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class="page-heading"> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Groundwater</h1> <div class="tagline"></div> </div> <ul id="p-associated-pages" class="minerva__tab-container"> <li class="minerva__tab selected"> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Groundwater" rel="" data-event-name="tabs.subject">Article</a> </li> <li class="minerva__tab "> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Talk:Groundwater" rel="discussion" data-event-name="tabs.talk">Talk</a> </li> </ul> <nav class="page-actions-menu"> <ul id="p-views" class="page-actions-menu__list"> <li id="language-selector" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" href="#p-lang" data-mw="interface" data-event-name="menu.languages" title="Language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet language-selector"> Language </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-watch" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-watch" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Groundwater" data-event-name="menu.watch" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet menu__item--page-actions-watch"> Watch </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-edit" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-edit" href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater&action=edit" data-event-name="menu.edit" data-mw="interface" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet edit-page menu__item--page-actions-edit"> Edit </a> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="mw-content-subtitle"><div id="mw-fr-revision-messages"><div class="cdx-message mw-fr-message-box cdx-message--inline cdx-message--notice mw-fr-mobile-message-inline"><div class="cdx-message__content">This is the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Pending_changes" title="Wikipedia:Pending changes">latest accepted revision</a>, <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&type=review&page=Groundwater">reviewed</a> on 31 October 2024.</div></div></div></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> Groundwater is the <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> present beneath <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s surface in rock and <a href="/wiki/Pore_space_in_soil" title="Pore space in soil">soil pore spaces</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/Fracture" title="Fracture">fractures</a> of <a href="/wiki/Stratum" title="Stratum">rock formations</a>. About 30 percent of all readily available <a href="/wiki/Fresh_water" title="Fresh water">fresh water</a> in the world is groundwater.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifer</a> when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at which <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a> pore spaces or <a href="/wiki/Fracture" title="Fracture">fractures</a> and voids in rock become completely saturated with water is called the <a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">water table</a>. Groundwater is <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_recharge" title="Groundwater recharge">recharged</a> from the surface; it may discharge from the surface naturally at <a href="/wiki/Spring_(hydrosphere)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spring (hydrosphere)">springs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seep_(hydrology)" title="Seep (hydrology)">seeps</a>, and can form <a href="/wiki/Oasis" title="Oasis">oases</a> or <a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">wetlands</a>. Groundwater is also often withdrawn for <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agricultural</a>, <a href="/wiki/City" title="City">municipal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Industrial_sector" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial sector">industrial</a> use by constructing and operating extraction <a href="/wiki/Water_well" class="mw-redirect" title="Water well">wells</a>. The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater is <a href="/wiki/Hydrogeology" title="Hydrogeology">hydrogeology</a>, also called groundwater <a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">hydrology</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Groundwater_(aquifer,_aquitard,_3_type_wells).PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Groundwater_%28aquifer%2C_aquitard%2C_3_type_wells%29.PNG/330px-Groundwater_%28aquifer%2C_aquitard%2C_3_type_wells%29.PNG" decoding="async" width="330" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Groundwater_%28aquifer%2C_aquitard%2C_3_type_wells%29.PNG/495px-Groundwater_%28aquifer%2C_aquitard%2C_3_type_wells%29.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Groundwater_%28aquifer%2C_aquitard%2C_3_type_wells%29.PNG/660px-Groundwater_%28aquifer%2C_aquitard%2C_3_type_wells%29.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="680"></a><figcaption>An illustration showing groundwater in <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifers</a> (in blue) (1, 5 and 6) below the <a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">water table</a> (4), and three different <a href="/wiki/Well" title="Well">wells</a> (7, 8 and 9) dug to reach it.</figcaption></figure> Typically, groundwater is thought of as water flowing through shallow aquifers, but, in the technical sense, it can also contain <a href="/wiki/Soil_moisture" title="Soil moisture">soil moisture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">permafrost</a> (frozen soil), immobile water in very low permeability <a href="/wiki/Bedrock" title="Bedrock">bedrock</a>, and deep <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_activity" title="Geothermal activity">geothermal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_geology" title="Petroleum geology">oil formation</a> water. Groundwater is hypothesized to provide <a href="/wiki/Lubrication" title="Lubrication">lubrication</a> that can possibly influence the movement of <a href="/wiki/Fault_(geology)" title="Fault (geology)">faults</a>. It is likely that much of <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s subsurface contains some water, which may be mixed with other fluids in some instances. Groundwater is often cheaper, more convenient and less vulnerable to <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">pollution</a> than <a href="/wiki/Surface_water" title="Surface water">surface water</a>. Therefore, it is commonly used for public <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">drinking water</a> supplies. For example, groundwater provides the largest source of usable water storage in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, and California annually withdraws the largest amount of groundwater of all the states.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Underground reservoirs contain far more water than the capacity of all surface reservoirs and lakes in the US, including the <a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a>. Many municipal water supplies are derived solely from groundwater.<a href="#cite_note-hydrology-3">[3]</a> Over 2 billion people rely on it as their primary water source worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Human use of groundwater causes environmental problems. For example, <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">polluted groundwater</a> is less visible and more difficult to clean up than pollution in rivers and lakes. Groundwater pollution most often results from improper disposal of wastes on land. Major sources include <a href="/wiki/Industrial_chemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial chemical">industrial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Household_chemicals" title="Household chemicals">household chemicals</a> and garbage <a href="/wiki/Sanitary_landfill" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanitary landfill">landfills</a>, excessive <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizers</a> and pesticides used in agriculture, industrial waste lagoons, tailings and process <a href="/wiki/Wastewater" title="Wastewater">wastewater</a> from mines, industrial <a href="/wiki/Fracking" title="Fracking">fracking</a>, oil field brine pits, leaking underground oil storage tanks and pipelines, <a href="/wiki/Sewage_sludge" title="Sewage sludge">sewage sludge</a> and <a href="/wiki/Septic_tank" title="Septic tank">septic systems</a>. Additionally, groundwater is susceptible to <a href="/wiki/Saltwater_intrusion" title="Saltwater intrusion">saltwater intrusion</a> in coastal areas and can cause <a href="/wiki/Land_subsidence" class="mw-redirect" title="Land subsidence">land subsidence</a> when extracted unsustainably, leading to <a href="/wiki/Sinking_cities" title="Sinking cities">sinking cities</a> (like <a href="/wiki/Bangkok" title="Bangkok">Bangkok</a>) and loss in elevation (such as the <a href="/wiki/Central_Valley_land_subsidence" title="Central Valley land subsidence">multiple meters lost in the Central Valley of California</a>). These issues are made more complicated by <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">effects of climate change</a>, particularly <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_water_cycle" title="Effects of climate change on the water cycle">those on the water cycle</a>. Earth's <a href="/wiki/Axial_tilt" title="Axial tilt">axial tilt</a> has shifted 31 inches because of human groundwater pumping.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Definition">1 Definition</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Role_in_the_water_cycle">2 Role in the water cycle</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Groundwater_recharge">2.1 Groundwater recharge</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Location_in_aquifers">2.2 Location in aquifers</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Characteristics">3 Characteristics</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Temperature">3.1 Temperature</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Availability">3.2 Availability</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Uses_by_humans">4 Uses by humans</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Quantities">4.1 Quantities</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Drinking_water_quality_aspects">4.2 Drinking water quality aspects</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Water_supply_for_municipal_and_industrial_uses">4.3 Water supply for municipal and industrial uses</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Irrigation">4.4 Irrigation</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#In_developing_countries">4.5 In developing countries</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#Challenges">5 Challenges</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Overdraft">5.1 Overdraft</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Subsidence">5.2 Subsidence</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Groundwater_becoming_saline_due_to_evaporation">5.3 Groundwater becoming saline due to evaporation</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Seawater_intrusion">5.4 Seawater intrusion</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Pollution">5.5 Pollution</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Climate_change">5.6 Climate change</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-21"><a href="#Climate_change_adaptation">5.6.1 Climate change adaptation</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-22"><a href="#Climate_change_mitigation">5.6.2 Climate change mitigation</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#Groundwater_governance">6 Groundwater governance</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#By_country">7 By country</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="#See_also">8 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#References">9 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27"><a href="#External_links">10 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> Groundwater is fresh water located in the subsurface <a href="/wiki/Porosity" title="Porosity">pore</a> space of soil and <a href="/wiki/Rock_(geology)" title="Rock (geology)">rocks</a>. It is also water that is flowing within <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifers</a> below the <a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">water table</a>. Sometimes it is useful to make a distinction between groundwater that is closely associated with <a href="/wiki/Surface_water" title="Surface water">surface water</a>, and deep groundwater in an aquifer (called "<a href="/wiki/Fossil_water" title="Fossil water">fossil water</a>" if it <a href="/wiki/Infiltration_(hydrology)" title="Infiltration (hydrology)">infiltrated</a> into the ground millennia ago<a href="#cite_note-unesco-2006-8">[8]</a>). </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Role_in_the_water_cycle">Role in the water cycle</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Role in the water cycle" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">Water cycle</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Surface_water_cycle.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Surface_water_cycle.svg/220px-Surface_water_cycle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="288" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="290" data-file-height="380"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 288px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Surface_water_cycle.svg/220px-Surface_water_cycle.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="288" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Surface_water_cycle.svg/330px-Surface_water_cycle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Surface_water_cycle.svg/440px-Surface_water_cycle.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Water balance</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shipot.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Shipot.jpg/220px-Shipot.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1161" data-file-height="751"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 142px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Shipot.jpg/220px-Shipot.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="142" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Shipot.jpg/330px-Shipot.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Shipot.jpg/440px-Shipot.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Dzherelo, a common source of drinking water in a <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukrainian</a> <a href="/wiki/Village" title="Village">village</a></figcaption></figure> Groundwater can be thought of in the same terms as <a href="/wiki/Surface_water" title="Surface water">surface water</a>: inputs, outputs and storage. The natural input to groundwater is seepage from surface water. The natural outputs from groundwater are <a href="/wiki/Spring_(hydrosphere)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spring (hydrosphere)">springs</a> and seepage to the oceans. Due to its slow rate of turnover, groundwater storage is generally much larger (in volume) compared to inputs than it is for surface water. This difference makes it easy for humans to use groundwater unsustainably for a long time without severe consequences. Nevertheless, over the long term the average rate of seepage above a groundwater source is the upper bound for average consumption of water from that source. Groundwater is naturally replenished by surface water from <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(meteorology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Precipitation (meteorology)">precipitation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stream" title="Stream">streams</a>, and <a href="/wiki/River" title="River">rivers</a> when this <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_recharge" title="Groundwater recharge">recharge</a> reaches the water table.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Groundwater can be a long-term '<a href="/wiki/Water_cycle#Reservoirs" title="Water cycle">reservoir</a>' of the natural water cycle (with <a href="/wiki/Residence_time" title="Residence time">residence times</a> from days to millennia),<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> as opposed to short-term water reservoirs like the atmosphere and fresh surface water (which have residence times from minutes to years). Deep groundwater (which is quite distant from the surface recharge) can take a very long time to complete its natural cycle. The <a href="/wiki/Great_Artesian_Basin" title="Great Artesian Basin">Great Artesian Basin</a> in central and eastern <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> is one of the largest confined aquifer systems in the world, extending for almost 2 million km2. By analysing the trace elements in water sourced from deep underground, <a href="/wiki/Hydrogeology" title="Hydrogeology">hydrogeologists</a> have been able to determine that water extracted from these aquifers can be more than 1 million years old. By comparing the age of groundwater obtained from different parts of the Great Artesian Basin, hydrogeologists have found it increases in age across the basin. Where water recharges the aquifers along the <a href="/wiki/Great_Dividing_Range" title="Great Dividing Range">Eastern Divide</a>, ages are young. As groundwater flows westward across the continent, it increases in age, with the oldest groundwater occurring in the western parts. This means that in order to have travelled almost 1000 km from the source of recharge in 1 million years, the groundwater flowing through the Great Artesian Basin travels at an average rate of about 1 metre per year. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Groundwater_recharge">Groundwater recharge</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Groundwater recharge" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_recharge" title="Groundwater recharge">Groundwater recharge</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_recharge&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_recharge" title="Groundwater recharge">Groundwater recharge</a> or deep drainage or deep percolation is a <a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">hydrologic</a> process, where <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> moves downward from <a href="/wiki/Surface_water" title="Surface water">surface water</a> to groundwater. Recharge is the primary method through which water enters an <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifer</a>. This process usually occurs in the <a href="/wiki/Vadose_zone" title="Vadose zone">vadose zone</a> below plant <a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">roots</a> and is often expressed as a <a href="/wiki/Flux" title="Flux">flux</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">water table</a> surface. Groundwater recharge also encompasses water moving away from the water table farther into the saturated zone.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Recharge occurs both naturally (through the <a href="/wiki/Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">water cycle</a>) and through anthropogenic processes (i.e., "artificial groundwater recharge"), where rainwater and/or <a href="/wiki/Reclaimed_water" title="Reclaimed water">reclaimed water</a> is routed to the subsurface. The most common methods to estimate recharge rates are: chloride mass balance (CMB); soil physics methods; environmental and isotopic tracers; groundwater-level fluctuation methods; water balance (WB) methods (including groundwater models (GMs)); and the estimation of baseflow (BF) to rivers.<a href="#cite_note-Groundwater_recharge_:1-13">[13]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Location_in_aquifers">Location in aquifers</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Location in aquifers" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">Aquifer</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aquifer&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Groundwater_flow.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Groundwater_flow.svg/400px-Groundwater_flow.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="248" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="645" data-file-height="400"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 400px;height: 248px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Groundwater_flow.svg/400px-Groundwater_flow.svg.png" data-width="400" data-height="248" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Groundwater_flow.svg/600px-Groundwater_flow.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Groundwater_flow.svg/800px-Groundwater_flow.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Schematic of an aquifer showing confined zones, groundwater travel times, a <a href="/wiki/Spring_(hydrology)" title="Spring (hydrology)">spring</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Well" title="Well">well</a></figcaption></figure> An <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifer</a> is an underground layer of <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>-bearing material, consisting of <a href="/wiki/Permeability_(Earth_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Permeability (Earth sciences)">permeable</a> or fractured rock, or of unconsolidated materials (<a href="/wiki/Gravel" title="Gravel">gravel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">sand</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Silt" title="Silt">silt</a>). Aquifers vary greatly in their characteristics. The study of water flow in aquifers and the characterization of aquifers is called <a href="/wiki/Hydrogeology" title="Hydrogeology">hydrogeology</a>. Related terms include aquitard, which is a bed of low permeability along an aquifer, and aquiclude (or aquifuge), which is a solid, impermeable area underlying or overlying an aquifer, the pressure of which could lead to the formation of a confined aquifer. The classification of aquifers is as follows: Saturated versus unsaturated; aquifers versus aquitards; confined versus unconfined; isotropic versus anisotropic; porous, karst, or fractured; transboundary aquifer.</div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Characteristics">Characteristics</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Characteristics" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AlapahaRiver2002.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/AlapahaRiver2002.jpg/220px-AlapahaRiver2002.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2010" data-file-height="1507"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/AlapahaRiver2002.jpg/220px-AlapahaRiver2002.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/AlapahaRiver2002.jpg/330px-AlapahaRiver2002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/AlapahaRiver2002.jpg/440px-AlapahaRiver2002.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The entire <a href="/wiki/Surface_water" title="Surface water">surface water</a> flow of the <a href="/wiki/Alapaha_River" title="Alapaha River">Alapaha River</a> near <a href="/wiki/Jennings,_Florida" title="Jennings, Florida">Jennings</a>, <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a>, going into a <a href="/wiki/Sinkhole" title="Sinkhole">sinkhole</a> leading to the <a href="/wiki/Floridan_Aquifer" class="mw-redirect" title="Floridan Aquifer">Floridan Aquifer</a> groundwater</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Temperature">Temperature</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Temperature" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The high <a href="/wiki/Specific_heat_capacity" title="Specific heat capacity">specific heat capacity</a> of water and the insulating effect of soil and rock can mitigate the effects of climate and maintain groundwater at a relatively steady <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a>. In some places where groundwater temperatures are maintained by this effect at about 10 °C (50 °F), groundwater can be used for controlling the temperature inside structures at the surface. For example, during hot weather relatively cool groundwater can be pumped through radiators in a home and then returned to the ground in another well. During cold seasons, because it is relatively warm, the water can be used in the same way as a source of heat for <a href="/wiki/Heat_pump" title="Heat pump">heat pumps</a> that is much more efficient than using air. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Availability">Availability</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Availability" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Groundwater makes up about thirty percent of the world's <a href="/wiki/Fresh_water" title="Fresh water">fresh water</a> supply, which is about 0.76% of the entire world's water, including oceans and permanent ice.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> About 99% of the world's liquid fresh water is groundwater.<a href="#cite_note-Lall-16">[16]</a> Global groundwater storage is roughly equal to the total amount of freshwater stored in the snow and ice pack, including the north and south poles. This makes it an important resource that can act as a natural storage that can buffer against shortages of <a href="/wiki/Surface_water" title="Surface water">surface water</a>, as in during times of <a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">drought</a>.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> The volume of groundwater in an aquifer can be estimated by measuring water levels in local wells and by examining geologic records from well-drilling to determine the extent, depth and thickness of water-bearing sediments and rocks. Before an investment is made in production wells, test wells may be drilled to measure the depths at which water is encountered and collect samples of soils, rock and water for laboratory analyses. Pumping tests can be performed in test wells to determine flow characteristics of the aquifer.<a href="#cite_note-hydrology-3">[3]</a> The characteristics of aquifers vary with the geology and structure of the substrate and topography in which they occur. In general, the more productive aquifers occur in sedimentary geologic formations. By comparison, weathered and fractured crystalline rocks yield smaller quantities of groundwater in many environments. Unconsolidated to poorly cemented alluvial materials that have accumulated as <a href="/wiki/Valley" title="Valley">valley</a>-filling sediments in major river valleys and geologically subsiding structural basins are included among the most productive sources of groundwater. Fluid flows can be altered in different <a href="/wiki/Lithology" title="Lithology">lithological settings</a> by brittle deformation of rocks in <a href="/wiki/Fault_(geology)" title="Fault (geology)">fault zones</a>; the mechanisms by which this occurs are the subject of <a href="/wiki/Fault_zone_hydrogeology" title="Fault zone hydrogeology">fault zone hydrogeology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-faultzone-18">[18]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Uses_by_humans">Uses by humans</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Uses by humans" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Burg_Zusameck_5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Burg_Zusameck_5.jpg/220px-Burg_Zusameck_5.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Burg_Zusameck_5.jpg/220px-Burg_Zusameck_5.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Burg_Zusameck_5.jpg/330px-Burg_Zusameck_5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Burg_Zusameck_5.jpg/440px-Burg_Zusameck_5.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Groundwater may be extracted through a <a href="/wiki/Water_well" class="mw-redirect" title="Water well">water well</a></figcaption></figure>Reliance on groundwater will only increase, mainly due to growing water demand by all sectors combined with <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_water_cycle" title="Effects of climate change on the water cycle">increasing variation in rainfall patterns</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WWDR2022-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quantities">Quantities</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Quantities" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Groundwater is the most accessed source of freshwater around the world, including as <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">drinking water</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">manufacturing</a>. Groundwater accounts for about half of the world's drinking water, 40% of its irrigation water, and a third of water for industrial purposes.<a href="#cite_note-Lall-16">[16]</a> Another estimate stated that globally groundwater accounts for about one third of all <a href="/wiki/Water_withdrawal" class="mw-redirect" title="Water withdrawal">water withdrawals</a>, and surface water for the other two thirds.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a>: 21 Groundwater provides drinking water to at least 50% of the global population.<a href="#cite_note-Akhter2023-21">[21]</a> About 2.5 billion people depend solely on groundwater resources to satisfy their basic daily water needs.<a href="#cite_note-Akhter2023-21">[21]</a> A similar estimate was published in 2021 which stated that "groundwater is estimated to supply between a quarter and a third of the world's annual freshwater withdrawals to meet agricultural, industrial and domestic demands."<a href="#cite_note-Douville_etal-2021-22">[22]</a>: 1091 Global freshwater withdrawal was probably around 600 km3 per year in 1900 and increased to 3,880 km3 per year in 2017. The rate of increase was especially high (around 3% per year) during the period 1950–1980, partly due to a higher population growth rate, and partly to rapidly increasing groundwater development, particularly for irrigation. The rate of increase is (as per 2022) approximately 1% per year, in tune with the current population growth rate.<a href="#cite_note-WWDR2022-19">[19]</a>: 15 Global groundwater depletion has been calculated to be between 100 and 300 km3 per year. This depletion is mainly caused by "expansion of irrigated agriculture in <a href="/wiki/Drylands" title="Drylands">drylands</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Douville_etal-2021-22">[22]</a>: 1091 The <a href="/wiki/Asia_Pacific_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Pacific region">Asia-Pacific region</a> is the largest groundwater abstractor in the world, containing seven out of the ten countries that extract most groundwater (Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Iran, Pakistan and Turkey). These countries alone account for roughly 60% of the world's total groundwater withdrawal.<a href="#cite_note-WWDR2022-19">[19]</a>: 6 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Drinking_water_quality_aspects">Drinking water quality aspects</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Drinking water quality aspects" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Arsenic_contamination_of_groundwater" title="Arsenic contamination of groundwater">Arsenic contamination of groundwater</a></div> Groundwater may or may not be a safe water source. In fact, there is considerable uncertainty with groundwater in different hydrogeologic contexts: the widespread presence of contaminants such as <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fluoride" title="Fluoride">fluoride</a> and <a href="/wiki/Salinity" title="Salinity">salinity</a> can reduce the suitability of groundwater as a drinking water source. Arsenic and fluoride have been considered as priority contaminants at a global level, although priority chemicals will vary by country.<a href="#cite_note-Akhter2023-21">[21]</a> There is a lot of heterogeneity of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogeology" title="Hydrogeology">hydrogeologic</a> properties. For this reason, salinity of groundwater is often highly variable over space. This contributes to highly variable groundwater security risks even within a specific region.<a href="#cite_note-Akhter2023-21">[21]</a> Salinity in groundwater makes the water unpalatable and unusable and often occurs in coastal areas, for example in Bangladesh and East and West Africa.<a href="#cite_note-Akhter2023-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Water_supply_for_municipal_and_industrial_uses">Water supply for municipal and industrial uses</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Water supply for municipal and industrial uses" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">Water supply</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">Drinking water</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Self-supply_of_water_and_sanitation" title="Self-supply of water and sanitation">Self-supply of water and sanitation</a></div> Municipal and industrial water supplies are provided through large wells. Multiple wells for one water supply source are termed "wellfields", which may withdraw water from confined or unconfined aquifers. Using groundwater from deep, confined aquifers provides more protection from surface water contamination. Some wells, termed "collector wells", are specifically designed to induce infiltration of surface (usually river) water. Aquifers that provide sustainable fresh groundwater to urban areas and for agricultural irrigation are typically close to the ground surface (within a couple of hundred metres) and have some recharge by fresh water. This recharge is typically from rivers or meteoric water (precipitation) that percolates into the aquifer through overlying unsaturated materials. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Irrigation">Irrigation</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Irrigation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">Irrigation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crops_Kansas_AST_20010624.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Crops_Kansas_AST_20010624.jpg/220px-Crops_Kansas_AST_20010624.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="211" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2589" data-file-height="2481"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 211px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Crops_Kansas_AST_20010624.jpg/220px-Crops_Kansas_AST_20010624.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="211" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Crops_Kansas_AST_20010624.jpg/330px-Crops_Kansas_AST_20010624.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Crops_Kansas_AST_20010624.jpg/440px-Crops_Kansas_AST_20010624.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Center_pivot_irrigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Center pivot irrigation">Center-pivot irrigated</a> fields in <a href="/wiki/Kansas" title="Kansas">Kansas</a> covering hundreds of square miles watered by the <a href="/wiki/Ogallala_Aquifer" title="Ogallala Aquifer">Ogallala Aquifer</a></figcaption></figure>In general, the irrigation of 20% of farming land (with various types of water sources) accounts for the production of 40% of food production.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Irrigation techniques across the globe includes canals redirecting surface water,<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-Peterson_2016-26">[26]</a> groundwater pumping, and diverting water from dams. Aquifers are critically important in agriculture. Deep aquifers in arid areas have long been water sources for irrigation. A majority of extracted groundwater, 70%, is used for agricultural purposes.<a href="#cite_note-NGWA-27">[27]</a> In India, 65% of the irrigation is from groundwater<a href="#cite_note-groundirri1-28">[28]</a> and about 90% of extracted groundwater is used for irrigation.<a href="#cite_note-chindarkar-29">[29]</a> Occasionally, sedimentary or <a href="/wiki/Fossil_water" title="Fossil water">"fossil"</a> aquifers are used to provide irrigation and drinking water to urban areas. In Libya, for example, <a href="/wiki/Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi's</a> <a href="/wiki/Great_Manmade_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Manmade River">Great Manmade River</a> project has pumped large amounts of groundwater from aquifers beneath the Sahara to populous areas near the coast.<a href="#cite_note-Scholl-30">[30]</a> Though this has saved Libya money over the alternative, seawater desalination, the aquifers are likely to run dry in 60 to 100 years.<a href="#cite_note-Scholl-30">[30]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Niger,_Margou_(13),_water_well_with_tree.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Niger%2C_Margou_%2813%29%2C_water_well_with_tree.jpg/300px-Niger%2C_Margou_%2813%29%2C_water_well_with_tree.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="221" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3240" data-file-height="2384"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 221px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Niger%2C_Margou_%2813%29%2C_water_well_with_tree.jpg/300px-Niger%2C_Margou_%2813%29%2C_water_well_with_tree.jpg" data-width="300" data-height="221" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Niger%2C_Margou_%2813%29%2C_water_well_with_tree.jpg/450px-Niger%2C_Margou_%2813%29%2C_water_well_with_tree.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Niger%2C_Margou_%2813%29%2C_water_well_with_tree.jpg/600px-Niger%2C_Margou_%2813%29%2C_water_well_with_tree.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Families collecting water from a water well in <a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_developing_countries">In developing countries</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: In developing countries" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/WASH#Groundwater" title="WASH">WASH § Groundwater</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=WASH&action=edit#Groundwater">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> Groundwater provides critical <a href="/wiki/Fresh_water" title="Fresh water">freshwater</a> supply, particularly in dry regions where surface water availability is limited.<a href="#cite_note-WASH_:19-31">[31]</a> Globally, more than one-third of the water used originates from underground. In the mid-latitude <a href="/wiki/Aridity" title="Aridity">arid</a> and semi-arid regions lacking sufficient surface water supply from <a href="/wiki/River" title="River">rivers</a> and reservoirs, groundwater is critical for sustaining global ecology and meeting societal needs of drinking water and food production. The demand for groundwater is rapidly increasing with population growth, while climate change is imposing additional stress on water resources and raising the probability of severe drought occurrence.<a href="#cite_note-WASH_:19-31">[31]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">anthropogenic</a> effects on groundwater resources are mainly due to <a href="/wiki/Pumping_station" title="Pumping station">groundwater pumping</a> and the indirect effects of <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> and land use changes.<a href="#cite_note-WASH_:19-31">[31]</a> Groundwater plays a central role in sustaining water supplies and livelihoods in <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan</a> <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> In some cases, groundwater is an additional water source that was not used previously.<a href="#cite_note-WASH_:22-33">[33]</a> Reliance on groundwater is increasing in Sub-Saharan Africa as development programs work towards improving water access and strengthening resilience to climate change.<a href="#cite_note-WASH_:33-34">[34]</a> In lower-income areas, groundwater supplies are typically installed without water quality treatment infrastructure or services. This practice is underpinned by an assumption that untreated groundwater is typically suitable for drinking due to the relative <a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">microbiological</a> safety of groundwater compared to surface water; however, chemistry risks are largely disregarded.<a href="#cite_note-WASH_:33-34">[34]</a> Chemical contaminants occur widely in groundwater that are used for drinking but are not regularly monitored. Example priority parameters are <a href="/wiki/Fluoride" title="Fluoride">fluoride</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitrate" title="Nitrate">nitrate</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Salinity" title="Salinity">salinity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WASH_:33-34">[34]</a></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Challenges">Challenges</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Challenges" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> First, flood mitigation schemes, intended to protect infrastructure built on floodplains, have had the unintended consequence of reducing <a href="/wiki/Aquifer_recharge" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquifer recharge">aquifer recharge</a> associated with natural flooding. Second, prolonged depletion of groundwater in extensive aquifers can result in land <a href="/wiki/Subsidence" title="Subsidence">subsidence</a>, with associated infrastructure damage – as well as, third, <a href="/wiki/Saltwater_intrusion" title="Saltwater intrusion">saline intrusion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Zektser-2004-35">[35]</a> Fourth, draining acid sulphate soils, often found in low-lying coastal plains, can result in acidification and pollution of formerly freshwater and <a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">estuarine</a> streams.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Overdraft">Overdraft</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Overdraft" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Overdrafting" title="Overdrafting">Overdrafting</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1960-_Groundwater_loss_-_depletion_-_Central_Valley_of_California.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/1960-_Groundwater_loss_-_depletion_-_Central_Valley_of_California.svg/220px-1960-_Groundwater_loss_-_depletion_-_Central_Valley_of_California.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="675"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 124px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/1960-_Groundwater_loss_-_depletion_-_Central_Valley_of_California.svg/220px-1960-_Groundwater_loss_-_depletion_-_Central_Valley_of_California.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="124" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/1960-_Groundwater_loss_-_depletion_-_Central_Valley_of_California.svg/330px-1960-_Groundwater_loss_-_depletion_-_Central_Valley_of_California.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/1960-_Groundwater_loss_-_depletion_-_Central_Valley_of_California.svg/440px-1960-_Groundwater_loss_-_depletion_-_Central_Valley_of_California.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Within a long period of groundwater depletion in California's <a href="/wiki/Central_Valley_(California)" title="Central Valley (California)">Central Valley</a>, short periods of recovery were mostly driven by extreme weather events that typically caused flooding and had negative social, environmental and economic consequences.<a href="#cite_note-NatureComms_20221219-37">[37]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aquifersalt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Aquifersalt.jpg/220px-Aquifersalt.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="123" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="777" data-file-height="435"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 123px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Aquifersalt.jpg/220px-Aquifersalt.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="123" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Aquifersalt.jpg/330px-Aquifersalt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Aquifersalt.jpg/440px-Aquifersalt.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Diagram of a <a href="/wiki/Hydrology_(agriculture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrology (agriculture)">water balance</a> of the aquifer</figcaption></figure> Groundwater is a highly useful and often abundant resource. Most land areas on <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> have some form of aquifer underlying them, sometimes at significant depths. In some cases, these aquifers are rapidly being depleted by the human population. Such over-use, over-abstraction or overdraft can cause major problems to human users and to the environment. The most evident problem (as far as human groundwater use is concerned) is a lowering of the water table beyond the reach of existing wells. As a consequence, wells must be drilled deeper to reach the groundwater; in some places (e.g., <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>, <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>) the water table has dropped hundreds of feet because of extensive well pumping.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> The <a href="/wiki/GRACE_and_GRACE-FO" title="GRACE and GRACE-FO">GRACE satellites</a> have collected data that demonstrates 21 of Earth's 37 major aquifers are undergoing depletion.<a href="#cite_note-Lall-16">[16]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Punjab,_India" title="Punjab, India">Punjab</a> region of <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, for example, groundwater levels have dropped 10 meters since 1979, and the rate of depletion is accelerating.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> A lowered water table may, in turn, cause other problems such as <a href="/wiki/Groundwater-related_subsidence" title="Groundwater-related subsidence">groundwater-related subsidence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saltwater_intrusion" title="Saltwater intrusion">saltwater intrusion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Another cause for concern is that groundwater drawdown from over-allocated aquifers has the potential to cause severe damage to both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems – in some cases very conspicuously but in others quite imperceptibly because of the extended period over which the damage occurs.<a href="#cite_note-Zektser-2004-35">[35]</a> The importance of groundwater to ecosystems is often overlooked, even by freshwater biologists and ecologists. Groundwaters sustain rivers, <a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">wetlands</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lake" title="Lake">lakes</a>, as well as subterranean ecosystems within <a href="/wiki/Karst_topography" class="mw-redirect" title="Karst topography">karst</a> or alluvial aquifers. Not all ecosystems need groundwater, of course. Some terrestrial ecosystems – for example, those of the open <a href="/wiki/Desert" title="Desert">deserts</a> and similar arid environments – exist on irregular rainfall and the moisture it delivers to the soil, supplemented by moisture in the air. While there are other terrestrial ecosystems in more hospitable environments where groundwater plays no central role, groundwater is in fact fundamental to many of the world's major ecosystems. Water flows between groundwaters and surface waters. Most rivers, lakes, and wetlands are fed by, and (at other places or times) feed groundwater, to varying degrees. Groundwater feeds soil moisture through percolation, and many terrestrial vegetation communities depend directly on either groundwater or the percolated soil moisture above the aquifer for at least part of each year. <a href="/wiki/Hyporheic_zone" title="Hyporheic zone">Hyporheic zones</a> (the mixing zone of streamwater and groundwater) and <a href="/wiki/Riparian_zone" title="Riparian zone">riparian zones</a> are examples of <a href="/wiki/Ecotone" title="Ecotone">ecotones</a> largely or totally dependent on groundwater. A 2021 study found that of ~39 million investigated[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">how?</a>] <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_well" class="mw-redirect" title="Groundwater well">groundwater wells</a> 6-20% are at <a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">high risk of running dry</a> if local groundwater levels decline by a few meters, or – as with many areas and possibly more than half of major aquifers<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> – continue to decline.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Fresh-water aquifers, especially those with limited recharge by snow or rain, also known as <a href="/wiki/Meteoric_water" title="Meteoric water">meteoric water</a>, can be over-exploited and depending on the local <a href="/wiki/Hydrogeology" title="Hydrogeology">hydrogeology</a>, may draw in non-potable water or saltwater intrusion from hydraulically connected aquifers or <a href="/wiki/Surface_water" title="Surface water">surface water</a> bodies. This can be a serious problem, especially in coastal areas and other areas where aquifer pumping is excessive. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subsidence">Subsidence</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Subsidence" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Groundwater-related_subsidence" title="Groundwater-related subsidence">Groundwater-related subsidence</a></div> Subsidence occurs when too much water is pumped out from underground, deflating the space below the above-surface, and thus causing the ground to collapse. The result can look like craters on plots of land. This occurs because, in its natural equilibrium state, the <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic pressure">hydraulic pressure</a> of groundwater in the pore spaces of the aquifer and the aquitard supports some of the weight of the overlying sediments. When groundwater is removed from aquifers by excessive pumping, pore pressures in the aquifer drop and compression of the aquifer may occur. This compression may be partially recoverable if pressures rebound, but much of it is not. When the aquifer gets compressed, it may cause land subsidence, a drop in the ground surface.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> In unconsolidated aquifers, groundwater is produced from pore spaces between particles of gravel, sand, and silt. If the aquifer is confined by low-permeability layers, the reduced water pressure in the sand and gravel causes slow drainage of water from the adjoining confining layers. If these confining layers are composed of compressible silt or clay, the loss of water to the aquifer reduces the water pressure in the confining layer, causing it to compress from the weight of overlying geologic materials. In severe cases, this compression can be observed on the ground surface as <a href="/wiki/Subsidence" title="Subsidence">subsidence</a>. Unfortunately, much of the subsidence from groundwater extraction is permanent (elastic rebound is small). Thus, the subsidence is not only permanent, but the compressed aquifer has a permanently reduced capacity to hold water. The city of <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans,_Louisiana" class="mw-redirect" title="New Orleans, Louisiana">New Orleans, Louisiana</a> is actually below sea level today, and its subsidence is partly caused by removal of groundwater from the various aquifer/aquitard systems beneath it.<a href="#cite_note-Dokka2011-45">[45]</a> In the first half of the 20th century, the <a href="/wiki/Central_Valley_land_subsidence" title="Central Valley land subsidence">San Joaquin Valley experienced significant subsidence</a>, in some places up to 8.5 metres (28 feet)<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> due to groundwater removal. Cities on river deltas, including Venice in Italy,<a href="#cite_note-TosiTeatini2014-47">[47]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bangkok" title="Bangkok">Bangkok</a> in Thailand,<a href="#cite_note-AobpaetCuenca2013-48">[48]</a> have experienced surface subsidence; Mexico City, built on a former lake bed, has experienced rates of subsidence of up to 40 centimetres (1 foot 4 inches) per year.<a href="#cite_note-ArroyoOrdaz2013-49">[49]</a> For coastal cities, subsidence can increase the risk of other environmental issues, such as <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Nicholls-2008-50">[50]</a> For example, Bangkok is expected to have 5.138 million people exposed to <a href="/wiki/Coastal_flooding" title="Coastal flooding">coastal flooding</a> by 2070 because of these combining factors.<a href="#cite_note-Nicholls-2008-50">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Groundwater_becoming_saline_due_to_evaporation">Groundwater becoming saline due to evaporation</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Groundwater becoming saline due to evaporation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> If the surface water source is also subject to substantial evaporation, a groundwater source may become <a href="/wiki/Salinity" title="Salinity">saline</a>. This situation can occur naturally under <a href="/wiki/Endorheic" class="mw-redirect" title="Endorheic">endorheic</a> bodies of water, or artificially under <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigated</a> farmland. In coastal areas, human use of a groundwater source may cause the direction of seepage to ocean to reverse which can also cause <a href="/wiki/Soil_salinization" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil salinization">soil salinization</a>. As water moves through the landscape, it collects soluble salts, mainly <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a>. Where such water enters the atmosphere through <a href="/wiki/Evapotranspiration" title="Evapotranspiration">evapotranspiration</a>, these salts are left behind. In <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> districts, poor drainage of soils and surface aquifers can result in water tables' coming to the surface in low-lying areas. Major <a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">land degradation</a> problems of <a href="/wiki/Soil_salinity" title="Soil salinity">soil salinity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Waterlogging_(agriculture)" title="Waterlogging (agriculture)">waterlogging</a> result,<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> combined with increasing levels of salt in surface waters. As a consequence, major damage has occurred to local economies and environments.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> Aquifers in surface <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigated</a> areas in semi-arid zones with reuse of the unavoidable irrigation water losses <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_recharge" title="Groundwater recharge">percolating</a> down into the underground by supplemental irrigation from wells run the risk of <a href="/wiki/Soil_salination" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil salination">salination</a>.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Surface irrigation water normally contains salts in the order of 0.5 g/L or more and the annual irrigation requirement is in the order of 10,000 m3/ha or more so the annual import of salt is in the order of 5,000 kg/ha or more.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Under the influence of continuous evaporation, the salt concentration of the aquifer water may increase continually and eventually cause an <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_irrigation" title="Environmental impact of irrigation">environmental</a> problem. For <a href="/wiki/Soil_salinity_control" title="Soil salinity control">salinity control</a> in such a case, annually an amount of drainage water is to be discharged from the aquifer by means of a subsurface <a href="/wiki/Drainage_system_(agriculture)" title="Drainage system (agriculture)">drainage system</a> and disposed of through a safe outlet. The drainage system may be horizontal (i.e. using pipes, <a href="/wiki/Tile_drainage" title="Tile drainage">tile drains</a> or ditches) or vertical (<a href="/wiki/Drainage_by_wells" class="mw-redirect" title="Drainage by wells">drainage by wells</a>). To estimate the drainage requirement, the use of a <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_model" title="Groundwater model">groundwater model</a> with an agro-hydro-salinity component may be instrumental, e.g. <a href="/wiki/SahysMod" title="SahysMod">SahysMod</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seawater_intrusion">Seawater intrusion</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Seawater intrusion" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Saltwater_intrusion" title="Saltwater intrusion">Saltwater intrusion</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></div> Aquifers near the coast have a lens of freshwater near the surface and denser seawater under freshwater. Seawater penetrates the aquifer diffusing in from the ocean and is denser than freshwater. For porous (i.e., sandy) aquifers near the coast, the thickness of freshwater atop saltwater is about 12 metres (40 ft) for every 0.3 m (1 ft) of freshwater head above <a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">sea level</a>. This relationship is called the <a href="/wiki/Ghyben-Herzberg_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghyben-Herzberg equation">Ghyben-Herzberg equation</a>. If too much groundwater is pumped near the coast, salt-water may intrude into freshwater aquifers causing contamination of potable freshwater supplies. Many coastal aquifers, such as the <a href="/wiki/Biscayne_Aquifer" title="Biscayne Aquifer">Biscayne Aquifer</a> near Miami and the New Jersey Coastal Plain aquifer, have problems with saltwater intrusion as a result of overpumping and sea level rise. Seawater intrusion is the flow or presence of seawater into coastal aquifers; it is a case of <a href="/wiki/Saltwater_intrusion" title="Saltwater intrusion">saltwater intrusion</a>. It is a natural phenomenon but can also be caused or worsened by anthropogenic factors, such as <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a> due to <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Befus-2020-55">[55]</a> In the case of homogeneous aquifers, seawater intrusion forms a saline wedge below a transition zone to fresh groundwater, flowing seaward on the top.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> These changes can have other effects on the land above the groundwater. For example, coastal groundwater in California would rise in many aquifers, increasing risks of flooding and <a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">runoff</a> challenges.<a href="#cite_note-Befus-2020-55">[55]</a> Sea level rise causes the mixing of sea water into the coastal groundwater, rendering it unusable once it amounts to more than 2-3% of the reservoir. Along an estimated 15% of the US coastline, the majority of local groundwater levels are already below the sea level.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pollution">Pollution</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Pollution" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Groundwater_Contamination_Latin_America_Sm.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Groundwater_Contamination_Latin_America_Sm.png/220px-Groundwater_Contamination_Latin_America_Sm.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="616" data-file-height="411"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 147px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Groundwater_Contamination_Latin_America_Sm.png/220px-Groundwater_Contamination_Latin_America_Sm.png" data-width="220" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Groundwater_Contamination_Latin_America_Sm.png/330px-Groundwater_Contamination_Latin_America_Sm.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Groundwater_Contamination_Latin_America_Sm.png/440px-Groundwater_Contamination_Latin_America_Sm.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Waterborne diseases</a> can be spread via a groundwater well which is contaminated with fecal pathogens from <a href="/wiki/Pit_latrine" title="Pit latrine">pit latrines</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">Groundwater pollution</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Groundwater_pollution&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pit_latrine_and_well_in_close_proximity_(3794846044).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Pit_latrine_and_well_in_close_proximity_%283794846044%29.jpg/220px-Pit_latrine_and_well_in_close_proximity_%283794846044%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="194" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1535" data-file-height="1357"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 194px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Pit_latrine_and_well_in_close_proximity_%283794846044%29.jpg/220px-Pit_latrine_and_well_in_close_proximity_%283794846044%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="194" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Pit_latrine_and_well_in_close_proximity_%283794846044%29.jpg/330px-Pit_latrine_and_well_in_close_proximity_%283794846044%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Pit_latrine_and_well_in_close_proximity_%283794846044%29.jpg/440px-Pit_latrine_and_well_in_close_proximity_%283794846044%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Groundwater pollution in <a href="/wiki/Lusaka" title="Lusaka">Lusaka</a>, Zambia, where the <a href="/wiki/Pit_latrine" title="Pit latrine">pit latrine</a> in the background is polluting the <a href="/wiki/Water_well" class="mw-redirect" title="Water well">shallow well</a> in the foreground with pathogens and nitrate</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">Groundwater pollution</a> (also called groundwater contamination) occurs when <a href="/wiki/Pollutant" title="Pollutant">pollutants</a> are released to the ground and make their way into groundwater. This type of <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">water pollution</a> can also occur naturally due to the presence of a minor and unwanted constituent, contaminant, or impurity in the groundwater, in which case it is more likely referred to as <a href="/wiki/Contamination" title="Contamination">contamination</a> rather than <a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">pollution</a>. Groundwater pollution can occur from on-site <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a> systems, <a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">landfill</a> leachate, effluent from <a href="/wiki/Wastewater_treatment_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Wastewater treatment plants">wastewater treatment plants</a>, leaking sewers, petrol <a href="/wiki/Filling_station" title="Filling station">filling stations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_fracturing" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic fracturing">hydraulic fracturing</a> (fracking) or from over application of <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizers</a> in <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>. Pollution (or contamination) can also occur from naturally occurring contaminants, such as <a href="/wiki/Arsenic_contamination_of_groundwater" title="Arsenic contamination of groundwater">arsenic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Fluoride" title="Fluoride">fluoride</a>.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Using polluted groundwater causes hazards to <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a> through poisoning or the spread of disease (<a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">water-borne diseases</a>). The pollutant often produces a contaminant <a href="/wiki/Plume_(fluid_dynamics)" title="Plume (fluid dynamics)">plume</a> within an <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifer</a>. Movement of water and dispersion within the aquifer spreads the pollutant over a wider area. Its advancing boundary, often called a plume edge, can intersect with <a href="/wiki/Water_well" class="mw-redirect" title="Water well">groundwater wells</a> and surface water, such as seeps and springs, making the water supplies unsafe for humans and wildlife. The movement of the plume, called a plume front, may be analyzed through a <a href="/wiki/Hydrological_transport_model" title="Hydrological transport model">hydrological transport model</a> or <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_model" title="Groundwater model">groundwater model</a>. Analysis of groundwater pollution may focus on <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a> characteristics and site <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrogeology" title="Hydrogeology">hydrogeology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">hydrology</a>, and the nature of the contaminants. Different mechanisms have influence on the transport of pollutants, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">diffusion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adsorption" title="Adsorption">adsorption</a>, <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">decay</a>, in the groundwater.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_change">Climate change</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Climate change" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Water_security#Reduced_water_quality_due_to_climate_change_impacts" title="Water security">Water security § Reduced water quality due to climate change impacts</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Providing_clean_water_and_flood-resistant_shelter_in_Sindh_(5950788649).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Providing_clean_water_and_flood-resistant_shelter_in_Sindh_%285950788649%29.jpg/220px-Providing_clean_water_and_flood-resistant_shelter_in_Sindh_%285950788649%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 147px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Providing_clean_water_and_flood-resistant_shelter_in_Sindh_%285950788649%29.jpg/220px-Providing_clean_water_and_flood-resistant_shelter_in_Sindh_%285950788649%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Providing_clean_water_and_flood-resistant_shelter_in_Sindh_%285950788649%29.jpg/330px-Providing_clean_water_and_flood-resistant_shelter_in_Sindh_%285950788649%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Providing_clean_water_and_flood-resistant_shelter_in_Sindh_%285950788649%29.jpg/440px-Providing_clean_water_and_flood-resistant_shelter_in_Sindh_%285950788649%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A woman pumps water from a handpump in her village in <a href="/wiki/Sindh" title="Sindh">Sindh</a>, Pakistan</figcaption></figure> The impacts of climate change on groundwater may be greatest through its indirect effects on irrigation water demand via increased <a href="/wiki/Evapotranspiration" title="Evapotranspiration">evapotranspiration</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WWDR2022-19">[19]</a>: 5 There is an observed declined in groundwater storage in many parts of the world. This is due to more groundwater being used for irrigation activities in agriculture, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Drylands" title="Drylands">drylands</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Douville_etal-2021-22">[22]</a>: 1091 Some of this increase in irrigation can be due to <a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">water scarcity</a> issues made worse by <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_water_cycle" title="Effects of climate change on the water cycle">effects of climate change on the water cycle</a>. Direct redistribution of water by human activities amounting to ~24,000 km3 per year is about double the global groundwater recharge each year.<a href="#cite_note-Douville_etal-2021-22">[22]</a> Climate change causes changes to the <a href="/wiki/Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">water cycle</a> which in turn affect groundwater in several ways: There can be a decline in groundwater storage, and reduction in groundwater recharge and water quality deterioration due to extreme weather events.<a href="#cite_note-Caretta_etal-2022-60">[60]</a>: 558 In the tropics intense precipitation and flooding events appear to lead to more groundwater recharge.<a href="#cite_note-Caretta_etal-2022-60">[60]</a>: 582 However, the exact impacts of climate change on groundwater are still under investigation.<a href="#cite_note-Caretta_etal-2022-60">[60]</a>: 579 This is because scientific data derived from groundwater monitoring is still missing, such as changes in space and time, abstraction data and "numerical representations of groundwater recharge processes".<a href="#cite_note-Caretta_etal-2022-60">[60]</a>: 579 <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects of climate change</a> could have different impacts on groundwater storage: The expected more intense (but fewer) major rainfall events could lead to increased groundwater recharge in many environments.<a href="#cite_note-WWDR2022-19">[19]</a>: 104 But more intense drought periods could result in soil drying-out and compaction which would reduce infiltration to groundwater.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> For the higher altitudes regions, the reduced duration and amount of snow may lead to reduced recharge of groundwater in spring.<a href="#cite_note-Caretta_etal-2022-60">[60]</a>: 582 The impacts of <a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850">receding alpine glaciers</a> on groundwater systems are not well understood.<a href="#cite_note-WWDR2022-19">[19]</a>: 106 Global <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a> due to climate change has induced seawater intrusion into coastal aquifers around the world, particularly in low-lying areas and small islands.<a href="#cite_note-Caretta_etal-2022-60">[60]</a>: 611 However, groundwater abstraction is usually the main reason for seawater intrusion, rather than sea level rise (see in <a href="#Seawater_intrusion">section on seawater intrusion</a>).<a href="#cite_note-WWDR2022-19">[19]</a>: 5 Seawater intrusion threatens <a href="/wiki/Coastal_ecosystems" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal ecosystems">coastal ecosystems</a> and livelihood resilience. Bangladesh is a vulnerable country for this issue, and <a href="/wiki/Mangrove_forest" title="Mangrove forest">mangrove forest</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sundarbans" title="Sundarbans">Sundarbans</a> is a vulnerable ecosystem.<a href="#cite_note-Caretta_etal-2022-60">[60]</a>: 611 <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">Groundwater pollution</a> may also increase indirectly due to climate change: More frequent and intense storms can pollute groundwater by mobilizing contaminants, for example fertilizers, wastewater or human excreta from pit latrines.<a href="#cite_note-Caretta_etal-2022-60">[60]</a>: 611 Droughts reduce river dilution capacities and groundwater levels, increasing the risk of groundwater contamination. Aquifer systems that are vulnerable to climate change include the following examples (the first four are largely independent of human withdrawals, unlike examples 5 to 8 where the intensity of human groundwater withdrawals plays a key role in amplifying vulnerability to climate change):<a href="#cite_note-WWDR2022-19">[19]</a>: 109 <ol><li>low-relief coastal and deltaic aquifer systems,</li> <li>aquifer systems in continental northern latitudes or alpine and polar regions</li> <li>aquifers in rapidly expanding low-income cities and large displaced and informal communities</li> <li>shallow alluvial aquifers underlying seasonal rivers in drylands,</li> <li>intensively pumped aquifer systems for groundwater-fed irrigation in drylands</li> <li>intensively pumped aquifers for dryland cities</li> <li>intensively pumped coastal aquifers</li> <li>low-storage/low-recharge aquifer systems in drylands</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Climate_change_adaptation">Climate change adaptation</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Climate change adaptation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Using more groundwater, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, is seen as a method for <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">climate change adaptation</a> in the case that climate change causes more intense or frequent droughts.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Groundwater-based <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptations</a> to climate change exploit distributed groundwater storage and the capacity of aquifer systems to store seasonal or episodic water surpluses.<a href="#cite_note-WWDR2022-19">[19]</a>: 5 They incur substantially lower evaporative losses than conventional infrastructure, such as surface dams. For example, in <a href="/wiki/Tropical_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical Africa">tropical Africa</a>, pumping water from groundwater storage can help to improve the <a href="/wiki/Climate_resilience" title="Climate resilience">climate resilience</a> of water and food supplies.<a href="#cite_note-WWDR2022-19">[19]</a>: 110 <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Climate_change_mitigation">Climate change mitigation</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Climate change mitigation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The development of <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">geothermal energy</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">sustainable energy</a> source, plays an important role in reducing CO2 emissions and thus <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">mitigating climate change</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WWDR2022-19">[19]</a>: 5 Groundwater is an agent in the storage, movement, and extraction of geothermal energy.<a href="#cite_note-WWDR2022-19">[19]</a>: 110 In pioneering nations, such as the Netherlands and Sweden, the ground/groundwater is increasingly seen as just one component (a seasonal source, sink or thermal 'buffer') in <a href="/wiki/District_heating" title="District heating">district heating</a> and cooling networks.<a href="#cite_note-WWDR2022-19">[19]</a>: 113 Deep aquifers can also be used for <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_sequestration" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon capture and sequestration">carbon capture and sequestration</a>, the process of storing carbon to curb accumulation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.<a href="#cite_note-WWDR2022-19">[19]</a>: 5 </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Groundwater_governance">Groundwater governance</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Groundwater governance" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:High_plains_fresh_groundwater_usage_2000.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/High_plains_fresh_groundwater_usage_2000.svg/220px-High_plains_fresh_groundwater_usage_2000.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="279" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="747" data-file-height="946"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 279px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/High_plains_fresh_groundwater_usage_2000.svg/220px-High_plains_fresh_groundwater_usage_2000.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="279" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/High_plains_fresh_groundwater_usage_2000.svg/330px-High_plains_fresh_groundwater_usage_2000.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/High_plains_fresh_groundwater_usage_2000.svg/440px-High_plains_fresh_groundwater_usage_2000.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Groundwater withdrawal rates from the <a href="/wiki/Ogallala_Aquifer" title="Ogallala Aquifer">Ogallala Aquifer</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Central_United_States" title="Central United States">Central United States</a></figcaption></figure>Groundwater <a href="/wiki/Governance" title="Governance">governance</a> processes enable groundwater management, planning and policy implementation. It takes place at multiple scales and geographic levels, including regional and transboundary scales.<a href="#cite_note-WWDR2022-19">[19]</a>: 2 Groundwater management is action-oriented, focusing on practical implementation activities and day-to-day operations. Because groundwater is often perceived as a private resource (that is, closely connected to land ownership, and in some jurisdictions treated as privately owned), regulation and top–down governance and management are difficult. Governments need to fully assume their role as resource custodians in view of the common-good aspects of groundwater.<a href="#cite_note-WWDR2022-19">[19]</a>: 2 Domestic laws and regulations regulate access to groundwater as well as human activities that impact the quality of groundwater. Legal frameworks also need to include protection of discharge and recharge zones and of the area surrounding water supply wells, as well as sustainable yield norms and abstraction controls, and conjunctive use regulations. In some jurisdictions, groundwater is regulated in conjunction with surface water, including rivers.<a href="#cite_note-WWDR2022-19">[19]</a>: 2 </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="By_country">By country</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: By country" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> Groundwater is an important <a href="/wiki/Water_resources" title="Water resources">water resource</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">supply of drinking water</a>, especially in <a href="/wiki/Arid" class="mw-redirect" title="Arid">arid</a> countries. The <a href="/wiki/Arab_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab region">Arab region</a> is one of the most water-scarce in the world and groundwater is the most relied-upon water source in at least 11 of the 22 Arab states. Over-extraction of groundwater in many parts of the region has led to groundwater table declines, especially in highly populated and agricultural areas.<a href="#cite_note-WWDR2022-19">[19]</a>: 7 <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Special:Search/intitle:%22Groundwater%22" title='Special:Search/intitle:"Groundwater"'>All pages with titles containing Groundwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baseflow" title="Baseflow">Baseflow</a> – Stream flow between precipitation events</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aquifers" title="List of aquifers">List of aquifers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aquifers_in_the_United_States" title="List of aquifers in the United States">List of aquifers in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resources" title="Water resources">Water resources</a> – Sources of water that are potentially useful for humans</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Water security</a> – A goal of water management to harness water-related opportunities and manage risks</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output 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href="https://water.usgs.gov/ogw/">USGS Office of Groundwater</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iah.org/">IAH, International Association of Hydrogeologists</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gw-project.org/">The Groundwater Project</a> Online platform for groundwater knowledge</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://upgro.org/">UGPRO</a> 7-year research project on the "Potential of Groundwater for the Poor" (2013–2020)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div></section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&mobile=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Groundwater&oldid=1254559305">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Groundwater&oldid=1254559305</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Groundwater&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 31 October 2024, at 16:04 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grondwater" title="Grondwater – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Grondwater" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grundwasser" title="Grundwasser – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Grundwasser" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%87_%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="مياه جوفية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مياه جوفية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agua_soterra%C3%B1o" title="Agua soterraño – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Agua soterraño" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeralt%C4%B1_sular" title="Yeraltı sular – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Yeraltı sular" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D8%A6%D8%B1%D8%A2%D9%84%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="یئرآلتی سولار – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="یئرآلتی سولار" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF" title="ভূগর্ভস্থ পানি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভূগর্ভস্থ পানি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C4%93-h%C4%81-ch%C3%BAi" title="Tē-hā-chúi – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tē-hā-chúi" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%80_%D0%B0%D2%AB%D1%82%D1%8B_%D2%BB%D1%8B%D1%83%D2%99%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Ер аҫты һыуҙары – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ер аҫты һыуҙары" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Падземныя воды – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Падземныя воды" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Падземныя воды – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Падземныя воды" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8" title="Подземни води – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Подземни води" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podzemna_voda" title="Podzemna voda – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Podzemna voda" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aigua_subterr%C3%A0nia" title="Aigua subterrània – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Aigua subterrània" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podzemn%C3%AD_voda" title="Podzemní voda – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Podzemní voda" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C5%B5r_daear" title="Dŵr daear – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Dŵr daear" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grundvand" title="Grundvand – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Grundvand" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grundwasser" title="Grundwasser – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Grundwasser" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B5hjavesi" title="Põhjavesi – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Põhjavesi" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%B4%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%81%CF%8C" title="Εδαφικό νερό – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Εδαφικό νερό" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agua_subterr%C3%A1nea" title="Agua subterránea – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Agua subterránea" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grundakvo" title="Grundakvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Grundakvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lurpeko_ura" title="Lurpeko ura – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Lurpeko ura" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%A8%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%B2%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C" title="آب‌های زیرزمینی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آب‌های زیرزمینی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eau_souterraine" title="Eau souterraine – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Eau souterraine" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screamhuisce" title="Screamhuisce – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Screamhuisce" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augas_subterr%C3%A1neas" title="Augas subterráneas – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Augas subterráneas" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D3%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0_%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%88" title="Лаьтта кӀалхара хиш – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Лаьтта кӀалхара хиш" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%80%ED%95%98%EC%88%98" title="지하수 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="지하수" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%A3%D5%A5%D5%BF%D5%B6%D5%B5%D5%A1_%D5%BB%D6%80%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Ստորգետնյա ջրեր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ստորգետնյա ջրեր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B2" title="भूजल – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="भूजल" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podzemne_vode" title="Podzemne vode – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Podzemne vode" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquo_subterala" title="Aquo subterala – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Aquo subterala" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_tanah" title="Air tanah – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Air tanah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grunnvatn" title="Grunnvatn – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Grunnvatn" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%99_%D7%AA%D7%94%D7%95%D7%9D" title="מי תהום – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מי תהום" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9C%E0%B2%B2" title="ಅಂತರ್ಜಲ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಅಂತರ್ಜಲ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%AC%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A5%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%A8%E1%83%90_%E1%83%AC%E1%83%A7%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="მიწისქვეშა წყალი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მიწისქვეშა წყალი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B_%D1%81%D1%83%D1%8B" title="Жер асты суы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Жер асты суы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dowr_dor" title="Dowr dor – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Dowr dor" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%8B_%D1%81%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Жер астындагы суулар – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Жер астындагы суулар" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqua_terrestris" title="Aqua terrestris – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Aqua terrestris" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pazemes_%C5%ABde%C5%86i" title="Pazemes ūdeņi – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Pazemes ūdeņi" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Po%C5%BEeminis_vanduo" title="Požeminis vanduo – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Požeminis vanduo" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C3%B3ndjwater" title="Gróndjwater – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Gróndjwater" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8" title="Подземни води – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Подземни води" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AD%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%AD%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%82" title="ഭൂഗർഭജലം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഭൂഗർഭജലം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilma_ta%27_ta%C4%A7t_l-art" title="Ilma ta' taħt l-art – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Ilma ta' taħt l-art" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B2" title="भूजल – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="भूजल" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_tanah" title="Air tanah – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Air tanah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D2%AF%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%83%D1%81" title="Гүний ус – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Гүний ус" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grondwater" title="Grondwater – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Grondwater" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E4%B8%8B%E6%B0%B4" title="地下水 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="地下水" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B0%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0_%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%88" title="Лаьттан бухара хиш – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Лаьттан бухара хиш" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grunnvann" title="Grunnvann – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Grunnvann" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grunnvatn" title="Grunnvatn – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Grunnvatn" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aiga_sosterranha" title="Aiga sosterranha – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Aiga sosterranha" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yer_osti_suvlari" title="Yer osti suvlari – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Yer osti suvlari" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A3%E0%A9%80" title="ਜ਼ਮੀਨੀ ਪਾਣੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਜ਼ਮੀਨੀ ਪਾਣੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C_%D9%BE%D8%A7%DD%A8%DB%8C" title="زمینی پاݨی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="زمینی پاݨی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wody_podziemne" title="Wody podziemne – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wody podziemne" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81gua_subterr%C3%A2nea" title="Água subterrânea – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Água subterrânea" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ape_subterane" title="Ape subterane – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Ape subterane" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Підземна вода – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Підземна вода" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Подземные воды – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Подземные воды" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uj%C3%ABrat_n%C3%ABntok%C3%ABsor%C3%AB" title="Ujërat nëntokësorë – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Ujërat nëntokësorë" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farda" title="Farda – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Farda" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Groundwater" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podzemn%C3%A1_voda" title="Podzemná voda – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Podzemná voda" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podtalnica" title="Podtalnica – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Podtalnica" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%D8%A7%D9%88%DB%8C_%DA%98%DB%8E%D8%B1%D8%B2%DB%95%D9%88%DB%8C" title="ئاوی ژێرزەوی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئاوی ژێرزەوی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5" title="Подземне воде – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Подземне воде" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podzemne_vode" title="Podzemne vode – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Podzemne vode" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cai_taneuh" title="Cai taneuh – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Cai taneuh" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pohjavesi" title="Pohjavesi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Pohjavesi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grundvatten" title="Grundvatten – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Grundvatten" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF_%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D" title="நிலத்தடி நீர் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நிலத்தடி நீர்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AD%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%97%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AD_%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%82" title="భూగర్భ జలం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="భూగర్భ జలం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B3%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A5" title="น้ำบาดาล – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="น้ำบาดาล" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy mw-list-item"><a href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9C%E0%B2%B2" title="ಅಂತರ್ಜಲ – Tulu" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy" data-title="ಅಂತರ್ಜಲ" data-language-autonym="ತುಳು" data-language-local-name="Tulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">ತುಳು</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yer_alt%C4%B1_suyu" title="Yer altı suyu – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yer altı suyu" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BD%D1%96_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8" title="Підземні води – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Підземні води" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B1_%D8%B2%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86_%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="زیر زمین پانی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="زیر زمین پانی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bc_d%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bi_%C4%91%E1%BA%A5t" title="Nước dưới đất – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nước dưới đất" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E4%B8%8B%E6%B0%B4" title="地下水 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="地下水" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E4%B8%8B%E6%B0%B4" title="地下水 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="地下水" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E4%B8%8B%E6%B0%B4" title="地下水 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="地下水" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 31 October 2024, at 16:04 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places" class="footer-places hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a 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