/Wollastonite" title="Wollastonite">wollastonite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Attapulgite" class="mw-redirect" title="Attapulgite">attapulgite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glass_wool" title="Glass wool">glass wool</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rock_wool" class="mw-redirect" title="Rock wool">rock wool</a>, are believed to have similar effects.<a href="#cite_note-Maltoni-86">[86]</a> Non-fibrous particulate materials that cause cancer include powdered metallic <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crystalline_silica" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystalline silica">crystalline silica</a> (<a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">quartz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cristobalite" title="Cristobalite">cristobalite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tridymite" title="Tridymite">tridymite</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Maltoni-86">[86]</a> Usually, physical carcinogens must get inside the body (such as through inhalation) and require years of exposure to produce cancer.<a href="#cite_note-Maltoni-86">[86]</a> Physical trauma resulting in cancer is relatively rare.<a href="#cite_note-Gaeta-87">[87]</a> Claims that breaking bones resulted in bone cancer, for example, have not been proven.<a href="#cite_note-Gaeta-87">[87]</a> Similarly, physical trauma is not accepted as a cause for cervical cancer, breast cancer or brain cancer.<a href="#cite_note-Gaeta-87">[87]</a> One accepted source is frequent, long-term application of hot objects to the body. It is possible that repeated burns on the same part of the body, such as those produced by <a href="/wiki/Kanger" title="Kanger">kanger</a> and kairo heaters (charcoal <a href="/wiki/Hand_warmer" title="Hand warmer">hand warmers</a>), may produce skin cancer, especially if carcinogenic chemicals are also present.<a href="#cite_note-Gaeta-87">[87]</a> Frequent consumption of scalding hot tea may produce esophageal cancer.<a href="#cite_note-Gaeta-87">[87]</a> Generally, it is believed that cancer arises, or a pre-existing cancer is encouraged, during the process of healing, rather than directly by the trauma.<a href="#cite_note-Gaeta-87">[87]</a> However, repeated injuries to the same tissues might promote excessive cell proliferation, which could then increase the odds of a cancerous mutation.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Chronic <a href="/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">inflammation</a> has been hypothesized to directly cause mutation.<a href="#cite_note-Gaeta-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-ColottaAllavena2009-88">[88]</a> Inflammation can contribute to proliferation, survival, angiogenesis and migration of cancer cells by influencing the <a href="/wiki/Tumor_microenvironment" title="Tumor microenvironment">tumor microenvironment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> <a href="/wiki/Oncogene" title="Oncogene">Oncogenes</a> build up an inflammatory pro-tumorigenic microenvironment.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hormones">Hormones</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Hormone" title="Hormone">Hormones</a> also play a role in the development of cancer by promoting <a href="/wiki/Cell_growth" title="Cell growth">cell proliferation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Henderson-92">[92]</a> <a href="/wiki/Insulin-like_growth_factor" title="Insulin-like growth factor">Insulin-like growth factors</a> and their binding proteins play a key role in cancer cell proliferation, differentiation and <a href="/wiki/Apoptosis" title="Apoptosis">apoptosis</a>, suggesting possible involvement in carcinogenesis.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> Hormones are important agents in sex-related cancers, such as cancer of the breast, <a href="/wiki/Endometrium" title="Endometrium">endometrium</a>, prostate, ovary and <a href="/wiki/Testicle" title="Testicle">testis</a> and also of <a href="/wiki/Thyroid_cancer" title="Thyroid cancer">thyroid cancer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bone_cancer" class="mw-redirect" title="Bone cancer">bone cancer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Henderson-92">[92]</a> For example, the daughters of women who have breast cancer have significantly higher levels of <a href="/wiki/Estrogen" title="Estrogen">estrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Progesterone" title="Progesterone">progesterone</a> than the daughters of women without breast cancer. These higher hormone levels may explain their higher risk of breast cancer, even in the absence of a breast-cancer gene.<a href="#cite_note-Henderson-92">[92]</a> Similarly, men of African ancestry have significantly higher levels of <a href="/wiki/Testosterone" title="Testosterone">testosterone</a> than men of European ancestry and have a correspondingly higher level of prostate cancer.<a href="#cite_note-Henderson-92">[92]</a> Men of Asian ancestry, with the lowest levels of testosterone-activating <a href="/wiki/Androstanediol_glucuronide" title="Androstanediol glucuronide">androstanediol glucuronide</a>, have the lowest levels of prostate cancer.<a href="#cite_note-Henderson-92">[92]</a> Other factors are relevant: obese people have higher levels of some hormones associated with cancer and a higher rate of those cancers.<a href="#cite_note-Henderson-92">[92]</a> Women who take <a href="/wiki/Hormone_replacement_therapy_(menopause)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hormone replacement therapy (menopause)">hormone replacement therapy</a> have a higher risk of developing cancers associated with those hormones.<a href="#cite_note-Henderson-92">[92]</a> On the other hand, people who exercise far more than average have lower levels of these hormones and lower risk of cancer.<a href="#cite_note-Henderson-92">[92]</a> <a href="/wiki/Osteosarcoma" title="Osteosarcoma">Osteosarcoma</a> may be promoted by <a href="/wiki/Growth_hormone" title="Growth hormone">growth hormones</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Henderson-92">[92]</a> Some treatments and prevention approaches leverage this cause by artificially reducing hormone levels and thus discouraging hormone-sensitive cancers.<a href="#cite_note-Henderson-92">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Autoimmune_diseases">Autoimmune diseases</h3></div> There is an association between <a href="/wiki/Celiac_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Celiac disease">celiac disease</a> and an increased risk of all cancers. People with untreated celiac disease have a higher risk, but this risk decreases with time after diagnosis and strict treatment. This may be due to the adoption of a <a href="/wiki/Gluten-free_diet" title="Gluten-free diet">gluten-free diet</a>, which seems to have a protective role against development of malignancy in people with celiac disease. However, the delay in diagnosis and initiation of a gluten-free diet seems to increase the risk of malignancies.<a href="#cite_note-pmid26402826-94">[94]</a> Rates of gastrointestinal cancers are increased in people with <a href="/wiki/Crohn%27s_disease" title="Crohn's disease">Crohn's disease</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ulcerative_colitis" title="Ulcerative colitis">ulcerative colitis</a>, due to chronic inflammation. <a href="/wiki/Immunotherapy" title="Immunotherapy">Immunomodulators</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biological_therapy_for_inflammatory_bowel_disease" title="Biological therapy for inflammatory bowel disease">biologic agents</a> used to treat these diseases may promote developing extra-intestinal malignancies.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pathophysiology">Pathophysiology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Carcinogenesis" title="Carcinogenesis">Carcinogenesis</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetics">Genetics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Oncogenomics" title="Oncogenomics">Oncogenomics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cancer_requires_multiple_mutations_from_NIHen.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Cancer_requires_multiple_mutations_from_NIHen.png" decoding="async" width="156" height="459" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="156" data-file-height="459" /></a><figcaption>Cancers are caused by a series of mutations. Each mutation alters the behavior of the cell somewhat.</figcaption></figure> Cancer is fundamentally a disease of tissue growth regulation. For a normal cell to <a href="/wiki/Malignant_transformation" title="Malignant transformation">transform</a> into a cancer cell, the <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> that regulate cell growth and differentiation must be altered.<a href="#cite_note-pmid18234754-96">[96]</a> The affected genes are divided into two broad categories. <a href="/wiki/Oncogene" title="Oncogene">Oncogenes</a> are genes that promote cell growth and reproduction. <a href="/wiki/Tumor_suppressor_gene" title="Tumor suppressor gene">Tumor suppressor genes</a> are genes that inhibit cell division and survival. Malignant transformation can occur through the formation of novel oncogenes, the inappropriate over-expression of normal oncogenes, or by the under-expression or disabling of tumor suppressor genes. Typically, changes in multiple genes are required to transform a normal cell into a cancer cell.<a href="#cite_note-pmid11905807-97">[97]</a> Genetic changes can occur at different levels and by different mechanisms. The gain or loss of an entire <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a> can occur through errors in <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitosis</a>. More common are <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutations</a>, which are changes in the <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nucleotide</a> sequence of genomic DNA. Large-scale mutations involve the deletion or gain of a portion of a chromosome. <a href="/wiki/Gene_duplication" title="Gene duplication">Genomic amplification</a> occurs when a cell gains copies (often 20 or more) of a small chromosomal locus, usually containing one or more oncogenes and adjacent genetic material. <a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_translocation" title="Chromosomal translocation">Translocation</a> occurs when two separate chromosomal regions become abnormally fused, often at a characteristic location. A well-known example of this is the <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_chromosome" title="Philadelphia chromosome">Philadelphia chromosome</a>, or translocation of chromosomes 9 and 22, which occurs in <a href="/wiki/Chronic_myelogenous_leukemia" title="Chronic myelogenous leukemia">chronic myelogenous leukemia</a> and results in production of the <a href="/wiki/BCR_(gene)" title="BCR (gene)">BCR</a>-<a href="/wiki/ABL_(gene)" title="ABL (gene)">abl</a> <a href="/wiki/Fusion_protein" title="Fusion protein">fusion protein</a>, an oncogenic <a href="/wiki/Tyrosine_kinase" title="Tyrosine kinase">tyrosine kinase</a>. Small-scale mutations include point mutations, deletions, and insertions, which may occur in the <a href="/wiki/Promoter_(genetics)" title="Promoter (genetics)">promoter</a> region of a gene and affect its <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">expression</a>, or may occur in the gene's <a href="/wiki/Coding_sequence" class="mw-redirect" title="Coding sequence">coding sequence</a> and alter the function or stability of its <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> product. Disruption of a single gene may also result from <a href="/wiki/Provirus" title="Provirus">integration of genomic material</a> from a <a href="/wiki/DNA_virus" title="DNA virus">DNA virus</a> or <a href="/wiki/Retrovirus" title="Retrovirus">retrovirus</a>, leading to the expression of viral oncogenes in the affected cell and its descendants. Replication of the data contained within the DNA of living cells will <a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">probabilistically</a> result in some errors (mutations). Complex error correction and prevention are built into the process and safeguard the cell against cancer. If a significant error occurs, the damaged cell can self-destruct through programmed cell death, termed <a href="/wiki/Apoptosis" title="Apoptosis">apoptosis</a>. If the error control processes fail, then the mutations will survive and be passed along to <a href="/wiki/Cell_division" title="Cell division">daughter cells</a>. Some environments make errors more likely to arise and propagate. Such environments can include the presence of disruptive substances called <a href="/wiki/Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen">carcinogens</a>, repeated physical injury, heat, ionising radiation, or <a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypoxia (medical)">hypoxia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> The errors that cause cancer are self-amplifying and compounding, for example: <ul><li>A mutation in the error-correcting machinery of a cell might cause that cell and its children to accumulate errors more rapidly.</li> <li>A further mutation in an oncogene might cause the cell to reproduce more rapidly and more frequently than its normal counterparts.</li> <li>A further mutation may cause loss of a tumor suppressor gene, disrupting the apoptosis signaling pathway and immortalizing the cell.</li> <li>A further mutation in the signaling machinery of the cell might send error-causing signals to nearby cells.</li></ul> The transformation of a normal cell into cancer is akin to a <a href="/wiki/Chain_reaction" title="Chain reaction">chain reaction</a> caused by initial errors, which compound into more severe errors, each progressively allowing the cell to escape more controls that limit normal tissue growth. This rebellion-like scenario is an undesirable <a href="/wiki/Survival_of_the_fittest" title="Survival of the fittest">survival of the fittest</a>, where the driving forces of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> work against the body's design and enforcement of order. Once cancer has begun to develop, this ongoing process, termed <a href="/wiki/Somatic_evolution_in_cancer" title="Somatic evolution in cancer">clonal evolution</a>, drives progression towards more invasive <a href="/wiki/Cancer_staging" title="Cancer staging">stages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid17109012-99">[99]</a> Clonal evolution leads to intra-<a href="/wiki/Tumour_heterogeneity" title="Tumour heterogeneity">tumour heterogeneity</a> (cancer cells with heterogeneous mutations) that complicates designing effective treatment strategies and requires an <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_therapy" title="Evolutionary therapy">evolutionary approach to designing treatment</a>. Characteristic abilities developed by cancers are divided into categories, specifically evasion of apoptosis, self-sufficiency in growth signals, insensitivity to anti-growth signals, sustained angiogenesis, limitless replicative potential, metastasis, reprogramming of energy metabolism and evasion of immune destruction.<a href="#cite_note-Han2000-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-Han2011-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cancer_epigenetics" title="Cancer epigenetics">Cancer epigenetics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diagram_Damage_to_Cancer_Wiki_300dpi.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Diagram_Damage_to_Cancer_Wiki_300dpi.svg/300px-Diagram_Damage_to_Cancer_Wiki_300dpi.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="396" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Diagram_Damage_to_Cancer_Wiki_300dpi.svg/450px-Diagram_Damage_to_Cancer_Wiki_300dpi.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Diagram_Damage_to_Cancer_Wiki_300dpi.svg/600px-Diagram_Damage_to_Cancer_Wiki_300dpi.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="675" /></a><figcaption>The central role of DNA damage and epigenetic defects in DNA repair genes in carcinogenesis</figcaption></figure> The classical view of cancer is a set of diseases driven by progressive <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetic</a> <a href="/wiki/Abnormalities" class="mw-redirect" title="Abnormalities">abnormalities</a> that include mutations in tumor-suppressor genes and <a href="/wiki/Oncogene" title="Oncogene">oncogenes</a>, and in <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomal</a> abnormalities. A role for <a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">epigenetic alterations</a> was identified in the early 21st century.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> <a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetic</a> alterations are functionally relevant modifications to the genome that do not change the nucleotide sequence. Examples of such modifications are changes in <a href="/wiki/DNA_methylation" title="DNA methylation">DNA methylation</a> (hypermethylation and hypomethylation), <a href="/wiki/Histone_modification" class="mw-redirect" title="Histone modification">histone modification</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> and changes in chromosomal architecture (caused by inappropriate expression of proteins such as <a href="/wiki/HMGA2" title="HMGA2">HMGA2</a> or <a href="/wiki/HMGA1" title="HMGA1">HMGA1</a>).<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Each of these alterations regulates gene expression without altering the underlying <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequence" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA sequence">DNA sequence</a>. These changes may remain through <a href="/wiki/Cell_division" title="Cell division">cell divisions</a>, endure for multiple generations, and can be considered as equivalent to mutations. Epigenetic alterations occur frequently in cancers. As an example, one study listed protein coding genes that were frequently altered in their <a href="/wiki/Methylation" title="Methylation">methylation</a> in association with colon cancer. These included 147 hypermethylated and 27 hypomethylated genes. Of the hypermethylated genes, 10 were hypermethylated in 100% of colon cancers and many others were hypermethylated in more than 50% of colon cancers.<a href="#cite_note-Sch-103">[103]</a> While epigenetic alterations are found in cancers, the epigenetic alterations in DNA repair genes, causing reduced expression of DNA repair proteins, may be of particular importance. Such alterations may occur early in progression to cancer and are a possible cause of the <a href="/wiki/Genome_instability" title="Genome instability">genetic</a> instability characteristic of cancers.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> Reduced expression of DNA repair genes disrupts DNA repair. This is shown in the figure at the 4th level from the top. (In the figure, red wording indicates the central role of DNA damage and defects in DNA repair in progression to cancer.) When DNA repair is deficient DNA damage remains in cells at a higher than usual level (5th level) and causes increased frequencies of mutation and/or epimutation (6th level). Mutation rates increase substantially in cells defective in <a href="/wiki/DNA_mismatch_repair" title="DNA mismatch repair">DNA mismatch repair</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> or in <a href="/wiki/Homologous_recombination" title="Homologous recombination">homologous recombinational</a> repair (HRR).<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> Chromosomal rearrangements and aneuploidy also increase in HRR defective cells.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> Higher levels of DNA damage cause increased mutation (right side of figure) and increased epimutation. During repair of DNA double strand breaks, or repair of other DNA damage, incompletely cleared repair sites can cause epigenetic gene silencing.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> Deficient expression of DNA repair proteins due to an inherited mutation can increase cancer risks. Individuals with an inherited impairment in any of 34 DNA repair genes (see article <a href="/wiki/DNA_repair-deficiency_disorder" title="DNA repair-deficiency disorder">DNA repair-deficiency disorder</a>) have increased cancer risk, with some defects ensuring a 100% lifetime chance of cancer (e.g. p53 mutations).<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> Germ line DNA repair mutations are noted on the figure's left side. However, such <a href="/wiki/Germline" title="Germline">germline</a> mutations (which cause highly penetrant cancer syndromes) are the cause of only about 1 percent of cancers.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> In sporadic cancers, deficiencies in DNA repair are occasionally caused by a mutation in a DNA repair gene but are much more frequently caused by epigenetic alterations that reduce or silence expression of DNA repair genes. This is indicated in the figure at the 3rd level. Many studies of heavy metal-induced carcinogenesis show that such heavy metals cause a reduction in expression of DNA repair enzymes, some through epigenetic mechanisms. DNA repair inhibition is proposed to be a predominant mechanism in heavy metal-induced carcinogenicity. In addition, frequent epigenetic alterations of the DNA sequences code for small RNAs called <a href="/wiki/MicroRNA" title="MicroRNA">microRNAs</a> (or miRNAs). miRNAs do not code for proteins, but can "target" protein-coding genes and reduce their expression. Cancers usually arise from an assemblage of mutations and epimutations that confer a selective advantage leading to clonal expansion (see <a href="/wiki/Neoplasm#Field_defects_in_progression_to_cancer" title="Neoplasm">Field defects in progression to cancer</a>). Mutations, however, may not be as frequent in cancers as epigenetic alterations. An average cancer of the breast or colon can have about 60 to 70 protein-altering mutations, of which about three or four may be "driver" mutations and the remaining ones may be "passenger" mutations.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metastasis_2">Metastasis</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Metastasis" title="Metastasis">Metastasis</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Metastasis" title="Metastasis">Metastasis</a> is the spread of cancer to other locations in the body. The dispersed tumors are called metastatic tumors, while the original is called the primary tumor. Almost all cancers can metastasize.<a href="#cite_note-metastasis-39">[39]</a> Most cancer deaths are due to cancer that has metastasized.<a href="#cite_note-What_is_Metastasized_Cancer-40">[40]</a> Metastasis is common in the late stages of cancer and it can occur via the blood or the <a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_system" title="Lymphatic system">lymphatic system</a> or both. The typical steps in metastasis are local <a href="/wiki/Invasion_(cancer)" title="Invasion (cancer)">invasion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intravasation" title="Intravasation">intravasation</a> into the blood or lymph, circulation through the body, <a href="/wiki/Extravasation" title="Extravasation">extravasation</a> into the new tissue, proliferation and <a href="/wiki/Angiogenesis" title="Angiogenesis">angiogenesis</a>. Different types of cancers tend to metastasize to particular organs, but overall the most common places for metastases to occur are the <a href="/wiki/Lung" title="Lung">lungs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a>, brain and the <a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">bones</a>.<a href="#cite_note-metastasis-39">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metabolism">Metabolism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tumor_metabolome" title="Tumor metabolome">Tumor metabolome</a></div> Normal cells typically generate only about 30% of energy from <a href="/wiki/Glycolysis" title="Glycolysis">glycolysis</a>,<a href="#cite_note-pmid23226794-116">[116]</a> whereas most cancers rely on glycolysis for energy production (<a href="/wiki/Warburg_effect_(oncology)" title="Warburg effect (oncology)">Warburg effect</a>).<a href="#cite_note-pmid20181022-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid31781842-118">[118]</a> But a minority of cancer types rely on <a href="/wiki/Oxidative_phosphorylation" title="Oxidative phosphorylation">oxidative phosphorylation</a> as the primary energy source, including <a href="/wiki/Lymphoma" title="Lymphoma">lymphoma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leukemia" title="Leukemia">leukemia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Endometrial_cancer" title="Endometrial cancer">endometrial cancer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid33028168-119">[119]</a> Even in these cases, however, the use of glycolysis as an energy source rarely exceeds 60%.<a href="#cite_note-pmid23226794-116">[116]</a> A few cancers use <a href="/wiki/Glutamine" title="Glutamine">glutamine</a> as the major energy source, partly because it provides nitrogen required for <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nucleotide</a> (DNA, RNA) synthesis.<a href="#cite_note-pmid26771115-120">[120]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cancer_stem_cell" title="Cancer stem cell">Cancer stem cells</a> often use oxidative phosphorylation or glutamine as a primary energy source.<a href="#cite_note-pmid32670883-121">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diagnosis">Diagnosis</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thorax_pa_peripheres_Bronchialcarcinom_li_OF_markiert.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Thorax_pa_peripheres_Bronchialcarcinom_li_OF_markiert.jpg/300px-Thorax_pa_peripheres_Bronchialcarcinom_li_OF_markiert.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="284" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Thorax_pa_peripheres_Bronchialcarcinom_li_OF_markiert.jpg/450px-Thorax_pa_peripheres_Bronchialcarcinom_li_OF_markiert.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Thorax_pa_peripheres_Bronchialcarcinom_li_OF_markiert.jpg/600px-Thorax_pa_peripheres_Bronchialcarcinom_li_OF_markiert.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1030" data-file-height="976" /></a><figcaption>Chest <a href="/wiki/Projectional_radiography" title="Projectional radiography">X-ray</a> showing lung cancer in the left lung</figcaption></figure> Most cancers are initially recognized either because of the appearance of signs or symptoms or through <a href="/wiki/Cancer_screening" title="Cancer screening">screening</a>.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Neither of these leads to a definitive diagnosis, which requires the examination of a tissue sample by a <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_pathology" title="Anatomical pathology">pathologist</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HollandFrei6-123">[123]</a> People with suspected cancer are investigated with <a href="/wiki/Medical_test" title="Medical test">medical tests</a>. These commonly include <a href="/wiki/Blood_test" title="Blood test">blood tests</a>, <a href="/wiki/Projectional_radiography" title="Projectional radiography">X-rays</a>, (<a href="/wiki/Contrast_CT" title="Contrast CT">contrast</a>) <a href="/wiki/CT_scan" title="CT scan">CT scans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Endoscopy" title="Endoscopy">endoscopy</a>. The tissue <a href="/wiki/Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">diagnosis</a> from the biopsy indicates the type of cell that is proliferating, its <a href="/wiki/Histological_grade" class="mw-redirect" title="Histological grade">histological grade</a>, genetic abnormalities and other features. Together, this information is useful to evaluate the <a href="/wiki/Prognosis" title="Prognosis">prognosis</a> and to choose the best treatment. <a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Immunohistochemistry" title="Immunohistochemistry">immunohistochemistry</a> are other types of tissue tests. These tests provide information about molecular changes (such as <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fusion_gene" title="Fusion gene">fusion genes</a> and numerical <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a> changes) and may thus also indicate the prognosis and best treatment. Cancer diagnosis can cause psychological distress and psychosocial interventions, such as talking therapy, may help people with this.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> Some people choose to disclose the diagnosis widely; others prefer to keep the information private, especially shortly after the diagnosis, or to disclose it only partially or to selected people.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_cancer_types" title="List of cancer types">List of cancer types</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_oncology-related_terms" class="mw-redirect" title="List of oncology-related terms">List of oncology-related terms</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Histopathology_of_adenocarcinoma.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Histopathology_of_adenocarcinoma.png/240px-Histopathology_of_adenocarcinoma.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Histopathology_of_adenocarcinoma.png/360px-Histopathology_of_adenocarcinoma.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Histopathology_of_adenocarcinoma.png/480px-Histopathology_of_adenocarcinoma.png 2x" data-file-width="1532" data-file-height="1311" /></a><figcaption>A large proportion of cancers are <a href="/wiki/Adenocarcinoma" title="Adenocarcinoma">adenocarcinomas</a>, with typical <a href="/wiki/Histopathology" title="Histopathology">histopathology</a> features shown, although they vary substantially from case to case.</figcaption></figure> Cancers are classified by the <a href="/wiki/List_of_distinct_cell_types_in_the_adult_human_body" class="mw-redirect" title="List of distinct cell types in the adult human body">type of cell</a> that the tumor cells resemble and is therefore presumed to be the origin of the tumor. These types include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carcinoma" title="Carcinoma">Carcinoma</a>: Cancers derived from <a href="/wiki/Epithelium" title="Epithelium">epithelial</a> cells. This group includes many of the most common cancers and include nearly all those in the <a href="/wiki/Breast_cancer" title="Breast cancer">breast</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prostate_cancer" title="Prostate cancer">prostate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lung_cancer" title="Lung cancer">lung</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pancreas" title="Pancreas">pancreas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Colorectal_cancer" title="Colorectal cancer">colon</a>. Most of these are of the <a href="/wiki/Adenocarcinoma" title="Adenocarcinoma">adenocarcinoma</a> type, which means that the cancer has <a href="/wiki/Gland" title="Gland">gland</a>-like differentiation.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarcoma" title="Sarcoma">Sarcoma</a>: Cancers arising from <a href="/wiki/Connective_tissue" title="Connective tissue">connective tissue</a> (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">bone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cartilage" title="Cartilage">cartilage</a>, fat, <a href="/wiki/Nerve" title="Nerve">nerve</a>), each of which develops from cells originating in <a href="/wiki/Mesenchyme" title="Mesenchyme">mesenchymal</a> cells outside the <a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">bone marrow</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymphoma" title="Lymphoma">Lymphoma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leukemia" title="Leukemia">leukemia</a>: These two classes arise from hematopoietic (blood-forming) cells that leave the marrow and tend to mature in the <a href="/wiki/Lymph_node" title="Lymph node">lymph nodes</a> and blood, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_cell_tumor" title="Germ cell tumor">Germ cell tumor</a>: Cancers derived from <a href="/wiki/Pluripotent" class="mw-redirect" title="Pluripotent">pluripotent</a> cells, most often presenting in the <a href="/wiki/Testicular_cancer" title="Testicular cancer">testicle</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Ovarian_cancer" title="Ovarian cancer">ovary</a> (<a href="/wiki/Seminoma" title="Seminoma">seminoma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dysgerminoma" title="Dysgerminoma">dysgerminoma</a>, respectively).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blastoma" title="Blastoma">Blastoma</a>: Cancers derived from immature "precursor" cells or embryonic tissue.</li></ul> Cancers are usually named using -carcinoma, -sarcoma or -blastoma as a suffix, with the Latin or Greek word for the <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organ</a> or tissue of origin as the root. For example, cancers of the liver <a href="/wiki/Parenchyma" title="Parenchyma">parenchyma</a> arising from malignant epithelial cells is called <a href="/wiki/Hepatocellular_carcinoma" title="Hepatocellular carcinoma">hepatocarcinoma</a>, while a malignancy arising from primitive liver precursor cells is called a <a href="/wiki/Hepatoblastoma" title="Hepatoblastoma">hepatoblastoma</a> and a cancer arising from fat cells is called a <a href="/wiki/Liposarcoma" title="Liposarcoma">liposarcoma</a>. For some common cancers, the English organ name is used. For example, the most common type of breast cancer is called <a href="/wiki/Mammary_ductal_carcinoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammary ductal carcinoma">ductal carcinoma of the breast</a>. Here, the adjective ductal refers to the appearance of cancer under the microscope, which suggests that it has originated in the milk ducts. <a href="/wiki/Benign_tumor" title="Benign tumor">Benign tumors</a> (which are not cancers) are named using -oma as a suffix with the organ name as the root. For example, a benign tumor of smooth muscle cells is called a <a href="/wiki/Leiomyoma" title="Leiomyoma">leiomyoma</a> (the common name of this frequently occurring benign tumor in the uterus is <a href="/wiki/Uterine_fibroid" title="Uterine fibroid">fibroid</a>). Confusingly, some types of cancer use the -noma suffix, examples including <a href="/wiki/Melanoma" title="Melanoma">melanoma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seminoma" title="Seminoma">seminoma</a>. Some types of cancer are named for the size and shape of the cells under a microscope, such as giant cell carcinoma, <a href="/wiki/Spindle_cell_carcinoma" title="Spindle cell carcinoma">spindle cell carcinoma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Small-cell_carcinoma" title="Small-cell carcinoma">small-cell carcinoma</a>. <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Breast_cancer_gross_appearance.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="An invasive ductal carcinoma of the breast (pale area at the center) surrounded by spikes of whitish scar tissue and yellow fatty tissue"><img alt="An invasive ductal carcinoma of the breast (pale area at the center) surrounded by spikes of whitish scar tissue and yellow fatty tissue" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Breast_cancer_gross_appearance.jpg/120px-Breast_cancer_gross_appearance.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Breast_cancer_gross_appearance.jpg/180px-Breast_cancer_gross_appearance.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Breast_cancer_gross_appearance.jpg/240px-Breast_cancer_gross_appearance.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="300" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">An invasive <a href="/wiki/Ductal_carcinoma" title="Ductal carcinoma">ductal carcinoma</a> of the breast (pale area at the center) surrounded by spikes of whitish scar tissue and yellow fatty tissue</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Colon_cancer_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="An invasive colorectal carcinoma (top center) in a colectomy specimen"><img alt="An invasive colorectal carcinoma (top center) in a colectomy specimen" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Colon_cancer_2.jpg/120px-Colon_cancer_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Colon_cancer_2.jpg/180px-Colon_cancer_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Colon_cancer_2.jpg/240px-Colon_cancer_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="603" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">An invasive <a href="/wiki/Colorectal_carcinoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Colorectal carcinoma">colorectal carcinoma</a> (top center) in a <a href="/wiki/Colectomy" title="Colectomy">colectomy</a> specimen</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Lung_cancer.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A squamous-cell carcinoma (the whitish tumor) near the bronchi in a lung specimen"><img alt="A squamous-cell carcinoma (the whitish tumor) near the bronchi in a lung specimen" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Lung_cancer.jpg/66px-Lung_cancer.jpg" decoding="async" width="66" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Lung_cancer.jpg/99px-Lung_cancer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Lung_cancer.jpg/132px-Lung_cancer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="416" data-file-height="754" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A <a href="/wiki/Squamous-cell_carcinoma" title="Squamous-cell carcinoma">squamous-cell carcinoma</a> (the whitish tumor) near the <a href="/wiki/Bronchi" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronchi">bronchi</a> in a lung specimen</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:BreastCancer.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A large invasive ductal carcinoma in a mastectomy specimen"><img alt="A large invasive ductal carcinoma in a mastectomy specimen" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/BreastCancer.jpg/120px-BreastCancer.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/BreastCancer.jpg/180px-BreastCancer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/BreastCancer.jpg/240px-BreastCancer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="550" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A large invasive <a href="/wiki/Mammary_ductal_carcinoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammary ductal carcinoma">ductal carcinoma</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Mastectomy" title="Mastectomy">mastectomy</a> specimen</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Histopathology_of_squamous-cell_carcinoma.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Squamous cell carcinoma with typical histopathology features."><img alt="Squamous cell carcinoma with typical histopathology features." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Histopathology_of_squamous-cell_carcinoma.png/120px-Histopathology_of_squamous-cell_carcinoma.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Histopathology_of_squamous-cell_carcinoma.png/180px-Histopathology_of_squamous-cell_carcinoma.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Histopathology_of_squamous-cell_carcinoma.png/240px-Histopathology_of_squamous-cell_carcinoma.png 2x" data-file-width="785" data-file-height="512" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Squamous_cell_carcinoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Squamous cell carcinoma">Squamous cell carcinoma</a> with typical histopathology features.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Histopathology_of_small_cell_carcinoma,_annotated.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Histopathology of small-cell carcinoma, with typical findings.[127]"><img alt="Histopathology of small-cell carcinoma, with typical findings.[127]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Histopathology_of_small_cell_carcinoma%2C_annotated.png/120px-Histopathology_of_small_cell_carcinoma%2C_annotated.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Histopathology_of_small_cell_carcinoma%2C_annotated.png/180px-Histopathology_of_small_cell_carcinoma%2C_annotated.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Histopathology_of_small_cell_carcinoma%2C_annotated.png/240px-Histopathology_of_small_cell_carcinoma%2C_annotated.png 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1532" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Histopathology of <a href="/wiki/Small-cell_carcinoma" title="Small-cell carcinoma">small-cell carcinoma</a>, with typical findings.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prevention">Prevention</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cancer_prevention" title="Cancer prevention">Cancer prevention</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Global_deaths_from_cancers_attributable_to_risk_factors_in_2019_by_sex_and_SDI.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Global_deaths_from_cancers_attributable_to_risk_factors_in_2019_by_sex_and_SDI.jpg/250px-Global_deaths_from_cancers_attributable_to_risk_factors_in_2019_by_sex_and_SDI.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Global_deaths_from_cancers_attributable_to_risk_factors_in_2019_by_sex_and_SDI.jpg/375px-Global_deaths_from_cancers_attributable_to_risk_factors_in_2019_by_sex_and_SDI.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Global_deaths_from_cancers_attributable_to_risk_factors_in_2019_by_sex_and_SDI.jpg/500px-Global_deaths_from_cancers_attributable_to_risk_factors_in_2019_by_sex_and_SDI.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4159" data-file-height="2881" /></a><figcaption>Global deaths from cancers attributable to risk factors in 2019 by sex and <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="a measure of a location's socio-demographic development that takes into account average income per person, educational attainment, and total fertility rate">Socio-demographic Index.<a href="#cite_note-10.1016/S0140-6736(22)01438-6-128">[128]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cancer_DALYs_attributable_to_11_Level_2_risk_factors_globally_in_2019.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Cancer_DALYs_attributable_to_11_Level_2_risk_factors_globally_in_2019.jpg/250px-Cancer_DALYs_attributable_to_11_Level_2_risk_factors_globally_in_2019.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Cancer_DALYs_attributable_to_11_Level_2_risk_factors_globally_in_2019.jpg/375px-Cancer_DALYs_attributable_to_11_Level_2_risk_factors_globally_in_2019.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Cancer_DALYs_attributable_to_11_Level_2_risk_factors_globally_in_2019.jpg/500px-Cancer_DALYs_attributable_to_11_Level_2_risk_factors_globally_in_2019.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5047" data-file-height="3200" /></a><figcaption>Cancer <a href="/wiki/DALY" class="mw-redirect" title="DALY">DALYs</a> attributable to 11 Level 2 risk factors globally in 2019.<a href="#cite_note-10.1016/S0140-6736(22)01438-6-128">[128]</a></figcaption></figure> Cancer prevention is defined as active measures to decrease cancer risk.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> The vast majority of cancer cases are due to environmental risk factors. Many of these environmental factors are controllable lifestyle choices. Thus, cancer is generally preventable.<a href="#cite_note-Danaei-130">[130]</a> Between 70% and 90% of common cancers are due to environmental factors and therefore potentially preventable.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> Greater than 30% of cancer deaths could be prevented by avoiding risk factors including: tobacco, <a href="/wiki/Overweight" title="Overweight">excess weight</a>/<a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">obesity</a>, poor diet, <a href="/wiki/Physical_inactivity" title="Physical inactivity">physical inactivity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">alcohol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infection" title="Sexually transmitted infection">sexually transmitted infections</a> and air pollution.<a href="#cite_note-Cancer_Cancer-132">[132]</a> Further, poverty could be considered as an indirect risk factor in human cancers.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> Not all environmental causes are controllable, such as naturally occurring <a href="/wiki/Background_radiation" title="Background radiation">background radiation</a> and cancers caused through hereditary <a href="/wiki/Genetic_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic disorders">genetic disorders</a> and thus are not preventable via personal behavior. In 2019, ~44% of all cancer deaths – or ~4.5 M deaths or ~105 million lost <a href="/wiki/Disability-adjusted_life_year" title="Disability-adjusted life year">disability-adjusted life years</a> – were <a href="/wiki/List_of_causes_of_death_by_rate#Underlying_causes" title="List of causes of death by rate">due to known clearly preventable risk factors</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Smoking" title="Smoking">smoking</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_health" title="Alcohol and health">alcohol use</a> and <a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">high BMI</a>, according to a <a href="/wiki/Global_Burden_of_Disease_Study" title="Global Burden of Disease Study">GBD</a> <a href="/wiki/Systematic_review" title="Systematic review">systematic analysis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-10.1016/S0140-6736(22)01438-6-128">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dietary">Dietary</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Diet_and_cancer" title="Diet and cancer">Diet and cancer</a></div> While many dietary recommendations have been proposed to reduce cancer risks, the evidence to support them is not definitive.<a href="#cite_note-Kushi2012-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Diet11-134">[134]</a> The primary dietary factors that increase risk are <a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">obesity</a> and alcohol consumption. Diets low in fruits and vegetables and high in red meat have been implicated but reviews and meta-analyses do not come to a consistent conclusion.<a href="#cite_note-pmid22202045-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid21119663-136">[136]</a> A 2014 meta-analysis found no relationship between fruits and vegetables and cancer.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> Coffee is associated with a reduced risk of <a href="/wiki/Liver_cancer" title="Liver cancer">liver cancer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid17484871-138">[138]</a> Studies have linked excessive consumption of <a href="/wiki/Red_meat" title="Red meat">red</a> or <a href="/wiki/Processed_meat" title="Processed meat">processed meat</a> to an increased risk of breast cancer, <a href="/wiki/Colorectal_cancer" title="Colorectal cancer">colon cancer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_cancer" title="Pancreatic cancer">pancreatic cancer</a>, a phenomenon that could be due to the presence of <a href="/wiki/Carcinogens" class="mw-redirect" title="Carcinogens">carcinogens</a> in meats cooked at high temperatures.<a href="#cite_note-pmid19838915-139">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid20374790-140">[140]</a> In 2015 the <a href="/wiki/International_Agency_for_Research_on_Cancer" title="International Agency for Research on Cancer">IARC</a> reported that eating <a href="/wiki/Processed_meat" title="Processed meat">processed meat</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Bacon" title="Bacon">bacon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ham" title="Ham">ham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hot_dogs" class="mw-redirect" title="Hot dogs">hot dogs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sausages" class="mw-redirect" title="Sausages">sausages</a>) and, to a lesser degree, <a href="/wiki/Red_meat" title="Red meat">red meat</a> was linked to some cancers.<a href="#cite_note-WHO-20151026-141">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20151026-142">[142]</a> <a href="/wiki/Healthy_diet" title="Healthy diet">Dietary recommendations</a> for cancer prevention typically include an emphasis on vegetables, fruit, <a href="/wiki/Whole_grains" class="mw-redirect" title="Whole grains">whole grains</a> and fish and an avoidance of processed and red meat (beef, pork, lamb), <a href="/wiki/Animal_fats" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal fats">animal fats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pickled_foods" class="mw-redirect" title="Pickled foods">pickled foods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate#Nutrition" title="Carbohydrate">refined carbohydrates</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kushi2012-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Diet11-134">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medication">Medication</h3></div> Medications can be used to prevent cancer in a few circumstances.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> In the general population, <a href="/wiki/Non-steroidal_anti-inflammatory_drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug">NSAIDs</a> reduce the risk of <a href="/wiki/Colorectal_cancer" title="Colorectal cancer">colorectal cancer</a>; however, due to cardiovascular and gastrointestinal side effects, they cause overall harm when used for prevention.<a href="#cite_note-pmid17339623-144">[144]</a> <a href="/wiki/Aspirin" title="Aspirin">Aspirin</a> has been found to reduce the risk of death from cancer by about 7%.<a href="#cite_note-pmid21144578-145">[145]</a> <a href="/wiki/COX-2_inhibitor" class="mw-redirect" title="COX-2 inhibitor">COX-2 inhibitors</a> may decrease the rate of <a href="/wiki/Polyp_(medicine)" title="Polyp (medicine)">polyp</a> formation in people with <a href="/wiki/Familial_adenomatous_polyposis" title="Familial adenomatous polyposis">familial adenomatous polyposis</a>; however, it is associated with the same adverse effects as NSAIDs.<a href="#cite_note-pmid20594533-146">[146]</a> Daily use of <a href="/wiki/Tamoxifen" title="Tamoxifen">tamoxifen</a> or <a href="/wiki/Raloxifene" title="Raloxifene">raloxifene</a> reduce the risk of breast cancer in high-risk women.<a href="#cite_note-pmid19020189-147">[147]</a> The benefit versus harm for <a href="/wiki/5-alpha-reductase_inhibitor" class="mw-redirect" title="5-alpha-reductase inhibitor">5-alpha-reductase inhibitor</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Finasteride" title="Finasteride">finasteride</a> is not clear.<a href="#cite_note-pmid18425978-148">[148]</a> <a href="/wiki/Vitamin" title="Vitamin">Vitamin</a> supplementation does not appear to be effective at preventing cancer.<a href="#cite_note-pmid20939459-149">[149]</a> While low blood levels of <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D">vitamin D</a> are correlated with increased cancer risk,<a href="#cite_note-pmid16595781-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> whether this relationship is causal and vitamin D supplementation is protective is not determined.<a href="#cite_note-pmid16595770-153">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-Futil2014-154">[154]</a> One 2014 review found that supplements had no significant effect on cancer risk.<a href="#cite_note-Futil2014-154">[154]</a> Another 2014 review concluded that vitamin D3 may decrease the risk of death from cancer (one fewer death in 150 people treated over 5 years), but concerns with the quality of the data were noted.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> <a href="/wiki/Beta-Carotene" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta-Carotene">Beta-Carotene</a> supplementation increases lung cancer rates in those who are high risk.<a href="#cite_note-pmid21738614-156">[156]</a> <a href="/wiki/Folic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Folic acid">Folic acid</a> supplementation is not effective in preventing colon cancer and may increase colon polyps.<a href="#cite_note-pmid17551129-157">[157]</a> Selenium supplementation has not been shown to reduce the risk of cancer.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vaccination">Vaccination</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Vaccine" title="Vaccine">Vaccines</a> have been developed that prevent infection by some <a href="/wiki/Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen">carcinogenic</a> viruses.<a href="#cite_note-vacc_facts_nci-159">[159]</a> <a href="/wiki/HPV_vaccine" title="HPV vaccine">Human papillomavirus vaccine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gardasil" title="Gardasil">Gardasil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cervarix" title="Cervarix">Cervarix</a>) decrease the risk of developing <a href="/wiki/Cervical_cancer" title="Cervical cancer">cervical cancer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-vacc_facts_nci-159">[159]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_B_vaccine" title="Hepatitis B vaccine">hepatitis B vaccine</a> prevents infection with hepatitis B virus and thus decreases the risk of liver cancer.<a href="#cite_note-vacc_facts_nci-159">[159]</a> The administration of human papillomavirus and hepatitis B vaccinations is recommended where resources allow.<a href="#cite_note-pmid24176569-160">[160]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Screening">Screening</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cancer_screening" title="Cancer screening">Cancer screening</a></div> Unlike diagnostic efforts prompted by <a href="/wiki/Symptom" class="mw-redirect" title="Symptom">symptoms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medical_sign" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical sign">medical signs</a>, cancer screening involves efforts to detect cancer after it has formed, but before any noticeable symptoms appear.<a href="#cite_note-NIH-161">[161]</a> This may involve <a href="/wiki/Physical_examination" title="Physical examination">physical examination</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blood_test" title="Blood test">blood</a> or <a href="/wiki/Urinalysis" title="Urinalysis">urine tests</a> or <a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">medical imaging</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NIH-161">[161]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cancer_biomarker" title="Cancer biomarker">Cancer screening</a> is not available for many types of cancers. Even when tests are available, they may not be recommended for everyone. <a href="/wiki/Universal_screening" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal screening">Universal screening</a> or mass screening involves screening everyone.<a href="#cite_note-Wilson-162">[162]</a> Selective screening identifies people who are at higher risk, such as people with a family history.<a href="#cite_note-Wilson-162">[162]</a> Several factors are considered to determine whether the benefits of screening outweigh the risks and the costs of screening.<a href="#cite_note-NIH-161">[161]</a> These factors include: <ul><li>Possible harms from the screening test: for example, X-ray images involve exposure to potentially harmful <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a></li> <li>The likelihood of the test correctly identifying cancer</li> <li>The likelihood that cancer is present: Screening is not normally useful for rare cancers.</li> <li>Possible harms from follow-up procedures</li> <li>Whether suitable treatment is available</li> <li>Whether early detection improves treatment outcomes</li> <li>Whether cancer will ever need treatment</li> <li>Whether the test is acceptable to the people: If a screening test is too burdensome (for example, extremely painful), then people will refuse to participate.<a href="#cite_note-Wilson-162">[162]</a></li> <li>Cost</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recommendations">Recommendations</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="U.S._Preventive_Services_Task_Force">U.S. Preventive Services Task Force</h4></div> The <a href="/wiki/U.S._Preventive_Services_Task_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Preventive Services Task Force">U.S. Preventive Services Task Force</a> (USPSTF) issues recommendations for various cancers: <ul><li>Strongly recommends <a href="/wiki/Cervical_cancer" title="Cervical cancer">cervical cancer</a> screening in women who are <a href="/wiki/Sexually_active" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexually active">sexually active</a> and have a <a href="/wiki/Cervix" title="Cervix">cervix</a> at least until the age of 65.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a></li> <li>Recommend that Americans be screened for <a href="/wiki/Colorectal_cancer" title="Colorectal cancer">colorectal cancer</a> via <a href="/wiki/Fecal_occult_blood" title="Fecal occult blood">fecal occult blood</a> testing, <a href="/wiki/Sigmoidoscopy" title="Sigmoidoscopy">sigmoidoscopy</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Colonoscopy" title="Colonoscopy">colonoscopy</a> starting at age 50 until age 75.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a></li> <li>Evidence is insufficient to recommend for or against screening for <a href="/wiki/Skin_cancer" title="Skin cancer">skin cancer</a>,<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> <a href="/wiki/Oral_cancer" title="Oral cancer">oral cancer</a>,<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> lung cancer,<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Prostate_cancer" title="Prostate cancer">prostate cancer</a> in men under 75.<a href="#cite_note-USPSTFPr08-168">[168]</a></li> <li>Routine screening is not recommended for <a href="/wiki/Bladder_cancer" title="Bladder cancer">bladder cancer</a>,<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> <a href="/wiki/Testicular_cancer" title="Testicular cancer">testicular cancer</a>,<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ovarian_cancer" title="Ovarian cancer">ovarian cancer</a>,<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_cancer" title="Pancreatic cancer">pancreatic cancer</a>,<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Prostate_cancer" title="Prostate cancer">prostate cancer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-USPSTF-20111007-173">[173]</a></li> <li>Recommends <a href="/wiki/Mammography" title="Mammography">mammography</a> for breast cancer screening every two years from ages 50–74, but does not recommend either <a href="/wiki/Breast_self-examination" title="Breast self-examination">breast self-examination</a> or <a href="/wiki/Breast_cancer_screening" title="Breast cancer screening">clinical breast examination</a>.<a href="#cite_note-USPSTFBr09-174">[174]</a> A 2013 <a href="/wiki/Cochrane_review" class="mw-redirect" title="Cochrane review">Cochrane review</a> concluded that breast cancer screening by mammography had no effect in reducing mortality because of overdiagnosis and overtreatment.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Japan">Japan</h4></div> Screens for <a href="/wiki/Gastric_cancer" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastric cancer">gastric cancer</a> using <a href="/wiki/Photofluorography" title="Photofluorography">photofluorography</a> due to the high incidence there.<a href="#cite_note-Epi11-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetic_testing">Genetic testing</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cancer_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Cancer syndrome">Cancer syndrome</a></div> <table class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align:center" width="50%"> <tbody><tr> <th>Gene </th> <th>Cancer types </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/BRCA1" title="BRCA1">BRCA1</a>, <a href="/wiki/BRCA2" title="BRCA2">BRCA2</a> </td> <td>Breast, ovarian, pancreatic </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hereditary_nonpolyposis_colorectal_cancer" title="Hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer">HNPCC</a>, <a href="/wiki/MLH1" title="MLH1">MLH1</a>, <a href="/wiki/MSH2" title="MSH2">MSH2</a>, <a href="/wiki/MSH6" title="MSH6">MSH6</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMS1" title="PMS1">PMS1</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMS2" class="mw-redirect" title="PMS2">PMS2</a> </td> <td>Colon, uterine, small bowel, stomach, urinary tract </td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Genetic_testing" title="Genetic testing">Genetic testing</a> for individuals at high-risk of certain cancers is recommended by unofficial groups.<a href="#cite_note-pmid24176569-160">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-BRCA08-176">[176]</a> Carriers of these mutations may then undergo enhanced surveillance, chemoprevention, or preventative surgery to reduce their subsequent risk.<a href="#cite_note-BRCA08-176">[176]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Management">Management</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_cancer" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of cancer">Treatment of cancer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oncology" title="Oncology">Oncology</a></div> Many treatment options for cancer exist. The primary ones include surgery, <a href="/wiki/Chemotherapy" title="Chemotherapy">chemotherapy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">radiation therapy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hormonal_therapy_(oncology)" title="Hormonal therapy (oncology)">hormonal therapy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Targeted_therapy" title="Targeted therapy">targeted therapy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Palliative_care" title="Palliative care">palliative care</a>. Which treatments are used depends on the type, location and grade of the cancer as well as the patient's health and preferences. The <a href="/wiki/Therapy#By_treatment_intent" title="Therapy">treatment intent</a> may or may not be curative.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemotherapy">Chemotherapy</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Chemotherapy" title="Chemotherapy">Chemotherapy</a> is the treatment of cancer with one or more <a href="/wiki/Cytotoxicity" title="Cytotoxicity">cytotoxic</a> anti-<a href="/wiki/Neoplastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoplastic">neoplastic</a> drugs (<a href="/wiki/List_of_chemotherapeutic_agents" title="List of chemotherapeutic agents">chemotherapeutic agents</a>) as part of a <a href="/wiki/Chemotherapy_regimen" title="Chemotherapy regimen">standardized regimen</a>. The term encompasses a variety of drugs, which are divided into broad categories such as <a href="/wiki/Alkylating_antineoplastic_agent" title="Alkylating antineoplastic agent">alkylating agents</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antimetabolite" title="Antimetabolite">antimetabolites</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lind2008-177">[177]</a> Traditional chemotherapeutic agents act by killing cells that divide rapidly, a critical property of most cancer cells. It was found that providing combined cytotoxic drugs is better than a single drug, a process called the <a href="/wiki/Combination_therapy" title="Combination therapy">combination therapy</a>, which has an advantage in the statistics of survival and response to the tumor and in the progress of the disease.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> A Cochrane review concluded that combined therapy was more effective to treat metastasized breast cancer. However, generally it is not certain whether combination chemotherapy leads to better health outcomes, when both survival and toxicity are considered.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> <a href="/wiki/Targeted_therapy" title="Targeted therapy">Targeted therapy</a> is a form of chemotherapy that targets specific molecular differences between cancer and normal cells. The first targeted therapies blocked the <a href="/wiki/Estrogen_receptor" title="Estrogen receptor">estrogen receptor</a> molecule, inhibiting the growth of breast cancer. Another common example is the class of <a href="/wiki/Bcr-Abl_tyrosine-kinase_inhibitor" title="Bcr-Abl tyrosine-kinase inhibitor">Bcr-Abl inhibitors</a>, which are used to treat <a href="/wiki/Chronic_myelogenous_leukemia" title="Chronic myelogenous leukemia">chronic myelogenous leukemia</a> (CML).<a href="#cite_note-TCT2018-4">[4]</a> Currently, targeted therapies exist for many of the most common cancer types, including <a href="/wiki/Bladder_cancer" title="Bladder cancer">bladder cancer</a>, breast cancer, <a href="/wiki/Colorectal_cancer" title="Colorectal cancer">colorectal cancer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kidney_cancer" title="Kidney cancer">kidney cancer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leukemia" title="Leukemia">leukemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liver_cancer" title="Liver cancer">liver cancer</a>, lung cancer, <a href="/wiki/Lymphoma" title="Lymphoma">lymphoma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_cancer" title="Pancreatic cancer">pancreatic cancer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prostate_cancer" title="Prostate cancer">prostate cancer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Skin_cancer" title="Skin cancer">skin cancer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thyroid_cancer" title="Thyroid cancer">thyroid cancer</a> as well as other cancer types.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> The efficacy of chemotherapy depends on the type of cancer and the stage. In combination with surgery, chemotherapy has proven useful in cancer types including breast cancer, colorectal cancer, <a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_cancer" title="Pancreatic cancer">pancreatic cancer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Osteosarcoma" title="Osteosarcoma">osteogenic sarcoma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Testicular_cancer" title="Testicular cancer">testicular cancer</a>, ovarian cancer and certain lung cancers.<a href="#cite_note-HollandTx40-181">[181]</a> Chemotherapy is curative for some cancers, such as some <a href="/wiki/Leukemias" class="mw-redirect" title="Leukemias">leukemias</a>,<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> ineffective in some <a href="/wiki/Brain_tumors" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain tumors">brain tumors</a>,<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> and needless in others, such as most <a href="/wiki/Non-melanoma_skin_cancer" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-melanoma skin cancer">non-melanoma skin cancers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> The effectiveness of chemotherapy is often limited by its toxicity to other tissues in the body. Even when chemotherapy does not provide a permanent cure, it may be useful to reduce symptoms such as pain or to reduce the size of an inoperable tumor in the hope that surgery will become possible in the future. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radiation_2">Radiation</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Radiation therapy</a> involves the use of <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a> in an attempt to either cure or improve symptoms. It works by damaging the DNA of cancerous tissue, causing <a href="/wiki/Mitotic_catastrophe" title="Mitotic catastrophe">mitotic catastrophe</a> resulting in the death of the cancer cells.<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> To spare normal tissues (such as skin or organs, which radiation must pass through to treat the tumor), shaped radiation beams are aimed from multiple exposure angles to intersect at the tumor, providing a much larger dose there than in the surrounding, healthy tissue. As with chemotherapy, cancers vary in their response to radiation therapy.<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> Radiation therapy is used in about half of cases. The radiation can be either from internal sources (<a href="/wiki/Brachytherapy" title="Brachytherapy">brachytherapy</a>) or external sources. The radiation is most commonly low energy X-rays for treating skin cancers, while higher energy X-rays are used for cancers within the body.<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> Radiation is typically used in addition to surgery and or chemotherapy. For certain types of cancer, such as early <a href="/wiki/Head_and_neck_cancer" title="Head and neck cancer">head and neck cancer</a>, it may be used alone.<a href="#cite_note-H41-191">[191]</a> Radiation therapy after surgery for brain metastases has been shown to not improve overall survival in patients compared to surgery alone.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> For painful <a href="/wiki/Bone_metastasis" title="Bone metastasis">bone metastasis</a>, radiation therapy has been found to be effective in about 70% of patients.<a href="#cite_note-H41-191">[191]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surgery">Surgery</h3></div> Surgery is the primary method of treatment for most isolated, solid cancers and may play a role in palliation and prolongation of survival. It is typically an important part of definitive diagnosis and staging of tumors, as biopsies are usually required. In localized cancer, surgery typically attempts to remove the entire mass along with, in certain cases, the <a href="/wiki/Lymph_node" title="Lymph node">lymph nodes</a> in the area. For some types of cancer this is sufficient to eliminate the cancer.<a href="#cite_note-HollandTx40-181">[181]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Palliative_care">Palliative care</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Palliative_care" title="Palliative care">Palliative care</a> is treatment that attempts to help the patient feel better and may be combined with an attempt to treat the cancer. Palliative care includes action to reduce physical, emotional, spiritual and psycho-social distress. Unlike treatment that is aimed at directly killing cancer cells, the primary goal of palliative care is to improve <a href="/wiki/Quality_of_life_(healthcare)" title="Quality of life (healthcare)">quality of life</a>. People at all stages of cancer treatment typically receive some kind of palliative care. In some cases, <a href="/wiki/Specialty_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Specialty (medicine)">medical specialty</a> <a href="/wiki/Professional_organizations" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional organizations">professional organizations</a> recommend that patients and physicians respond to cancer only with palliative care.<a href="#cite_note-ASCOfive-193">[193]</a> This applies to patients who:<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> <ol><li>display low <a href="/wiki/Performance_status" title="Performance status">performance status</a>, implying limited ability to care for themselves<a href="#cite_note-ASCOfive-193">[193]</a></li> <li>received no benefit from prior <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_medicine" title="Evidence-based medicine">evidence-based treatments</a><a href="#cite_note-ASCOfive-193">[193]</a></li> <li>are not eligible to participate in any appropriate <a href="/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">clinical trial</a><a href="#cite_note-ASCOfive-193">[193]</a></li> <li>no strong evidence implies that treatment would be effective<a href="#cite_note-ASCOfive-193">[193]</a></li></ol> Palliative care may be confused with <a href="/wiki/Hospice" title="Hospice">hospice</a> and therefore only indicated when people approach <a href="/wiki/End-of-life_care" title="End-of-life care">end of life</a>. Like hospice care, palliative care attempts to help the patient cope with their immediate needs and to increase comfort. Unlike hospice care, palliative care does not require people to stop treatment aimed at the cancer. Multiple national <a href="/wiki/Medical_guideline" title="Medical guideline">medical guidelines</a> recommend early palliative care for patients whose cancer has produced distressing symptoms or who need help coping with their illness. In patients first diagnosed with metastatic disease, palliative care may be immediately indicated. Palliative care is indicated for patients with a prognosis of less than 12 months of life even given aggressive treatment.<a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Immunotherapy">Immunotherapy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cancer_immunotherapy" title="Cancer immunotherapy">Cancer immunotherapy</a></div> A variety of therapies using <a href="/wiki/Cancer_immunotherapy" title="Cancer immunotherapy">immunotherapy</a>, stimulating or helping the <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a> to fight cancer, have come into use since 1997. Approaches include <a href="/wiki/Monoclonal_antibody" title="Monoclonal antibody">antibodies</a>, checkpoint therapy, and <a href="/wiki/Adoptive_cell_transfer" title="Adoptive cell transfer">adoptive cell transfer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Laser_therapy">Laser therapy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lasers_in_cancer_treatment" title="Lasers in cancer treatment">Lasers in cancer treatment</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">Laser</a> therapy uses high-intensity light to treat cancer by shrinking or destroying tumors or precancerous growths. Lasers are most commonly used to treat superficial cancers that are on the surface of the body or the lining of internal organs. It is used to treat basal cell skin cancer and the very early stages of others like cervical, penile, vaginal, vulvar, and non-small cell lung cancer. It is often combined with other treatments, such as surgery, chemotherapy, or radiation therapy. <a href="/wiki/Laser_ablation" title="Laser ablation">Laser-induced interstitial thermotherapy</a> (LITT), or interstitial laser <a href="/wiki/Laser_coagulation" title="Laser coagulation">photocoagulation</a>, uses lasers to treat some cancers using hyperthermia, which uses heat to shrink tumors by damaging or killing cancer cells. Laser are more precise than surgery and cause less damage, pain, bleeding, swelling, and scarring. A disadvantage is surgeons must have specialized training. It may be more expensive than other treatments.<a href="#cite_note-NIHlaser-199">[199]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alternative_medicine">Alternative medicine</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Alternative_cancer_treatments" title="Alternative cancer treatments">Complementary and alternative cancer treatments</a> are a diverse group of therapies, practices and products that are not part of conventional medicine.<a href="#cite_note-mnalt-200">[200]</a> "Complementary medicine" refers to methods and substances used along with conventional medicine, while "alternative medicine" refers to compounds used instead of conventional medicine.<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> Most complementary and alternative medicines for cancer have not been studied or tested using conventional techniques such as clinical trials. Some alternative treatments have been investigated and shown to be ineffective but still continue to be marketed and promoted. Cancer researcher Andrew J. Vickers stated, "The label 'unproven' is inappropriate for such therapies; it is time to assert that many alternative cancer therapies have been 'disproven'."<a href="#cite_note-pmid15061600-202">[202]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prognosis">Prognosis</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cancer_survival_rates" title="Cancer survival rates">Cancer survival rates</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_cancer_mortality_rates_in_the_United_States" title="List of cancer mortality rates in the United States">List of cancer mortality rates in the United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cancer_survivor" title="Cancer survivor">Cancer survivor</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Three_measures_of_cancer_mortality,_OWID.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Three_measures_of_cancer_mortality%2C_OWID.svg/250px-Three_measures_of_cancer_mortality%2C_OWID.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Three_measures_of_cancer_mortality%2C_OWID.svg/375px-Three_measures_of_cancer_mortality%2C_OWID.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Three_measures_of_cancer_mortality%2C_OWID.svg/500px-Three_measures_of_cancer_mortality%2C_OWID.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Three measures of global cancer mortality from 1990 to 2017<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a></figcaption></figure> Survival rates vary by cancer type and by the stage at which it is diagnosed, ranging from majority survival to complete mortality five years after diagnosis. Once a cancer has metastasized, prognosis normally becomes much worse. About half of patients receiving treatment for invasive cancer (excluding <a href="/wiki/Carcinoma_in_situ" title="Carcinoma in situ">carcinoma in situ</a> and non-melanoma skin cancers) die from that cancer or its treatment.<a href="#cite_note-Epi11-25">[25]</a> A majority of cancer deaths are due to metastases of the primary tumor.<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> Survival is worse in the <a href="/wiki/Developing_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing world">developing world</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Epi11-25">[25]</a> partly because the types of cancer that are most common there are harder to treat than those associated with <a href="/wiki/Developed_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Developed countries">developed countries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> Those who survive cancer develop a second primary cancer at about twice the rate of those never diagnosed.<a href="#cite_note-isbn1-55009-213-8-206">[206]</a> The increased risk is believed to be due to the random chance of developing any cancer, the likelihood of surviving the first cancer, the same risk factors that produced the first cancer, unwanted side effects of treating the first cancer (particularly radiation therapy), and better compliance with screening.<a href="#cite_note-isbn1-55009-213-8-206">[206]</a> Predicting short- or long-term survival depends on many factors. The most important are the cancer type and the patient's age and overall health. Those who are <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/frailty" class="extiw" title="wikt:frailty">frail</a> with other health problems have lower survival rates than otherwise healthy people. <a href="/wiki/Centenarian" title="Centenarian">Centenarians</a> are unlikely to survive for five years even if treatment is successful. People who report a higher quality of life tend to survive longer.<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a> People with lower quality of life may be affected by <a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">depression</a> and other complications and/or disease progression that both impairs quality and quantity of life. Additionally, patients with worse prognoses may be depressed or report poorer quality of life because they perceive that their condition is likely to be fatal. People with cancer have an increased risk of <a href="/wiki/Venous_thromboembolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Venous thromboembolism">blood clots in their veins</a> which can be life-threatening.<a href="#cite_note-:1-208">[208]</a> The use of <a href="/wiki/Anticoagulant" title="Anticoagulant">blood thinners</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Heparin" title="Heparin">heparin</a> decrease the risk of blood clots but have not been shown to increase survival in people with cancer.<a href="#cite_note-:1-208">[208]</a> People who take blood thinners also have an increased risk of bleeding.<a href="#cite_note-:1-208">[208]</a> Although extremely rare, some forms of cancer, even from an advanced stage, can heal spontaneously. This phenomenon is known as the <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_remission" title="Spontaneous remission">spontaneous remission</a>.<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Epidemiology_of_cancer" title="Epidemiology of cancer">Epidemiology of cancer</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_cancer_rate" title="List of countries by cancer rate">List of countries by cancer rate</a></div> <div class="thumb tright" style=""><div class="thumbinner" style="width:522px"><div class="thumbimage noresize" style="width:520px;"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Notice plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-notice" role="presentation" style="width:100%;margin:0;"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/40px-Information_icon4.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/60px-Information_icon4.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/80px-Information_icon4.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="620" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text" style="text-align: left;"><div class="mbox-text-span">Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on <a href="https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T334940" class="extiw" title="phab:T334940">Phabricator</a> and on <a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Graph/Plans" class="extiw" title="mw:Extension:Graph/Plans">MediaWiki.org</a>.</div></td></tr></tbody></table> See or edit <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Data:Cancer_death_rate.tab" class="extiw" title="c:Data:Cancer death rate.tab">source data</a>. </div><div class="thumbcaption">Age-standardized death rate from cancer per 10,000 people.<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a></div></div></div> Estimates are that in 2018, 18.1 million new cases of cancer and 9.6 million deaths occur globally.<a href="#cite_note-IARC2018-211">[211]</a> About 20% of males and 17% of females will get cancer at some point in time while 13% of males and 9% of females will die from it.<a href="#cite_note-IARC2018-211">[211]</a> In 2008, approximately 12.7 million cancers were <a href="/wiki/Diagnosis" title="Diagnosis">diagnosed</a> (excluding <a href="/wiki/Non-melanoma_skin_cancer" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-melanoma skin cancer">non-melanoma skin cancers</a> and other non-invasive cancers)<a href="#cite_note-Epi11-25">[25]</a> and in 2010 nearly 7.98 million people died.<a href="#cite_note-Loz2012-212">[212]</a> Cancers account for approximately 16% of deaths. The most common as of 2018<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cancer&action=edit">[update]</a> are lung cancer (1.76 million deaths), <a href="/wiki/Colorectal_cancer" title="Colorectal cancer">colorectal cancer</a> (860,000) <a href="/wiki/Stomach_cancer" title="Stomach cancer">stomach cancer</a> (780,000), <a href="/wiki/Liver_cancer" title="Liver cancer">liver cancer</a> (780,000), and breast cancer (620,000).<a href="#cite_note-WHO2018-2">[2]</a> This makes invasive cancer the leading cause of death in the <a href="/wiki/Developed_country" title="Developed country">developed world</a> and the second leading in the <a href="/wiki/Developing_country" title="Developing country">developing world</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Epi11-25">[25]</a> Over half of cases occur in the developing world.<a href="#cite_note-Epi11-25">[25]</a> Deaths from cancer were 5.8 million in 1990.<a href="#cite_note-Loz2012-212">[212]</a> Deaths have been increasing primarily due to longer lifespans and lifestyle changes in the developing world.<a href="#cite_note-Epi11-25">[25]</a> The most significant <a href="/wiki/Risk_factor" title="Risk factor">risk factor</a> for developing cancer is age.<a href="#cite_note-Coleman-213">[213]</a> Although it is possible for cancer to strike at any age, most patients with invasive cancer are over 65.<a href="#cite_note-Coleman-213">[213]</a> According to cancer researcher <a href="/wiki/Robert_Weinberg_(biologist)" title="Robert Weinberg (biologist)">Robert A. Weinberg</a>, "If we lived long enough, sooner or later we all would get cancer."<a href="#cite_note-Weinberg-214">[214]</a> Some of the association between aging and cancer is attributed to <a href="/wiki/Immunosenescence" title="Immunosenescence">immunosenescence</a>,<a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a> errors accumulated in <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> over a lifetime<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a> and age-related changes in the <a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">endocrine system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> Aging's effect on cancer is complicated by factors such as DNA damage and inflammation promoting it and factors such as vascular aging and endocrine changes inhibiting it.<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a> Some slow-growing cancers are particularly common, but often are not fatal. <a href="/wiki/Autopsy" title="Autopsy">Autopsy</a> studies in Europe and Asia showed that up to 36% of people have undiagnosed and apparently harmless <a href="/wiki/Thyroid_cancer" title="Thyroid cancer">thyroid cancer</a> at the time of their deaths and that 80% of men develop <a href="/wiki/Prostate_cancer" title="Prostate cancer">prostate cancer</a> by age 80.<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a><a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> As these cancers do not cause the patient's death, identifying them would have represented <a href="/wiki/Overdiagnosis" title="Overdiagnosis">overdiagnosis</a> rather than useful medical care. The three most common <a href="/wiki/Childhood_cancer" title="Childhood cancer">childhood cancers</a> are <a href="/wiki/Leukemia" title="Leukemia">leukemia</a> (34%), <a href="/wiki/Brain_tumor" title="Brain tumor">brain tumors</a> (23%) and <a href="/wiki/Lymphoma" title="Lymphoma">lymphomas</a> (12%).<a href="#cite_note-Euro10-221">[221]</a> In the United States cancer affects about 1 in 285 children.<a href="#cite_note-Eli2014-222">[222]</a> Rates of childhood cancer increased by 0.6% per year between 1975 and 2002 in the United States<a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a> and by 1.1% per year between 1978 and 1997 in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-Euro10-221">[221]</a> Death from childhood cancer decreased by half between 1975 and 2010 in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-Eli2014-222">[222]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_cancer" title="History of cancer">History of cancer</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clara_Jacobi-Tumor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Clara_Jacobi-Tumor.jpg/220px-Clara_Jacobi-Tumor.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Clara_Jacobi-Tumor.jpg/330px-Clara_Jacobi-Tumor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Clara_Jacobi-Tumor.jpg/440px-Clara_Jacobi-Tumor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="951" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Engraving" title="Engraving">Engraving</a> with two views of a Dutch woman who had a tumor removed from her neck in 1689</figcaption></figure> Cancer has existed for all of human history.<a href="#cite_note-Hist1-224">[224]</a> The earliest written record regarding cancer is from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1600 BC in the Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Smith_Papyrus" title="Edwin Smith Papyrus">Edwin Smith Papyrus</a> and describes breast cancer.<a href="#cite_note-Hist1-224">[224]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 460 BC – c. 370 BC) described several kinds of cancer, referring to them with the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> word <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BA%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BA%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:καρκίνος">καρκίνος</a> karkinos (crab or <a href="/wiki/Crayfish" title="Crayfish">crayfish</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Hist1-224">[224]</a> This name comes from the appearance of the cut surface of a solid malignant tumor, with "the veins stretched on all sides as the animal the crab has its feet, whence it derives its name".<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> stated that "cancer of the breast is so called because of the fancied resemblance to a crab given by the lateral prolongations of the tumor and the adjacent distended veins".<a href="#cite_note-Majno2004-226">[226]</a>: 738  <a href="/wiki/Aulus_Cornelius_Celsus" title="Aulus Cornelius Celsus">Celsus</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 25 BC – 50 AD) translated karkinos into the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> cancer, also meaning crab and recommended surgery as treatment.<a href="#cite_note-Hist1-224">[224]</a> <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> (2nd century AD) disagreed with the use of surgery and recommended <a href="/wiki/Purgatives" class="mw-redirect" title="Purgatives">purgatives</a> instead.<a href="#cite_note-Hist1-224">[224]</a> These recommendations largely stood for 1000 years.<a href="#cite_note-Hist1-224">[224]</a> In the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries, it became acceptable for doctors to <a href="/wiki/Dissection" title="Dissection">dissect bodies</a> to discover the cause of death.<a href="#cite_note-Hist2-227">[227]</a> The German professor <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Fabry" title="Wilhelm Fabry">Wilhelm Fabry</a> believed that breast cancer was caused by a milk clot in a mammary duct. The Dutch professor <a href="/wiki/Francois_de_la_Boe_Sylvius" class="mw-redirect" title="Francois de la Boe Sylvius">Francois de la Boe Sylvius</a>, a follower of <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a>, believed that all disease was the outcome of chemical processes and that acidic <a href="/wiki/Lymph" title="Lymph">lymph</a> fluid was the cause of cancer. His contemporary <a href="/wiki/Nicolaes_Tulp" title="Nicolaes Tulp">Nicolaes Tulp</a> believed that cancer was a poison that slowly spreads and concluded that it was <a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease">contagious</a>.<a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a> The physician John Hill described <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_sniffing" class="mw-redirect" title="Tobacco sniffing">tobacco sniffing</a> as the cause of nose cancer in 1761.<a href="#cite_note-Hist2-227">[227]</a> This was followed by the report in 1775 by British surgeon <a href="/wiki/Percivall_Pott" title="Percivall Pott">Percivall Pott</a> that <a href="/wiki/Chimney_sweeps%27_carcinoma" title="Chimney sweeps' carcinoma">chimney sweeps' carcinoma</a>, a cancer of the <a href="/wiki/Scrotum" title="Scrotum">scrotum</a>, was a common disease among <a href="/wiki/Chimney_sweep" title="Chimney sweep">chimney sweeps</a>.<a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a> With the widespread use of the microscope in the 18th century, it was discovered that the 'cancer poison' spread from the primary tumor through the lymph nodes to other sites ("<a href="/wiki/Metastasis" title="Metastasis">metastasis</a>"). This view of the disease was first formulated by the English surgeon <a href="/wiki/Campbell_De_Morgan" title="Campbell De Morgan">Campbell De Morgan</a> between 1871 and 1874.<a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2></div> Although many diseases (such as heart failure) may have a worse prognosis than most cases of cancer, cancer is the subject of widespread fear and taboos. The <a href="/wiki/Euphemism" title="Euphemism">euphemism</a> of "a long illness" to describe cancers leading to death is still commonly used in obituaries, rather than naming the disease explicitly, reflecting an apparent <a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">stigma</a>.<a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a> Cancer is also euphemised as "the C-word";<a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a><a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a> <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Cancer_Support" title="Macmillan Cancer Support">Macmillan Cancer Support</a> uses the term to try to lessen the fear around the disease.<a href="#cite_note-235">[235]</a> In Nigeria, one local name for cancer translates into English as "the disease that cannot be cured".<a href="#cite_note-:0-236">[236]</a> This deep belief that cancer is necessarily a difficult and usually deadly disease is reflected in the systems chosen by society to compile cancer statistics: the most common form of cancer—non-melanoma <a href="/wiki/Skin_cancer" title="Skin cancer">skin cancers</a>, accounting for about one-third of cancer cases worldwide, but very few deaths<a href="#cite_note-Bolognia-237">[237]</a><a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a>—are excluded from cancer statistics specifically because they are easily treated and almost always cured, often in a single, short, outpatient procedure.<a href="#cite_note-239">[239]</a> Western conceptions of <a href="/wiki/Patients%27_rights" title="Patients' rights">patients' rights</a> for people with cancer include a duty to fully disclose the medical situation to the person, and the right to engage in <a href="/wiki/Shared_decision-making_in_medicine" title="Shared decision-making in medicine">shared decision-making</a> in a way that respects the person's own values. In other cultures, other rights and values are preferred. For example, most African cultures value whole families rather than <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individualism</a>. In parts of Africa, a diagnosis is commonly made so late that cure is not possible, and treatment, if available at all, would quickly bankrupt the family. As a result of these factors, African healthcare providers tend to let family members decide whether, when and how to disclose the diagnosis, and they tend to do so slowly and circuitously, as the person shows interest and an ability to cope with the grim news.<a href="#cite_note-:0-236">[236]</a> People from Asian and South American countries also tend to prefer a slower, less candid approach to disclosure than is idealized in the United States and Western Europe, and they believe that sometimes it would be preferable not to be told about a cancer diagnosis.<a href="#cite_note-:0-236">[236]</a> In general, disclosure of the diagnosis is more common than it was in the 20th century, but full disclosure of the prognosis is not offered to many patients around the world.<a href="#cite_note-:0-236">[236]</a> In the United States and some other cultures, cancer is regarded as a disease that must be "fought" to end the "civil insurrection"; a <a href="/wiki/War_on_Cancer" class="mw-redirect" title="War on Cancer">War on Cancer</a> was declared in the US. Military metaphors are particularly common in descriptions of cancer's human effects, and they emphasize both the state of the patient's health and the need to take immediate, decisive actions himself rather than to delay, to ignore or to rely entirely on others. The military metaphors also help rationalize radical, destructive treatments.<a href="#cite_note-Gwyn-240">[240]</a><a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a> In the 1970s, a relatively popular <a href="/wiki/Alternative_cancer_treatment" class="mw-redirect" title="Alternative cancer treatment">alternative cancer treatment</a> in the US was a specialized form of <a href="/wiki/Talk_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Talk therapy">talk therapy</a>, based on the idea that cancer was caused by a bad attitude.<a href="#cite_note-Olson-242">[242]</a> People with a "cancer personality"—depressed, repressed, self-loathing and afraid to express their emotions—were believed to have manifested cancer through subconscious desire. Some psychotherapists claimed that treatment to change the patient's outlook on life would cure the cancer.<a href="#cite_note-Olson-242">[242]</a> Among other effects, this belief allowed society to <a href="/wiki/Victim_blaming" title="Victim blaming">blame the victim</a> for having caused the cancer (by "wanting" it) or having prevented its cure (by not becoming a sufficiently happy, fearless and loving person).<a href="#cite_note-Ehrenreich-243">[243]</a> It also increased patients' anxiety, as they incorrectly believed that natural emotions of sadness, anger or fear shorten their lives.<a href="#cite_note-Ehrenreich-243">[243]</a> The idea was ridiculed by <a href="/wiki/Susan_Sontag" title="Susan Sontag">Susan Sontag</a>, who published <a href="/wiki/Illness_as_Metaphor" title="Illness as Metaphor">Illness as Metaphor</a> while recovering from treatment for breast cancer in 1978.<a href="#cite_note-Olson-242">[242]</a> Although the original idea is now generally regarded as nonsense, the idea partly persists in a reduced form with a widespread, but incorrect, belief that deliberately cultivating a habit of <a href="/wiki/Optimism" title="Optimism">positive thinking</a> will increase survival.<a href="#cite_note-Ehrenreich-243">[243]</a> This notion is particularly strong in <a href="/wiki/Breast_cancer_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Breast cancer culture">breast cancer culture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ehrenreich-243">[243]</a> One idea about why people with cancer are blamed or stigmatized, called the <a href="/wiki/Just-world_fallacy" title="Just-world fallacy">just-world fallacy</a>, is that blaming cancer on the patient's actions or attitudes allows the blamers to regain a sense of control. This is based upon the blamers' belief that the world is fundamentally just and so any dangerous illness, like cancer, must be a type of punishment for bad choices, because in a just world, bad things would not happen to good people.<a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_effect">Economic effect</h3></div> The total health care expenditure on cancer in the US was estimated to be $80.2 billion in 2015.<a href="#cite_note-245">[245]</a> Even though cancer-related health care expenditure have increased in absolute terms during recent decades, the share of health expenditure devoted to cancer treatment has remained close to 5% between the 1960s and 2004.<a href="#cite_note-246">[246]</a><a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a> A similar pattern has been observed in Europe where about 6% of all health care expenditure are spent on cancer treatment.<a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a><a href="#cite_note-EJC2018-249">[249]</a> In addition to health care expenditure and <a href="/wiki/Financial_toxicity" title="Financial toxicity">financial toxicity</a>, cancer causes indirect costs in the form of productivity losses due to sick days, permanent incapacity and disability as well as premature death during working age. Cancer causes also costs for informal care. Indirect costs and informal care costs are typically estimated to exceed or equal the health care costs of cancer.<a href="#cite_note-250">[250]</a><a href="#cite_note-EJC2018-249">[249]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Workplace">Workplace</h3></div> In the United States, cancer is included as a protected condition by the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Employment_Opportunity_Commission" title="Equal Employment Opportunity Commission">Equal Employment Opportunity Commission</a> (EEOC), mainly due to the potential for cancer having discriminating effects on workers.<a href="#cite_note-EEOC-251">[251]</a> Discrimination in the workplace could occur if an employer holds a false belief that a person with cancer is not capable of doing a job properly, and may ask for more <a href="/wiki/Sick_leave" title="Sick leave">sick leave</a> than other employees. Employers may also make hiring or firing decisions based on misconceptions about cancer disabilities, if present. The EEOC provides interview guidelines for employers, as well as lists of possible solutions for assessing and accommodating employees with cancer.<a href="#cite_note-EEOC-251">[251]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effect_on_divorce">Effect on divorce</h3></div> A study found women were around six times more likely to be <a href="/wiki/Divorced" class="mw-redirect" title="Divorced">divorced</a> soon after a diagnosis of cancer compared to men.<a href="#cite_note-252">[252]</a> Rate of separation for cancer-survivors showed correlations with race, age, income, and <a href="/wiki/Comorbidity" title="Comorbidity">comorbidities</a> in a study.<a href="#cite_note-253">[253]</a> A review found a somewhat decreased divorce rate for most cancer types, and noted <a href="/wiki/Study_heterogeneity" title="Study heterogeneity">study heterogeneity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">methodological</a> weaknesses for many studies on effects of cancer on divorce.<a href="#cite_note-254">[254]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cancer_research" title="Cancer research">Cancer research</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:UF_CancerHospital.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/UF_CancerHospital.JPG/300px-UF_CancerHospital.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/UF_CancerHospital.JPG/450px-UF_CancerHospital.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/UF_CancerHospital.JPG/600px-UF_CancerHospital.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/University_of_Florida_Cancer_Hospital" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Florida Cancer Hospital">University of Florida Cancer Hospital</a></figcaption></figure> Because cancer is a class of diseases,<a href="#cite_note-WhatIsCancerNCI-255">[255]</a><a href="#cite_note-256">[256]</a> it is unlikely that there will ever be a single "<a href="/wiki/Cure_for_cancer" class="mw-redirect" title="Cure for cancer">cure for cancer</a>" any more than there will be a single treatment for all <a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease">infectious diseases</a>.<a href="#cite_note-257">[257]</a> <a href="/wiki/Angiogenesis_inhibitor" title="Angiogenesis inhibitor">Angiogenesis inhibitors</a> were once incorrectly thought to have potential as a "<a href="/wiki/Silver_bullet" title="Silver bullet">silver bullet</a>" treatment applicable to many types of cancer.<a href="#cite_note-258">[258]</a> Angiogenesis inhibitors and other cancer therapeutics are used in combination to reduce cancer morbidity and mortality.<a href="#cite_note-259">[259]</a> <a href="/wiki/Experimental_cancer_treatment" title="Experimental cancer treatment">Experimental cancer treatments</a> are studied in <a href="/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">clinical trials</a> to compare the proposed treatment to the best existing treatment. Treatments that succeeded in one cancer type can be tested against other types.<a href="#cite_note-260">[260]</a> Diagnostic tests are under development to better target the right therapies to the right patients, based on their individual biology.<a href="#cite_note-261">[261]</a> Cancer research focuses on the following issues: <ul><li>Agents (e.g. viruses) and events (e.g. mutations) that cause or facilitate genetic changes in cells destined to become cancer.</li> <li>The precise nature of the genetic damage and the genes that are affected by it.</li> <li>The consequences of those genetic changes on the biology of the cell, both in generating the defining properties of a cancer cell and in facilitating additional genetic events that lead to further progression of the cancer.</li></ul> The improved understanding of <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">cellular biology</a> due to cancer research has led to new treatments for cancer since US President <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> declared the "<a href="/wiki/War_on_Cancer" class="mw-redirect" title="War on Cancer">War on Cancer</a>" in 1971. Since then, the country has spent over $200 billion on cancer research, including resources from public and private sectors.<a href="#cite_note-262">[262]</a> The cancer death rate (adjusting for size and age of the population) declined by five percent between 1950 and 2005.<a href="#cite_note-24cancer-263">[263]</a> Competition for financial resources appears to have suppressed the creativity, cooperation, risk-taking and original thinking required to make fundamental discoveries, unduly favoring low-risk research into small incremental advancements over riskier, more innovative research. Other consequences of competition appear to be many studies with dramatic claims whose results cannot be replicated and perverse incentives that encourage grantee institutions to grow without making sufficient investments in their own faculty and facilities.<a href="#cite_note-264">[264]</a><a href="#cite_note-24cancer-263">[263]</a><a href="#cite_note-265">[265]</a><a href="#cite_note-266">[266]</a> <a href="/wiki/Virotherapy" title="Virotherapy">Virotherapy</a>, which uses convert viruses, is being studied. In the wake of the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19" title="COVID-19">COVID-19</a> pandemic, there has been a worry that cancer research and treatment are slowing down.<a href="#cite_note-267">[267]</a><a href="#cite_note-268">[268]</a> On 2 December 2023 <a href="/wiki/Nano_Today" title="Nano Today">Nano Today</a> published a groundbreaking discovery involving "NK cell-engaging nanodrones" for targeted cancer treatment. The development of "NK cell-engaging nanodrones" represents a significant leap forward in cancer treatment, showcasing how cutting-edge nanotechnology and immunotherapy can be combined to target and eliminate cancer cells with unprecedented precision. These nanodrones are designed to harness the power of natural killer (NK) cells, which play a crucial role in the body's immune response against tumors. By directing these NK cells specifically to the sites of tumors, the nanodrones can effectively concentrate the immune system's attack on the cancer cells, potentially leading to better outcomes for patients.<a href="#cite_note-:2-269">[269]</a> The key innovation here lies in the use of protein cage nanoparticle-based systems. These systems are engineered to carry signals that attract NK cells directly to the tumor, overcoming one of the major challenges in cancer immunotherapy: ensuring that the immune cells find and attack only the cancer cells without harming healthy tissue. This targeted approach not only increases the efficacy of the treatment but also minimizes side effects, a common concern with broader-acting cancer therapies.<a href="#cite_note-:2-269">[269]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pregnancy">Pregnancy</h2></div> Cancer affects approximately 1 in 1,000 pregnant women. The most common cancers found during pregnancy are the same as the most common cancers found in non-pregnant women during childbearing ages: breast cancer, cervical cancer, leukemia, lymphoma, melanoma, ovarian cancer and colorectal cancer.<a href="#cite_note-yarbro-270">[270]</a> Diagnosing a new cancer in a pregnant woman is difficult, in part because any symptoms are commonly assumed to be a normal discomfort associated with pregnancy. As a result, cancer is typically discovered at a somewhat later stage than average. Some imaging procedures, such as <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">MRIs</a> (magnetic resonance imaging), <a href="/wiki/CT_scan" title="CT scan">CT scans</a>, ultrasounds and <a href="/wiki/Mammography" title="Mammography">mammograms</a> with fetal shielding are considered safe during pregnancy; some others, such as <a href="/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">PET scans</a>, are not.<a href="#cite_note-yarbro-270">[270]</a> Treatment is generally the same as for non-pregnant women. However, radiation and radioactive drugs are normally avoided during pregnancy, especially if the fetal dose might exceed 100 cGy. In some cases, some or all treatments are postponed until after birth if the cancer is diagnosed late in the pregnancy. Early deliveries are often used to advance the start of treatment. Surgery is generally safe, but pelvic surgeries during the first trimester may cause miscarriage. Some treatments, especially certain chemotherapy drugs given during the <a href="/wiki/First_trimester" class="mw-redirect" title="First trimester">first trimester</a>, increase the risk of <a href="/wiki/Birth_defect" title="Birth defect">birth defects</a> and pregnancy loss (spontaneous abortions and stillbirths).<a href="#cite_note-yarbro-270">[270]</a> Elective abortions are not required and, for the most common forms and stages of cancer, do not improve the mother's survival. In a few instances, such as advanced uterine cancer, the pregnancy cannot be continued and in others, the patient may end the pregnancy so that she can begin aggressive chemotherapy.<a href="#cite_note-yarbro-270">[270]</a> Some treatments can interfere with the mother's ability to give birth vaginally or to breastfeed.<a href="#cite_note-yarbro-270">[270]</a> Cervical cancer may require birth by <a href="/wiki/Caesarean_section" title="Caesarean section">Caesarean section</a>. Radiation to the breast reduces the ability of that breast to produce milk and increases the risk of <a href="/wiki/Mastitis" title="Mastitis">mastitis</a>. Also, when chemotherapy is given after birth, many of the drugs appear in breast milk, which could harm the baby.<a href="#cite_note-yarbro-270">[270]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_animals">Other animals</h2></div> <a href="/wiki/Veterinary_oncology" title="Veterinary oncology">Veterinary oncology</a>, concentrating mainly on cats and dogs, is a growing specialty in wealthy countries and the major forms of human treatment such as surgery and radiotherapy may be offered. The most common types of cancer differ, but the cancer burden seems at least as high in pets as in humans. Animals, typically rodents, are often used in cancer research and studies of natural cancers in larger animals may benefit research into human cancer.<a href="#cite_note-271">[271]</a> Across wild animals, there is still limited data on cancer. Nonetheless, a study published in 2022, explored cancer risk in (non-domesticated) zoo mammals, belonging to 191 species, 110,148 individual, demonstrated that cancer is a ubiquitous disease of mammals and it can emerge anywhere along the mammalian phylogeny.<a href="#cite_note-272">[272]</a> This research also highlighted that cancer risk is not uniformly distributed along mammals. For instance, species in the order <a href="/wiki/Carnivora" title="Carnivora">Carnivora</a> are particularly prone to be affected by cancer (e.g. over 25% of <a href="/wiki/Clouded_leopard" title="Clouded leopard">clouded leopards</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bat-eared_fox" title="Bat-eared fox">bat-eared foxes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Red_wolves" class="mw-redirect" title="Red wolves">red wolves</a> die of cancer), while <a href="/wiki/Ungulate" title="Ungulate">ungulates</a> (especially <a href="/wiki/Even-toed_ungulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Even-toed ungulate">even-toed ungulates</a>) appear to face consistently low cancer risks. In non-humans, a few types of <a href="/wiki/Transmissible_cancer" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmissible cancer">transmissible cancer</a> have also been described, wherein the cancer spreads between animals by transmission of the tumor cells themselves. This phenomenon is seen in dogs with <a href="/wiki/Sticker%27s_sarcoma" class="mw-redirect" title="Sticker's sarcoma">Sticker's sarcoma</a> (also known as canine transmissible venereal tumor), and in <a href="/wiki/Tasmanian_devils" class="mw-redirect" title="Tasmanian devils">Tasmanian devils</a> with <a href="/wiki/Devil_facial_tumour_disease" title="Devil facial tumour disease">devil facial tumour disease</a> (DFTD).<a href="#cite_note-pmid16901782-273">[273]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-NHS2012-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NHS2012_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NHS2012_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NHS2012_1-2">c</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Cancer/Pages/Symptoms.aspx">"Cancer – Signs and symptoms"</a>. 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Molecular Cell Biology. 12 (6): 385–392. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrm3115">10.1038/nrm3115</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21527953">21527953</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:22483746">22483746</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews.+Molecular+Cell+Biology&rft.atitle=Mitotic+catastrophe%3A+a+mechanism+for+avoiding+genomic+instability&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=385-392&rft.date=2011-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A22483746%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21527953&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnrm3115&rft.aulast=Vitale&rft.aufirst=I&rft.au=Galluzzi%2C+L&rft.au=Castedo%2C+M&rft.au=Kroemer%2C+G&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACancer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBomfordKunklerWalter" class="citation book cs1">Bomford CK, Kunkler IH, Walter J. Walter and Miller's Textbook of Radiation therapy (6th ed.). p. 311.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Walter+and+Miller%27s+Textbook+of+Radiation+therapy&rft.pages=311&rft.edition=6th&rft.aulast=Bomford&rft.aufirst=CK&rft.au=Kunkler%2C+IH&rft.au=Walter%2C+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACancer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcMorranCrowtherMcMorranYoungmin" class="citation web cs1">McMorran J, Crowther D, McMorran S, Youngmin S, Wacogne I, Pleat J, et al. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gpnotebook.co.uk/simplepage.cfm?ID=2060451853">"tumour radiosensitivity – General Practice Notebook"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924023421/http://www.gpnotebook.co.uk/simplepage.cfm?ID=2060451853">Archived</a> from the original on 24 September 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=tumour+radiosensitivity+%E2%80%93+General+Practice+Notebook&rft.aulast=McMorran&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Crowther%2C+D&rft.au=McMorran%2C+S&rft.au=Youngmin%2C+S&rft.au=Wacogne%2C+I&rft.au=Pleat%2C+J&rft.au=Clive%2C+P&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gpnotebook.co.uk%2Fsimplepage.cfm%3FID%3D2060451853&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACancer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTidy2015" class="citation web cs1">Tidy C (23 December 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patient.info/doctor/radiotherapy-pro">"Radiotherapy"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Patient_UK" title="Patient UK">Patient UK</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170709084620/https://patient.info/doctor/radiotherapy-pro">Archived</a> from the original on 9 July 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Radiotherapy&rft.pub=Patient+UK&rft.date=2015-12-23&rft.aulast=Tidy&rft.aufirst=C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpatient.info%2Fdoctor%2Fradiotherapy-pro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACancer" class="Z3988"> Last Checked: 23 December 2015 </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHillHealyHollowayKuncic2014" class="citation journal cs1">Hill R, Healy B, Holloway L, Kuncic Z, Thwaites D, Baldock C (March 2014). "Advances in kilovoltage x-ray beam dosimetry". Physics in Medicine and Biology. 59 (6): R183–231. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014PMB....59R.183H">2014PMB....59R.183H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0031-9155%2F59%2F6%2Fr183">10.1088/0031-9155/59/6/r183</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24584183">24584183</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18082594">18082594</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+in+Medicine+and+Biology&rft.atitle=Advances+in+kilovoltage+x-ray+beam+dosimetry&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=R183-231&rft.date=2014-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F0031-9155%2F59%2F6%2Fr183&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18082594%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24584183&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014PMB....59R.183H&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Healy%2C+B&rft.au=Holloway%2C+L&rft.au=Kuncic%2C+Z&rft.au=Thwaites%2C+D&rft.au=Baldock%2C+C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACancer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-H41-191">^ <a href="#cite_ref-H41_191-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-H41_191-1">b</a> Holland Chp. 41 </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pcori.org/research-results/2019/radiation-therapy-brain-metastases-systematic-review">"Radiation Therapy for Brain Metastases: A Systematic Review"</a>. PCORI. 13 August 2019. Retrieved 10 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PCORI&rft.atitle=Radiation+Therapy+for+Brain+Metastases%3A+A+Systematic+Review&rft.date=2019-08-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pcori.org%2Fresearch-results%2F2019%2Fradiation-therapy-brain-metastases-systematic-review&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACancer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ASCOfive-193">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ASCOfive_193-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ASCOfive_193-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ASCOfive_193-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ASCOfive_193-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ASCOfive_193-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmerican_Society_of_Clinical_Oncology" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Clinical_Oncology" title="American Society of Clinical Oncology">American Society of Clinical Oncology</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120731073425/http://choosingwisely.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/5things_12_factsheet_Amer_Soc_Clin_Onc.pdf">"Five Things Physicians and Patients Should Question"</a> (PDF). Choosing Wisely: An Initiative of the ABIM Foundation. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://choosingwisely.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/5things_12_factsheet_Amer_Soc_Clin_Onc.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 31 July 2012. Retrieved 14 August 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Choosing+Wisely%3A+An+Initiative+of+the+ABIM+Foundation&rft.atitle=Five+Things+Physicians+and+Patients+Should+Question&rft.au=American+Society+of+Clinical+Oncology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchoosingwisely.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2012%2F04%2F5things_12_factsheet_Amer_Soc_Clin_Onc.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACancer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> * The American Society of Clinical Oncology made this recommendation based on various cancers. See <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmerican_Society_of_Clinical_Oncology" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Clinical_Oncology" title="American Society of Clinical Oncology">American Society of Clinical Oncology</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120731073425/http://choosingwisely.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/5things_12_factsheet_Amer_Soc_Clin_Onc.pdf">"Five Things Physicians and Patients Should Question"</a> (PDF). Choosing Wisely: An Initiative of the ABIM Foundation. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://choosingwisely.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/5things_12_factsheet_Amer_Soc_Clin_Onc.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 31 July 2012. Retrieved 14 August 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Choosing+Wisely%3A+An+Initiative+of+the+ABIM+Foundation&rft.atitle=Five+Things+Physicians+and+Patients+Should+Question&rft.au=American+Society+of+Clinical+Oncology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchoosingwisely.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2012%2F04%2F5things_12_factsheet_Amer_Soc_Clin_Onc.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACancer" class="Z3988"> <ul><li>for lung cancer, see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAzzoliTeminAliffBaker2011" class="citation journal cs1">Azzoli CG, Temin S, Aliff T, Baker S, Brahmer J, Johnson DH, et al. (October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3675703">"2011 Focused Update of 2009 American Society of Clinical Oncology Clinical Practice Guideline Update on Chemotherapy for Stage IV Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer"</a>. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 29 (28): 3825–31. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1200%2FJCO.2010.34.2774">10.1200/JCO.2010.34.2774</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3675703">3675703</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21900105">21900105</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Clinical+Oncology&rft.atitle=2011+Focused+Update+of+2009+American+Society+of+Clinical+Oncology+Clinical+Practice+Guideline+Update+on+Chemotherapy+for+Stage+IV+Non-Small-Cell+Lung+Cancer&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=28&rft.pages=3825-31&rft.date=2011-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3675703%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21900105&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1200%2FJCO.2010.34.2774&rft.aulast=Azzoli&rft.aufirst=CG&rft.au=Temin%2C+S&rft.au=Aliff%2C+T&rft.au=Baker%2C+S&rft.au=Brahmer%2C+J&rft.au=Johnson%2C+DH&rft.au=Laskin%2C+JL&rft.au=Masters%2C+G&rft.au=Milton%2C+D&rft.au=Nordquist%2C+L&rft.au=Pao%2C+W&rft.au=Pfister%2C+DG&rft.au=Piantadosi%2C+S&rft.au=Schiller%2C+JH&rft.au=Smith%2C+R&rft.au=Smith%2C+TJ&rft.au=Strawn%2C+JR&rft.au=Trent%2C+D&rft.au=Giaccone%2C+G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3675703&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACancer" class="Z3988"> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEttingerAkerleyBeplerBlum2010" class="citation journal cs1">Ettinger DS, Akerley W, Bepler G, Blum MG, Chang A, Cheney RT, et al. (July 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.6004%2Fjnccn.2010.0056">"Non-small cell lung cancer"</a>. Journal of the National Comprehensive Cancer Network. 8 (7): 740–801. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.6004%2Fjnccn.2010.0056">10.6004/jnccn.2010.0056</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20679538">20679538</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+National+Comprehensive+Cancer+Network&rft.atitle=Non-small+cell+lung+cancer&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=740-801&rft.date=2010-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.6004%2Fjnccn.2010.0056&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20679538&rft.aulast=Ettinger&rft.aufirst=DS&rft.au=Akerley%2C+W&rft.au=Bepler%2C+G&rft.au=Blum%2C+MG&rft.au=Chang%2C+A&rft.au=Cheney%2C+RT&rft.au=Chirieac%2C+LR&rft.au=D%27Amico%2C+TA&rft.au=Demmy%2C+TL&rft.au=Ganti%2C+AK&rft.au=Govindan%2C+R&rft.au=Grannis%2C+FW&rft.au=Jahan%2C+T&rft.au=Jahanzeb%2C+M&rft.au=Johnson%2C+DH&rft.au=Kessinger%2C+A&rft.au=Komaki%2C+R&rft.au=Kong%2C+FM&rft.au=Kris%2C+MG&rft.au=Krug%2C+LM&rft.au=Le%2C+QT&rft.au=Lennes%2C+IT&rft.au=Martins%2C+R&rft.au=O%27Malley%2C+J&rft.au=Osarogiagbon%2C+RU&rft.au=Otterson%2C+GA&rft.au=Patel%2C+JD&rft.au=Pisters%2C+KM&rft.au=Reckamp%2C+K&rft.au=Riely%2C+GJ&rft.au=Rohren%2C+E&rft.au=Simon%2C+GR&rft.au=Swanson%2C+SJ&rft.au=Wood%2C+DE&rft.au=Yang%2C+SC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.6004%252Fjnccn.2010.0056&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACancer" class="Z3988"></li> <li>for breast cancer, see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlsonAllredAndersonBurstein2009" class="citation journal cs1">Carlson RW, Allred DC, Anderson BO, Burstein HJ, Carter WB, Edge SB, et al. (February 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.6004%2Fjnccn.2009.0012">"Breast cancer. Clinical practice guidelines in oncology"</a>. Journal of the National Comprehensive Cancer Network. 7 (2): 122–92. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.6004%2Fjnccn.2009.0012">10.6004/jnccn.2009.0012</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19200416">19200416</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+National+Comprehensive+Cancer+Network&rft.atitle=Breast+cancer.+Clinical+practice+guidelines+in+oncology&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=122-92&rft.date=2009-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.6004%2Fjnccn.2009.0012&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19200416&rft.aulast=Carlson&rft.aufirst=RW&rft.au=Allred%2C+DC&rft.au=Anderson%2C+BO&rft.au=Burstein%2C+HJ&rft.au=Carter%2C+WB&rft.au=Edge%2C+SB&rft.au=Erban%2C+JK&rft.au=Farrar%2C+WB&rft.au=Goldstein%2C+LJ&rft.au=Gradishar%2C+WJ&rft.au=Hayes%2C+DF&rft.au=Hudis%2C+CA&rft.au=Jahanzeb%2C+M&rft.au=Kiel%2C+K&rft.au=Ljung%2C+BM&rft.au=Marcom%2C+PK&rft.au=Mayer%2C+IA&rft.au=McCormick%2C+B&rft.au=Nabell%2C+LM&rft.au=Pierce%2C+LJ&rft.au=Reed%2C+EC&rft.au=Smith%2C+ML&rft.au=Somlo%2C+G&rft.au=Theriault%2C+RL&rft.au=Topham%2C+NS&rft.au=Ward%2C+JH&rft.au=Winer%2C+EP&rft.au=Wolff%2C+AC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.6004%252Fjnccn.2009.0012&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACancer" class="Z3988"></li> <li>for colon cancer, see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEngstromArnolettiBensonChen2009" class="citation journal cs1">Engstrom PF, Arnoletti JP, Benson AB, Chen YJ, Choti MA, Cooper HS, et al. (September 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.6004%2Fjnccn.2009.0056">"NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology: colon cancer"</a>. Journal of the National Comprehensive Cancer Network. 7 (8): 778–831. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.6004%2Fjnccn.2009.0056">10.6004/jnccn.2009.0056</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19755046">19755046</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+National+Comprehensive+Cancer+Network&rft.atitle=NCCN+Clinical+Practice+Guidelines+in+Oncology%3A+colon+cancer&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=778-831&rft.date=2009-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.6004%2Fjnccn.2009.0056&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19755046&rft.aulast=Engstrom&rft.aufirst=PF&rft.au=Arnoletti%2C+JP&rft.au=Benson%2C+AB&rft.au=Chen%2C+YJ&rft.au=Choti%2C+MA&rft.au=Cooper%2C+HS&rft.au=Covey%2C+A&rft.au=Dilawari%2C+RA&rft.au=Early%2C+DS&rft.au=Enzinger%2C+PC&rft.au=Fakih%2C+MG&rft.au=Fleshman%2C+J&rft.au=Fuchs%2C+C&rft.au=Grem%2C+JL&rft.au=Kiel%2C+K&rft.au=Knol%2C+JA&rft.au=Leong%2C+LA&rft.au=Lin%2C+E&rft.au=Mulcahy%2C+MF&rft.au=Rao%2C+S&rft.au=Ryan%2C+DP&rft.au=Saltz%2C+L&rft.au=Shibata%2C+D&rft.au=Skibber%2C+JM&rft.au=Sofocleous%2C+C&rft.au=Thomas%2C+J&rft.au=Venook%2C+AP&rft.au=Willett%2C+C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.6004%252Fjnccn.2009.0056&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACancer" class="Z3988"></li> <li>for other general statements see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmithHillner2011" class="citation journal cs1">Smith TJ, Hillner BE (May 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4042405">"Bending the cost curve in cancer care"</a>. The New England Journal of Medicine. 364 (21): 2060–5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMsb1013826">10.1056/NEJMsb1013826</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4042405">4042405</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21612477">21612477</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+England+Journal+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=Bending+the+cost+curve+in+cancer+care&rft.volume=364&rft.issue=21&rft.pages=2060-5&rft.date=2011-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4042405%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21612477&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1056%2FNEJMsb1013826&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=TJ&rft.au=Hillner%2C+BE&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4042405&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACancer" class="Z3988"> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeppercornSmithHelftDebono2011" class="citation journal cs1">Peppercorn JM, Smith TJ, Helft PR, Debono DJ, Berry SR, Wollins DS, et al. 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Nature Medicine. 9 (3): 269–77. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnm0303-269">10.1038/nm0303-269</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12612576">12612576</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9745527">9745527</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Medicine&rft.atitle=Immunotherapy%3A+past%2C+present+and+future&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=269-77&rft.date=2003-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A9745527%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12612576&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnm0303-269&rft.aulast=Waldmann&rft.aufirst=TA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1233435&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACancer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NIHlaser-199"><a href="#cite_ref-NIHlaser_199-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/types/surgery/lasers-fact-sheet">"Lasers in Cancer Treatment"</a>. 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Nature. 601 (7892): 263–267. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022Natur.601..263V">2022Natur.601..263V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-021-04224-5">10.1038/s41586-021-04224-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8755536">8755536</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34937938">34937938</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:245425871">245425871</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Cancer+risk+across+mammals&rft.volume=601&rft.issue=7892&rft.pages=263-267&rft.date=2022-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8755536%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A245425871%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022Natur.601..263V&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34937938&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41586-021-04224-5&rft.aulast=Vincze&rft.aufirst=O&rft.au=Colchero%2C+F&rft.au=Lema%C3%AEtre%2C+JF&rft.au=Conde%2C+DA&rft.au=Pavard%2C+S&rft.au=Bieuville%2C+M&rft.au=Urrutia%2C+AO&rft.au=Ujvari%2C+B&rft.au=Boddy%2C+AM&rft.au=Maley%2C+CC&rft.au=Thomas%2C+F&rft.au=Giraudeau%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8755536&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACancer" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid16901782-273"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid16901782_273-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurgiaPritchardKimFassati2006" class="citation journal cs1">Murgia C, Pritchard JK, Kim SY, Fassati A, Weiss RA (August 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2593932">"Clonal origin and evolution of a transmissible cancer"</a>. Cell. 126 (3): 477–87. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cell.2006.05.051">10.1016/j.cell.2006.05.051</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2593932">2593932</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16901782">16901782</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cell&rft.atitle=Clonal+origin+and+evolution+of+a+transmissible+cancer&rft.volume=126&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=477-87&rft.date=2006-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2593932%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16901782&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cell.2006.05.051&rft.aulast=Murgia&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Pritchard%2C+JK&rft.au=Kim%2C+SY&rft.au=Fassati%2C+A&rft.au=Weiss%2C+RA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2593932&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACancer" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBastCroeHaitHong2016" class="citation book cs1">Bast RC, Croe CM, Hait WN, Hong WK, Kufe DW, Piccart-Gebhart M, et al. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=onCBjwEACAAJ">Holland-Frei Cancer Medicine</a>. Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-93469-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-93469-2"><bdi>978-1-118-93469-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Holland-Frei+Cancer+Medicine&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-118-93469-2&rft.aulast=Bast&rft.aufirst=RC&rft.au=Croe%2C+CM&rft.au=Hait%2C+WN&rft.au=Hong%2C+WK&rft.au=Kufe%2C+DW&rft.au=Piccart-Gebhart%2C+M&rft.au=Pollock%2C+RE&rft.au=Weichselbaum%2C+RR&rft.au=Yang%2C+H&rft.au=Holland%2C+JF&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DonCBjwEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACancer" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKleinsmith2006" class="citation book cs1">Kleinsmith LJ (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LKVrAAAAMAAJ">Principles of cancer biology</a>. Pearson Benjamin Cummings. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8053-4003-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8053-4003-7"><bdi>978-0-8053-4003-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+cancer+biology&rft.pub=Pearson+Benjamin+Cummings&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8053-4003-7&rft.aulast=Kleinsmith&rft.aufirst=LJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLKVrAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACancer" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMukherjee2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Siddhartha_Mukherjee" title="Siddhartha Mukherjee">Mukherjee S</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/emperorofallmala00mukh">The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer</a>. Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4391-0795-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4391-0795-9"><bdi>978-1-4391-0795-9</bdi></a>. Retrieved 7 August 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Emperor+of+All+Maladies%3A+A+Biography+of+Cancer&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4391-0795-9&rft.aulast=Mukherjee&rft.aufirst=Siddhartha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Femperorofallmala00mukh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACancer" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPazdurCamphausenWagmanHoskins2009" class="citation book cs1">Pazdur R, Camphausen KA, Wagman LD, Hoskins WJ (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090515031918/http://www.cancernetwork.com/cancer-management-11">Cancer Management: A Multidisciplinary Approach</a>. Cmp United Business Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-891483-62-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-891483-62-2"><bdi>978-1-891483-62-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wbLnPAAACAAJ">Cancer</a> at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cancernetwork.com/cancer-management-11">the original</a> on 15 May 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cancer+Management%3A+A+Multidisciplinary+Approach&rft.pub=Cmp+United+Business+Media&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-891483-62-2&rft.aulast=Pazdur&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Camphausen%2C+KA&rft.au=Wagman%2C+LD&rft.au=Hoskins%2C+WJ&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cancernetwork.com%2Fcancer-management-11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACancer" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwab2008" class="citation book cs1">Schwab M (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mLUEf1kbbDgC">Encyclopedia of Cancer</a>. Springer Science & Business Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-36847-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-36847-2"><bdi>978-3-540-36847-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Cancer&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-3-540-36847-2&rft.aulast=Schwab&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmLUEf1kbbDgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACancer" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTannock2005" class="citation book cs1">Tannock I (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Bb4F4pj2BdYC">The basic science of oncology</a>. McGraw-Hill Professional. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-138774-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-138774-3"><bdi>978-0-07-138774-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+basic+science+of+oncology&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Professional&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-07-138774-3&rft.aulast=Tannock&rft.aufirst=I&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBb4F4pj2BdYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACancer" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">1911 Encyclopædia Britannica</a> article "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Cancer" class="extiw" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cancer">Cancer</a>".</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Cancers" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Cancers">Cancers</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iarc.who.int/cards_page/iarc-publications/">IARC Publications</a> (WHO) | <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://publications.iarc.fr/">Publications.iarc.fr</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2021/08/caitlin-flanagan-secret-of-surviving-cancer/619844/">"On telling cancer patients to have a positive attitude"</a> at <a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cancer">WHO fact sheet on cancer</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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class="nowraplinks navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">Classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:0.8em;"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12078" class="extiw" title="d:Q12078">D</a></div><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/ICD-10" title="ICD-10">10</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/C00-C97">C00-C97</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/List_of_ICD-9_codes" title="List of ICD-9 codes">9-CM</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=140">140</a>—<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=239">239</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009369">D009369</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Diseases_Database" title="Diseases Database">DiseasesDB</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.diseasesdatabase.com/ddb28843.htm">28843</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">External resources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/MedlinePlus" title="MedlinePlus">MedlinePlus</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001289.htm">001289</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Overview_of_tumors,_cancer_and_oncology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Tumors" title="Template:Tumors"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Tumors" title="Template talk:Tumors"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Tumors" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Tumors"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Overview_of_tumors,_cancer_and_oncology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Overview of <a href="/wiki/Neoplasm" title="Neoplasm">tumors</a>, <a class="mw-selflink selflink">cancer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oncology" title="Oncology">oncology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Conditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Benign_tumor" title="Benign tumor">Benign tumors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hyperplasia" title="Hyperplasia">Hyperplasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyst" title="Cyst">Cyst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudocyst" title="Pseudocyst">Pseudocyst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamartoma" title="Hamartoma">Hamartoma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Malignant progression</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dysplasia" title="Dysplasia">Dysplasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carcinoma_in_situ" title="Carcinoma in situ">Carcinoma in situ</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metastasis" title="Metastasis">Metastasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_tumor" title="Primary tumor">Primary tumor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentinel_lymph_node" title="Sentinel lymph node">Sentinel lymph node</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topography</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Head_and_neck_cancer" title="Head and neck cancer">Head and neck</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oral_cancer" title="Oral cancer">oral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oropharyngeal_cancer" title="Oropharyngeal cancer">oropharyngeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laryngeal_cancer" title="Laryngeal cancer">laryngeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasopharyngeal_carcinoma" title="Nasopharyngeal carcinoma">nasopharyngeal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digestive_system_neoplasm" title="Digestive system neoplasm">Digestive system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplasm" title="Neoplasm">Respiratory system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_tumor" title="Bone tumor">Bone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skin_cancer" title="Skin cancer">Skin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leukemia" title="Leukemia">Blood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urogenital_neoplasm" title="Urogenital neoplasm">Urogenital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervous_system_neoplasm" title="Nervous system neoplasm">Nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_gland_neoplasm" title="Endocrine gland neoplasm">Endocrine system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Histology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carcinoma" title="Carcinoma">Carcinoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarcoma" title="Sarcoma">Sarcoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blastoma" title="Blastoma">Blastoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papilloma" title="Papilloma">Papilloma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adenoma" title="Adenoma">Adenoma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Precancerous_condition" title="Precancerous condition">Precancerous condition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraneoplastic_syndrome" title="Paraneoplastic syndrome">Paraneoplastic syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cancer_staging" title="Cancer staging">Staging</a>/<a href="/wiki/Grading_(tumors)" title="Grading (tumors)">grading</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/TNM_staging_system" title="TNM staging system">TNM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ann_Arbor_staging" title="Ann Arbor staging">Ann Arbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostate_cancer_staging" title="Prostate cancer staging">Prostate cancer staging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gleason_grading_system" title="Gleason grading system">Gleason grading system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dukes_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Dukes classification">Dukes classification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Carcinogenesis" title="Carcinogenesis">Carcinogenesis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cancer_cell" title="Cancer cell">Cancer cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen">Carcinogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumor_suppressor_gene" title="Tumor suppressor gene">Tumor suppressor genes</a>/<a href="/wiki/Oncogene" title="Oncogene">oncogenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clonally_transmissible_cancer" title="Clonally transmissible cancer">Clonally transmissible cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oncovirus" title="Oncovirus">Oncovirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carcinogenic_bacteria" title="Carcinogenic bacteria">Carcinogenic bacteria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Misc.</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cancer_research" title="Cancer research">Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles" title="Index of oncology articles">Index of oncology articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cancer" title="History of cancer">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancer_pain" title="Cancer pain">Cancer pain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancer_and_nausea" title="Cancer and nausea">Cancer and nausea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diet_and_cancer" title="Diet and cancer">Diet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Major_Disease_groups" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Disease_groups" title="Template:Disease groups"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Disease_groups&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Disease groups (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Disease_groups" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Disease groups"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Major_Disease_groups" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Major Disease groups</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">Infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitic_disease" title="Parasitic disease">Parasitic disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benign_tumor" title="Benign tumor">Benign tumor</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cancer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_disease" title="Endocrine disease">Endocrine disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">Malnutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_disorder" title="Metabolic disorder">Metabolic disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_disorder" title="Immune disorder">Immune disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hematologic_disease" title="Hematologic disease">Hematologic disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mental_disorder" title="Mental disorder">Mental disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neurological_disorder" title="Neurological disorder">Neurological disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eye_disease" title="Eye disease">Eye disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ear_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Ear disease">Ear disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">Cardiovascular disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_disease" title="Lymphatic disease">Lymphatic disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_disease" title="Respiratory disease">Respiratory disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maxillofacial_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Maxillofacial disorder">Maxillofacial disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_disease" title="Gastrointestinal disease">Gastrointestinal disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urologic_disease" title="Urologic disease">Urologic disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_genital_disease" title="Female genital disease">Female genital disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_disease" title="Breast disease">Breast disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_genital_disease" title="Male genital disease">Male genital disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Complications_of_pregnancy" title="Complications of pregnancy">Complications of pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetric_labor_complication" title="Obstetric labor complication">Obstetric labor complication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_disorder" title="Postpartum disorder">Postpartum disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Skin_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Skin disease">Skin disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Musculoskeletal_disorder" title="Musculoskeletal disorder">Musculoskeletal disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soft_tissue_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Soft tissue disorder">Soft tissue disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connective_tissue_disease" title="Connective tissue disease">Connective tissue disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_disease" title="Bone disease">Bone disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chondropathy" title="Chondropathy">Chondropathy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congenital_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Congenital disorder">Congenital disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetal_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Fetal disease">Fetal disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link 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