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href="#Discrimination_based_on_sexual_orientation_or_gender_identity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discrimination_based_on_sexual_orientation_or_gender_identity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Power_of_Congress_to_enforce_civil_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Power_of_Congress_to_enforce_civil_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Power of Congress to enforce civil rights</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Power_of_Congress_to_enforce_civil_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Immunity_from_civil_rights_violations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immunity_from_civil_rights_violations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Immunity from civil rights violations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immunity_from_civil_rights_violations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Birth_control_and_abortion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Birth_control_and_abortion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Birth control and abortion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Birth_control_and_abortion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>End of life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citizenship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citizenship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>Citizenship</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citizenship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Freedom_of_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Freedom_of_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.9</span> <span>Freedom of movement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Freedom_of_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Restrictions_on_involuntary_commitment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Restrictions_on_involuntary_commitment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.10</span> <span>Restrictions on involuntary commitment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Restrictions_on_involuntary_commitment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_health_and_safety" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_health_and_safety"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11</span> <span>Public health and safety</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_health_and_safety-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_areas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_areas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.12</span> <span>Other areas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_areas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criminal_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criminal_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Criminal law</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criminal_law-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Criminal law subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Criminal_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fourth_Amendment_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fourth_Amendment_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Fourth Amendment rights</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fourth_Amendment_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Right_to_counsel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Right_to_counsel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Right to counsel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Right_to_counsel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_rights_regarding_counsel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_rights_regarding_counsel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Other rights regarding counsel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_rights_regarding_counsel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Right_to_remain_silent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Right_to_remain_silent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Right to remain silent</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Right_to_remain_silent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Competence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Competence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Competence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Competence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Detention_of_terrorism_suspects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Detention_of_terrorism_suspects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Detention of terrorism suspects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Detention_of_terrorism_suspects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Capital_punishment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Capital_punishment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Capital punishment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Capital_punishment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_criminal_sentences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_criminal_sentences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Other criminal sentences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_criminal_sentences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_areas_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_areas_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Other areas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_areas_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Federalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Federalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Federalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Federalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Native_American_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Native_American_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Native American law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Native_American_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_Amendment_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_Amendment_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>First Amendment rights</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-First_Amendment_rights-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle First Amendment rights subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-First_Amendment_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General_aspects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_aspects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>General aspects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_aspects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Freedom_of_speech_and_of_the_press" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Freedom_of_speech_and_of_the_press"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Freedom of speech and of the press</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Freedom_of_speech_and_of_the_press-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Freedom_of_religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Freedom_of_religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Freedom of religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Freedom_of_religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Freedom_of_association" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Freedom_of_association"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Freedom of association</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Freedom_of_association-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Freedom_of_petition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Freedom_of_petition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Freedom of petition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Freedom_of_petition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_Amendment_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_Amendment_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Second Amendment rights</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_Amendment_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Third_Amendment_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Third_Amendment_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Third Amendment rights</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Third_Amendment_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fourteenth_Amendment_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fourteenth_Amendment_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Fourteenth Amendment rights</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fourteenth_Amendment_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Separation_of_powers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Separation_of_powers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Separation of powers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Separation_of_powers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Administrative_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Administrative_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Administrative law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Administrative_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Executive_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Executive_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Executive power</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Executive_power-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Executive power subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Executive_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Domestic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Domestic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Domestic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Domestic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Foreign</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_areas_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_areas_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Other areas</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_areas_3-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Other areas subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Other_areas_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Voting_and_Redistricting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Voting_and_Redistricting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Voting and Redistricting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Voting_and_Redistricting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Takings_Clause" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Takings_Clause"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Takings Clause</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Takings_Clause-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Businesses/Corporations/Contracts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Businesses/Corporations/Contracts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.3</span> <span>Businesses/Corporations/Contracts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Businesses/Corporations/Contracts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Copyright/Patents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Copyright/Patents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.4</span> <span>Copyright/Patents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Copyright/Patents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.5</span> <span>Other</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> 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searchaux" style="display:none">Important decisions of US courts</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other landmark cases lists, see <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_landmark_court_decisions" title="Lists of landmark court decisions">Lists of landmark court decisions</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p>The following <b>landmark court decisions in the United States</b> contains landmark court decisions which changed the interpretation of existing <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>. Such a <a href="/wiki/Court_decision" class="mw-redirect" title="Court decision">decision</a> may settle the law in more than one way: </p> <ul><li>establishing a significant new <a href="/wiki/Legal_doctrine" title="Legal doctrine">legal principle</a> or concept;</li> <li>overturning prior precedent based on its negative effects or flaws in its reasoning;</li> <li>distinguishing a new principle that refines a prior principle, thus departing from prior practice without violating the rule of <i><a href="/wiki/Stare_decisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Stare decisis">stare decisis</a></i>;</li> <li>establishing a test or a measurable standard that can be applied by courts in future decisions.</li></ul> <p>In the United States, landmark court decisions come most frequently from the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_courts_of_appeals" title="United States courts of appeals">United States courts of appeals</a> may also make such decisions, particularly if the Supreme Court chooses not to review the case. Although many cases from <a href="/wiki/State_supreme_court" title="State supreme court">state supreme courts</a> are significant in developing the law of that state, only a few are so revolutionary that they announce standards that many other state courts then choose to follow. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Individual_rights">Individual rights</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Individual rights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discrimination_based_on_race_and_ethnicity">Discrimination based on race and ethnicity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Discrimination based on race and ethnicity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_60" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 60">60</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/60/393/">393</a> (1857)</b> People of <a href="/wiki/African_American" class="mw-redirect" title="African American">African descent</a> that are slaves or were slaves and subsequently freed, along with their descendants, cannot be <a href="/wiki/United_States_citizens" class="mw-redirect" title="United States citizens">United States citizens</a>. Consequently, they cannot sue in <a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">federal court</a>. <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a> cannot be prohibited in <a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">U.S. territories</a> before they are <a href="/wiki/Admission_to_the_Union" title="Admission to the Union">admitted to the Union</a> as doing so would violate the <a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifth Amendment</a>. After the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a>, this decision was <b>voided</b> by the <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="List of amendments to the United States Constitution">Amendments</a> to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">Constitution</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Strauder_v._West_Virginia" title="Strauder v. West Virginia">Strauder v. West Virginia</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_100" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 100">100</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/100/303/">303</a> (1880)</b> The exclusion of individuals from <a href="/wiki/Juries_in_the_United_States" title="Juries in the United States">juries</a> solely because of their race is a violation of the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a>. This was the first time that the Supreme Court reversed a state criminal conviction due to a violation of a <a href="/wiki/United_States_constitutional_criminal_procedure" title="United States constitutional criminal procedure">constitutional provision concerning criminal procedure</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yick_Wo_v._Hopkins" title="Yick Wo v. Hopkins">Yick Wo v. Hopkins</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_118" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 118">118</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/118/356/">356</a> (1886)</b> Racially discriminatory application of a racially neutral statute violates the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_163" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 163">163</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/163/537/">537</a> (1896)</b> <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">Segregated</a> facilities for blacks and whites are constitutional under the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">separate but equal</a>. As long as the separate facilities are equal in quality, then such separation is not unconstitutional. <b>(<i>De facto</i> overruled by <i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> (1954))</b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Missouri_ex_rel._Gaines_v._Canada" title="Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada">Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_305" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 305">305</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/305/337/">337</a> (1938)</b> States with racially segregated educational systems cannot satisfy the "separate but equal" provision of <i>Plessy</i> merely by offering to pay for black students to be educated at an out-of-state institution; they must offer those opportunities in-state.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Smith_v._Allwright" title="Smith v. Allwright">Smith v. Allwright</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_321" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 321">321</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/321/649/">649</a> (1944)</b> Primary elections must be open to voters of all races.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Steele_v._Louisville_%26_Nashville_Railway_Co." title="Steele v. Louisville & Nashville Railway Co.">Steele v. Louisville & Nashville Railway Co.</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_323" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 323">323</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/323/192/">192</a> (1944)</b> Imposed <a href="/wiki/Duty_of_fair_representation" title="Duty of fair representation">duty of fair representation</a> on labor unions, requiring that they represent all members of their bargaining unit equally, without regard to race or union membership (later understood to include other protected categories, and eventually all misfeasance or malfeasance in the act of representing a member).</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Korematsu_v._United_States" title="Korematsu v. United States">Korematsu v. United States</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_323" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 323">323</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/323/214/">214</a> (1944)</b> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a> <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_9066" title="Executive Order 9066">Executive Order 9066</a> is constitutional; therefore, American citizens of <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Americans" title="Japanese Americans">Japanese descent</a> can be <a href="/wiki/Japanese_American_internment" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese American internment">interned</a> and deprived of their basic constitutional rights. This case featured the first application of <a href="/wiki/Strict_scrutiny" title="Strict scrutiny">strict scrutiny</a> to <a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">racial discrimination</a> by the government. (<b>Potentially overruled by <i><a href="/wiki/Trump_v._Hawaii" title="Trump v. Hawaii">Trump v. Hawaii</a></i> (2018))</b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Morgan_v._Virginia" title="Morgan v. Virginia">Morgan v. Virginia</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_328" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 328">328</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/328/373/">373</a> (1946)</b> A Virginia law that enforces <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">segregation</a> on interstate buses is unconstitutional.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shelley_v._Kraemer" title="Shelley v. Kraemer">Shelley v. Kraemer</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_334" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 334">334</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/334/1/">1</a> (1948)</b> Courts may not enforce racial <a href="/wiki/Covenant_(law)" title="Covenant (law)">covenants</a> on <a href="/wiki/Real_estate" title="Real estate">real estate</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sweatt_v._Painter" title="Sweatt v. Painter">Sweatt v. Painter</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_339" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 339">339</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/339/629/">629</a> (1950)</b> and <i><a href="/wiki/McLaurin_v._Oklahoma_State_Regents" title="McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents">McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_339" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 339">339</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/339/637/">637</a> (1950)</b> Segregation in <a href="/wiki/Tertiary_education" title="Tertiary education">higher education</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Law_school" title="Law school">law schools</a> and <a href="/wiki/Postgraduate_education" title="Postgraduate education">graduate programs</a> respectively, violates the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a>. Laid the groundwork for the desegregation of all schools in <i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i>, four years later.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Henderson_v._United_States_(1950)" title="Henderson v. United States (1950)">Henderson v. United States</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_339" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 339">339</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/339/816/">816</a> (1950)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Act_of_1887" title="Interstate Commerce Act of 1887">Interstate Commerce Act of 1887</a> makes it unlawful for a railroad that engages in interstate commerce to subject any particular person to any undue or unreasonable prejudice or disadvantage in any respect whatsoever.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hernandez_v._Texas" title="Hernandez v. Texas">Hernandez v. Texas</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_347" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 347">347</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/347/475/">475</a> (1954)</b> The equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment covers any racial, national, and ethnic groups of the United States against whom discrimination can be proved.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_347" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 347">347</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/347/483/">483</a> (1954)</b> <a href="/wiki/School_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="School segregation in the United States">Segregated schools</a> in the states are unconstitutional because they violate the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>. The Court found that the <a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">separate but equal</a> doctrine adopted in <i>Plessy</i> "has no place in the field of public education".</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bolling_v._Sharpe" title="Bolling v. Sharpe">Bolling v. Sharpe</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_347" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 347">347</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/347/497/">497</a> (1954)</b> Segregated schools in the <a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="District of Columbia">District of Columbia</a> violate the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a> as incorporated against the federal government by the <a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifth Amendment</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Keys_v._Carolina_Coach_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company">Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company</a></i>, <b>64 MCC 769 (1955)</b> According to the <a href="/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Commission" title="Interstate Commerce Commission">Interstate Commerce Commission</a>, the non-discrimination language of the <a href="/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Act_of_1887" title="Interstate Commerce Act of 1887">Interstate Commerce Act of 1887</a> bans <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">racial segregation</a> on buses traveling across state lines. The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> later adopted and expanded this decision in <i>Boynton v. Virginia</i> (1960).</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></i>, <b>142 F.Supp. 707 (M.D. Ala. 1956)</b> Bus segregation is unconstitutional under the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gomillion_v._Lightfoot" title="Gomillion v. Lightfoot">Gomillion v. Lightfoot</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_364" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 364">364</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/364/339/">339</a> (1960)</b> Electoral district boundaries drawn only to disenfranchise blacks violate the <a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifteenth Amendment</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Boynton_v._Virginia" title="Boynton v. Virginia">Boynton v. Virginia</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_364" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 364">364</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/364/454/">454</a> (1960)</b> <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">Racial segregation</a> in all forms of public transportation is illegal under the <a href="/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Act_of_1887" title="Interstate Commerce Act of 1887">Interstate Commerce Act of 1887</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Garner_v._Louisiana" title="Garner v. Louisiana">Garner v. Louisiana</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_368" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 368">368</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/368/157/">157</a> (1961)</b> Peaceful sit-in demonstrators protesting segregationist policies cannot be arrested under a state's "disturbing the peace" laws.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Heart_of_Atlanta_Motel,_Inc._v._United_States" title="Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States">Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States</a>,</i> <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_379" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 379">379</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/379/241/">241</a> (1964)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce Clause</a> gives Congress power to force private businesses to abide by <a href="/wiki/Title_II_of_the_Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" class="mw-redirect" title="Title II of the Civil Rights Act of 1964">Title II of the Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>, which prohibits discrimination in <a href="/wiki/Public_accommodations" class="mw-redirect" title="Public accommodations">public accommodations</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_388" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 388">388</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/388/1/">1</a> (1967)</b> Laws that prohibit interracial marriage (<a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-miscegenation laws in the United States">anti-miscegenation laws</a>) are unconstitutional.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Swann_v._Charlotte-Mecklenburg_Board_of_Education" title="Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education">Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_402" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 402">402</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/402/1/">1</a> (1971)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Desegregation_busing" title="Desegregation busing">busing</a> of students to promote racial integration in public schools is constitutional.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Griggs_v._Duke_Power_Co." title="Griggs v. Duke Power Co.">Griggs v. Duke Power Co.</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_401" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 401">401</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/401/424/">424</a> (1971)</b> Redefined discrimination from meaning unequal treatment to meaning failure to make special allowances for the historically-imposed circumstances of protected groups.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gates_v._Collier" title="Gates v. Collier">Gates v. Collier</a></i>, <b>501 F.2d 1291 (5th Cir. 1974)</b> This decision brought an end to the <a href="/wiki/Trusty_system_(prison)" title="Trusty system (prison)">trusty system</a> and flagrant inmate abuse at the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_State_Penitentiary" title="Mississippi State Penitentiary">Mississippi State Penitentiary</a> in Parchman, Mississippi. It was the first body of law developed in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Fifth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit">Fifth Circuit</a> that abolished <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">racial segregation</a> in prisons and held that a variety of forms of <a href="/wiki/Corporal_punishment" title="Corporal punishment">corporal punishment</a> against prisoners is considered <a href="/wiki/Cruel_and_unusual_punishment" title="Cruel and unusual punishment">cruel and unusual punishment</a> in violation of the <a href="/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Eighth Amendment</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Runyon_v._McCrary" title="Runyon v. McCrary">Runyon v. McCrary</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_427" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 427">427</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/427/160/">160</a> (1976)</b> <a href="/wiki/Private_schools" class="mw-redirect" title="Private schools">Private schools</a> that discriminate on the basis of race or establish <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial segregation</a> are in violation of federal law.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Regents_of_the_University_of_California_v._Bakke" title="Regents of the University of California v. Bakke">Regents of the University of California v. Bakke</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_438" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 438">438</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/438/265/">265</a> (1978)</b> <a href="/wiki/Racial_quota" title="Racial quota">Racial quotas</a> in educational institutions violate the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a>, but a more narrowly tailored use of race in admission decisions may be permissible. <b>(Partially overruled by <i><a href="/wiki/Students_for_Fair_Admissions_v._Harvard" title="Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard">Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard</a></i> (2023))</b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Batson_v._Kentucky" title="Batson v. Kentucky">Batson v. Kentucky</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_476" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 476">476</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/476/79/">79</a> (1986)</b> Prosecutors may not use <a href="/wiki/Peremptory_challenge" title="Peremptory challenge">peremptory challenges</a> to dismiss jurors based on their race.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Adarand_Constructors,_Inc._v._Pe%C3%B1a" title="Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Peña">Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Peña</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_515" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 515">515</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/515/200/">200</a> (1995)</b> Race-based discrimination, including discrimination in favor of minorities (<a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States" title="Affirmative action in the United States">affirmative action</a>), must pass <a href="/wiki/Strict_scrutiny" title="Strict scrutiny">strict scrutiny</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gratz_v._Bollinger" title="Gratz v. Bollinger">Gratz v. Bollinger</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_539" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 539">539</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/539/244/">244</a> (2003)</b> The <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan" title="University of Michigan">University of Michigan’s</a> “points system” of undergraduate <a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">affirmative action</a> violated the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a>. Decided alongside <i>Grutter v. Bollinger</i>, which held constitutional the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Law_School" title="University of Michigan Law School">University of Michigan Law School’s</a> affirmative action program.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Grutter_v._Bollinger" title="Grutter v. Bollinger">Grutter v. Bollinger</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_539" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 539">539</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/539/306/">306</a> (2003)</b> A narrowly tailored use of race in student admission decisions may be permissible under the Equal Protection Clause because a diverse student body is beneficial to all students. This was hinted at in <i>Regents v. Bakke</i> (1978). <b>(Overruled by <i><a href="/wiki/Students_for_Fair_Admissions_v._Harvard" title="Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard">Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard</a></i> (2023))</b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Schuette_v._Coalition_to_Defend_Affirmative_Action" class="mw-redirect" title="Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action">Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_572" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 572">572</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/572/291/">291</a> (2014)</b> A Michigan state constitutional amendment that bans affirmative action does not violate the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Students_for_Fair_Admissions_v._Harvard" title="Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard">Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_600" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 600">600</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/600/181/">181</a> (2023)</b> and <i><a href="/wiki/Students_for_Fair_Admissions_v._University_of_North_Carolina" class="mw-redirect" title="Students for Fair Admissions v. University of North Carolina">Students for Fair Admissions v. University of North Carolina</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_600" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 600">600</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/600/181/">181</a> (2023)</b> Race-based <a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">affirmative action</a> programs in civilian <a href="/wiki/College_admissions_in_the_United_States" title="College admissions in the United States">college admissions</a> processes at colleges and universities receiving federal funds violate the Equal Protection Clause.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discrimination_based_on_sex">Discrimination based on sex</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Discrimination based on sex"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Muller_v._Oregon" title="Muller v. Oregon">Muller v. Oregon</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_208" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 208">208</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/208/412/">412</a> (1908)</b> Oregon's restrictions on the working hours of women are constitutional under the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a> because they are justified by the strong state interest in protecting women's health.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Glasser_v._United_States" title="Glasser v. United States">Glasser v. United States</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_315" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 315">315</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/315/60/">60</a> (1942)</b> The exclusion of women from the jury pool, other than members of the League of Women Voters who have attended a jury training class, violates the fair cross-section requirement of the Impartial Jury Clause of the Sixth Amendment. Noteworthy for being the first majority opinion of the Court to use the phrase "cross-section of the community" and the first jury discrimination case to invoke the <a href="/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Sixth Amendment</a> rather than <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Phillips_v._Martin_Marietta_Corp." title="Phillips v. Martin Marietta Corp.">Phillips v. Martin Marietta Corp.</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_400" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 400">400</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/400/542/">542</a> (1971)</b> An employer may not, in the absence of business necessity, refuse to hire women with preschool-age children while hiring men with such children.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reed_v._Reed" title="Reed v. Reed">Reed v. Reed</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_404" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 404">404</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/404/71/">71</a> (1971)</b> Administrators of <a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">estates</a> cannot be named in a way that discriminates on the basis of sex; the first time the Equal Protection Clause had been read by the Supreme Court as applying to sex.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Stanley_v._Illinois" title="Stanley v. Illinois">Stanley v. Illinois</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_405" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 405">405</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/405/645/">645</a> (1972)</b> Laws that automatically make the children of unmarried fathers wards of the state after their mother dies, but not the other way around, are unconstitutional. The first case in which the Supreme Court found men faced sex discrimination.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Frontiero_v._Richardson" title="Frontiero v. Richardson">Frontiero v. Richardson</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_411" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 411">411</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/411/677/">677</a> (1973)</b> <a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">Sex-based discriminations</a> are inherently suspect. A statute that automatically extends military benefits to the spouses of male members of the uniformed services, but requires the spouses of female members to prove they are dependent on the servicemember's income, is unconstitutional.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Taylor_v._Louisiana" title="Taylor v. Louisiana">Taylor v. Louisiana</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_419" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 419">419</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/419/522/">522</a> (1975)</b> Systematic exclusion of women from jury service on the basis of having to register for jury duty violates a criminal defendant's Sixth and Fourteenth Amendment rights.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Craig_v._Boren" title="Craig v. Boren">Craig v. Boren</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_429" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 429">429</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/429/190/">190</a> (1976)</b> Setting different minimum ages for females (18) and males (21) to be allowed to buy beer is unconstitutional sex-based discrimination contrary to the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_University_for_Women_v._Hogan" title="Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan">Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_458" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 458">458</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/458/718/">718</a> (1982)</b> The single-sex admissions policy of the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_University_for_Women" title="Mississippi University for Women">Mississippi University for Women</a>'s School of Nursing violated the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Price_Waterhouse_v._Hopkins" title="Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins">Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_490" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 490">490</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/490/228/">228</a> (1989)</b> Discrimination against an employee on the basis of sex stereotyping - that is, a person's nonconformity to social or other expectations of that person's gender - constitutes impermissible sex discrimination, in violation of <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964#Title_VII—equal_employment_opportunity" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>. The employer bears the burden of proving that the adverse employment action would have been the same if sex discrimination had not occurred.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/J.E.B._v._Alabama_ex_rel._T.B." title="J.E.B. v. Alabama ex rel. T.B.">J.E.B. v. Alabama ex rel. T.B.</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_511" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 511">511</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/511/127/">127</a> (1994)</b> Prosecutors may not use <a href="/wiki/Peremptory_challenge" title="Peremptory challenge">peremptory challenges</a> to dismiss jurors based on their sex.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Virginia" title="United States v. Virginia">United States v. Virginia</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_518" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 518">518</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/518/515/">515</a> (1996)</b> Sex-based "<a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">separate but equal</a>" military training facilities violate the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oncale_v._Sundowner_Offshore_Services" class="mw-redirect" title="Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services">Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_523" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 523">523</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/523/75/">75</a> (1998)</b> The protection of <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964#Title_VII—equal_employment_opportunity" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964</a> against <a href="/wiki/Workplace_discrimination" class="mw-redirect" title="Workplace discrimination">workplace discrimination</a> "because of... sex" applied to <a href="/wiki/Harassment" title="Harassment">harassment</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Workplace_harassment" title="Workplace harassment">workplace</a> between members of the same sex.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Burlington_Northern_%26_Santa_Fe_Railway_Co._v._White" title="Burlington Northern & Santa Fe Railway Co. v. White">Burlington Northern & Santa Fe Railway Co. v. White</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_548" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 548">548</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/548/53/">53</a> (2006)</b> The anti-retaliation provision under <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964#Title_VII—equal_employment_opportunity" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964</a> does not confine the actions and harms it forbids to those that are related to employment or occur at the workplace.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discrimination_based_on_sexual_orientation_or_gender_identity">Discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/One,_Inc._v._Olesen" title="One, Inc. v. Olesen">One, Inc. v. Olesen</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_355" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 355">355</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/355/371/">371</a> (1958)</b> Pro-homosexual writing is not <i>per se</i> obscene. This was the first Supreme Court ruling to deal with homosexuality and the first to address free speech rights with respect to homosexuality.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bowers_v._Hardwick" title="Bowers v. Hardwick">Bowers v. Hardwick</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_478" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 478">478</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/478/186/">186</a> (1986)</b> A Georgia law that criminalizes certain acts of private sexual conduct between homosexual persons does not violate the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>. <b>(Overruled by <i><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_v._Texas" title="Lawrence v. Texas">Lawrence v. Texas</a></i> (2003))</b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Romer_v._Evans" title="Romer v. Evans">Romer v. Evans</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_517" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 517">517</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/517/620/">620</a> (1996)</b> A Colorado state constitutional amendment that prevents homosexuals and bisexuals from being able to obtain protections under the law is a violation of the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a> of the Fourteenth Amendment.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_v._Texas" title="Lawrence v. Texas">Lawrence v. Texas</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_539" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 539">539</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/539/558/">558</a> (2003)</b> A Texas law that criminalizes consensual same-sex sexual conduct furthers no legitimate state interest and violates homosexuals' <a href="/wiki/Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States" title="Privacy laws of the United States">right to privacy</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>. This decision invalidates all of the remaining <a href="/wiki/Sodomy_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Sodomy laws in the United States">sodomy laws in the United States</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Goodridge_v._Department_of_Public_Health" title="Goodridge v. Department of Public Health">Goodridge v. Department of Public Health</a></i>, <b>440 <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Supreme_Judicial_Court" title="Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court">Mass.</a> 309 (2003)</b> The denial of marriage licenses to same-sex couples violates provisions of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Massachusetts" title="Constitution of Massachusetts">state constitution</a> guaranteeing individual liberty and equality and is not rationally related to a legitimate state interest. This was the first <a href="/wiki/State_court_(United_States)" title="State court (United States)">state court</a> decision in which same-sex couples won the right to marry.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Windsor" title="United States v. Windsor">United States v. Windsor</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_570" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 570">570</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/570/744/">744</a> (2013)</b> Section 3 of the <a href="/wiki/Defense_of_Marriage_Act" title="Defense of Marriage Act">Defense of Marriage Act</a> (<a href="/wiki/Title_1_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 1 of the United States Code">1 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/1/7">§ 7</a>), which defines—for <a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">federal law</a> purposes—the terms "marriage" and "spouse" to apply only to marriages between one man and one woman, is a deprivation of the equal liberty of the person protected by the <a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifth Amendment</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">federal government</a> must recognize <a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage_in_the_United_States" title="Same-sex marriage in the United States">same-sex marriages</a> that have been approved by the states. The legal provision of the Defense of Marriage Act which was the issue in this case was eventually repealed by section 3 of the <a href="/wiki/Respect_for_Marriage_Act" title="Respect for Marriage Act">Respect for Marriage Act</a> and replaced by section 5 of the Respect for Marriage Act (<a href="/wiki/Title_1_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 1 of the United States Code">1 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/1/7">§ 7</a>).</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Batson_v._Kentucky#SmithKline_v._Abbott" title="Batson v. Kentucky">SmithKline Beecham Corporation v. Abbott Laboratories</a></i>, <b>740 F.3d 471 (9th Cir. 2014)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a> prohibits <a href="/wiki/Peremptory_challenge" title="Peremptory challenge">peremptory strikes</a> to dismiss jurors based on their sexual orientation. This was the first holding by a <a href="/wiki/United_States_courts_of_appeals" title="United States courts of appeals">federal appeals court</a> that classifications based on sexual orientation must be subjected to <a href="/wiki/Intermediate_scrutiny#.22Intermediate.22_versus_.22heightened.22" title="Intermediate scrutiny">heightened scrutiny</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges" title="Obergefell v. Hodges">Obergefell v. Hodges</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_576" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 576">576</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/576/644/">644</a> (2015)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a> requires a state to license a marriage between two people of the same sex with all the accompanying rights and responsibilities and to recognize a marriage between two people of the same sex when their marriage was lawfully licensed and performed out-of-state.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bostock_v._Clayton_County" title="Bostock v. Clayton County">Bostock v. Clayton County</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_590" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 590">590</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/590/644/">644</a> (2020)</b>, <i><a href="/wiki/R.G._%26_G.R._Harris_Funeral_Homes_Inc._v._Equal_Employment_Opportunity_Commission" title="R.G. & G.R. Harris Funeral Homes Inc. v. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission">R.G. & G.R. Harris Funeral Homes Inc. v. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_590" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 590">590</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/590/644/">644</a> (2020)</b>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Altitude_Express,_Inc._v._Zarda" title="Altitude Express, Inc. v. Zarda">Altitude Express, Inc. v. Zarda</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_590" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 590">590</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/590/644/">644</a> (2020)</b>, Title VII of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a> protects employees against discrimination due to their sexual orientation or gender identity. The Supreme Court ruled under <i>Bostock</i> but the ruling covered all three cases.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Power_of_Congress_to_enforce_civil_rights">Power of Congress to enforce civil rights</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Power of Congress to enforce civil rights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Cases" title="Civil Rights Cases">Civil Rights Cases</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_109" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 109">109</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/109/3/">3</a> (1883)</b> Neither the <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth</a> nor the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth</a> Amendment empower <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> to safeguard blacks against the actions of private individuals. <b>(Partially overruled by <i><a href="/wiki/Jones_v._Alfred_H._Mayer_Co." title="Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.">Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.</a></i>)</b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Heart_of_Atlanta_Motel,_Inc._v._United_States" title="Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States">Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_379" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 379">379</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/379/241/">241</a> (1964)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a> applies to places of public accommodation patronized by interstate travelers by reason of the <a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce Clause</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Katzenbach_v._McClung" title="Katzenbach v. McClung">Katzenbach v. McClung</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_379" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 379">379</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/379/294/">294</a> (1964)</b> The power of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> to regulate interstate commerce extends to a restaurant that is not patronized by interstate travelers but which serves food that has moved in interstate commerce. This ruling makes the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a> apply to virtually all businesses.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_v._Katzenbach" title="South Carolina v. Katzenbach">South Carolina v. Katzenbach</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_383" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 383">383</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/383/301/">301</a> (1966)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a> is a valid exercise of Congress's power under Section 2 of the <a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifteenth Amendment</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Katzenbach_v._Morgan" title="Katzenbach v. Morgan">Katzenbach v. Morgan</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_384" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 384">384</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/384/641/">641</a> (1966)</b> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> may enact laws stemming from Section 5 of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a> that increase the rights of citizens beyond what the judiciary has recognized.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jones_v._Alfred_H._Mayer_Co." title="Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.">Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_392" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 392">392</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/392/409/">409</a> (1968)</b> Section 1982, part of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1866" title="Civil Rights Act of 1866">Civil Rights Act of 1866</a>, is constitutional under the <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth Amendment</a> and prohibits all <a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">racial discrimination</a> in the sale or rental of property.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/City_of_Boerne_v._Flores" title="City of Boerne v. Flores">City of Boerne v. Flores</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_521" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 521">521</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/521/507/">507</a> (1997)</b> Section 5 of the Fourteenth Amendment does not permit <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> to substantially increase the scope of the rights determined by the judiciary. Congress may only enact remedial or preventative measures that are consistent with the Fourteenth Amendment interpretations of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shelby_County_v._Holder" title="Shelby County v. Holder">Shelby County v. Holder</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_570" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 570">570</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/570/529/">529</a> (2013)</b> Section 4 of the <a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a> (<a href="/wiki/Title_15_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 15 of the United States Code">15 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/15/10303">§ 10303</a>) is unconstitutional; its coverage formula can no longer be used as a basis for subjecting jurisdictions to preclearance. Section 4(b) of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which contains the coverage formula that determines which state and local jurisdictions are subjected to federal preclearance from the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice" title="United States Department of Justice">Department of Justice</a> before implementing any changes to their voting laws or practices based on their histories of racial discrimination in voting, is unconstitutional because it no longer reflects current societal conditions.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Immunity_from_civil_rights_violations">Immunity from civil rights violations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Immunity from civil rights violations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Monroe_v._Pape" title="Monroe v. Pape">Monroe v. Pape</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_365" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 365">365</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/365/167/">167</a> (1961)</b> While municipalities can not be liable under the <a href="/wiki/Third_Enforcement_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Enforcement Act">Civil Rights Act of 1871</a>, individuals acting "under color of law" can be sued for damages for denying the constitutional rights of individuals. <b>(Partially overruled in <i><a href="/wiki/Monell_v._Department_of_Social_Services_of_the_City_of_New_York" title="Monell v. Department of Social Services of the City of New York">Monell v. Department of Social Services of the City of New York</a></i>, 436 U.S. 658 (1978))</b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pierson_v._Ray" title="Pierson v. Ray">Pierson v. Ray</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_386" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 386">386</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/386/547/">547</a> (1967)</b> Police officers are protected from being sued for civil rights violations under <a href="/wiki/Third_Enforcement_Act#As_later_amended_and_codified_as_section_1983" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Enforcement Act">Section 1983</a> by the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Qualified_immunity" title="Qualified immunity">qualified immunity</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Stump_v._Sparkman" title="Stump v. Sparkman">Stump v. Sparkman</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_435" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 435">435</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/435/349/">349</a> (1978)</b> A judge will not be deprived of <a href="/wiki/Judicial_immunity" title="Judicial immunity">judicial immunity</a> because the action he took was in error, was done maliciously, or was in excess of his authority. He will be subject to liability only when he has acted in the clear absence of all jurisdiction.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monell_v._Department_of_Social_Services_of_the_City_of_New_York" title="Monell v. Department of Social Services of the City of New York">Monell v. Department of Social Services of the City of New York</a>,</i> <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_436" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 436">436</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/436/658/">658</a> (1978)</b> Municipalities can be held liable for violations of Constitutional rights through <a href="/wiki/Title_42_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 42 of the United States Code">42 U.S.C.</a> § 1983 actions. §1983 claims against municipal entities must be based on implementation of a policy or custom.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harris_v._Harvey_(1979)" title="Harris v. Harvey (1979)">Harris v. Harvey</a></i>, <b>605 F.2d 330 (7th Cir. 1979)</b> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Seventh_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit">Seventh Circuit</a> established that a judge engaging in acts of public <a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">defamation</a> inspired by <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racial prejudice</a> is not protected by <a href="/wiki/Judicial_immunity" title="Judicial immunity">judicial immunity</a> and therefore a civil lawsuit against a judge can be brought under the <a href="/wiki/Third_Enforcement_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Enforcement Act">Civil Rights Act</a> (42 U.S.C. § 1983).</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Will_v._Michigan_Department_of_State_Police" title="Will v. Michigan Department of State Police">Will v. Michigan Department of State Police</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_491" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 491">491</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/491/58/">58</a> (1989)</b> Neither States nor state officials acting in their official capacities are "persons" within the meaning of 42 U.S.C. § 1983 when being sued for monetary damages.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Birth_control_and_abortion">Birth control and abortion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Birth control and abortion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Griswold_v._Connecticut" title="Griswold v. Connecticut">Griswold v. Connecticut</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_381" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 381">381</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/381/479/">479</a> (1965)</b> A Connecticut law that criminalizes the use of <a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">contraception</a> by married couples is unconstitutional because all Americans have a constitutionally protected <a href="/wiki/Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States" title="Privacy laws of the United States">right to privacy</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eisenstadt_v._Baird" title="Eisenstadt v. Baird">Eisenstadt v. Baird</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_405" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 405">405</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/405/438/">438</a> (1972)</b> A Massachusetts law that criminalizes the use of contraception by unmarried couples violates the right to privacy established in <i>Griswold</i> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Roe_v._Wade" title="Roe v. Wade">Roe v. Wade</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_410" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 410">410</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/410/113/">113</a> (1973)</b> Laws that restrict a woman's ability to have an <a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">abortion</a> prior to <a href="/wiki/Fetal_viability" title="Fetal viability">viability</a> are unconstitutional. Most restrictions during the first trimester are prohibited, and only health-related restrictions are permitted during the second trimester. <b>(Partially overruled by <i>Planned Parenthood v. Casey</i> (1992) and fully overruled by <i><a href="/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization" title="Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization">Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization</a></i> (2022))</b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Carey_v._Population_Services_International" title="Carey v. Population Services International">Carey v. Population Services International</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_431" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 431">431</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/431/678/">678</a> (1977)</b> Laws that restrict the sale, distribution, and advertisement of <a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">contraceptives</a> to both adults and minors are unconstitutional.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Planned_Parenthood_v._Casey" title="Planned Parenthood v. Casey">Planned Parenthood v. Casey</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_505" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 505">505</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/505/833/">833</a> (1992)</b> A woman is still able to have an abortion before viability, but several restrictions are now permitted during the first trimester. The strict trimester framework of <i>Roe</i> is discarded and replaced with the more flexible "<a href="/wiki/Planned_Parenthood_v._Casey#Undue_burden_standard" title="Planned Parenthood v. Casey">undue burden test</a>". <b>(Overruled by <i>Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization</i> (2022))</b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Stenberg_v._Carhart" title="Stenberg v. Carhart">Stenberg v. Carhart</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_530" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 530">530</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/530/914/">914</a> (2000)</b> Laws that ban partial-birth abortion are unconstitutional if they do not make an exception for the woman's health or if they cannot be reasonably construed to apply only to the partial-birth abortion procedure and not to other abortion methods.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gonzales_v._Carhart" title="Gonzales v. Carhart">Gonzales v. Carhart</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_550" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 550">550</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/550/124/">124</a> (2007)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Partial-Birth_Abortion_Ban_Act" title="Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act">Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act of 2003</a> is constitutional because it is less ambiguous than the law that was struck down in <i>Stenberg</i>. It is not vague or overbroad, and it does not impose an <a href="/wiki/Undue_burden_standard" title="Undue burden standard">undue burden</a> on a woman's right to choose to have an abortion.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Whole_Woman%27s_Health_v._Hellerstedt" title="Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt">Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_579" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 579">579</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/579/582/">582</a> (2016)</b> <a href="/wiki/Planned_Parenthood_v._Casey#Undue_burden_standard" title="Planned Parenthood v. Casey">Clarified</a> the <a href="/wiki/Undue_burden_standard" title="Undue burden standard">undue burden</a> standard which was developed in <i><a href="/wiki/City_of_Akron_v._Akron_Center_for_Reproductive_Health" title="City of Akron v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health">a case from 1983</a></i> and applied in the 1992 case <i><a href="/wiki/Planned_Parenthood_v._Casey" title="Planned Parenthood v. Casey">Planned Parenthood v. Casey</a>.</i> <b>(Overruled by <i>Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization</i> (2022))</b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization" title="Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization">Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_597" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 597">597</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/597/215/">215</a> (2022)</b> The constitution does not confer a right to abortion, overruling both <i><a href="/wiki/Roe_v._Wade" title="Roe v. Wade">Roe v. Wade</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Planned_Parenthood_v._Casey" title="Planned Parenthood v. Casey">Planned Parenthood v. Casey</a></i>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="End_of_life">End of life</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: End of life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cruzan_v._Director,_Missouri_Department_of_Health" title="Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Department of Health">Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Department of Health</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_497" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 497">497</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/497/261/">261</a> (1990)</b> When a family has requested the termination of life-sustaining treatments for their <a href="/wiki/Persistent_vegetative_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Persistent vegetative state">vegetative</a> relative, the state may constitutionally oppose this request if there is a lack of evidence of a clear earlier wish by said relative.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Washington_v._Glucksberg" title="Washington v. Glucksberg">Washington v. Glucksberg</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_521" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 521">521</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/521/702/">702</a> (1997)</b> <a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington</a>'s prohibition on <a href="/wiki/Assisted_suicide" title="Assisted suicide">assisted suicide</a> is constitutional.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vacco_v._Quill" title="Vacco v. Quill">Vacco v. Quill</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_521" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 521">521</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/521/793/">793</a> (1997)</b> <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a>'s prohibition on assisted suicide does not violate the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gonzales_v._Oregon" title="Gonzales v. Oregon">Gonzales v. Oregon</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_546" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 546">546</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/546/243/">243</a> (2006)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Controlled_Substances_Act" title="Controlled Substances Act">Controlled Substances Act</a> does not prevent physicians from being able to prescribe the drugs needed to perform assisted suicides under state law.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citizenship">Citizenship</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Citizenship"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Wong_Kim_Ark" title="United States v. Wong Kim Ark">United States v. Wong Kim Ark</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_169" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 169">169</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/169/649/">649</a> (1898)</b> With only a few narrow exceptions, every person born in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> acquires United States <a href="/wiki/Citizenship_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Citizenship in the United States">citizenship</a> at birth via the <a href="/wiki/Citizenship_Clause" title="Citizenship Clause">Citizenship Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Afroyim_v._Rusk" title="Afroyim v. Rusk">Afroyim v. Rusk</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_387" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 387">387</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/387/253/">253</a> (1967)</b> The right of citizenship is protected by the Citizenship Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> has no power under the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution</a> to revoke the American citizenship of any person unless the person relinquishes it voluntarily.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Freedom_of_movement">Freedom of movement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Freedom of movement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Crandall_v._Nevada" title="Crandall v. Nevada">Crandall v. Nevada</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_73" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 73">73</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/73/35/">35</a> (1868)</b> <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_movement_under_United_States_law" title="Freedom of movement under United States law">Freedom of movement</a> between states is a fundamental right; a state cannot inhibit people from leaving it by imposing a tax on doing so.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Wheeler_(1920)" title="United States v. Wheeler (1920)">United States v. Wheeler</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_254" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 254">254</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/254/281/">281</a> (1920)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution</a> grants to the states the power to prosecute individuals for wrongful interference with the right to travel.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Edwards_v._California" title="Edwards v. California">Edwards v. California</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_314" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 314">314</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/314/160/">160</a> (1941)</b> A state cannot prohibit indigent people from moving into it.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kent_v._Dulles" title="Kent v. Dulles">Kent v. Dulles</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_357" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 357">357</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/357/116/">116</a> (1958)</b> The right to travel is a part of the "liberty" of which the citizen cannot be deprived without due process of law under the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifth Amendment</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aptheker_v._Secretary_of_State" title="Aptheker v. Secretary of State">Aptheker v. Secretary of State</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_378" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 378">378</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/378/500/">500</a> (1964)</b> Section 6 of the <a href="/wiki/McCarran_Internal_Security_Act" title="McCarran Internal Security Act">Subversive Activities Control Act of 1950</a>, which makes it a crime for any member of a communist organization to attempt to use or obtain a passport, is an unconstitutional abridgment of the right to travel.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Guest" title="United States v. Guest">United States v. Guest</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_383" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 383">383</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/383/745/">745</a> (1966)</b> There is a constitutional right to travel from state to state, and the protections of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a> extend to citizens who suffer deprivations of their rights at the hands of a private conspiracy where there is state participation in the conspiracy, no matter how minimal.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shapiro_v._Thompson" title="Shapiro v. Thompson">Shapiro v. Thompson</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_394" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 394">394</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/394/618/">618</a> (1969)</b> The fundamental right to travel and the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a> forbid a state from reserving welfare benefits only for persons that have resided in the state for at least one year.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Saenz_v._Roe" title="Saenz v. Roe">Saenz v. Roe</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_526" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 526">526</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/526/489/">489</a> (1999)</b> A California law that limits new residents' benefits for the first year they live in the state is an unconstitutional violation of their right to travel.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Restrictions_on_involuntary_commitment">Restrictions on involuntary commitment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Restrictions on involuntary commitment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Jackson_v._Indiana" title="Jackson v. Indiana">Jackson v. Indiana</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_406" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 406">406</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/406/715/">715</a> (1972)</b> A state violates due process by <a href="/wiki/Involuntary_commitment" title="Involuntary commitment">involuntarily committing</a> a criminal defendant for an indefinite period of time solely on the basis of his or her permanent incompetency to stand trial on the charges filed against him or her.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/O%27Connor_v._Donaldson" title="O'Connor v. Donaldson">O'Connor v. Donaldson</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_422" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 422">422</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/422/563/">563</a> (1975)</b> A state cannot constitutionally confine a non-dangerous individual who is capable of surviving safely in freedom by themselves or with the help of willing and responsible family members or friends.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Addington_v._Texas" title="Addington v. Texas">Addington v. Texas</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_441" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 441">441</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/441/418/">418</a> (1979)</b> <a href="/wiki/Burden_of_proof_(law)#Clear_and_convincing_evidence" title="Burden of proof (law)">Clear and convincing evidence</a> is required by the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a> in a civil proceeding brought under state law to commit an individual involuntarily for an indefinite period to a state mental hospital.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Youngberg_v._Romeo" title="Youngberg v. Romeo">Youngberg v. Romeo</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_457" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 457">457</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/457/307/">307</a> (1982)</b> Involuntarily committed residents have protected liberty interests under the <a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process Clause</a> to reasonably safe conditions of confinement, freedom from unreasonable bodily restraints, and such minimally adequate training as reasonably may be required by these interests.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_health_and_safety">Public health and safety</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Public health and safety"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Compagnie_Francaise_de_Navigation_a_Vapeur_v._Louisiana_Board_of_Health" title="Compagnie Francaise de Navigation a Vapeur v. Louisiana Board of Health">Compagnie Francaise de Navigation a Vapeur v. Louisiana Board of Health</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_186" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 186">186</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/186/380/">380</a> (1902)</b> A state's <a href="/wiki/Police_power_(United_States_constitutional_law)" title="Police power (United States constitutional law)">police power</a> to enforce quarantine laws extends to restricting the movements of uninfected individuals.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jacobson_v._Massachusetts" title="Jacobson v. Massachusetts">Jacobson v. Massachusetts</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_197" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 197">197</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/197/11/">11</a> (1905)</b> Individual liberty is not absolute, and a state's police power must be held to embrace at least such reasonable regulations established directly by legislative enactment to protect public health and safety, which extends to <a href="/wiki/Compulsory_vaccination" class="mw-redirect" title="Compulsory vaccination">compulsory vaccination</a> laws.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zucht_v._King" title="Zucht v. King">Zucht v. King</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_260" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 260">260</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/260/174/">174</a> (1922)</b> School districts can constitutionally exclude unvaccinated students.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Buck_v._Bell" title="Buck v. Bell">Buck v. Bell</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_274" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 274">274</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/274/200/">200</a> (1927)</b> <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Sterilization_Act_of_1924" title="Virginia Sterilization Act of 1924">State statutes</a> permitting <a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">compulsory sterilization</a> of the unfit, including the <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_disability" title="Intellectual disability">intellectually disabled</a>, "for the protection and health of the state" did not violate the Due Process Clause of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment.</a> <b>(Partially overruled by <i><a href="/wiki/Skinner_v._Oklahoma" title="Skinner v. Oklahoma">Skinner v. Oklahoma</a></i> (1942) and fully by the <a href="/wiki/Americans_with_Disabilities_Act_of_1990" title="Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990">Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990</a>)</b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Prince_v._Massachusetts" title="Prince v. Massachusetts">Prince v. Massachusetts</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_321" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 321">321</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/321/158/">158</a> (1944)</b> States have broad authority to regulate the actions and treatment of children. Parental authority is not absolute and can be permissibly restricted if doing so is in the interests of a child's welfare. While children share many of the rights of adults, they face different potential harms from similar activities. Compulsory vaccination is an example of a fundamental police power.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_areas">Other areas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Other areas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Corfield_v._Coryell" title="Corfield v. Coryell">Corfield v. Coryell</a></i>, <b><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/print_documents/a4_2_1s18.html">6 Fed. Cas. 546 (C.C.E.D. Pa. 1823)</a></b> Some of the rights protected by the <a href="/wiki/Privileges_and_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges and Immunities Clause">Privileges and Immunities Clause</a> include the <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_movement" title="Freedom of movement">freedom of movement</a> through the states, the right of access to the courts, the right to purchase and hold <a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">property</a>, an exemption from higher taxes than those paid by state residents, and the <a href="/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Voting rights in the United States">right to vote</a>. This case was decided by Supreme Court Justice <a href="/wiki/Bushrod_Washington" title="Bushrod Washington">Bushrod Washington</a> while riding circuit in the Circuit Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. It is notable for Washington asserting the existence of cognizable rights within the ambit of the <a href="/wiki/Privileges_and_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges and Immunities Clause">Privileges and Immunities Clause</a> that are nowhere within the Constitution's text.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ex_parte_Milligan" title="Ex parte Milligan">Ex parte Milligan</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_71" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 71">71</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/71/2/">2</a> (1866)</b> Trying citizens in <a href="/wiki/Military_tribunals_in_the_United_States" title="Military tribunals in the United States">military courts</a> is unconstitutional when civilian courts are still operating. Trial by military tribunal is constitutional only when there is no power left but the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces" title="United States Armed Forces">military</a>, and the military may validly try criminals only as long as is absolutely necessary.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_Cases" title="Insular Cases"><i>The Insular Cases</i></a>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_182" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 182">182</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/182/1/">1</a> (1901)</b> Full constitutional protections are not automatically granted to all <a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">United States territories</a>. The Constitution only partially applies to <a href="/wiki/Unincorporated_area" title="Unincorporated area">unincorporated</a> territories.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reid_v._Covert" title="Reid v. Covert">Reid v. Covert</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_354" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 354">354</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/354/1/">1</a> (1957)</b> <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> citizens abroad, even when associated with the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces" title="United States Armed Forces">military</a>, cannot be deprived of the protections of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">Constitution</a> and cannot be made subject to military jurisdiction.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trans_World_Airlines,_Inc._v._Hardison" title="Trans World Airlines, Inc. v. Hardison">Trans World Airlines, Inc. v. Hardison</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_432" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 432">432</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/432/63/">63</a> (1977)</b> An employer may discharge an employee who observes a seventh-day sabbath, and that such employee is not entitled to equal employment opportunity protection under <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964#Title_VII—equal_employment_opportunity" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>, which makes it an unlawful employment practice for an employer to discriminate against an employee on the basis of his religion.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plyler_v._Doe" title="Plyler v. Doe">Plyler v. Doe</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_457" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 457">457</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/457/202/">202</a> (1982)</b> The government lacks a substantial interest in excluding from K-12 public schools children who were not legally admitted into the country.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criminal_law">Criminal law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Criminal law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fourth_Amendment_rights">Fourth Amendment rights</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Fourth Amendment rights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Weeks_v._United_States" title="Weeks v. United States">Weeks v. United States</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_232" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 232">232</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/232/383/">383</a> (1914)</b> <a href="/wiki/Exclusionary_rule" title="Exclusionary rule">Exclusionary rule</a>, under which evidence obtained in violation of the Constitution cannot be admitted at trial, formulated for federal prosecutions.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Silverthorne_Lumber_Co._v._United_States" title="Silverthorne Lumber Co. v. United States">Silverthorne Lumber Co. v. United States</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_251" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 251">251</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/251/385/">385</a> (1920)</b> All evidence developed and obtained based on evidence obtained unconstitutionally is "<a href="/wiki/Fruit_of_the_poisonous_tree" title="Fruit of the poisonous tree">fruit of the poisonous tree</a>" and cannot be used at trial.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Olmstead_v._United_States" title="Olmstead v. United States">Olmstead v. United States</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_277" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 277">277</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/277/438/">438</a> (1928)</b> The Fourth Amendment's proscription on unreasonable search and seizure does not apply to telephone wiretaps. <b>(Overruled by <i>Katz v. United States</i> (1967))</b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mapp_v._Ohio" title="Mapp v. Ohio">Mapp v. Ohio</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_367" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 367">367</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/367/643/">643</a> (1961)</b> Exclusionary rule applied to state prosecutions.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Schmerber_v._California" title="Schmerber v. California">Schmerber v. California</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_384" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 384">384</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/384/757/">757</a> (1966)</b> The application of the Fourth Amendment's protection against warrantless searches and the Fifth Amendment privilege against self incrimination to searches that intrude into the human body means that police may not conduct warrantless blood testing on suspects absent an emergency that justifies acting without a warrant.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Katz_v._United_States" title="Katz v. United States">Katz v. United States</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_389" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 389">389</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/389/347/">347</a> (1967)</b> The Fourth Amendment's ban on unreasonable <a href="/wiki/Search_and_seizure" title="Search and seizure">searches and seizures</a> applies to all places where an individual has a "reasonable <a href="/wiki/Expectation_of_privacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Expectation of privacy">expectation of privacy</a>."</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Terry_v._Ohio" title="Terry v. Ohio">Terry v. Ohio</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_392" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 392">392</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/392/1/">1</a> (1968)</b> Police may stop a person if they have a <a href="/wiki/Reasonable_suspicion" title="Reasonable suspicion">reasonable suspicion</a> that the person has committed or is about to commit a crime and frisk the suspect for weapons if they have a reasonable suspicion that the suspect is armed and dangerous without violating the Fourth Amendment.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mancusi_v._DeForte" title="Mancusi v. DeForte">Mancusi v. DeForte</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_392" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 392">392</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/392/364/">364</a> (1968)</b> The privacy rights defined in <i>Katz</i> extend to the workplace.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bivens_v._Six_Unknown_Named_Agents" title="Bivens v. Six Unknown Named Agents">Bivens v. Six Unknown Named Agents</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_403" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 403">403</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/403/388/">388</a> (1971)</b> Individuals may sue <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">federal government</a> officials who have violated their Fourth Amendment rights even though such a suit is not authorized by law. The existence of a remedy for the violation is implied from the importance of the right that is violated.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._U.S._District_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States v. U.S. District Court">United States v. United States District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_407" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 407">407</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/407/297/">297</a> (1972)</b> Government officials must obtain a warrant before beginning electronic surveillance even if domestic security issues are involved. The "inherent vagueness of the domestic security concept" and the potential for abusing it to quell political dissent make the Fourth Amendment's protections especially important when the government spies on its own citizens.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Illinois_v._Gates" title="Illinois v. Gates">Illinois v. Gates</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_462" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 462">462</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/462/213/">213</a> (1983)</b> The totality of the circumstances, rather than a rigid test, must be used in finding <a href="/wiki/Probable_cause" title="Probable cause">probable cause</a> under the Fourth Amendment.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nix_v._Williams" title="Nix v. Williams">Nix v. Williams</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_467" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 467">467</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/467/431/">431</a> (1984)</b> Creates the <a href="/wiki/Inevitable_discovery" title="Inevitable discovery">inevitable discovery</a> exception to the Fourth Amendment, under which evidence that might otherwise be suppressed as unconstitutionally obtained can be included if the state can demonstrate that it would reasonably have been found in any event.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_v._T._L._O." title="New Jersey v. T. L. O.">New Jersey v. T. L. O.</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_469" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 469">469</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/469/325/">325</a> (1985)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourth Amendment</a>'s ban on unreasonable searches applies to those conducted by public school officials as well as those conducted by law enforcement personnel, but public school officials can use the less strict standard of <a href="/wiki/Reasonable_suspicion" title="Reasonable suspicion">reasonable suspicion</a> instead of probable cause.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/O%27Connor_v._Ortega" title="O'Connor v. Ortega">O'Connor v. Ortega</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_480" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 480">480</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/480/709/">709</a> (1987)</b> In the absence of reasonable workplace policy to the contrary, the Fourth Amendment applies to searches of public employees, their belongings or workplaces by their superiors if done with reasonable suspicion for administrative reasons.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vernonia_School_District_47J_v._Acton" title="Vernonia School District 47J v. Acton">Vernonia School District 47J v. Acton</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_515" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 515">515</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/515/646/">646</a> (1995)</b> Schools may implement random drug testing upon students participating in school-sponsored athletics.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ohio_v._Robinette" title="Ohio v. Robinette">Ohio v. Robinette</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_519" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 519">519</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/519/33/">33</a> (1996)</b> The Fourth Amendment does not require police officers to inform a motorist at the end of a traffic stop that they are free to go before seeking permission to search the motorist's car.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Board_of_Education_v._Earls" title="Board of Education v. Earls">Board of Education v. Earls</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_536" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 536">536</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/536/822/">822</a> (2002)</b> Coercive drug testing imposed by <a href="/wiki/School_district" title="School district">school districts</a> upon students who participate in extracurricular activities does not violate the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourth Amendment</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Georgia_v._Randolph" title="Georgia v. Randolph">Georgia v. Randolph</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_547" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 547">547</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/547/103/">103</a> (2006)</b> Police cannot conduct a warrantless search in a home where one occupant consents and the other objects.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_Foreign_Intelligence_Surveillance_Court_of_Review#In_re_Directives" title="United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review">In re Directives</a></i>, <b>(2008)</b> According to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Foreign_Intelligence_Surveillance_Court_of_Review" title="United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review">United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review</a>, an exception to the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourth Amendment</a>'s warrant requirement exists when surveillance is conducted to obtain foreign intelligence for national security purposes and is directed against foreign powers or agents of foreign powers reasonably believed to be located outside the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Seyla20080822_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seyla20080822-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Jones_(2012)" title="United States v. Jones (2012)">United States v. Jones</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_565" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 565">565</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/565/400/">400</a> (2012)</b> Attaching a <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">GPS</a> device to a vehicle and then using the device to monitor the vehicle's movements constitutes a search under the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourth Amendment</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Riley_v._California" title="Riley v. California">Riley v. California</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_573" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 573">573</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/573/373/">373</a> (2014)</b> Police must obtain a warrant in order to search digital information on a cell phone seized from an individual who has been arrested.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Carpenter_v._United_States" title="Carpenter v. United States">Carpenter v. United States</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_585" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 585">585</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/585/296/">296</a> (2018)</b> Government acquisition of cell-site records is a Fourth Amendment search, and, thus, generally requires a warrant.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Right_to_counsel">Right to counsel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Right to counsel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Powell_v._Alabama" title="Powell v. Alabama">Powell v. Alabama</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_287" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 287">287</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/287/45/">45</a> (1932)</b> Under the Due Process Clause of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14th Amendment</a>, a state must inform illiterate defendants charged with a capital crime that they have a right to be represented by counsel and must appoint counsel for defendants who cannot afford to hire a lawyer and give counsel adequate time to prepare for trial.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Glasser_v._United_States" title="Glasser v. United States">Glasser v. United States</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_315" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 315">315</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/315/60/">60</a> (1942)</b> A defense lawyer's <a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_interest" title="Conflict of interest">conflict of interest</a> arising from a simultaneous representation of codefendants violates the <a href="/wiki/Assistance_of_Counsel_Clause" title="Assistance of Counsel Clause">Assistance of Counsel Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Sixth Amendment</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Betts_v._Brady" title="Betts v. Brady">Betts v. Brady</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_316" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 316">316</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/316/455/">455</a> (1942)</b> Indigent defendants may be denied counsel when prosecuted by a state. <b>(Overruled by <i>Gideon v. Wainwright</i> (1963))</b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gideon_v._Wainwright" title="Gideon v. Wainwright">Gideon v. Wainwright</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_372" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 372">372</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/372/335/">335</a> (1963)</b> All defendants have the right to an attorney and must be provided one by the state if they are unable to afford legal counsel.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Escobedo_v._Illinois" title="Escobedo v. Illinois">Escobedo v. Illinois</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_378" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 378">378</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/378/478/">478</a> (1964)</b> A person in police custody has the right to speak to an attorney.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Miranda_v._Arizona" title="Miranda v. Arizona">Miranda v. Arizona</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_384" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 384">384</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/384/436/">436</a> (1966)</b> Police <a href="/wiki/Miranda_warning" title="Miranda warning">must advise criminal suspects of their rights under the Constitution</a> to remain silent, to consult with a lawyer, and to have one appointed to them if they are indigent. A police interrogation must stop if the suspect states that he or she wishes to remain silent.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_re_Gault" title="In re Gault">In re Gault</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_387" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 387">387</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/387/1/">1</a> (1967)</b> Juvenile defendants are protected under the <a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Michigan_v._Jackson" title="Michigan v. Jackson">Michigan v. Jackson</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_475" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 475">475</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/475/625/">625</a> (1986)</b> If a police interrogation begins after a defendant asserts his or her <a href="/wiki/Right_to_counsel" title="Right to counsel">right to counsel</a> at an arraignment or similar proceeding, then any waiver of that right for that police-initiated interrogation is invalid. <b>(Overruled by <i><a href="/wiki/Montejo_v._Louisiana" title="Montejo v. Louisiana">Montejo v. Louisiana</a></i> (2009))</b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Montejo_v._Louisiana" title="Montejo v. Louisiana">Montejo v. Louisiana</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_556" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 556">556</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/556/778/">778</a> (2009)</b> A defendant may waive his or her right to counsel during a police interrogation even if the interrogation begins after the defendant's assertion of his or her right to counsel at an arraignment or similar proceeding.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_rights_regarding_counsel">Other rights regarding counsel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Other rights regarding counsel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Strickland_v._Washington" title="Strickland v. Washington">Strickland v. Washington</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_466" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 466">466</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/466/668/">668</a> (1984)</b> To obtain relief due to <a href="/wiki/Ineffective_assistance_of_counsel" title="Ineffective assistance of counsel">ineffective assistance of counsel</a>, a criminal defendant must show that counsel's performance fell below an objective standard of reasonableness and that counsel's deficient performance gives rise to a reasonable probability that, if counsel had performed adequately, the result of the proceeding would have been different.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Padilla_v._Kentucky" title="Padilla v. Kentucky">Padilla v. Kentucky</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_559" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 559">559</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/559/356/">356</a> (2010)</b> Criminal defense attorneys are duty-bound to inform clients of the risk of <a href="/wiki/Deportation" title="Deportation">deportation</a> under three circumstances. First, where the law is unambiguous, attorneys must advise their criminal clients that deportation "will" result from a conviction. Second, where the immigration consequences of a conviction are unclear or uncertain, attorneys must advise that deportation "may" result. Finally, attorneys must give their clients some advice about deportation—counsel cannot remain silent about immigration consequences.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Right_to_remain_silent">Right to remain silent</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Right to remain silent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Berghuis_v._Thompkins" title="Berghuis v. Thompkins">Berghuis v. Thompkins</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_560" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 560">560</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/560/370/">370</a> (2010)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Right_to_silence" title="Right to silence">right to remain silent</a> does not exist unless a suspect invokes it unambiguously.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Berghuis_v._Thompkins#Subsequent_ruling_in_Salinas_v._Texas" title="Berghuis v. Thompkins">Salinas v. Texas</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_570" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 570">570</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/570/178/">178</a> (2013)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifth Amendment</a>'s protection against <a href="/wiki/Self-incrimination" title="Self-incrimination">self-incrimination</a> does not protect an individual's refusal to answer questions asked by law enforcement before the individual has been arrested or given the <a href="/wiki/Miranda_warning" title="Miranda warning">Miranda warning</a>. A witness cannot invoke the privilege by simply standing mute; the witness must expressly invoke it.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Competence">Competence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Competence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dusky_v._United_States" title="Dusky v. United States">Dusky v. United States</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_362" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 362">362</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/362/402/">402</a> (1960)</b> A defendant has the right to a <a href="/wiki/Competency_evaluation_(law)" title="Competency evaluation (law)">competency evaluation</a> before proceeding to trial.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rogers_v._Okin" title="Rogers v. Okin">Rogers v. Okin</a></i>, <b>478 F. Supp. 1342 (D. Mass. 1979)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Competence_(law)" title="Competence (law)">competence</a> of a committed patient is presumed until he or she is adjudicated incompetent.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ford_v._Wainwright" title="Ford v. Wainwright">Ford v. Wainwright</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_477" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 477">477</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/477/399/">399</a> (1986)</b> A defendant has the right to a competency evaluation before being executed.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Godinez_v._Moran" title="Godinez v. Moran">Godinez v. Moran</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_509" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 509">509</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/509/389/">389</a> (1993)</b> A defendant who is competent to stand trial is automatically competent to plead guilty or waive the right to legal counsel.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sell_v._United_States" title="Sell v. United States">Sell v. United States</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_539" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 539">539</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/539/166/">166</a> (2003)</b> The Supreme Court laid down four criteria for cases involving the involuntary administration of medication to an incompetent pretrial defendant.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kahler_v._Kansas" title="Kahler v. Kansas">Kahler v. Kansas</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_589" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 589">589</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/589/271/">271</a> (2020)</b> The Constitution's Due Process Clause does not necessarily compel the acquittal of any defendant who, because of mental illness, could not tell right from wrong when committing their crime.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Detention_of_terrorism_suspects">Detention of terrorism suspects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Detention of terrorism suspects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Rasul_v._Bush" title="Rasul v. Bush">Rasul v. Bush</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_542" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 542">542</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/542/466/">466</a> (2004)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">federal court system</a> has the authority to decide if <a href="/wiki/Foreign_national" title="Foreign national">foreign nationals</a> held at <a href="/wiki/Guantanamo_Bay_detention_camp" title="Guantanamo Bay detention camp">Guantanamo Bay</a> were <a href="/wiki/False_imprisonment" title="False imprisonment">wrongfully imprisoned</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hamdi_v._Rumsfeld" title="Hamdi v. Rumsfeld">Hamdi v. Rumsfeld</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_542" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 542">542</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/542/507/">507</a> (2004)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">federal government</a> has the power to detain those it designates as <a href="/wiki/Enemy_combatant" title="Enemy combatant">enemy combatants</a>, including United States citizens, but detainees that are United States citizens must have the rights of <a href="/wiki/Due_process" title="Due process">due process</a> and the ability to challenge their enemy combatant status before an impartial authority.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hamdan_v._Rumsfeld" title="Hamdan v. Rumsfeld">Hamdan v. Rumsfeld</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_548" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 548">548</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/548/557/">557</a> (2006)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Guantanamo_military_commission" title="Guantanamo military commission">military commissions</a> set up by the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_W._Bush" title="Presidency of George W. Bush">Bush administration</a> to try detainees at <a href="/wiki/Guantanamo_Bay_detention_camp" title="Guantanamo Bay detention camp">Guantanamo Bay detention camp</a> are illegal because they lack the protections that are required by the <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conventions" title="Geneva Conventions">Geneva Conventions</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Uniform_Code_of_Military_Justice" title="Uniform Code of Military Justice">Uniform Code of Military Justice</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Boumediene_v._Bush" title="Boumediene v. Bush">Boumediene v. Bush</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_553" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 553">553</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/553/723/">723</a> (2008)</b> Section 7 of the Military Commissions Act of 2006 is unconstitutional because foreign terrorism suspects held at <a href="/wiki/Guantanamo_Bay_detention_camp" title="Guantanamo Bay detention camp">Guantanamo Bay</a> have the constitutional right to challenge their detention in United States courts.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Capital_punishment">Capital punishment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Capital punishment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" title="Capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment in the United States</a></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_ex_rel._Francis_v._Resweber" title="Louisiana ex rel. Francis v. Resweber">Louisiana ex rel. Francis v. Resweber</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_329" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 329">329</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/329/459/">459</a> (1947)</b> A condemned person does not suffer double jeopardy when he is executed again after the failure of the first attempt.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Furman_v._Georgia" title="Furman v. Georgia">Furman v. Georgia</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_408" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 408">408</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/408/238/">238</a> (1972)</b> The arbitrary and inconsistent imposition of the <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" title="Capital punishment in the United States">death penalty</a> violates the <a href="/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Eighth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="List of amendments to the United States Constitution">Amendments</a> and constitutes <a href="/wiki/Cruel_and_unusual_punishment" title="Cruel and unusual punishment">cruel and unusual punishment</a>. This decision initiates a nationwide <i>de facto</i> moratorium on executions that lasts until the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a>'s decision in <i>Gregg v. Georgia</i> (1976).</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gregg_v._Georgia" title="Gregg v. Georgia">Gregg v. Georgia</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_428" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 428">428</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/428/153/">153</a> (1976)</b> <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>'s new death penalty statute is constitutional because it adequately narrows the class of defendants eligible for the death penalty. This case and the next four cases were consolidated and decided simultaneously. By evaluating the new death penalty statutes that had been passed by the states, the Supreme Court ended the moratorium on executions that began with its decision in <i>Furman v. Georgia</i> (1972).</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Proffitt_v._Florida" class="mw-redirect" title="Proffitt v. Florida">Proffitt v. Florida</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_428" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 428">428</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/428/242/">242</a> (1976)</b> <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a>'s new death penalty statute is constitutional because it requires the comparison of aggravating factors to <a href="/wiki/Mitigating_factor" title="Mitigating factor">mitigating factors</a> in order to impose a death sentence.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jurek_v._Texas" class="mw-redirect" title="Jurek v. Texas">Jurek v. Texas</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_428" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 428">428</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/428/262/">262</a> (1976)</b> <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a>'s new death penalty statute is constitutional because it uses a three-part test to determine if a death sentence should be imposed.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Woodson_v._North_Carolina" class="mw-redirect" title="Woodson v. North Carolina">Woodson v. North Carolina</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_428" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 428">428</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/428/280/">280</a> (1976)</b> <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a>'s new death penalty statute is unconstitutional because it calls for a mandatory death sentence to be imposed.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Roberts_v._Louisiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Roberts v. Louisiana">Roberts v. Louisiana</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_428" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 428">428</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/428/325/">325</a> (1976)</b> <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a>'s new death penalty statute is unconstitutional because it calls for a mandatory death sentence for a large range of crimes.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Coker_v._Georgia" title="Coker v. Georgia">Coker v. Georgia</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_433" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 433">433</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/433/584/">584</a> (1977)</b> A death sentence may not be imposed for the crime of <a href="/wiki/Rape" title="Rape">rape</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Enmund_v._Florida" title="Enmund v. Florida">Enmund v. Florida</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_458" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 458">458</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/458/782/">782</a> (1982)</b> A death sentence may not be imposed on offenders who are involved in a <a href="/wiki/Felony" title="Felony">felony</a> during which a murder is committed but who do not actually kill, attempt to kill, or intend that a killing take place.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ford_v._Wainwright" title="Ford v. Wainwright">Ford v. Wainwright</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_477" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 477">477</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/477/399/">399</a> (1986)</b> A death sentence may not be imposed on defendants who are deemed to be legally <a href="/wiki/Insanity_Defense" class="mw-redirect" title="Insanity Defense">insane</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tison_v._Arizona" title="Tison v. Arizona">Tison v. Arizona</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_481" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 481">481</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/481/137/">137</a> (1987)</b> The death penalty is an appropriate punishment for a <a href="/wiki/Felony_murder_rule" title="Felony murder rule">felony murderer</a> who did not intend to cause the death, but was a major participant in the underlying felony and exhibited a reckless indifference to human life.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/McCleskey_v._Kemp" title="McCleskey v. Kemp">McCleskey v. Kemp</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_481" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 481">481</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/481/279/">279</a> (1987)</b> Evidence of a "racially-disproportionate impact" in the application of the death penalty indicated by a comprehensive scientific study is not enough to invalidate an individual's death sentence without showing a "racially discriminatory purpose."</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_v._Kentucky" title="Stanford v. Kentucky">Stanford v. Kentucky</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_492" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 492">492</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/492/361/">361</a> (1989)</b> The imposition of capital punishment on an individual for a crime committed at 16 or 17 years of age does not constitute cruel and unusual punishment under the Eighth Amendment. <b>(Overruled by <i><a href="/wiki/Roper_v._Simmons" title="Roper v. Simmons">Roper v. Simmons</a></i> (2005))</b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Breard_v._Greene" title="Breard v. Greene">Breard v. Greene</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_523" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 523">523</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/523/371/">371</a> (1998)</b> The <a href="/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice" title="International Court of Justice">International Court of Justice</a> does not have jurisdiction in <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" title="Capital punishment in the United States">capital punishment</a> cases that involve <a href="/wiki/Foreign_national" title="Foreign national">foreign nationals</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Atkins_v._Virginia" title="Atkins v. Virginia">Atkins v. Virginia</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_536" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 536">536</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/536/304/">304</a> (2002)</b> A death sentence may not be imposed on <a href="/wiki/Mentally_retarded" class="mw-redirect" title="Mentally retarded">mentally retarded</a> offenders, but the states can define what it means to be mentally retarded.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Roper_v._Simmons" title="Roper v. Simmons">Roper v. Simmons</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_543" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 543">543</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/543/551/">551</a> (2005)</b> A death sentence may not be imposed on <a href="/wiki/Juvenile_delinquency_in_the_United_States" title="Juvenile delinquency in the United States">juvenile offenders</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Baze_v._Rees" title="Baze v. Rees">Baze v. Rees</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_553" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 553">553</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/553/35/">35</a> (2008)</b> The three-drug cocktail used for performing executions by <a href="/wiki/Lethal_injection" title="Lethal injection">lethal injection</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kentucky" title="Kentucky">Kentucky</a> (as well as virtually all of the states using lethal injection at the time) is constitutional under the <a href="/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Eighth Amendment</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_v._Louisiana" title="Kennedy v. Louisiana">Kennedy v. Louisiana</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_554" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 554">554</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/554/407/">407</a> (2008)</b> The death penalty is unconstitutional in all cases that do not involve homicide or crimes against the state such as <a href="/wiki/Treason#United_States" title="Treason">treason</a> and "<a href="/wiki/Drug_lord" title="Drug lord">drug kingpin activity</a>".</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Glossip_v._Gross" title="Glossip v. Gross">Glossip v. Gross</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_576" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 576">576</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/576/863/">863</a> (2015)</b> The Eighth Amendment requires prisoners to show 1.) there is a known and available alternative method of execution and 2.) the challenged method of execution poses a demonstrated risk of severe pain, with the burden of proof resting on the prisoners, not the state.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bucklew_v._Precythe" title="Bucklew v. Precythe">Bucklew v. Precythe</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_587" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 587">587</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/587/119/">119</a> (2019)</b> <i><a href="/wiki/Baze_v._Rees" title="Baze v. Rees">Baze v. Rees</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Glossip_v._Gross" title="Glossip v. Gross">Glossip v. Gross</a></i> govern all Eighth Amendment challenges alleging that a method of execution inflicts unconstitutionally cruel pain. When a convict sentenced to death challenges the State's method of execution due to claims of excessive pain, the convict must show that other alternative methods of execution exist and clearly demonstrate they would cause less pain than the state-determined one.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_criminal_sentences">Other criminal sentences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Other criminal sentences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Apodaca_v._Oregon" title="Apodaca v. Oregon">Apodaca v. Oregon</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_406" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 406">406</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/406/404/">404</a> (1972)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Sixth Amendment</a> does not require a unanimous decision for conviction in <a href="/wiki/Jury_trial" title="Jury trial">jury trials</a>. <b>(Overruled by <i><a href="/wiki/Ramos_v._Louisiana" title="Ramos v. Louisiana">Ramos v. Louisiana</a></i> (2020))</b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Morrissey_v._Brewer" title="Morrissey v. Brewer">Morrissey v. Brewer</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_408" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 408">408</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/408/471/">471</a> (1972)</b> The Supreme Court extended <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a> <a href="/wiki/Due_process" title="Due process">due process</a> protection to the <a href="/wiki/Parole" title="Parole">parole</a> revocation process, hold that the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment requires a "neutral and detached" hearing body such as a <a href="/wiki/Parole_board" title="Parole board">parole board</a> to give an evidentiary hearing prior to revoking the parole of a defendant and spelled out the minimum due process requirements for the revocation hearing.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gagnon_v._Scarpelli" title="Gagnon v. Scarpelli">Gagnon v. Scarpelli</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_411" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 411">411</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/411/778/">778</a> (1973)</b> The Supreme Court issued a substantive ruling regarding the rights of individuals in violation of a <a href="/wiki/Probation" title="Probation">probation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Parole" title="Parole">parole</a> sentence. It held that a previously sentenced probationer is entitled to a hearing when his probation is revoked. More specifically the Supreme Court held that a preliminary and final revocation of probation hearings are required by Due Process; the judicial body overseeing the revocation hearings shall determine if the probationer or parolee requires counsel; denying representation of counsel must be documented in the record of the Court.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wolff_v._McDonnell" title="Wolff v. McDonnell">Wolff v. McDonnell</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_418" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 418">418</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/418/539/">539</a> (1974)</b> In administrative proceedings regarding discipline, prisoners retain some of their due process rights. When a prison disciplinary hearing might result in the loss of <a href="/wiki/Good_conduct_time" title="Good conduct time">good-time credits</a>, due process requires that the prison notify the prisoner in advance of the hearing, afford him an opportunity to call witnesses and present documentary evidence in his defense, and furnish him with a written statement of the evidence relied on and the reason for the disciplinary action.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bearden_v._Georgia" title="Bearden v. Georgia">Bearden v. Georgia</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_461" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 461">461</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/461/660/">660</a> (1983)</b> A sentencing court cannot properly revoke a defendant's probation for failure to pay a fine and make restitution, absent evidence and findings that he was somehow responsible for the failure or that alternative forms of punishment were inadequate to meet the State's interest in punishment and deterrence.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Apprendi_v._New_Jersey" title="Apprendi v. New Jersey">Apprendi v. New Jersey</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_530" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 530">530</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/530/466/">466</a> (2000)</b> Other than the fact of a prior conviction, any fact that increases the penalty for a crime beyond the prescribed statutory maximum must be submitted to a jury and proved beyond a reasonable doubt.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Blakely_v._Washington" title="Blakely v. Washington">Blakely v. Washington</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_542" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 542">542</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/542/296/">296</a> (2004)</b> Mandatory state sentencing guidelines are the statutory maximum for purposes of applying the <i><a href="/wiki/Apprendi_v._New_Jersey" title="Apprendi v. New Jersey">Apprendi</a></i> rule.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Graham_v._Florida" title="Graham v. Florida">Graham v. Florida</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_560" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 560">560</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/560/48/">48</a> (2010)</b> A sentence of life imprisonment without the possibility of parole may not be imposed on juvenile non-homicide offenders.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Miller_v._Alabama" title="Miller v. Alabama">Miller v. Alabama</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_567" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 567">567</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/567/460/">460</a> (2012)</b> A sentence of life imprisonment without the possibility of parole may not be a mandatory sentence for juvenile offenders.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ramos_v._Louisiana" title="Ramos v. Louisiana">Ramos v. Louisiana</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_590" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 590">590</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/590/83/">83</a> (2020)</b> The Sixth Amendment right to jury trial is read as requiring a unanimous verdict to convict a defendant of a serious offense and is an incorporated right to the states.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_areas_2">Other areas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Other areas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Hudson" title="United States v. Hudson">United States v. Hudson</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_11" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 11">11</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/11/32/">32</a> (1812)</b> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> must pass laws criminalizing activities. <a href="/wiki/Common_law_offence" title="Common law offence">Common law crimes</a> do not exist on the federal level.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hurtado_v._California" title="Hurtado v. California">Hurtado v. California</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_110" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 110">110</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/110/516/">516</a> (1884)</b> <a href="/wiki/State_governments_of_the_United_States" title="State governments of the United States">State governments</a>, as distinguished from the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">federal government</a>, need not use <a href="/wiki/Grand_jury" title="Grand jury">grand juries</a> in criminal prosecutions.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Moore_v._Dempsey" title="Moore v. Dempsey">Moore v. Dempsey</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_261" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 261">261</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/261/86/">86</a> (1923)</b> <a href="/wiki/Mob_violence" class="mw-redirect" title="Mob violence">Mob violence</a> at criminal trials, such as those that followed the <a href="/wiki/Elaine_Race_Riot" class="mw-redirect" title="Elaine Race Riot">Elaine Race Riot</a>, is a violation of due process. First 20th-century case where the Court protected the rights of Blacks in the South, and one of its first to review a criminal conviction for constitutionality.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sorrells_v._United_States" title="Sorrells v. United States">Sorrells v. United States</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_287" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 287">287</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/287/435/">435</a> (1932)</b> <a href="/wiki/Entrapment" title="Entrapment">Entrapment</a> is a valid defense to a criminal charge.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Mississippi" title="Brown v. Mississippi">Brown v. Mississippi</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_297" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 297">297</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/297/278/">278</a> (1936)</b> Confessions obtained through physical force and torture are inadmissible at trial.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chambers_v._Florida" title="Chambers v. Florida">Chambers v. Florida</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_309" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 309">309</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/309/227/">227</a> (1940)</b> Confessions compelled by police through duress are inadmissible at trial.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Morgan_(1954)" title="United States v. Morgan (1954)">United States v. Morgan</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_346" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 346">346</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/346/502/">502</a> (1954)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Writ" title="Writ">writ</a> of <a href="/wiki/Coram_nobis" title="Coram nobis">coram nobis</a> is the proper application to request <a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">federal</a> post-conviction <a href="/wiki/Judicial_review_in_the_United_States" title="Judicial review in the United States">judicial review</a> for those who have completed the conviction's <a href="/wiki/Incarceration_in_the_United_States" title="Incarceration in the United States">incarceration</a> in order to challenge the validity of a federal criminal conviction.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thompson_v._City_of_Louisville" title="Thompson v. City of Louisville">Thompson v. City of Louisville</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_362" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 362">362</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/362/199/">199</a> (1960)</b> Criminal convictions are unconstitutional when no element of the offense has been proven.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Robinson_v._California" title="Robinson v. California">Robinson v. California</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_370" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 370">370</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/370/660/">660</a> (1962)</b> Punishing a person for a medical condition is a violation of the <a href="/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Eighth Amendment</a>. The protection from cruel and unusual punishment is <a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights" title="Incorporation of the Bill of Rights">incorporated</a> against the states.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brady_v._Maryland" title="Brady v. Maryland">Brady v. Maryland</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_373" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 373">373</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/373/83/">83</a> (1963)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Prosecution" class="mw-redirect" title="Prosecution">prosecution</a> must turn over all <a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">evidence</a> that might exonerate the defendant (<a href="/wiki/Exculpatory_evidence" title="Exculpatory evidence">exculpatory evidence</a>) to the defense.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Barker_v._Wingo" title="Barker v. Wingo">Barker v. Wingo</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_407" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 407">407</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/407/514/">514</a> (1972)</b> The Supreme Court laid down a four-part case-by-case <a href="/wiki/Balancing_test" title="Balancing test">balancing test</a> for determining whether the defendant's speedy trial right under the Sixth Amendment has been violated.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harry_Aleman#Retrial" title="Harry Aleman">Aleman v. Circuit Court of Cook County</a></i>, <b>138 F.3d 302 (<a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Seventh_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit">7th Cir.</a>, 1998)</b> A defendant who is found after acquittal to have benefited from corrupt or undue influence on the trier(s) of fact can be retried for the offense after such corruption has been discovered; the state has a right to an honest trial. A retrial in these circumstances does not constitute <a href="/wiki/Double_jeopardy" title="Double jeopardy">double jeopardy</a> since the defendant was never truly in jeopardy during the first trial; this is one of only two circumstances where the same jurisdiction may retry a defendant who has been acquitted.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Crawford_v._Washington" title="Crawford v. Washington">Crawford v. Washington</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_541" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 541">541</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/541/36/">36</a> (2004)</b> The Supreme Court held that the admission of "testimonial" hearsay in a criminal trial violates the defendant's Sixth Amendment right to confront the witnesses against him unless the declarant is unavailable to testify at trial and the defendant had a prior opportunity to cross-examine the declarant.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/City_of_Grants_Pass_v._Johnson" title="City of Grants Pass v. Johnson">City of Grants Pass v. Johnson</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_603" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 603">603</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/603/___/">___</a> (2024)</b> Local ordinances penalizing camping on public land do not constitute cruel and unusual punishment towards homeless people.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Federalism">Federalism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Federalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">Federalism in the United States</a></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chisholm_v._Georgia" title="Chisholm v. Georgia">Chisholm v. Georgia</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_2" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 2">2</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/2/419/">419</a> (1793)</b> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">Constitution</a> prevents the states from exercising <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_immunity_in_the_United_States" title="Sovereign immunity in the United States">sovereign immunity</a>. Therefore, the states can be sued in <a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">federal court</a> by citizens of other states. This decision was <b>voided</b> by the <a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">Eleventh Amendment</a> in 1795, just two years after it was handed down.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hylton_v._United_States" title="Hylton v. United States">Hylton v. United States</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_3" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 3">3</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/3/171/">171</a> (1796)</b> A tax on the possession of goods is not a <a href="/wiki/Direct_tax" title="Direct tax">direct tax</a> that must be apportioned among the states according to their populations. This case featured the first example of <a href="/wiki/Judicial_review_in_the_United_States" title="Judicial review in the United States">judicial review</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ware_v._Hylton" title="Ware v. Hylton">Ware v. Hylton</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_3" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 3">3</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/3/199/">199</a> (1796)</b> A section of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a> supersedes an otherwise valid Virginia statute under the <a href="/wiki/Supremacy_Clause" title="Supremacy Clause">Supremacy Clause</a>. This case featured the first example of judicial nullification of a state law.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fletcher_v._Peck" title="Fletcher v. Peck">Fletcher v. Peck</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_10" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 10">10</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/10/87/">87</a> (1810)</b> A <a href="/wiki/State_legislature_(United_States)" title="State legislature (United States)">state legislature</a> can repeal a corruptly made law, but the <a href="/wiki/Contract_Clause" title="Contract Clause">Contract Clause</a> of the Constitution prohibits the voiding of valid contracts made under such a law. This was the first case in which the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> struck down a state law as unconstitutional.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Martin_v._Hunter%27s_Lessee" title="Martin v. Hunter's Lessee">Martin v. Hunter's Lessee</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_14" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 14">14</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/14/304/">304</a> (1816)</b> <a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">Federal courts</a> may review <a href="/wiki/State_court_(United_States)" title="State court (United States)">state court</a> decisions when they rest on <a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">federal law</a> or the federal <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">Constitution</a>. This decision provides for the uniform interpretation of federal law throughout the states.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/McCulloch_v._Maryland" title="McCulloch v. Maryland">McCulloch v. Maryland</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_17" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 17">17</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/17/316/">316</a> (1819)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Necessary_and_Proper_Clause" title="Necessary and Proper Clause">Necessary and Proper Clause</a> of the Constitution grants to Congress <a href="/wiki/Implied_powers" title="Implied powers">implied powers</a> for implementing the Constitution's express powers, and state actions may not impede valid exercises of power by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">federal government</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cohens_v._Virginia" title="Cohens v. Virginia">Cohens v. Virginia</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_19" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 19">19</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/19/264/">264</a> (1821)</b> State laws in opposition to national laws are void. The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a> has appellate <a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">jurisdiction</a> for any U.S. case and final say.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gibbons_v._Ogden" title="Gibbons v. Ogden">Gibbons v. Ogden</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_22" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 22">22</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/22/1/">1</a> (1824)</b> The power to regulate interstate navigation is granted to <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">Constitution</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Barron_v._Baltimore" title="Barron v. Baltimore">Barron v. Baltimore</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_32" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 32">32</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/32/243/">243</a> (1833)</b> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a> cannot be applied to the <a href="/wiki/State_governments_of_the_United_States" title="State governments of the United States">state governments</a>. This decision has essentially been rendered moot by the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a>'s adoption of the <a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights" title="Incorporation of the Bill of Rights">incorporation</a> doctrine, which uses the <a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a> to apply portions of the Bill of Rights to the states.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cooley_v._Board_of_Wardens" title="Cooley v. Board of Wardens">Cooley v. Board of Wardens</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_53" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 53">53</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/53/299/">299</a> (1852)</b> When local circumstances make it necessary, the states can regulate interstate commerce as long as such regulations do not conflict with <a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">federal law</a>. State laws related to commerce powers can be valid if <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> is silent on the matter.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ableman_v._Booth" title="Ableman v. Booth">Ableman v. Booth</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_62" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 62">62</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/62/506/">506</a> (1859)</b> <a href="/wiki/State_court_(United_States)" title="State court (United States)">State courts</a> cannot issue rulings that contradict the decisions of <a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">federal courts</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Texas_v._White" title="Texas v. White">Texas v. White</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_74" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 74">74</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/74/700/">700</a> (1869)</b> The states that formed the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederate States of America</a> during the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a> never actually left the Union because a state cannot unilaterally secede from the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hans_v._Louisiana" title="Hans v. Louisiana">Hans v. Louisiana</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_134" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 134">134</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/134/1/">1</a> (1890)</b> The Eleventh Amendment bars suits by citizens against their own state in federal court.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pollock_v._Farmers%27_Loan_%26_Trust_Co." title="Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co.">Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co.</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_157" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 157">157</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/157/429/">429</a> (1895)</b> <a href="/wiki/Income_tax_in_the_United_States" title="Income tax in the United States">Income taxes</a> on <a href="/wiki/Interest" title="Interest">interest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dividend" title="Dividend">dividends</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Renting" title="Renting">rents</a> are, in effect, <a href="/wiki/Direct_tax" title="Direct tax">direct taxes</a> that must be apportioned among the states according to their populations. This decision was <b>voided</b> by the <a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Sixteenth Amendment</a> in 1913, allowing taxes on unearned income to be implemented without apportionment.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Swift_and_Company_v._United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Swift and Company v. United States">Swift and Company v. United States</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_196" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 196">196</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/196/375/">375</a> (1905)</b> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> can prohibit local business practices in order to regulate interstate commerce because those practices, when combined, form a "stream of commerce" between the states. <b>(Superseded by <i>National Labor Relations Board v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corporation</i> (1937))</b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hunter_v._City_of_Pittsburgh" title="Hunter v. City of Pittsburgh">Hunter v. City of Pittsburgh</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_207" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 207">207</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/207/161/">161</a> (1907)</b> <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">States</a> have sovereignty over their <a href="/wiki/Home_rule_in_the_United_States" title="Home rule in the United States">local governments</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ex_parte_Young" title="Ex parte Young">Ex parte Young</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_209" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 209">209</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/209/123/">123</a> (1908)</b> When state officers are charged with violating federal law, they cannot set up the state's federal constitutional <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_immunity" title="Sovereign immunity">sovereign immunity</a> to defeat suits for prospective relief.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hammer_v._Dagenhart" title="Hammer v. Dagenhart">Hammer v. Dagenhart</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_247" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 247">247</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/247/251/">251</a> (1918)</b> Congress has no power under the <a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce Clause</a> to regulate labor conditions. <b>(Overruled by <i>United States v. Darby Lumber Co.</i> (1941))</b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Missouri_v._Holland" title="Missouri v. Holland">Missouri v. Holland</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_252" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 252">252</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/252/416/">416</a> (1920)</b> <a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">Treaties</a> made by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">federal government</a> are supreme over any concerns brought by the states about such treaties interfering with any <a href="/wiki/States%27_rights" title="States' rights">states' rights</a> derived from the <a href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Tenth Amendment</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hawke_v._Smith" title="Hawke v. Smith">Hawke v. Smith</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_253" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 253">253</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/253/221/">221</a> (1920)</b> States cannot ratify or rescind their ratification of federal constitutional amendments through referenda, only by votes of their legislatures.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Wheeler_(1920)" title="United States v. Wheeler (1920)">United States v. Wheeler</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_254" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 254">254</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/254/281/">281</a> (1920)</b> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">Constitution</a> grants to the states the power to prosecute individuals for wrongful interference with the <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_movement" title="Freedom of movement">right to travel</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Butler" title="United States v. Butler">United States v. Butler</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_297" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 297">297</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/297/1/">1</a> (1936)</b> The <a href="/wiki/U.S._Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Congress">U.S. Congress</a><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s power to lay taxes is not limited only to the level necessary to carry out its other powers enumerated in Article I of the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Constitution">U.S. Constitution</a>, but is a broad authority to tax and spend for the "general welfare" of the United States.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Carter_v._Carter_Coal_Co." title="Carter v. Carter Coal Co.">Carter v. Carter Coal Co.</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_298" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 298">298</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/298/238/">238</a> (1936)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce Clause</a> does not permit Congress to regulate manufacturing. Just because a product will be used in interstate commerce does not mean it can be regulated before that point. The last of the “<a href="/wiki/Lochner_era" title="Lochner era">Lochner era</a>” decisions striking down numerous <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a> programs. <b>(Superseded by <i>National Labor Relations Board v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corporation</i> (1937))</b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Board_v._Jones_%26_Laughlin_Steel_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="National Labor Relations Board v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corporation">National Labor Relations Board v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corporation</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_301" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 301">301</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/301/1/">1</a> (1937)</b> The <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="National Labor Relations Act">National Labor Relations Act</a> and, by extension, the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Board" title="National Labor Relations Board">National Labor Relations Board</a> are constitutional because the <a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce Clause</a> applies to labor relations. Therefore, the NLRB has the right to sanction companies that fire or discriminate against workers for belonging to a union. Also, a local commercial activity that is considered in isolation may still constitute interstate commerce if that activity has a "close and substantial relationship" to interstate commerce.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Steward_Machine_Company_v._Davis" class="mw-redirect" title="Steward Machine Company v. Davis">Steward Machine Company v. Davis</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_301" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 301">301</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/301/548/">548</a> (1937)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">federal government</a> is permitted to impose a tax even if the goal of the tax is not just the collection of revenue.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_Negro_Alliance_v._Sanitary_Grocery_Co." title="New Negro Alliance v. Sanitary Grocery Co.">New Negro Alliance v. Sanitary Grocery Co.</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_303" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 303">303</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/303/552/">552</a> (1938)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Norris%E2%80%93La_Guardia_Act_of_1932" class="mw-redirect" title="Norris–La Guardia Act of 1932">Norris–La Guardia Act of 1932</a> prohibits employers from proscribing the peaceful dissemination of information concerning the terms and conditions of employment by those involved in an active labor dispute, even when such dissemination occurs on an employer's private property.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Carolene_Products_Co." title="United States v. Carolene Products Co.">United States v. Carolene Products Co.</a></i> <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_304" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 304">304</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/304/144/">144</a> (1938)</b> Economic regulations are presumptively constitutional under the <a href="/wiki/Rational_basis_review" title="Rational basis review">rational basis</a> test. Particularly notable for Footnote 4, which formulated the foundation for <a href="/wiki/Strict_scrutiny" title="Strict scrutiny">strict scrutiny</a> review.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Darby_Lumber_Co." title="United States v. Darby Lumber Co.">United States v. Darby Lumber Co.</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_312" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 312">312</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/312/100/">100</a> (1941)</b> Control over interstate commerce belongs entirely to <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Fair_Labor_Standards_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair Labor Standards Act">Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938</a> is constitutional under the Commerce Clause because it prevents the states from lowering labor standards to gain commercial advantages.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wickard_v._Filburn" title="Wickard v. Filburn">Wickard v. Filburn</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_317" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 317">317</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/317/111/">111</a> (1942)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">Constitution</a> allows Congress to regulate anything that has a substantial economic effect on commerce even if that effect is indirect.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cooper_v._Aaron" title="Cooper v. Aaron">Cooper v. Aaron</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_358" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 358">358</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/358/1/">1</a> (1958)</b> The states are bound by the decisions of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> and cannot choose to ignore them.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oregon_v._Mitchell" title="Oregon v. Mitchell">Oregon v. Mitchell</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_400" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 400">400</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/400/112/">112</a> (1970)</b> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> has the power to regulate requirements for voting in federal elections, but it is prohibited from regulating requirements for voting in state and local elections. This decision preceded the ratification of the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-sixth Amendment</a> in 1971, which lowered the minimum voting age to 18 for all elections.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Marquette_National_Bank_of_Minneapolis_v._First_of_Omaha_Service_Corp." title="Marquette National Bank of Minneapolis v. First of Omaha Service Corp.">Marquette National Bank of Minneapolis v. First of Omaha Service Corp.</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_439" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 439">439</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/439/299/">299</a> (1978)</b> States may not cap the interest rates offered to their citizens by federally chartered banks based in other states; a holding that contributed greatly to the growth of the credit card industry in the ensuing decades.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Garcia_v._San_Antonio_Metropolitan_Transit_Authority" title="Garcia v. San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority">Garcia v. San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_469" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 469">469</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/469/528/">528</a> (1985)</b> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> has the power under the <a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">Constitution</a> to extend the <a href="/wiki/Fair_Labor_Standards_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair Labor Standards Act">Fair Labor Standards Act</a>, which requires that employers provide <a href="/wiki/Minimum_wage" title="Minimum wage">minimum wage</a> and overtime pay to their employees, to state and local governments.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Heath_v._Alabama" title="Heath v. Alabama">Heath v. Alabama</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_474" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 474">474</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/474/82/">82</a> (1985)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Double_Jeopardy_Clause" title="Double Jeopardy Clause">Double Jeopardy Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifth Amendment</a> does not prohibit two different states from separately prosecuting and convicting the same individual for the same illegal act.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/South_Dakota_v._Dole" title="South Dakota v. Dole">South Dakota v. Dole</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_483" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 483">483</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/483/203/">203</a> (1987)</b> Congress may attach reasonable conditions to funds disbursed to the states without violating the <a href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Tenth Amendment</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Lopez" title="United States v. Lopez">United States v. Lopez</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_514" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 514">514</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/514/549/">549</a> (1995)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Gun-Free_School_Zones_Act_of_1990" title="Gun-Free School Zones Act of 1990">Gun-Free School Zones Act of 1990</a> is unconstitutional. The <a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">Constitution</a> does not give <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> the power to prohibit the mere possession of a gun near a school because gun possession by itself is not an economic activity that affects interstate commerce even indirectly. Notable because it was the first time since the New Deal that the Supreme Court invalidated a law which was passed by Congress ostensibly permissible under the Commerce Clause.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/U.S._Term_Limits,_Inc._v._Thornton" title="U.S. Term Limits, Inc. v. Thornton">U.S. Term Limits, Inc. v. Thornton</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_514" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 514">514</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/514/779/">779</a> (1995)</b> The states cannot create qualifications for prospective members of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> that are stricter than those specified in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">Constitution</a>. This decision invalidates provisions that had imposed <a href="/wiki/Term_limits_in_the_United_States" title="Term limits in the United States">term limits</a> on members of Congress in 23 states.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Printz_v._United_States" title="Printz v. United States">Printz v. United States</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_521" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 521">521</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/521/898/">898</a> (1997)</b> The interim provision of the <a href="/wiki/Brady_Handgun_Violence_Prevention_Act" title="Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act">Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act</a> that requires state and local officials to conduct <a href="/wiki/Background_check" title="Background check">background checks</a> on firearm purchasers violates the <a href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Tenth Amendment</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Morrison" title="United States v. Morrison">United States v. Morrison</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_529" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 529">529</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/529/598/">598</a> (2000)</b> The section of the <a href="/wiki/Violence_Against_Women_Act" title="Violence Against Women Act">Violence Against Women Act of 1994</a> that gives victims of gender-motivated violence the right to sue their attackers in federal court is an unconstitutional intrusion on <a href="/wiki/States%27_rights" title="States' rights">states' rights</a>, and it cannot be saved by the <a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce Clause</a> or Section 5 of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gonzales_v._Raich" title="Gonzales v. Raich">Gonzales v. Raich</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_545" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 545">545</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/545/1/">1</a> (2005)</b> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> may ban the use of <a href="/wiki/Marijuana" class="mw-redirect" title="Marijuana">marijuana</a> even in states that have approved its use for medicinal purposes.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bond_v._United_States_(2011)" title="Bond v. United States (2011)">Bond v. United States</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_564" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 564">564</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/564/211/">211</a> (2011)</b> An individual litigant has standing to challenge a federal statute on grounds of federalism.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arizona_v._United_States" title="Arizona v. United States">Arizona v. United States</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_567" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 567">567</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/567/387/">387</a> (2012)</b> An Arizona law that authorizes local law enforcement to enforce immigration laws is <a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">preempted</a> by <a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">federal law</a>. Arizona law enforcement may inquire about a resident's legal status during lawful encounters, but the state may not implement its own immigration laws.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/National_Federation_of_Independent_Business_v._Sebelius" title="National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius">National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_567" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 567">567</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/567/519/">519</a> (2012)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Patient_Protection_and_Affordable_Care_Act" title="Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act">Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act</a>'s expansion of <a href="/wiki/Medicaid" title="Medicaid">Medicaid</a> is unconstitutional as-written—it is unduly coercive to force the states to choose between participating in the expansion or forgoing all Medicaid funds. In addition, the individual <a href="/wiki/Health_insurance_mandate" title="Health insurance mandate">health insurance mandate</a> is constitutional by virtue of the <a href="/wiki/Taxing_and_Spending_Clause" title="Taxing and Spending Clause">Taxing and Spending Clause</a> (though not by the <a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce Clause</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Necessary_and_Proper_Clause" title="Necessary and Proper Clause">Necessary and Proper Clause</a>).</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bond_v._United_States_(2014)" title="Bond v. United States (2014)">Bond v. United States</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_514" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 514">514</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/514/927/">927</a> (2014)</b> Both individuals and states can bring a <a href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Tenth Amendment</a> challenge to federal law.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Murphy_v._National_Collegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Murphy v. National Collegiate Athletic Association">Murphy v. National Collegiate Athletic Association</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_584" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 584">584</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/584/453/">453</a> (2018)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Professional_and_Amateur_Sports_Protection_Act_of_1992" title="Professional and Amateur Sports Protection Act of 1992">Professional and Amateur Sports Protection Act of 1992</a> violates the <a href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Tenth Amendment</a> because it prohibits the states from passing laws that authorize and regulate <a href="/wiki/Sports_betting" title="Sports betting">sports betting</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Native_American_law">Native American law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Native American law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_United_States_federal_Indian_law_and_policy" title="Outline of United States federal Indian law and policy">Outline of United States federal Indian law and policy</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_involving_Indian_tribes" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases involving Indian tribes">List of United States Supreme Court cases involving Indian tribes</a></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Johnson_v._McIntosh" title="Johnson v. McIntosh">Johnson v. McIntosh</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_21" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 21">21</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/21/543/">543</a> (1823)</b> Private citizens cannot purchase lands from <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Worcester_v._Georgia" title="Worcester v. Georgia">Worcester v. Georgia</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_31" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 31">31</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/31/515/">515</a> (1832)</b> The Supreme Court laid out the relationship between <a href="/wiki/Indian_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian tribe">tribes</a> and the <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">state</a> and <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">federal governments</a>. It is considered to have built the foundations of the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Tribal sovereignty in the United States">tribal sovereignty in the United States</a>, because the relationship between the Indian Nations and the United States is that of nations.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ex_parte_Crow_Dog" title="Ex parte Crow Dog">Ex parte Crow Dog</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_109" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 109">109</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/109/556/">556</a> (1883)</b> U.S. courts do not have criminal jurisdiction in cases where one Native American murders another on reservation lands. The Supreme Court also ruled that tribes held exclusive jurisdiction over their own internal affairs, including murder cases. The U.S. Congress responded with the <a href="/wiki/Major_Crimes_Act" title="Major Crimes Act">Major Crimes Act</a>, by which Congress has exercised since absolute (plenary) power over tribal jurisdiction by excluding certain crimes from that jurisdiction. This case was the beginning of the plenary power legal doctrine that has been used in Indian case law to limit <a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Tribal sovereignty in the United States">tribal sovereignty</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elk_v._Wilkins" title="Elk v. Wilkins">Elk v. Wilkins</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_112" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 112">112</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/112/94/">94</a> (1884)</b> An Indian cannot make himself a citizen of the United States without the consent and the co-operation of the United States Federal government.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Kagama" title="United States v. Kagama">United States v. Kagama</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_118" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 118">118</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/118/375/">375</a> (1886)</b> Congress has <a href="/wiki/Plenary_power" title="Plenary power">plenary power</a> over all Native American tribes within its borders.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Talton_v._Mayes" title="Talton v. Mayes">Talton v. Mayes</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_163" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 163">163</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/163/376/">376</a> (1896)</b> Constitutional protections including <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">the provisions of the Bill of Rights</a> do not apply to the actions of American Indian tribal governments.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lone_Wolf_v._Hitchcock" title="Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock">Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_187" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 187">187</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/187/553/">553</a> (1903)</b> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> may use its <a href="/wiki/Plenary_power" title="Plenary power">plenary power</a> to unilaterally break treaty obligations between the United States and <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a> tribes.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Williams_v._Lee" title="Williams v. Lee">Williams v. Lee</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_358" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 358">358</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/358/217/">217</a> (1959)</b> <a href="/wiki/State_court_(United_States)" title="State court (United States)">State courts</a> do not have jurisdiction on <a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservations</a> without the authorization of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Menominee_Tribe_v._United_States" title="Menominee Tribe v. United States">Menominee Tribe v. United States</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_391" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 391">391</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/391/404/">404</a> (1968)</b> <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a> treaty rights are not repealed without a clear and unequivocal statement to that effect from <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York_v._County_of_Oneida" title="Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida">Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_414" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 414">414</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/414/661/">661</a> (1974)</b> There is federal <a href="/wiki/Subject-matter_jurisdiction" title="Subject-matter jurisdiction">subject-matter jurisdiction</a> for possessory land claims brought by <a href="/wiki/Tribe_(Native_American)" title="Tribe (Native American)">Indian tribes</a> based upon <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" title="Aboriginal title in the United States">aboriginal title</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Nonintercourse_Act" title="Nonintercourse Act">Nonintercourse Act</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_United_States_federal_Indian_law_and_policy#Treaties" title="Outline of United States federal Indian law and policy">Indian treaties</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bryan_v._Itasca_County" title="Bryan v. Itasca County">Bryan v. Itasca County</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_426" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 426">426</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/426/373/">373</a> (1976)</b> A state does not have the right to assess a tax on the property of a <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_people_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous people of the United States">Native American (Indian)</a> living on tribal land absent a specific Congressional grant of authority to do so.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oliphant_v._Suquamish_Indian_Tribe" title="Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe">Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_435" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 435">435</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/435/191/">191</a> (1978)</b> Indian tribal courts do not have inherent criminal jurisdiction to try and to punish non-Indians, and hence may not assume such jurisdiction unless specifically authorized to do so by Congress.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Wheeler_(1978)" title="United States v. Wheeler (1978)">United States v. Wheeler</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_435" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 435">435</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/435/313/">313</a> (1978)</b> The Fifth Amendment's <a href="/wiki/Double_Jeopardy_Clause" title="Double Jeopardy Clause">Double Jeopardy Clause</a> does not prevent prosecution by both an Indian tribe and the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">federal government of the United States</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Santa_Clara_Pueblo_v._Martinez" title="Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez">Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_436" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 436">436</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/436/49/">49</a> (1978)</b> Title I of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">Indian Civil Rights Act</a> does not expressly or implicitly create a <a href="/wiki/Cause_of_action" title="Cause of action">cause of action</a> for <a href="/wiki/Declaratory_judgment" title="Declaratory judgment">declaratory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Injunction" title="Injunction">injunctive relief</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">federal courts</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Solem_v._Bartlett" title="Solem v. Bartlett">Solem v. Bartlett</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_465" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 465">465</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/465/463/">463</a> (1984)</b> The Supreme Court established three principles to measure Congress's intent to <a href="/wiki/Diminishment" title="Diminishment">diminish</a> a reservation. It decided that opening up <a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">reservation</a> lands for settlement by non-Indians does not constitute the intent to diminish reservation boundaries and therefore reservation boundaries would not be diminished unless specifically determined through legislation.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/County_of_Oneida_v._Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York_State" title="County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State">County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_470" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 470">470</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/470/226/">226</a> (1985)</b> Indian tribes have a <a href="/wiki/Federal_common_law" title="Federal common law">federal common law</a> <a href="/wiki/Cause_of_action" title="Cause of action">cause of action</a>, not preempted by the <a href="/wiki/Nonintercourse_Act" title="Nonintercourse Act">Nonintercourse Act</a>, for possessory claims based upon <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title" title="Aboriginal title">aboriginal title</a>; such action is not barred by <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_limitations" title="Statute of limitations">limitations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abatement_in_pleading" title="Abatement in pleading">abatement</a>, ratification or <a href="/wiki/Justiciability" title="Justiciability">nonjusticiability</a>, and due to the <a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">Eleventh Amendment</a>, there is no <a href="/wiki/Supplemental_jurisdiction#Ancillary_jurisdiction" title="Supplemental jurisdiction">ancillary jurisdiction</a> for counties' cross-claims against a state.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lyng_v._Northwest_Indian_Cemetery_Protective_Ass%27n" title="Lyng v. Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Ass'n">Lyng v. Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Association</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_485" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 485">485</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/485/439/">439</a> (1988)</b> The <a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Religious_Freedom_Act" title="American Indian Religious Freedom Act">American Indian Religious Freedom Act</a> of 1978 (AIRFA) does not create a cause of action under which to sue, nor does it contain any judicially enforceable rights.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Lara" title="United States v. Lara">United States v. Lara</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_541" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 541">541</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/541/193/">193</a> (2004)</b> As an Indian tribe and the United States are separate sovereigns, both the United States and a <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native American (Indian)</a> tribe can prosecute an Indian for the same acts that constituted crimes in both jurisdictions without invoking <a href="/wiki/Double_jeopardy" title="Double jeopardy">double jeopardy</a> if the actions of the accused violated Federal law.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Herrera_v._Wyoming" title="Herrera v. Wyoming">Herrera v. Wyoming</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_587" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 587">587</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/587/329/">329</a> (2019)</b> <a href="/wiki/Wyoming" title="Wyoming">Wyoming</a>'s statehood did not void the <a href="/wiki/Crow_people" title="Crow people">Crow Tribe</a>'s right to hunt on "unoccupied lands of the United States" under an 1868 treaty, and that the <a href="/wiki/Bighorn_National_Forest" title="Bighorn National Forest">Bighorn National Forest</a> did not automatically become "occupied" when the forest was created.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/McGirt_v._Oklahoma" title="McGirt v. Oklahoma">McGirt v. Oklahoma</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_591" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 591">591</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/591/894/">894</a> (2020)</b> <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a>'s land reserved for the Creek Nation since the 19th century remains "Indian country". Native Americans residing in the reservation cannot be criminally prosecuted by the state of Oklahoma.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sharp_v._Murphy" title="Sharp v. Murphy">Sharp v. Murphy</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_591" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 591">591</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/591/977/">977</a> (2020)</b> <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a>'s land reserved for the Creek Nation since the 19th century remains "Indian country". Native Americans residing in the reservation cannot be criminally prosecuted by the state of Oklahoma. Reaffirms <i>McGirt v. Oklahoma</i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Cooley" title="United States v. Cooley">United States v. Cooley</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_593" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 593">593</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/593/345/">345</a> (2021)</b> Native American tribal governments and police have the power to search and detain non-Native individuals suspected of violating state or federal laws on tribal lands.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_v._Castro-Huerta" title="Oklahoma v. Castro-Huerta">Oklahoma v. Castro-Huerta</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_597" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 597">597</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/597/629/">629</a> (2022)</b> The federal government and the state have concurrent jurisdiction to prosecute crimes committed by non-Indians against Indians in Indian country.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="First_Amendment_rights">First Amendment rights</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: First Amendment rights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_aspects">General aspects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: General aspects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/National_Socialist_Party_of_America_v._Village_of_Skokie" title="National Socialist Party of America v. Village of Skokie">National Socialist Party of America v. Village of Skokie</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_432" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 432">432</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/432/43/">43</a> (1977)</b> If a state seeks to impose an injunction in the face of a substantial claim of First Amendment rights, it must provide strict procedural safeguards, including immediate appellate review. Absent such immediate review, the appellate court must grant a stay of any lower court order restricting the exercise of speech and assembly rights.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ward_v._Rock_Against_Racism" title="Ward v. Rock Against Racism">Ward v. Rock Against Racism</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_491" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 491">491</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/491/781/">781</a> (1989)</b> Content-neutral restrictions on the <a href="/wiki/Time,_place_and_manner" class="mw-redirect" title="Time, place and manner">time, place and manner</a> of speech that are found to serve a compelling state interest must be <a href="/wiki/Narrow_tailoring" title="Narrow tailoring">narrowly tailored</a> to their goal.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Freedom_of_speech_and_of_the_press">Freedom of speech and of the press</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Freedom of speech and of the press"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of speech in the United States">Freedom of speech in the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of the press in the United States">Freedom of the press in the United States</a></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Patterson_v._Colorado" title="Patterson v. Colorado">Patterson v. Colorado</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_205" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 205">205</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/205/454/">454</a> (1907)</b> Created the <a href="/wiki/Bad_tendency" title="Bad tendency">bad tendency</a> test, which permitted restriction of <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of speech in the United States">freedom of speech</a> by government if it is believed that a form of speech has a sole tendency to <a href="/wiki/Incitement" title="Incitement">incite</a> or cause illegal activity. <b>(Overruled by <i>Schenck v. United States</i> (1919))</b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mutual_Film_Corp._v._Industrial_Commission_of_Ohio" title="Mutual Film Corp. v. Industrial Commission of Ohio">Mutual Film Corp. v. Industrial Commission of Ohio</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_236" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 236">236</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/236/230/">230</a> (1915)</b> <a href="/wiki/Film" title="Film">Motion pictures</a> are not entitled to free speech protection because they are a business, not a form of <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a>. <b>(Overruled by <i>Joseph Burstyn, Inc. v. Wilson</i> (1952))</b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Schenck_v._United_States" title="Schenck v. United States">Schenck v. United States</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_249" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 249">249</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/249/47/">47</a> (1919)</b> Expressions in which the circumstances are intended to result in crime that poses a <a href="/wiki/Clear_and_present_danger" title="Clear and present danger">clear and present danger</a> of succeeding can be punished without violating the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a>. <b>(Overruled by <i>Brandenburg v. Ohio</i> (1969))</b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Abrams_v._United_States" title="Abrams v. United States">Abrams v. United States</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_250" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 250">250</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/250/616/">616</a> (1919)</b> Upheld arrests made under the <a href="/wiki/Sedition_Act_of_1918" title="Sedition Act of 1918">Sedition Act of 1918</a> as constitutional under the <a href="/wiki/Clear_and_present_danger" title="Clear and present danger">clear and present danger</a> test. <b>(Overruled by <i>Brandenburg v. Ohio</i> (1969))</b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gitlow_v._New_York" title="Gitlow v. New York">Gitlow v. New York</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_268" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 268">268</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/268/652/">652</a> (1925)</b> The provisions of the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a> that protect the freedom of speech and the freedom of the press apply to the <a href="/wiki/State_governments_of_the_United_States" title="State governments of the United States">governments of the states</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Stromberg_v._California" title="Stromberg v. California">Stromberg v. California</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_283" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 283">283</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/283/359/">359</a> (1931)</b> A California law that bans <a href="/wiki/Red_flag_(politics)" title="Red flag (politics)">red flags</a> is unconstitutional because it violates the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a>'s protection of <a href="/wiki/Symbolic_speech" title="Symbolic speech">symbolic speech</a> as applied to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Near_v._Minnesota" title="Near v. Minnesota">Near v. Minnesota</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_283" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 283">283</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/283/697/">697</a> (1931)</b> A Minnesota law that imposes <a href="/wiki/Prior_restraint" title="Prior restraint">prior restraints</a> on the publication of "malicious, scandalous, and defamatory" content violates the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a> as applied to the states through the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._One_Book_Called_Ulysses" title="United States v. One Book Called Ulysses">United States v. One Book Called Ulysses</a></i>, <b>5 F.Supp. 182, <a href="/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_Southern_District_of_New_York" title="United States District Court for the Southern District of New York">S.D.N.Y.</a>, 1933</b> Obscene content in a literary work is protected if the purpose of the work as a whole is not to titillate or excite the reader sexually. Upheld by the Second Circuit on appeal.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_Negro_Alliance_v._Sanitary_Grocery_Co." title="New Negro Alliance v. Sanitary Grocery Co.">New Negro Alliance v. Sanitary Grocery Co.</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_303" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 303">303</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/303/552/">552</a> (1938)</b> Peaceful and orderly dissemination of information by those defined as persons interested in a labor dispute concerning 'terms and conditions of employment' in an industry or a plant or a place of business is lawful.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chaplinsky_v._New_Hampshire" title="Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire">Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_315" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 315">315</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/315/568/">568</a> (1942)</b> <a href="/wiki/Fighting_words" title="Fighting words">Fighting words</a>—words that by their very utterance inflict injury or tend to incite an immediate breach of the peace—are not protected by the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Burstyn,_Inc._v._Wilson" title="Joseph Burstyn, Inc. v. Wilson">Joseph Burstyn, Inc. v. Wilson</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_343" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 343">343</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/343/495/">495</a> (1952)</b> <a href="/wiki/Film" title="Film">Motion pictures</a>, as a form of <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">artistic expression</a>, are protected by the First Amendment.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Roth_v._United_States" title="Roth v. United States">Roth v. United States</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_354" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 354">354</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/354/476/">476</a> (1957)</b> <a href="/wiki/Obscenity" title="Obscenity">Obscene</a> material is not protected by the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a>. <b>(Superseded by <i>Miller v. California</i> (1973))</b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/One,_Inc._v._Olesen" title="One, Inc. v. Olesen">One, Inc. v. Olesen</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_355" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 355">355</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/355/371/">371</a> (1958)</b> Pro-homosexual writing is not <i>per se</i> obscene. It was the first U.S. Supreme Court ruling to address free speech rights with respect to homosexuality.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Manual_Enterprises,_Inc._v._Day" title="Manual Enterprises, Inc. v. Day">Manual Enterprises, Inc. v. Day</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_370" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 370">370</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/370/348/">348</a> (1962)</b> Images of naked men are not, <i>per se</i>, obscene, extending <i>Olesen</i> in a way that spurred an increase in same-sex erotica that helped spur the rise of the LGBTQ rights movement later in the decade.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times_Co._v._Sullivan" title="New York Times Co. v. Sullivan">New York Times Co. v. Sullivan</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_376" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 376">376</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/376/254/">254</a> (1964)</b> Public officials, to prove they were <a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">libelled</a>, must show not only that a statement is false, but also that it was published with <a href="/wiki/Actual_malice" title="Actual malice">malicious intent</a> (knowing the statement was false, or recklessly disregarding possible falseness).</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dombrowski_v._Pfister" title="Dombrowski v. Pfister">Dombrowski v. Pfister</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_380" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 380">380</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/380/479/">479</a> (1965)</b> A court may enjoin enforcement of a statute that is <a href="/wiki/Overbreadth_doctrine" title="Overbreadth doctrine">so overbroad</a> in its prohibition of unprotected speech that it substantially prohibits protected speech — especially if the statute is being enforced in <a href="/wiki/Bad_faith" title="Bad faith">bad faith</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Curtis_Publishing_Co._v._Butts" title="Curtis Publishing Co. v. Butts">Curtis Publishing Co. v. Butts</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_388" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 388">388</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/388/130/">130</a> (1967)</b> News organizations may be liable when printing allegations about <a href="/wiki/Public_figure" title="Public figure">public figures</a> if the information they disseminate is recklessly gathered and unchecked.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._O%27Brien" title="United States v. O'Brien">United States v. O'Brien</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_391" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 391">391</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/391/367/">367</a> (1968)</b> A criminal prohibition against <a href="/wiki/Draft-card_burning" title="Draft-card burning">draft-card burning</a> does not violate the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a> because its effect on speech is only incidental, and it is justified by the significant governmental interest in maintaining an efficient and effective <a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_the_United_States" title="Conscription in the United States">military draft system</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pickering_v._Board_of_Education" title="Pickering v. Board of Education">Pickering v. Board of Education</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_391" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 391">391</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/391/563/">563</a> (1968)</b> Public employees do not surrender their First Amendment rights to speak on matters of public concern, even critically of their employers, when they take their jobs.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tinker_v._Des_Moines_Independent_Community_School_District" title="Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District">Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_393" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 393">393</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/393/503/">503</a> (1969)</b> Public school students have free speech rights under the First Amendment. Therefore, wearing armbands as a form of protest on public school grounds qualifies as protected <a href="/wiki/Symbolic_speech" title="Symbolic speech">symbolic speech</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brandenburg_v._Ohio" title="Brandenburg v. Ohio">Brandenburg v. Ohio</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_395" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 395">395</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/395/444/">444</a> (1969)</b> The mere advocacy of the use of force or of violation of the law is protected by the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a>. Only inciting others to take direct and immediate unlawful action is without constitutional protection.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cohen_v._California" title="Cohen v. California">Cohen v. California</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_403" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 403">403</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/403/15/">15</a> (1971)</b> The <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a> prohibits the states from making the public display of a single <a href="/wiki/Fuck" title="Fuck">four-letter expletive</a> a criminal offense without a more specific and compelling reason than a general tendency to disturb the peace.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times_Co._v._United_States" title="New York Times Co. v. United States">New York Times Co. v. United States</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_403" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 403">403</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/403/713/">713</a> (1971)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">federal government</a>'s desire to keep the <a href="/wiki/Pentagon_Papers" title="Pentagon Papers">Pentagon Papers</a> classified is not strong enough to justify violating the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a> by imposing <a href="/wiki/Prior_restraint" title="Prior restraint">prior restraints</a> on the material.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Branzburg_v._Hayes" title="Branzburg v. Hayes">Branzburg v. Hayes</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_408" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 408">408</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/408/665/">665</a> (1972)</b> The First Amendment's protection of press freedom does not give the <a href="/wiki/Reporters%27_privilege" class="mw-redirect" title="Reporters' privilege">reporters' privilege</a> in court.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Miller_v._California" title="Miller v. California">Miller v. California</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_413" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 413">413</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/413/15/">15</a> (1973)</b> To be <a href="/wiki/Obscenity" title="Obscenity">obscene</a>, a work must fail the <a href="/wiki/Miller_test" title="Miller test">Miller test</a>, which determines if it has any "serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value."</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gertz_v._Robert_Welch,_Inc." title="Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc.">Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc.</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_418" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 418">418</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/418/323/">323</a> (1974)</b> The <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a> permits the states to formulate their own standards of liability for <a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">defamation</a> against private individuals as long as liability is not imposed without fault. If the state standard is lower than <a href="/wiki/Actual_malice" title="Actual malice">actual malice</a>, then only actual damages may be awarded.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Buckley_v._Valeo" title="Buckley v. Valeo">Buckley v. Valeo</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_424" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 424">424</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/424/1/">1</a> (1976)</b> Spending money to influence elections is a form of constitutionally protected free speech; therefore, federal limits on campaign contributions are constitutional in only a limited number of circumstances.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Virginia_State_Pharmacy_Board_v._Virginia_Citizens_Consumer_Council" title="Virginia State Pharmacy Board v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council">Virginia State Pharmacy Board v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_425" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 425">425</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/425/748/">748</a> (1976)</b> Commercial speech enjoys limited First Amendment protection.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission_v._Pacifica_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Communications Commission v. Pacifica Foundation">Federal Communications Commission v. Pacifica Foundation</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_438" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 438">438</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/438/726/">726</a> (1978)</b> <a href="/wiki/Broadcasting_in_the_United_States" title="Broadcasting in the United States">Broadcasting</a> has less <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a> protection than other forms of communication because of its pervasive nature. The <a href="/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">Federal Communications Commission</a> has broad authority to determine what constitutes indecency in different contexts.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Central_Hudson_Gas_%26_Electric_Corp._v._Public_Service_Commission" title="Central Hudson Gas & Electric Corp. v. Public Service Commission">Central Hudson Gas & Electric Corp. v. Public Service Commission</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_447" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 447">447</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/447/557/">557</a> (1980)</b> The United States Supreme Court laid out a four-part test for determining when restrictions on <a href="/wiki/Commercial_speech" title="Commercial speech">commercial speech</a> violated the First Amendment of the United States Constitution.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/NAACP_v._Claiborne_Hardware_Co." title="NAACP v. Claiborne Hardware Co.">NAACP v. Claiborne Hardware Co.</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_458" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 458">458</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/458/886/">886</a> (1982)</b> Nonviolent boycotts and related activities to bring about political, social, and economic change are political speech which are entitled to the protection of the First Amendment.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_York_v._Ferber" title="New York v. Ferber">New York v. Ferber</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_458" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 458">458</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/458/747/">747</a> (1982)</b> Laws that prohibit the sale, distribution, and advertisement of child pornography are constitutional even if the content does not meet the conditions necessary for it to be labeled obscene.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Connick_v._Myers" title="Connick v. Myers">Connick v. Myers</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_461" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 461">461</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/461/138/">138</a> (1983)</b> Public employers may take adverse action against employees for otherwise protected speech on matters of public concern, including speech critical of them, if they have a reasonable belief that the speech is disruptive to their operations.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Posadas_de_Puerto_Rico_Associates_v._Tourism_Co._of_Puerto_Rico" title="Posadas de Puerto Rico Associates v. Tourism Co. of Puerto Rico">Posadas de Puerto Rico Associates v. Tourism Co. of Puerto Rico</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_478" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 478">478</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/478/328/">328</a> (1986)</b> Illustrated the elasticity of the <i><a href="/wiki/Central_Hudson_Gas_%26_Electric_Corp._v._Public_Service_Commission" title="Central Hudson Gas & Electric Corp. v. Public Service Commission">Central Hudson</a></i> standards for regulating commercial speech.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bethel_School_District_v._Fraser" title="Bethel School District v. Fraser">Bethel School District v. Fraser</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_478" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 478">478</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/478/675/">675</a> (1986)</b> The First Amendment permits a public school to punish a student for giving a lewd and indecent speech at a school assembly even if the speech is not <a href="/wiki/Obscenity" title="Obscenity">obscene</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hazelwood_v._Kuhlmeier" class="mw-redirect" title="Hazelwood v. Kuhlmeier">Hazelwood v. Kuhlmeier</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_484" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 484">484</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/484/260/">260</a> (1988)</b> Public school curricular student <a href="/wiki/Newspaper" title="Newspaper">newspapers</a> that have not been established as <a href="/wiki/Forum_(legal)" title="Forum (legal)">forums</a> for student expression are subject to a lower level of <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a> protection than independent student expression or newspapers established by policy or practice as forums for student expression.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hustler_Magazine_v._Falwell" title="Hustler Magazine v. Falwell">Hustler Magazine v. Falwell</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_485" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 485">485</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/485/46/">46</a> (1988)</b> Parodies of <a href="/wiki/Public_figure" title="Public figure">public figures</a>, including those <a href="/wiki/Intentional_infliction_of_emotional_distress" title="Intentional infliction of emotional distress">intended to cause emotional distress</a>, are protected by the First Amendment.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Texas_v._Johnson" title="Texas v. Johnson">Texas v. Johnson</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_491" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 491">491</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/491/397/">397</a> (1989)</b> A Texas law that criminalizes the desecration of the <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States" title="Flag of the United States">American flag</a> is unconstitutional because it violates the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a>'s protection of <a href="/wiki/Symbolic_speech" title="Symbolic speech">symbolic speech</a>. This decision invalidates laws prohibiting flag desecration in 48 of the 50 states. Alaska and Wyoming had no such laws.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Barnes_v._Glen_Theatre,_Inc." title="Barnes v. Glen Theatre, Inc.">Barnes v. Glen Theatre, Inc.</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_501" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 501">501</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/501/560/">560</a> (1991)</b> While nude dancing is a form of <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech_in_the_United_States#Expressive_conduct" title="Freedom of speech in the United States">expressive conduct</a>, public indecency laws regulating or prohibiting nude dancing are constitutional because they further substantial governmental interests in maintaining order and protecting morality.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/R.A.V._v._City_of_St._Paul" title="R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul">R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_505" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 505">505</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/505/377/">377</a> (1992)</b> <a href="/wiki/Saint_Paul,_Minnesota" title="Saint Paul, Minnesota">Saint Paul’s</a> Bias-Motivated Crime Ordinance is a content-based restriction of speech and is therefore unconstitutional.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_v._Mitchell" title="Wisconsin v. Mitchell">Wisconsin v. Mitchell</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_508" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 508">508</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/508/476/">476</a> (1993)</b> Enhanced penalties for <a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">hate crimes</a> are constitutional.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reno_v._American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="Reno v. American Civil Liberties Union">Reno v. American Civil Liberties Union</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_521" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 521">521</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/521/844/">844</a> (1997)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Communications_Decency_Act" title="Communications Decency Act">Communications Decency Act</a>, which regulates certain content on the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>, is so overbroad that it is an unconstitutional restraint on the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kato_Kaelin#Landmark_libel_case" title="Kato Kaelin">Kaelin v. Globe Communications</a></i>, <b>162 F.3d 1036 (9th Cir. 1998)</b> A headline on the cover of a magazine which "falsely insinuated" a criminal act may be grounds for a libel action even if the related article inside the magazine is not defamatory.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Virginia_v._Black" title="Virginia v. Black">Virginia v. Black</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_538" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 538">538</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/538/343/">343</a> (2003)</b> Any state statute which bans <a href="/wiki/Cross_burning" title="Cross burning">cross burning</a> on the basis that it constitutes <i><a href="/wiki/Prima_facie" title="Prima facie">prima facie</a></i> evidence of intent to intimidate is a violation of the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment to the Constitution</a>. However, states may still ban cross burning with intent to intimidate due to the act’s uniquely hateful history.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/McConnell_v._FEC" title="McConnell v. FEC"><i>McConnell v. Federal Election Commission</i></a>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_540" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 540">540</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/540/93/">93</a> (2003)</b> Upheld the <a href="/wiki/Constitutionality" title="Constitutionality">constitutionality</a> of most of the <a href="/wiki/Bipartisan_Campaign_Reform_Act" title="Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act">Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act</a>. <b>(Overruled by <i>Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission</i> (2010))</b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Garcetti_v._Ceballos" title="Garcetti v. Ceballos">Garcetti v. Ceballos</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_547" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 547">547</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/547/410/">410</a> (2006)</b> When public employees speak in their capacity as citizens on matters of public concern, even to criticize their employers, their speech is protected.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Davis_v._Federal_Election_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Davis v. Federal Election Commission">Davis v. Federal Election Commission</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_554" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 554">554</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/554/724/">724</a> (2008)</b> Limitations on financial contributions to political campaigns of candidates whose opponents are self-funding their own campaigns may not be raised beyond whatever their opponents can legally contribute. Section 319 of the <a href="/wiki/Bipartisan_Campaign_Reform_Act_of_2002" class="mw-redirect" title="Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002">Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002</a> is unconstitutional because it violates the Free Speech Clause of the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Citizens_United_v._Federal_Election_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission">Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_558" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 558">558</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/558/310/">310</a> (2010)</b> Limits on <a href="/wiki/Corporate_political_spending" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate political spending">corporate and union political expenditures</a> during election cycles violate the Free Speech Clause of the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a>. Corporations and labor unions can spend unlimited sums in support of or in opposition to candidates as long as the spending is independent of the candidates.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Snyder_v._Phelps" title="Snyder v. Phelps">Snyder v. Phelps</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_562" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 562">562</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/562/443/">443</a> (2011)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Westboro_Baptist_Church" title="Westboro Baptist Church">Westboro Baptist Church</a>'s picketing of funerals cannot be liable for a <a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">tort</a> of emotional distress.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Entertainment_Merchants_Association" title="Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Association">Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Association</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_564" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 564">564</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/564/786/">786</a> (2011)</b> Laws restricting the sale of violent <a href="/wiki/Video_game" title="Video game">video games</a> to children without parental supervision violate the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/McCutcheon_v._Federal_Election_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="McCutcheon v. Federal Election Commission">McCutcheon v. Federal Election Commission</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_572" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 572">572</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/572/185/">185</a> (2014)</b> Limits on the total amounts of money that individuals can donate to political campaigns during two-year election cycles violate the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Minnesota_Voters_Alliance_v._Mansky" title="Minnesota Voters Alliance v. Mansky">Minnesota Voters Alliance v. Mansky</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_585" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 585">585</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/585/1/">1</a> (2018)</b> A law banning politically motivated apparel and accessories inside polling places is overbroad and violates the First Amendment.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Janus_v._AFSCME" title="Janus v. AFSCME">Janus v. AFSCME</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_585" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 585">585</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/585/___/">___</a> (2018)</b> No public sector employee, having refused membership in a trade union, may be compelled to pay union dues to said union <a href="/wiki/Free_rider_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Free rider problem">because of the benefits he may receive from their collective bargaining</a>. "Fair share" agreements, when applied to public sector workers, violate the First Amendment protections of <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Freedom_of_association" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">free association</a> and <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of speech in the United States">freedom of speech</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/FEC_v._Ted_Cruz_for_Senate" title="FEC v. Ted Cruz for Senate">Federal Election Commission v. Ted Cruz for Senate</a>,</i> <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_596" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 596">596</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/596/289/">289</a> (2022)</b> Limits on the amount a campaign for public office can pay back in loans to the candidate more than 20 days after an election violates the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a> as it places a limit on the candidate's free speech. Overturns Section 304 of the <a href="/wiki/Bipartisan_Campaign_Reform_Act_of_2002" class="mw-redirect" title="Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002">Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/303_Creative_LLC_v._Elenis" title="303 Creative LLC v. Elenis">303 Creative LLC v. Elenis</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_600" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 600">600</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/600/570/">570</a> (2023)</b> <a href="/wiki/Anti-discrimination_law" title="Anti-discrimination law">Anti-discrimination laws</a> cannot be used to compel expressive speech that goes against a person’s values.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Freedom_of_religion">Freedom of religion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Freedom of religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of religion in the United States">Freedom of religion in the United States</a></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Reynolds_v._United_States" title="Reynolds v. United States">Reynolds v. United States</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_98" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 98">98</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/98/145/">145</a> (1879)</b> Religious belief or duty cannot be used as a defense against a criminal <a href="/wiki/Indictment" title="Indictment">indictment</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Davis_v._Beason" title="Davis v. Beason">Davis v. Beason</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_133" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 133">133</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/133/333/">333</a> (1890)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Edmunds_Act" title="Edmunds Act">Edmunds Anti-Polygamy Act of 1882</a> does not violate the <a href="/wiki/Free_Exercise_Clause" title="Free Exercise Clause">Free Exercise Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a> even though <a href="/wiki/Polygamy" title="Polygamy">polygamy</a> is part of several religious beliefs.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cantwell_v._Connecticut" title="Cantwell v. Connecticut">Cantwell v. Connecticut</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_310" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 310">310</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/310/296/">296</a> (1940)</b> The states cannot interfere with the free exercise of religion.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Minersville_School_District_v._Gobitis" title="Minersville School District v. Gobitis">Minersville School District v. Gobitis</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_310" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 310">310</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/310/586/">586</a> (1940)</b> The <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a> does not require public schools to excuse students from saluting the <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States" title="Flag of the United States">American flag</a> and reciting the <a href="/wiki/Pledge_of_Allegiance_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pledge of Allegiance (United States)">Pledge of Allegiance</a> on religious grounds. <b>(Overruled by <i>West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette</i> (1943))</b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Murdock_v._Pennsylvania" title="Murdock v. Pennsylvania">Murdock v. Pennsylvania</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_319" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 319">319</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/319/105/">105</a> (1943)</b> A <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a> ordinance that imposes a license tax on those selling religious merchandise violates the <a href="/wiki/Free_Exercise_Clause" title="Free Exercise Clause">Free Exercise Clause</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/West_Virginia_State_Board_of_Education_v._Barnette" title="West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette">West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_319" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 319">319</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/319/624/">624</a> (1943)</b> Public schools cannot override the religious beliefs of their students by forcing them to salute the <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States" title="Flag of the United States">American flag</a> and recite the <a href="/wiki/Pledge_of_Allegiance_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pledge of Allegiance (United States)">Pledge of Allegiance</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Marsh_v._Alabama" title="Marsh v. Alabama">Marsh v. Alabama</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_326" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 326">326</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/326/501/">501</a> (1946)</b> Governments cannot require permits to proselytize, or bar it outright, in public spaces even where those are privately owned.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Everson_v._Board_of_Education" title="Everson v. Board of Education">Everson v. Board of Education</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_330" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 330">330</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/330/1/">1</a> (1947)</b> A state law that reimburses the costs of transportation to and from <a href="/wiki/Parochial_school" title="Parochial school">parochial schools</a> does not violate the <a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a>. The Establishment Clause is <a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights" title="Incorporation of the Bill of Rights">incorporated</a> against the states, and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">Constitution</a> requires a sharp separation between government and religion.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/McCollum_v._Board_of_Education" title="McCollum v. Board of Education">McCollum v. Board of Education</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_333" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 333">333</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/333/203/">203</a> (1948)</b> The use of public school facilities by religious organizations to give religious instruction to school children violates the <a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment Clause</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kunz_v._New_York" title="Kunz v. New York">Kunz v. New York</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_340" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 340">340</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/340/290/">290</a> (1952)</b> A requirement mandating a permit to speak on religious issues in public is unconstitutional.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Braunfeld_v._Brown" title="Braunfeld v. Brown">Braunfeld v. Brown</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_366" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 366">366</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/366/599/">599</a> (1961)</b> A Pennsylvania <a href="/wiki/Blue_law" title="Blue law">blue law</a> forbidding the sale of various retail products on Sunday was not an unconstitutional interference with religion as described in the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a> to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Engel_v._Vitale" title="Engel v. Vitale">Engel v. Vitale</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_370" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 370">370</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/370/421/">421</a> (1962)</b> Government-directed prayer in public schools, even if it is denominationally neutral and non-mandatory, violates the <a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment Clause</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Abington_School_District_v._Schempp" title="Abington School District v. Schempp">Abington School District v. Schempp</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_374" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 374">374</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/374/203/">203</a> (1963)</b> School-sponsored reading of the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> and recitation of the <a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Prayer" title="Lord's Prayer">Lord's Prayer</a> in public schools is unconstitutional under the Establishment Clause.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sherbert_v._Verner" title="Sherbert v. Verner">Sherbert v. Verner</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_374" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 374">374</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/374/398/">398</a> (1963)</b> Created the <i>Sherbert</i> test, requiring the government to demonstrate both a compelling interest and that the law in question was narrowly tailored when restricting <a href="/wiki/Free_Exercise_Clause" title="Free Exercise Clause">free exercise</a> of religion. This test was codified on the federal level in the <a href="/wiki/Religious_Freedom_Restoration_Act" title="Religious Freedom Restoration Act">Religious Freedom Restoration Act</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Religious_Land_Use_and_Institutionalized_Persons_Act" title="Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act">Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act</a>. <b>(Partially overruled by <i>Employment Division v. Smith</i> (1990))</b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Flast_v._Cohen" title="Flast v. Cohen">Flast v. Cohen</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_392" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 392">392</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/392/83/">83</a> (1968)</b> Taxpayers have standing to sue to prevent the disbursement of federal funds in contravention of the specific constitutional prohibition against government support of religion.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Epperson_v._Arkansas" title="Epperson v. Arkansas">Epperson v. Arkansas</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_393" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 393">393</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/393/97/">97</a> (1968)</b> States may not require curricula to align with the views of any particular religion.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lemon_v._Kurtzman" title="Lemon v. Kurtzman">Lemon v. Kurtzman</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_403" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 403">403</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/403/602/">602</a> (1971)</b> For a law to be considered constitutional under the <a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment Clause</a>, the law must have a legitimate secular purpose, must not have the primary effect of either advancing or inhibiting religion, and must not result in an excessive entanglement of government and religion.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_v._Yoder" title="Wisconsin v. Yoder">Wisconsin v. Yoder</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_406" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 406">406</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/406/205/">205</a> (1972)</b> Parents may remove their children from public schools for religious reasons.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Marsh_v._Chambers" title="Marsh v. Chambers">Marsh v. Chambers</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_463" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 463">463</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/463/783/">783</a> (1983)</b> A <a href="/wiki/State_legislature_(United_States)" title="State legislature (United States)">state legislature</a>'s practice of opening its sessions with a prayer offered by a state-supported chaplain does not violate the <a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment Clause</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Edwards_v._Aguillard" title="Edwards v. Aguillard">Edwards v. Aguillard</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_482" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 482">482</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/482/578/">578</a> (1987)</b> Teaching <a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">creationism</a> in public schools is unconstitutional.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Corporation_of_Presiding_Bishop_of_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints_v._Amos" title="Corporation of Presiding Bishop of Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints v. Amos">Corporation of Presiding Bishop v. Amos</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_483" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 483">483</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/483/327/">327</a> (1987)</b> Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, exempting religious organizations from the prohibition on religious discrimination, even in secular activities, did not violate the First Amendment.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Employment_Division_v._Smith" title="Employment Division v. Smith">Employment Division v. Smith</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_494" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 494">494</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/494/872/">872</a> (1990)</b> Neutral laws of general applicability do not violate the <a href="/wiki/Free_Exercise_Clause" title="Free Exercise Clause">Free Exercise Clause</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lee_v._Weisman" title="Lee v. Weisman">Lee v. Weisman</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_505" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 505">505</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/505/577/">577</a> (1992)</b> Including a clergy-led prayer within the events of a public school graduation ceremony violates the <a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment Clause</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Church_of_Lukumi_Babalu_Aye_v._City_of_Hialeah" class="mw-redirect" title="Church of Lukumi Babalu Aye v. City of Hialeah">Church of Lukumi Babalu Aye v. City of Hialeah</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_508" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 508">508</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/508/520/">520</a> (1993)</b> The government must show a compelling interest to pass a law that targets a religion's ritual (as opposed to a law that happens to burden the ritual but is not directed at it). Failing to show such an interest, the prohibition of <a href="/wiki/Animal_sacrifice" title="Animal sacrifice">animal sacrifice</a> is a violation of the <a href="/wiki/Free_Exercise_Clause" title="Free Exercise Clause">Free Exercise Clause</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rosenberger_v._University_of_Virginia" title="Rosenberger v. University of Virginia">Rosenberger v. University of Virginia</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_515" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 515">515</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/515/819/">819</a> (1995)</b> A university cannot use student dues to fund secular groups while excluding religious groups.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Agostini_v._Felton" title="Agostini v. Felton">Agostini v. Felton</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_521" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 521">521</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/521/203/">203</a> (1997)</b> Allowing public school teachers to teach at <a href="/wiki/Parochial_school" title="Parochial school">parochial schools</a> does not violate the <a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment Clause</a> as long as the material that is taught is secular and neutral in nature and no "excessive entanglement" between government and religion is apparent.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Santa_Fe_Independent_School_Dist._v._Doe" class="mw-redirect" title="Santa Fe Independent School Dist. v. Doe">Santa Fe Independent School District v. Doe</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_530" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 530">530</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/530/290/">290</a> (2000)</b> Prayer in public schools that is initiated and led by students violates the Establishment Clause.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zelman_v._Simmons-Harris" title="Zelman v. Simmons-Harris">Zelman v. Simmons-Harris</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_536" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 536">536</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/536/639/">639</a> (2002)</b> A government program that provides tuition vouchers for students to attend a private or religious school of their parents' choosing is constitutional because the vouchers are neutral toward religion and, therefore, do not violate the <a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment Clause</a>. The Supreme Court developed the private choice test which states that a voucher program in order to be constitutional must meet all five criteria of the test.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hosanna-Tabor_Evangelical_Lutheran_Church_and_School_v._Equal_Employment_Opportunity_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Hosanna-Tabor Evangelical Lutheran Church and School v. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission">Hosanna-Tabor Evangelical Lutheran Church and School v. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_565" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 565">565</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/565/171/">171</a> (2012)</b> <a href="/wiki/Minister_(Christianity)" title="Minister (Christianity)">Ministers</a> cannot sue their churches by claiming termination in violation of employment non-discrimination laws. The <a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment Clause</a> forbids the appointing of ministers by the government; therefore, it cannot interfere with the freedom of religious groups to select their own ministers under the <a href="/wiki/Free_Exercise_Clause" title="Free Exercise Clause">Free Exercise Clause</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Town_of_Greece_v._Galloway" title="Town of Greece v. Galloway">Town of Greece v. Galloway</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_572" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 572">572</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/572/565/">565</a> (2014)</b> A <a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_the_United_States" title="Local government in the United States">town council</a>'s practice of opening its sessions with a sectarian prayer does not violate the <a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment Clause</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Burwell_v._Hobby_Lobby_Stores,_Inc." title="Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc.">Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc.</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_573" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 573">573</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/573/682/">682</a> (2014)</b> Closely held, for-profit corporations have free exercise rights under the <a href="/wiki/Religious_Freedom_Restoration_Act" title="Religious Freedom Restoration Act">Religious Freedom Restoration Act of 1993</a>. As applied to such corporations, the requirement of the <a href="/wiki/Patient_Protection_and_Affordable_Care_Act" title="Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act">Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act</a> that employers provide their female employees with no-cost access to <a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">contraception</a> violates the Religious Freedom Restoration Act.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/American_Legion_v._American_Humanist_Association" title="American Legion v. American Humanist Association">American Legion v. American Humanist Association</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_588" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 588">588</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/588/29/">29</a> (2019)</b> A war memorial <a href="/wiki/Latin_cross" title="Latin cross">Latin cross</a> displayed on public land does not violate the <a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment Clause</a>, because longstanding monuments should be afforded a presumption of constitutionality.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Espinoza_v._Montana_Department_of_Revenue" title="Espinoza v. Montana Department of Revenue">Espinoza v. Montana Department of Revenue</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_591" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 591">591</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/591/464/">464</a> (2020)</b> A state's "no aid" constitutional provision prohibiting state aid to religious schools violates the Free Exercise clause by explicitly discriminating against institutions on the basis of religion.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Carson_v._Makin" title="Carson v. Makin">Carson v. Makin</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_596" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 596">596</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/596/767/">767</a> (2022)</b> Excluding "sectarian" schools from a tuition assistance program violates the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_v._Bremerton_School_District" title="Kennedy v. Bremerton School District">Kennedy v. Bremerton School District</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_597" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 597">597</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/597/507/">507</a> (2022)</b> The firing of a public high school football coach for saying a prayer on the field violated his First Amendment rights. The Court announced that the <i>Lemon</i> test from the landmark case of <i><a href="/wiki/Lemon_v._Kurtzman" title="Lemon v. Kurtzman">Lemon v. Kurtzman</a></i> (1971) had been abandoned by the Court in later cases. Instead, the Court announced, <a href="/wiki/Original_meaning" class="mw-redirect" title="Original meaning">original meaning</a> and history govern analysis of the Establishment Clause.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Freedom_of_association">Freedom of association</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Freedom of association"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Jonge_v._Oregon" title="De Jonge v. Oregon">De Jonge v. Oregon</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_299" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 299">299</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/299/353/">353</a> (1937)</b> The freedom of association is <a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights" title="Incorporation of the Bill of Rights">incorporated</a> against the states by the <a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People_v._Alabama" class="mw-redirect" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People v. Alabama">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People v. Alabama</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_357" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 357">357</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/357/449/">449</a> (1958)</b> The freedom to associate with organizations dedicated to the "advancement of beliefs and ideas" is an inseparable part of the <a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hurley_v._Irish-American_Gay,_Lesbian,_and_Bisexual_Group_of_Boston" title="Hurley v. Irish-American Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Group of Boston">Hurley v. Irish-American Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Group of Boston</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_515" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 515">515</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/515/557/">557</a> (1995)</b> Private citizens organizing a public demonstration have the right to exclude groups whose message they disagree with from participating.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Boy_Scouts_of_America_v._Dale" title="Boy Scouts of America v. Dale">Boy Scouts of America v. Dale</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_530" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 530">530</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/530/640/">640</a> (2000)</b> Private organizations are allowed to choose their own membership and expel members based on their sexual orientation even if such discrimination would otherwise be prohibited by anti-discrimination legislation designed to protect minorities in public accommodations.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Freedom_of_petition">Freedom of petition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Freedom of petition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Right_to_petition_in_the_United_States" title="Right to petition in the United States">Right to petition in the United States</a></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Edwards_v._South_Carolina" title="Edwards v. South Carolina">Edwards v. South Carolina</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_372" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 372">372</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/372/229/">229</a> (1963)</b> The Free Petition Clause extends to the states through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/California_Motor_Transport_Co._v._Trucking_Unlimited" title="California Motor Transport Co. v. Trucking Unlimited">California Motor Transport Co. v. Trucking Unlimited</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_404" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 404">404</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/404/508/">508</a> (1972)</b> The Free Petition Clause encompasses petitions to all three branches of the federal government—the Congress, the executive including administrative agencies, and the judiciary.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Second_Amendment_rights">Second Amendment rights</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Second Amendment rights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">Second Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Cruikshank" title="United States v. Cruikshank">United States v. Cruikshank</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_92" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 92">92</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/92/542/">542</a> (1876)</b> The Second Amendment has no purpose other than to restrict the powers of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">federal government</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States" title="Right to keep and bear arms in the United States">right to keep and bear arms</a> for a lawful purpose is not a right granted by the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution</a> or dependent upon the Constitution for its existence. (<b>overruled</b> by <i>District of Columbia v. Heller</i> (2008) and <i>McDonald v. City of Chicago</i> (2010)).</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Presser_v._Illinois" title="Presser v. Illinois">Presser v. Illinois</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_116" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 116">116</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/116/252/">252</a> (1886)</b> An <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a> law that prohibits common citizens from forming personal military organizations, performing drills, and parading is constitutional because such a law does not limit the personal right to keep and bear arms.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Miller" title="United States v. Miller">United States v. Miller</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_307" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 307">307</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/307/174/">174</a> (1939)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">federal government</a> and the states can limit access to all weapons that do not have "some reasonable relationship to the preservation or efficiency of a well regulated <a href="/wiki/Militia_(United_States)" title="Militia (United States)">militia</a>."</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_v._Heller" title="District of Columbia v. Heller">District of Columbia v. Heller</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_554" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 554">554</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/554/570/">570</a> (2008)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">Second Amendment</a> protects an individual right to possess a firearm unconnected with service in a militia and to use it for traditionally lawful purposes such as self-defense within the home.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/McDonald_v._City_of_Chicago" title="McDonald v. City of Chicago">McDonald v. City of Chicago</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_561" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 561">561</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/561/742/">742</a> (2010)</b> The individual <a href="/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States" title="Right to keep and bear arms in the United States">right to keep and bear arms</a> for self-defense is <a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights" title="Incorporation of the Bill of Rights">incorporated</a> against the states through the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process Clause</a> or <a href="/wiki/Privileges_or_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges or Immunities Clause">Privileges or Immunities Clause</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Caetano_v._Massachusetts" title="Caetano v. Massachusetts">Caetano v. Massachusetts</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_577" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 577">577</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/577/411/">411</a> (2016)</b> The Second Amendment extends to all bearable arms, including those that were not in existence at the time of the founding.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_York_State_Rifle_%26_Pistol_Association,_Inc._v._Bruen" title="New York State Rifle & Pistol Association, Inc. v. Bruen">New York State Rifle & Pistol Association, Inc. v. Bruen</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_597" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 597">597</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/597/1/">1</a> (2022)</b> The Second Amendment protects an individual's right to carry a handgun for self-defense in public, outside the home; firearms regulations challenged on constitutional grounds must be evaluated against the "history and tradition" of such laws in the U.S.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Rahimi" title="United States v. Rahimi">United States v. Rahimi</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_602" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 602">602</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/602/___/">___</a> (2024)</b> Laws preventing gun possession by those with a <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(common_law)" title="Civil law (common law)">civil</a> <a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence" title="Domestic violence">domestic violence</a> <a href="/wiki/Restraining_order" title="Restraining order">restraining order</a> are constitutional. Refined the <i>Bruen</i> test, stating that in comparing modern gun control laws to historic tradition, courts should use similar analogues and general principles rather than strict matches.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Third_Amendment_rights">Third Amendment rights</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Third Amendment rights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Third Amendment to the United States Constitution">Third Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Engblom_v._Carey" title="Engblom v. Carey">Engblom v. Carey</a></i>, <b>677 F.2d 957 (2d Cir. 1982)</b> Members of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Guard" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Guard">National Guard</a> qualify as "soldiers" under the Third Amendment. The Third Amendment is incorporated against the states through the <a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>. And the protection of the Third Amendment applies to anyone who, within their residence, has a legal expectation of privacy and a legal right to exclude others from entry into the premises. This case is notable for being the only case based on Third Amendment claims that has been decided by a <a href="/wiki/United_States_courts_of_appeals" title="United States courts of appeals">federal appeals court</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fourteenth_Amendment_rights">Fourteenth Amendment rights</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Fourteenth Amendment rights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Slaughter-House_Cases" title="Slaughter-House Cases">Slaughter-House Cases</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_83" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 83">83</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/83/36/">36</a> (1873)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Privileges_or_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges or Immunities Clause">Privileges or Immunities Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a> applies to the benefits of federal <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> <a href="/wiki/Citizenship_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Citizenship in the United States">citizenship</a> but not to the benefits of state citizenship.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Allgeyer_v._Louisiana" title="Allgeyer v. Louisiana">Allgeyer v. Louisiana</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_165" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 165">165</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/165/578/">578</a> (1897)</b> The liberty that is protected by the <a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a> includes economic liberty.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Meyer_v._Nebraska" title="Meyer v. Nebraska">Meyer v. Nebraska</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_262" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 262">262</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/262/390/">390</a> (1923)</b> A 1919 Nebraska law prohibiting the teaching of modern foreign languages to grade-school children violated the <a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process Clause</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pierce_v._Society_of_Sisters" title="Pierce v. Society of Sisters">Pierce v. Society of Sisters</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_268" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 268">268</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/268/510/">510</a> (1925)</b> Parents have the right to choose the school of their choice for their children's education under the <a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process Clause</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Skinner_v._Oklahoma" title="Skinner v. Oklahoma">Skinner v. Oklahoma</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_316" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 316">316</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/316/535/">535</a> (1942)</b> State eugenics laws <a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">mandating sterilization</a> of criminals convicted of some crimes but not others are unconstitutional as it violates a person's rights given under the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a> and <a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14th Amendment</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/International_Shoe_v._Washington" class="mw-redirect" title="International Shoe v. Washington">International Shoe Co. v. Washington</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_326" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 326">326</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/326/310/">310</a> (1945)</b> Minimum contacts with the forum state can enable a court in that state to exert personal jurisdiction over a party consistent with the <a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process Clause</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Goldberg_v._Kelly" title="Goldberg v. Kelly">Goldberg v. Kelly</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_397" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 397">397</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/397/254/">254</a> (1970)</b> The termination of <a href="/wiki/Welfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Welfare">welfare</a> benefits must be preceded by a full <a href="/wiki/Preliminary_hearing" title="Preliminary hearing">evidentiary hearing</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process Clause</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/San_Antonio_Independent_School_District_v._Rodriguez" title="San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez">San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_411" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 411">411</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/411/1/">1</a> (1973)</b> The use of <a href="/wiki/Property_tax_in_the_United_States" title="Property tax in the United States">property taxes</a> to finance public education does not violate the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mathews_v._Eldridge" title="Mathews v. Eldridge">Mathews v. Eldridge</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_424" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 424">424</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/424/319/">319</a> (1976)</b> When procedural <a href="/wiki/Due_process" title="Due process">due process</a> applies, courts must consider the government's interests, the individual's interests, and the likelihood of making an inaccurate decision using the existing procedures as well as the probable value of additional procedural safeguards.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Board_of_Education_v._Loudermill" title="Cleveland Board of Education v. Loudermill">Cleveland Board of Education v. Loudermill</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_470" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 470">470</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/470/532/">532</a> (1985)</b> Public employees are entitled to some form of hearing prior to termination for cause, overruling <i><a href="/wiki/Arnett_v._Kennedy" title="Arnett v. Kennedy">Arnett v. Kennedy</a></i>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trump_v._Anderson" title="Trump v. Anderson">Trump v. Anderson</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_601" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 601">601</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/601/100/">100</a> (2024)</b> Only Congress, not the states, can determine eligibility for federal office under <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_3:_Disqualification_from_office_for_insurrection_or_rebellion" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Separation_of_powers">Separation of powers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Separation of powers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">Separation of powers under the United States Constitution</a></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Marbury_v._Madison" title="Marbury v. Madison">Marbury v. Madison</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_5" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 5">5</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/5/137/">137</a> (1803)</b> Section 13 of the <a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1789" title="Judiciary Act of 1789">Judiciary Act of 1789</a> is unconstitutional because it attempts to expand the <a href="/wiki/Original_jurisdiction" title="Original jurisdiction">original jurisdiction</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> beyond that permitted by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">Constitution</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> cannot pass laws that contradict the Constitution. This case featured the first example of judicial nullification of a federal law and it was the point at which the Supreme Court adopted a <a href="/wiki/Judicial_review_in_the_United_States" title="Judicial review in the United States">monitoring role over government actions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Little_v._Barreme" title="Little v. Barreme">Little v. Barreme</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_6" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 6">6</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/6/170/">170</a> (1804)</b> The President does not have "inherent authority" or "inherent powers" that allow him to ignore a law passed by the <a href="/wiki/US_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="US Congress">US Congress</a>. Presidential orders which contradict acts of Congress are illegal, and military officers are responsible for the execution of illegal commands, despite the nature of military <a href="/wiki/Command_hierarchy" title="Command hierarchy">chain of command</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Klein" title="United States v. Klein">United States v. Klein</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_80" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 80">80</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/80/128/">128</a> (1871)</b> The principle of separation of powers prohibits Congress from prescribing a rule of decision for the federal courts to follow in particular pending cases, because the legislative branch cannot impair the exclusive powers of another branch.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Myers_v._United_States" title="Myers v. United States">Myers v. United States</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_272" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 272">272</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/272/52/">52</a> (1926)</b> The President has the exclusive power to remove executive branch officials, and does not need the approval of the Senate or any other legislative body.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/J._W._Hampton,_Jr._%26_Co._v._United_States" title="J. W. Hampton, Jr. & Co. v. United States">J. W. Hampton, Jr. & Co. v. United States</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_276" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 276">276</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/276/394/">394</a> (1928)</b> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congressional</a> delegation of legislative authority is an implied power of Congress that is constitutional so long as Congress provides an "intelligible principle" to guide the executive branch.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Springer_v._Government_of_the_Philippine_Islands" title="Springer v. Government of the Philippine Islands">Springer v. Government of the Philippine Islands</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_277" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 277">277</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/277/189/">189</a> (1928)</b> American Constitutions, both state and federal, divides the government into three separate departments—the legislative, executive, and judicial. This separation and the consequent exclusive character of the powers conferred upon each of the three departments is basic and vital—not merely a matter of governmental mechanism. It may be stated then, as a general rule inherent in the American constitutional system, that, unless otherwise expressly provided or incidental to the powers conferred, the legislature cannot exercise either executive or judicial power; the executive cannot exercise either legislative or judicial power; the judiciary cannot exercise either executive or legislative power.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Humphrey%27s_Executor_v._United_States" title="Humphrey's Executor v. United States">Humphrey's Executor v. United States</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_295" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 295">295</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/295/602/">602</a> (1935)</b> The President may not remove an appointee to an independent regulatory agency except for reasons that Congress has provided by law.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nixon_v._General_Services_Administration" title="Nixon v. General Services Administration">Nixon v. General Services Administration</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_433" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 433">433</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/433/425/">425</a> (1977)</b> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> has the power to pass a law that directs the seizure and disposition of the papers and tapes of a former president that are within the control of the executive branch.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Immigration_and_Naturalization_Service_v._Chadha" title="Immigration and Naturalization Service v. Chadha">Immigration and Naturalization Service v. Chadha</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_462" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 462">462</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/462/919/">919</a> (1983)</b> Congress may not promulgate a statute granting to itself a <a href="/wiki/Legislative_veto" title="Legislative veto">legislative veto</a> over actions of the executive branch because such a veto is inconsistent with the <a href="/wiki/Bicameralism" title="Bicameralism">bicameralism</a> principle and <a href="/wiki/Presentment_Clause" title="Presentment Clause">Presentment Clause</a> of the Constitution.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bowsher_v._Synar" title="Bowsher v. Synar">Bowsher v. Synar</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_478" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 478">478</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/478/714/">714</a> (1986)</b> Congress cannot reserve removal power over executive officers to itself, except for <a href="/wiki/Federal_impeachment_in_the_United_States" title="Federal impeachment in the United States">impeachment</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Morrison_v._Olson" title="Morrison v. Olson">Morrison v. Olson</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_487" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 487">487</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/487/654/">654</a> (1988)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_Government_Act" title="Ethics in Government Act">Ethics in Government Act of 1978</a> is constitutional because it does not increase the power of the judiciary or legislative branches at the expense of the executive branch. Its restriction on the power of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">United States Attorney General</a> to remove an <a href="/wiki/Officer_of_the_United_States" title="Officer of the United States">inferior officer</a> only for good cause does not violate the <a href="/wiki/Appointments_Clause" title="Appointments Clause">Appointments Clause</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plaut_v._Spendthrift_Farm,_Inc." title="Plaut v. Spendthrift Farm, Inc.">Plaut v. Spendthrift Farm, Inc.</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_514" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 514">514</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/514/211/">211</a> (1995)</b> Congress is unable to make any law or provision therein to reopen cases which have been previously adjudicated by or within federal courts. Congress violates the separation of powers principle when it orders federal courts to reopen their final judgments.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Clinton_v._City_of_New_York" title="Clinton v. City of New York">Clinton v. City of New York</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_524" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 524">524</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/524/417/">417</a> (1998)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Line_Item_Veto_Act_of_1996" title="Line Item Veto Act of 1996">Line Item Veto Act</a> is unconstitutional because it allows the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a> to amend or repeal parts of statutes without the pre-approval of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a>. According to the <a href="/wiki/Presentment_Clause" title="Presentment Clause">Presentment Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">Constitution</a>, Congress must initiate all changes to existing laws.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/NLRB_v._Noel_Canning" title="NLRB v. Noel Canning">National Labor Relations Board v. Noel Canning</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_573" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 573">573</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/573/513/">513</a> (2014)</b> For purposes of the <a href="/wiki/Recess_appointment" title="Recess appointment">Recess Appointment</a> Clause, the Senate is in session when it says that it is if, under <a href="/wiki/Rules_of_the_United_States_Senate" class="mw-redirect" title="Rules of the United States Senate">its own rules</a>, it retains the capacity to transact business. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit">D.C. Circuit</a> affirmed.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bank_Markazi_v._Peterson" title="Bank Markazi v. Peterson">Bank Markazi v. Peterson</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_578" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 578">578</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/578/212/">212</a> (2016)</b> A law which only applied to a specific case, identified by <a href="/wiki/Docket_(court)" title="Docket (court)">docket</a> number, and eliminated all of the defenses that one party had raised does not violate the separation of powers in the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">United States Constitution</a> between the legislative (<a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a>) and judicial branches of government.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Administrative_law">Administrative law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Administrative law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/United_States_administrative_law" title="United States administrative law">United States administrative law</a></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_ex_rel._Accardi_v._Shaughnessy" title="United States ex rel. Accardi v. Shaughnessy">United States ex rel. Accardi v. Shaughnessy</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_347" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 347">347</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/347/260/">260</a> (1954)</b> Administrative agencies are <a href="/wiki/Obligee" class="mw-redirect" title="Obligee">obliged</a> to follow their own <a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">regulations</a>, policies and procedures. Under the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Accardi_Doctrine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Accardi Doctrine (page does not exist)">Accardi Doctrine</a>, federal agencies which do not follow their own regulations or procedures run the risk of having their actions invalidated if challenged in <a href="/wiki/Court" title="Court">court</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Citizens_to_Preserve_Overton_Park_v._Volpe" title="Citizens to Preserve Overton Park v. Volpe">Citizens to Preserve Overton Park v. Volpe</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_401" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 401">401</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/401/402/">402</a> (1972)</b> The case established the basic legal framework for judicial review of the actions of administrative agencies.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chevron_U.S.A.,_Inc._v._Natural_Resources_Defense_Council,_Inc." title="Chevron U.S.A., Inc. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc.">Chevron U.S.A., Inc. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc.</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_467" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 467">467</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/467/837/">837</a> (1984)</b> An interpretation by a <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_federal_agencies" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States federal agencies">government agency</a> of its own mandate from <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> is entitled to judicial deference if the authority is ambiguous and the agency's interpretation is permissible under the statute, regardless as to whether it is the best possible interpretation or an interpretation the Court would have made. <b>(Overruled by <a href="/wiki/Loper_Bright_Enterprises_v._Raimondo" title="Loper Bright Enterprises v. Raimondo">Loper Bright Enterprises v. Raimondo</a> (2024))</b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Auer_v._Robbins" title="Auer v. Robbins">Auer v. Robbins</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_519" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 519">519</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/519/452/">452</a> (1997)</b> Agencies have the highest level of deference in interpreting their own regulations. However, deference is warranted only if the language of the regulation is ambiguous unless it is plainly erroneous or inconsistent with the regulation. The case expands <i>Chevron</i> deference by giving the agency the highest deference.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_v._Environmental_Protection_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency">Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_549" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 549">549</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/549/497/">497</a> (2007)</b> <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">Greenhouse gases</a> are <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">air pollutants</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">Environmental Protection Agency</a> may regulate their emission under the <a href="/wiki/Clean_Air_Act_(United_States)" title="Clean Air Act (United States)">Clean Air Act</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Michigan_v._EPA" title="Michigan v. EPA">Michigan v. Environmental Protection Agency</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_576" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 576">576</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/576/743/">743</a> (2015)</b> The Environmental Protection Agency must consider costs when it regulates power plants under the Clean Air Act.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/West_Virginia_v._EPA" title="West Virginia v. EPA">West Virginia v. Environmental Protection Agency</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_596" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 596">596</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/596/697/">697</a> (2022)</b> The Environmental Protection Agency only has limited authority to set caps on carbon emissions. Under the <a href="/wiki/Major_questions_doctrine" title="Major questions doctrine">major questions doctrine</a>, Congress is presumed not to delegate questions of vast economic and political significance to an agency except with clear statutory authorization.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Loper_Bright_Enterprises_v._Raimondo" title="Loper Bright Enterprises v. Raimondo">Loper Bright Enterprises v. Raimondo</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_603" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 603">603</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/603/___/">___</a> (2024)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Administrative_Procedure_Act" title="Administrative Procedure Act">Administrative Procedure Act</a> requires courts to exercise their independent judgment in deciding whether an agency has acted within its statutory authority, and courts may not defer to an agency interpretation of the law simply because a statute is ambiguous; <a href="/wiki/Chevron_U.S.A.,_Inc._v._Natural_Resources_Defense_Council,_Inc." title="Chevron U.S.A., Inc. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc."><i>Chevron</i></a> is overruled.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Executive_power">Executive power</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Executive power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Domestic">Domestic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Domestic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Youngstown_Sheet_%26_Tube_Co._v._Sawyer" title="Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer">Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_343" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 343">343</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/343/579/">579</a> (1952)</b> The <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a> cannot seize private property in the absence of either specifically enumerated authority under the Constitution or statutory authority given to him or her by <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a>. <a href="/wiki/Powers_of_the_president_of_the_United_States#Commander-in-chief" title="Powers of the president of the United States">Commander-in-chief</a> powers do not extend to labor disputes.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Nixon" title="United States v. Nixon">United States v. Nixon</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_418" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 418">418</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/418/683/">683</a> (1974)</b> The doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Executive_privilege" title="Executive privilege">executive privilege</a> is legitimate; however, the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a> cannot invoke it in criminal cases to withhold evidence.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harlow_v._Fitzgerald" title="Harlow v. Fitzgerald">Harlow v. Fitzgerald</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_457" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 457">457</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/457/800/">800</a> (1982)</b> Presidential aides were not entitled to absolute immunity, but instead deserved qualified immunity.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Halkin_v._Helms" title="Halkin v. Helms">Halkin v. Helms</a></i>, <b>598 F.2d 1 (D.C. Cir. 1978)</b> The <a href="/wiki/NSA" class="mw-redirect" title="NSA">NSA</a> is not required to disclose evidence which may threaten the diplomatic or military interests of the nation in court.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nixon_v._Fitzgerald" title="Nixon v. Fitzgerald">Nixon v. Fitzgerald</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_457" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 457">457</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/457/731/">731</a> (1982)</b> The President is entitled to absolute immunity from <a href="/wiki/Legal_liability" title="Legal liability">legal liability</a> for civil damages based on his official acts. The President is not immune from criminal charges stemming from his official or unofficial acts while he is in office.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Clinton_v._Jones" title="Clinton v. Jones">Clinton v. Jones</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_520" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 520">520</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/520/681/">681</a> (1997)</b> The <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a> has no immunity that could require civil law litigation against him or her involving a dispute unrelated to the office of President to be stayed until the end of him or her term. Such a delay would deprive the parties to the suit of the right to a speedy trial that is guaranteed by the <a href="/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Sixth Amendment</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trump_v._Mazars_USA,_LLP" title="Trump v. Mazars USA, LLP">Trump v. Mazars USA, LLP</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_591" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 591">591</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/591/848/">848</a> (2020)</b> The court laid out a four-factor balancing test that lower courts must weigh before determining if congressional subpoenas involving the President and his papers are valid.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trump_v._Vance" title="Trump v. Vance">Trump v. Vance</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_591" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 591">591</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/591/786/">786</a> (2020)</b> <a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Article II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Supremacy_Clause" title="Supremacy Clause">the supremacy clause</a> of the U.S. Constitution do not categorically preclude, or require a heightened standard for, the issuance of a <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">state</a> criminal subpoena to a sitting president.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trump_v._United_States_(2024)" title="Trump v. United States (2024)"><i>Trump v. United States</i></a>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_603" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 603">603</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/603/___/">___</a> (2024)</b> The President has <a href="/wiki/Presidential_immunity_in_the_United_States" title="Presidential immunity in the United States">absolute immunity</a> for official actions taken under his core constitutional powers, presumptive immunity for other official actions, and no immunity for unofficial actions.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign">Foreign</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Foreign"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chae_Chan_Ping_v._United_States" title="Chae Chan Ping v. United States">Chae Chan Ping v. United States</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_130" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 130">130</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/130/581/">581</a> (1889)</b> Immigration statutes are constitutional even when conflicting with the terms of an international treaty. Congress has the <a href="/wiki/Plenary_power#Immigration_law" title="Plenary power">plenary power</a> to regulate all aspects of immigration; neither Congress nor <a href="/wiki/Consular_nonreviewability" title="Consular nonreviewability">federal consular officers</a> are subject to judicial review.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Paquete_Habana" title="The Paquete Habana">The Paquete Habana</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_175" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 175">175</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/175/677/">677</a> (1900)</b> The <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a> may not issue exemptions to <a href="/wiki/Customary_international_law" title="Customary international law">customary international law</a> at discretion. <a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">Federal courts</a> may look to customary international law because it is an integrated part of <a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">American law</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Curtiss-Wright_Export_Corp." title="United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp.">United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp.</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_299" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 299">299</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/299/304/">304</a> (1936)</b> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">Constitution</a> implies that the ability to conduct <a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign policy of the United States">foreign policy</a> is vested entirely in the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a>. The President has <a href="/wiki/Plenary_power" title="Plenary power">plenary power</a> in the foreign affairs field that does not depend on congressional delegation. <b>(Partially overruled by <i><a href="/wiki/Zivotofsky_v._Kerry" title="Zivotofsky v. Kerry">Zivotofsky v. Kerry</a></i> (2015))</b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Medell%C3%ADn_v._Texas" title="Medellín v. Texas">Medellín v. Texas</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_552" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 552">552</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/552/491/">491</a> (2008)</b> International <a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">treaties</a> are not binding domestic law unless <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> enacts statutes implementing them or unless the treaties are self-executing. Also, decisions of the <a href="/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice" title="International Court of Justice">International Court of Justice</a> are not binding domestic law, and without authority from Congress or the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">Constitution</a>, the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a> lacks the power to enforce international treaties or decisions of the International Court of Justice.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zivotofsky_v._Kerry" title="Zivotofsky v. Kerry">Zivotofsky v. Kerry</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_576" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 576">576</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/576/1/">1</a> (2015)</b> The President, as head of the executive branch, has exclusive power <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_recognition" title="Diplomatic recognition">to recognize (or not recognize)</a> foreign nations.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Trump_v._Hawaii" title="Trump v. Hawaii">Trump v. Hawaii</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_585" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 585">585</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/585/667/">667</a> (2018)</b> <a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_13780#Presidential_Proclamation_9645" title="Executive Order 13780">Presidential Proclamation 9645</a> did not violate the <a href="/wiki/Immigration_and_Nationality_Act" title="Immigration and Nationality Act">INA</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment Clause</a> by suspending the entry of aliens from several nations. Substantial deference must be accorded to the Executive in the conduct of foreign affairs and the exclusion of aliens.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_areas_3">Other areas</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Other areas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Voting_and_Redistricting">Voting and Redistricting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Voting and Redistricting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Baker_v._Carr" title="Baker v. Carr">Baker v. Carr</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_369" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 369">369</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/369/186/">186</a> (1962)</b> The redistricting of state legislative districts is not a <a href="/wiki/Political_question" title="Political question">political question</a>, so it is justiciable by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">federal courts</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gray_v._Sanders" title="Gray v. Sanders">Gray v. Sanders</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_372" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 372">372</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/372/368/">368</a> (1963)</b> Formulated the "<a href="/wiki/One_man,_one_vote" title="One man, one vote">one person, one vote</a>" standard. State elections must adhere to the "one person, one vote" principle.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wesberry_v._Sanders" title="Wesberry v. Sanders">Wesberry v. Sanders</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_376" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 376">376</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/376/1/">1</a> (1964)</b> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">Constitution</a> requires that the members of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a> be selected from districts composed, as nearly as is practicable, of equal population.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reynolds_v._Sims" title="Reynolds v. Sims">Reynolds v. Sims</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_377" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 377">377</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/377/533/">533</a> (1964)</b> The populations of state legislative districts must be as equal as mathematically possible so as to ensure equal protection.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harper_v._Virginia_State_Board_of_Elections" title="Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections">Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_383" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 383">383</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/383/663/">663</a> (1966)</b> A state's conditioning of the <a href="/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Voting rights in the United States">right to vote</a> on the payment of a <a href="/wiki/Poll_tax_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Poll tax (United States)">fee or tax</a> violates the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Avery_v._Midland_County" title="Avery v. Midland County">Avery v. Midland County</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_390" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 390">390</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/390/474/">474</a> (1969)</b> <a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_the_United_States" title="Local government in the United States">Local government</a> districts have to be roughly equal in population.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shaw_v._Reno" title="Shaw v. Reno">Shaw v. Reno</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_509" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 509">509</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/509/630/">630</a> (1993)</b> Redistricting based on race must be held to a standard of <a href="/wiki/Strict_scrutiny" title="Strict scrutiny">strict scrutiny</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Equal_protection_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Equal protection clause">equal protection clause</a> while bodies doing redistricting must be conscious of race to the extent that they must ensure compliance with the <a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bush_v._Gore" title="Bush v. Gore">Bush v. Gore</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_531" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 531">531</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/531/98/">98</a> (2000)</b> The recount of ballots in <a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_election_in_Florida,_2000" class="mw-redirect" title="United States presidential election in Florida, 2000">Florida</a> during the <a href="/wiki/2000_United_States_presidential_election" title="2000 United States presidential election">2000 presidential election</a> violated the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a> because different standards of counting were used in the counties that were subjected to the recount. This decision effectively resolved the election in favor of the <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a> nominee, <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rucho_v._Common_Cause" title="Rucho v. Common Cause">Rucho v. Common Cause</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_588" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 588">588</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/588/684/">684</a> (2019)</b> <a href="/wiki/Gerrymandering_in_the_United_States" title="Gerrymandering in the United States">Partisan gerrymandering</a> claims present <a href="/wiki/Political_question" title="Political question">political questions</a> beyond the reach of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">federal courts</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chiafalo_v._Washington" title="Chiafalo v. Washington">Chiafalo v. Washington</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_591" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 591">591</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/591/578/">578</a> (2020)</b> States have the ability to require Presidential electors to vote for the candidate who wins the state's popular vote and to remove and/or punish electors who violate pledges to that effect.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brnovich_v._Democratic_National_Committee" title="Brnovich v. Democratic National Committee">Brnovich v. Democratic National Committee</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_594" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 594">594</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/594/647/">647</a> (2021)</b> Arizona's voting restrictions regarding provisional ballot counting do not violate Section 2 of the <a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Takings_Clause">Takings Clause</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Takings Clause"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Berman_v._Parker" title="Berman v. Parker">Berman v. Parker</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_348" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 348">348</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/348/26/">26</a> (1954)</b> Under the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Takings_Clause" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Takings Clause</a> of the Fifth Amendment, private property can be taken for a public purpose as long as <a href="/wiki/Just_compensation" title="Just compensation">just compensation</a> is paid.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Penn_Central_Transportation_Co._v._New_York_City" title="Penn Central Transportation Co. v. New York City">Penn Central Transportation Co. v. New York City</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_438" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 438">438</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/438/104/">104</a> (1978)</b> Whether a regulatory action that diminishes the value of a claimant's property constitutes a "taking" of that property within the meaning of the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifth Amendment</a> depends on several factors, including the economic impact of the regulation on the claimant, particularly the extent to which the regulation has interfered with distinct investment-backed expectations, as well as the character of the governmental action.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lucas_v._South_Carolina_Coastal_Council" title="Lucas v. South Carolina Coastal Council">Lucas v. South Carolina Coastal Council</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_503" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 503">503</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/503/1003/">1003</a> (1992)</b> Established the "total takings" test, i.e. has the owner been deprived of all possible beneficial use of the property, in determining whether a regulation limiting use of the property constitutes a <a href="/wiki/Regulatory_taking" class="mw-redirect" title="Regulatory taking">regulatory taking</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dolan_v._City_of_Tigard" title="Dolan v. City of Tigard">Dolan v. City of Tigard</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_512" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 512">512</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/512/374/">374</a> (1994)</b> A government agency may not take property in exchange for benefits that are unrelated to the agency's interest in the property.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lingle_v._Chevron_U.S.A._Inc." title="Lingle v. Chevron U.S.A. Inc.">Lingle v. Chevron U.S.A. Inc.</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_544" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 544">544</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/544/528/">528</a> (2005)</b> Contrary to the holding of <i><a href="/wiki/Agins_v._City_of_Tiburon" title="Agins v. City of Tiburon">Agins v. City of Tiburon</a></i>, which held that a government regulation of private property effects a <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Takings_Clause" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">taking</a> if such regulation does not substantially advance legitimate state interests, the test of whether a governmental regulation substantially advances a legitimate state interest is irrelevant to determining whether the regulation effects an uncompensated taking of private property in violation of the Fifth Amendment.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kelo_v._City_of_New_London" title="Kelo v. City of New London">Kelo v. City of New London</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_545" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 545">545</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/545/469/">469</a> (2005)</b> <a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_the_United_States" title="Local government in the United States">Local governments</a> may seize property for economic development purposes. Noted for converting the "public use" requirement of the Takings Clause to "public purpose."</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Businesses/Corporations/Contracts"><span id="Businesses.2FCorporations.2FContracts"></span>Businesses/Corporations/Contracts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Businesses/Corporations/Contracts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Laidlaw_v._Organ" title="Laidlaw v. Organ">Laidlaw v. Organ</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_15" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 15">15</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/15/178/">178</a> (1817)</b> Established the <a href="/wiki/Contract_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Contract law">contract law</a> <a href="/wiki/Legal_principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal principle">principle</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Caveat_emptor" title="Caveat emptor">caveat emptor</a></i> in the United States.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dartmouth_College_v._Woodward" title="Dartmouth College v. Woodward">Dartmouth College v. Woodward</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_17" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 17">17</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/17/518/">518</a> (1819)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Contract_Clause" title="Contract Clause">Contract Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">Constitution</a> applies to both public and private corporations.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lochner_v._New_York" title="Lochner v. New York">Lochner v. New York</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_198" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 198">198</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/198/45/">45</a> (1905)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_contract" title="Freedom of contract">freedom of contract</a> is implicit in the <a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Federal_Baseball_Club_v._National_League" title="Federal Baseball Club v. National League">Federal Baseball Club of Baltimore v. National League of Professional Baseball Clubs</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_259" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 259">259</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/259/200/">200</a> (1922)</b> Professional baseball does not constitute interstate commerce since road games are not very profitable, and therefore it is exempt from the <a href="/wiki/Sherman_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Sherman Act">Sherman Act</a>'s antitrust provisions. This was one of the last antitrust exemptions granted by the Court under the less expansive reading of the <a href="/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Interstate Commerce Clause">Interstate Commerce Clause</a> that saw it as chiefly concerned with the manufacture and shipping of goods across state lines, and the only one that remains in force today; Congress has limited some aspects of it but has not repealed it. No other professional sport has been held exempt from antitrust law.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_Hotel_Co._v._Parrish" title="West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish">West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_300" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 300">300</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/300/379/">379</a> (1937)</b> Minimum wage legislation is a valid regulation of freedom of contract; seen as ending the <i>Lochner</i> era.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gregory_v._Helvering" title="Gregory v. Helvering">Gregory v. Helvering</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_293" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 293">293</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/293/465/">465</a> (1935)</b> Taxpayers have the right to decrease the amount of their taxes or to avoid them altogether by means which the law permits. However, a business reorganization must have economic substance in order to affect tax liability.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._South-Eastern_Underwriters_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="United States v. South-Eastern Underwriters Association">United States v. South-Eastern Underwriters Association</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_322" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 322">322</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/322/533/">533</a> (1944)</b> Businesses whose interstate aspect consists of negotiating and executing contracts with clients, such as insurers, are interstate commerce subject to antitrust law.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Escola_v._Coca-Cola_Bottling_Co." title="Escola v. Coca-Cola Bottling Co.">Escola v. Coca-Cola Bottling Co.</a></i>, <b>24 Cal.2d 453, 150 <a href="/wiki/P.2d" class="mw-redirect" title="P.2d">P.2d</a> 436 (1944)</b> Important case in the development of the <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> of <a href="/wiki/Product_liability" title="Product liability">product liability</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> based on the <a href="/wiki/Concurring_opinion" title="Concurring opinion">concurring opinion</a> of California Supreme Court justice <a href="/wiki/Roger_Traynor" class="mw-redirect" title="Roger Traynor">Roger Traynor</a> who stated "that a manufacturer incurs an absolute liability when an article that he has placed on the market, knowing that it is to be used without inspection, proves to have a defect that causes injury to human beings."</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Paramount_Pictures,_Inc." title="United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc.">United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc.</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_334" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 334">334</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/334/131/">131</a> (1948)</b> Practice of <a href="/wiki/Block_booking" title="Block booking">block booking</a> and ownership of theater chains by film studios (<a href="/wiki/Vertical_integration" title="Vertical integration">vertical integration</a>) constituted anti-competitive and monopolistic trade practices. As a result of the decision, the studios were forced to sell the chains they owned, an action which combined with the advent of television put them in a difficult financial position for almost a quarter-century, gave stars more bargaining power which ended the contract player system and along with it the <a href="/wiki/Classical_Hollywood_cinema" title="Classical Hollywood cinema">Golden Age of Hollywood</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Prima_Paint_Corp._v._Flood_%26_Conklin_Manufacturing_Co." title="Prima Paint Corp. v. Flood & Conklin Manufacturing Co.">Prima Paint Corp. v. Flood & Conklin Manufacturing Co.</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_388" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 388">388</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/388/395/">395</a> (1967)</b> Where contracts have <a href="/wiki/Arbitration_in_the_United_States" title="Arbitration in the United States">arbitration</a> clauses, courts must treat the clause as a separate contract.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Southland_Corp._v._Keating" title="Southland Corp. v. Keating">Southland Corp. v. Keating</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_465" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 465">465</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/465/1/">1</a> (1984)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Federal_Arbitration_Act" title="Federal Arbitration Act">Federal Arbitration Act</a> (FAA) governs contracts executed under state law as well as federal law.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mitsubishi_Motors_Corp._v._Soler_Chrysler-Plymouth,_Inc." title="Mitsubishi Motors Corp. v. Soler Chrysler-Plymouth, Inc.">Mitsubishi Motors Corp. v. Soler Chrysler-Plymouth, Inc.</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_473" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 473">473</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/473/614/">614</a> (1985)</b> Statutory claims as well as contractual ones are arbitrable under the FAA.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Unocal_Corp._v._Mesa_Petroleum_Co." title="Unocal Corp. v. Mesa Petroleum Co.">Unocal Corp. v. Mesa Petroleum Co.</a></i>, <b>493 A.2d 946 (Delaware Supreme Court 1985)</b> A board of directors may only try to prevent a take-over where it can be shown that there was a threat to corporate policy and the defensive measure adopted was proportional and reasonable given the nature of the threat.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Revlon,_Inc._v._MacAndrews_%26_Forbes_Holdings,_Inc." title="Revlon, Inc. v. MacAndrews & Forbes Holdings, Inc.">Revlon, Inc. v. MacAndrews & Forbes Holdings, Inc.</a></i>, <b> 506 A.2d 173 (Delaware Supreme Court 1986)</b> in certain limited circumstances indicating that the "sale" or "break-up" of the company is inevitable, the <a href="/wiki/Fiduciary" title="Fiduciary">fiduciary</a> obligation of the <a href="/wiki/Board_of_directors" title="Board of directors">directors</a> of a target corporation are narrowed significantly, the singular responsibility of the board being to maximize immediate stockholder value by securing the highest price available.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Microsoft_Corp." title="United States v. Microsoft Corp.">United States v. Microsoft Corp.</a>,</i> <b>253 F.3d 34 (D.C. Cir. 2001)</b> An attempt by the U.S. government to break up <a href="/wiki/Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a> as an illegal <a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">monopoly</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/AT%26T_Mobility_LLC_v._Concepcion" title="AT&T Mobility LLC v. Concepcion">AT&T Mobility LLC v. Concepcion</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_563" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 563">563</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/563/333/">333</a> (2011)</b> The FAA pre-empts state laws prohibiting contracts from barring class-action arbitration.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Copyright/Patents"><span id="Copyright.2FPatents"></span>Copyright/Patents</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Copyright/Patents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Wheaton_v._Peters" title="Wheaton v. Peters">Wheaton v. Peters</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_33" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 33">33</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/33/591/">591</a> (1834)</b> There is no common law copyright after a work's publication, and court reporters cannot hold copyrights on the cases compiled in the course of their work. Notable for being the first United States Supreme Court ruling on copyright.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Burrow-Giles_Lithographic_Co._v._Sarony" title="Burrow-Giles Lithographic Co. v. Sarony">Burrow-Giles Lithographic Co. v. Sarony</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_111" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 111">111</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/111/53/">53</a> (1884)</b> Congress's extension of copyright to cover photography was within constitutional limits.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bleistein_v._Donaldson_Lithographing_Co." title="Bleistein v. Donaldson Lithographing Co.">Bleistein v. Donaldson Lithographing Co.</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_188" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 188">188</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/188/239/">239</a> (1903)</b> Advertisements are copyrightable despite their fundamentally commercial nature.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shostakovich_v._Twentieth_Century-Fox_Film_Corp." title="Shostakovich v. Twentieth Century-Fox Film Corp.">Shostakovich v. Twentieth Century-Fox Film Corp.</a></i>, <b>196 Misc. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://casetext.com/case/shostakovich-v-twentieth-century-fox-film">67</a> (N.Y. Sup. Ct. 1948)</b> First case to recognize <a href="/wiki/Moral_rights" title="Moral rights">moral rights</a> of authorship in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-Sundara_Rajan_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sundara_Rajan-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Diamond_v._Chakrabarty" title="Diamond v. Chakrabarty">Diamond v. Chakrabarty</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_447" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 447">447</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/447/303/">303</a> (1980)</b><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_organism" title="Genetically modified organism">Genetically modified organisms</a> can be <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patented</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Justia_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Justia-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the court a living, man-made micro-organism is patentable subject matter as a "manufacture" or "composition of matter" within the meaning of the <a href="/wiki/Patent_Act_of_1952" title="Patent Act of 1952">Patent Act of 1952</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sony_Corp._of_America_v._Universal_City_Studios,_Inc." title="Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc.">Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc.</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_464" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 464">464</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/464/417/">417</a> (1984)</b> Manufacturers of home video recording machines cannot be liable for <a href="/wiki/Contributory_copyright_infringement" title="Contributory copyright infringement">contributory copyright infringement</a> for the potential uses by their purchasers because the devices are sold for legitimate purposes and have substantial non-infringing uses. Personal use of the machines to record broadcast television programs for later viewing constitutes <a href="/wiki/Fair_use" title="Fair use">fair use</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Selle_v._Gibb" title="Selle v. Gibb">Selle v. Gibb</a></i>, <b>741 F. 2d 896 (7th Cir. 1984)</b> <a href="/wiki/Substantial_similarity" title="Substantial similarity">Substantial similarity</a> is not enough in the absence of proof of access. Evidence of access must extend beyond mere speculation. <i>De rigueur</i>, not a Supreme Court case but only of the Court of Appeals of the Seventh Circuit, and therefore binding precedent only within its jurisdiction (Illinois, Indiana, and Wisconsin).</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harper_%26_Row_v._Nation_Enterprises" title="Harper & Row v. Nation Enterprises">Harper & Row v. Nation Enterprises</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_471" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 471">471</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/471/539/">539</a> (1985)</b> The first copyright case to reach the Court involving fair use after the <a href="/wiki/Copyright_Act_of_1976" title="Copyright Act of 1976">Copyright Act of 1976</a> codified it into law. The Court thus provided guidance in how to apply the four-factor test for fair use.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Feist_v._Rural" class="mw-redirect" title="Feist v. Rural">Feist Publications, Inc. v. Rural Telephone Service Company, Inc.</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_499" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 499">499</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/499/340/">340</a> (1991)</b> Originality, not <a href="/wiki/Sweat_of_the_brow" title="Sweat of the brow">sweat of the brow</a>, is required for a work to obtain <a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_United_States" title="Copyright law of the United States">copyright protection</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Campbell_v._Acuff-Rose_Music,_Inc." title="Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc.">Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc.</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_510" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 510">510</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/510/569/">569</a> (1994)</b> <a href="/wiki/Parody" title="Parody">Parody</a> qualifies as <a href="/wiki/Fair_use" title="Fair use">fair use</a> under copyright law. With this case the Court accepted <a href="/wiki/Transformative_use" title="Transformative use">transformative use</a> as part of a fair-use defense against infringement.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A%26M_Records,_Inc._v._Napster,_Inc." title="A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc.">A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc.</a></i>, <b>239 F.3d 1004 (9th Cir. 2001)</b> <a href="/wiki/Peer-to-peer" title="Peer-to-peer">Peer-to-peer</a> (P2P) <a href="/wiki/File-sharing" class="mw-redirect" title="File-sharing">file-sharing</a> service <a href="/wiki/Napster" title="Napster">Napster</a> could be held liable for <a href="/wiki/Contributory_copyright_infringement" title="Contributory copyright infringement">contributory infringement</a> and <a href="/wiki/Perfect_10,_Inc._v._Visa_Int%27l_Serv._Ass%27n#Vicarious_copyright_infringement" class="mw-redirect" title="Perfect 10, Inc. v. Visa Int'l Serv. Ass'n">vicarious infringement</a> of <a href="/wiki/Copyrights" class="mw-redirect" title="Copyrights">copyrights</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Association_for_Molecular_Pathology_v._Myriad_Genetics,_Inc." title="Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics, Inc.">Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics, Inc.</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_569" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 569">569</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/569/576/">576</a> (2013)</b> Naturally occurring <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> sequences, even when isolated from the body, cannot be patented, but artificially created DNA is patent eligible because it is not naturally occurring.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alice_Corp._v._CLS_Bank_International" title="Alice Corp. v. CLS Bank International">Alice Corp. v. CLS Bank International</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_573" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 573">573</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/573/208/">208</a> (2014)</b> Software that merely uses generic computing hardware to perform a pre-existing abstract idea is not patent eligible.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Other"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Swift_v._Tyson" title="Swift v. Tyson">Swift v. Tyson</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_41" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 41">41</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/41/1/">1</a> (1842)</b> Federal courts hearing cases were bound to follow the statutory laws of states that they were asked to enforce, but not the state's common law. The goal was to encourage the development of a <a href="/wiki/Federal_common_law" title="Federal common law">federal common law</a>; since that did not occur, the decision was <b>overruled</b> almost a century later by <i>Erie Railroad Co. v. Tompkins</i>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Luther_v._Borden" title="Luther v. Borden">Luther v. Borden</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_48" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 48">48</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/48/1/">1</a> (1849)</b> Established the <a href="/wiki/Political_question" title="Political question">political question</a> doctrine in controversies arising under the <a href="/wiki/Guarantee_Clause" title="Guarantee Clause">Guarantee Clause</a> of <a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">Article Four of the United States Constitution</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Selective_Draft_Law_Cases" title="Selective Draft Law Cases">Selective Draft Law Cases</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_245" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 245">245</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/245/366/">366</a> (1918)</b> The <a href="/wiki/Selective_Service_Act_of_1917" title="Selective Service Act of 1917">Selective Service Act of 1917</a> and, more generally, <a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_the_United_States" title="Conscription in the United States">conscription</a> do not violate the <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth Amendment</a>'s prohibition of <a href="/wiki/Involuntary_servitude" title="Involuntary servitude">involuntary servitude</a> or the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a>'s protection of the <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">freedom of thought</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dillon_v._Gloss" title="Dillon v. Gloss">Dillon v. Gloss</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_256" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 256">256</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/256/368/">368</a> (1921)</b> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> may set a deadline for the ratification of a new <a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="List of amendments to the United States Constitution">constitutional amendment</a> if it wishes to do so.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Connally_v._General_Construction_Co." title="Connally v. General Construction Co.">Connally v. General Construction Co.</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_269" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 269">269</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/269/385/">385</a> (1926)</b> The U.S. Supreme Court established the <a href="/wiki/Vagueness_doctrine" title="Vagueness doctrine">vagueness doctrine</a> whereby a statute is void for vagueness and unenforceable if it is too vague for the average citizen to understand or if a term cannot be strictly defined and is not defined anywhere in such law.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Village_of_Euclid_v._Ambler_Realty_Co." title="Village of Euclid v. Ambler Realty Co.">Village of Euclid v. Ambler Realty Co.</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_272" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 272">272</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/272/365/">365</a> (1926)</b> <a href="/wiki/Zoning_in_the_United_States" title="Zoning in the United States">Zoning</a> laws are not an unreasonable extension of local <a href="/wiki/Police_power_(United_States_constitutional_law)" title="Police power (United States constitutional law)">police power</a> and do not have the character of arbitrary fiat.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Erie_Railroad_Co._v._Tompkins" title="Erie Railroad Co. v. Tompkins">Erie Railroad Co. v. Tompkins</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_304" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 304">304</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/304/64/">64</a> (1938)</b> <a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">Federal courts</a> in <a href="/wiki/Diversity_jurisdiction" title="Diversity jurisdiction">diversity jurisdiction</a> cases must apply the law of the states in which they sit, including the judicial doctrine of the <a href="/wiki/State_supreme_court" title="State supreme court">state's highest court</a>, where it does not conflict with <a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">federal law</a>. There is no general <a href="/wiki/Federal_common_law" title="Federal common law">federal common law</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Coleman_v._Miller" title="Coleman v. Miller">Coleman v. Miller</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_307" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 307">307</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/307/433/">433</a> (1939)</b> A proposed amendment to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">Constitution</a> is considered pending before the states indefinitely unless <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> establishes a deadline by which the states must act. Furthermore, Congress—not the courts—is responsible for deciding whether an amendment has been validly ratified.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Burford_v._Sun_Oil_Co." title="Burford v. Sun Oil Co.">Burford v. Sun Oil Co.</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_319" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 319">319</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/319/315/">315</a> (1943)</b> Created a new <a href="/wiki/Abstention_doctrine" title="Abstention doctrine">abstention doctrine</a>, under which federal courts in a <a href="/wiki/Diversity_of_citizenship" class="mw-redirect" title="Diversity of citizenship">diversity</a> jurisdiction can let state courts hear cases under certain circumstances.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reid_v._Covert" title="Reid v. Covert">Reid v. Covert</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_354" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 354">354</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/354/1/">1</a> (1957)</b> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">Constitution</a> supersedes all <a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">treaties</a> ratified by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gravel_v._United_States" title="Gravel v. United States">Gravel v. United States</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_408" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 408">408</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/408/606/">606</a> (1972)</b> The privileges of the Constitution's <a href="/wiki/Speech_or_Debate_Clause" title="Speech or Debate Clause">Speech or Debate Clause</a> enjoyed by members of Congress also extend to Congressional aides, but not to activity outside the legislative process.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Canterbury_v._Spence" title="Canterbury v. Spence">Canterbury v. Spence</a>,</i> <b>464 F.2d. 772 (D.C. Cir. 1972)</b> In medical malpractices cases, informed consent is required of the patient and no expert is required for the case to be heard by a jury.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Colorado_River_Water_Conservation_District_v._United_States" title="Colorado River Water Conservation District v. United States">Colorado River Water Conservation District v. United States</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_424" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 424">424</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/424/800/">800</a> (1976)</b> Greatly revised and extended the circumstances under which the <a href="/wiki/Abstention_doctrine" title="Abstention doctrine">abstention doctrine</a>, whereby federal courts can decline jurisdiction they would otherwise assert, applies.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Anderson_v._Liberty_Lobby,_Inc." title="Anderson v. Liberty Lobby, Inc.">Anderson v. Liberty Lobby, Inc.</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_477" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 477">477</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/477/242/">242</a> (1986)</b> Set the standard for what parties must establish in evidence to be granted <a href="/wiki/Summary_judgement" class="mw-redirect" title="Summary judgement">summary judgement</a> in federal civil cases and how courts should evaluate those motions. Since such motions are extremely common, <i>Anderson</i> has become the most-cited Supreme Court case.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Daubert_v._Merrell_Dow_Pharmaceuticals" class="mw-redirect" title="Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals">Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals</a></i>, <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_509" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 509">509</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/509/579/">579</a> (1993)</b> Scientific evidence that is admitted in <a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">federal court</a> must be valid and relevant to the case at hand.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_overruled_United_States_Supreme_Court_decisions" title="List of overruled United States Supreme Court decisions">List of overruled United States Supreme Court decisions</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Seyla20080822-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Seyla20080822_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSelya,_Bruce_M.2008" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bruce_M._Selya" title="Bruce M. Selya">Selya, Bruce M.</a> (August 22, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fas.org/irp/agency/doj/fisa/fiscr082208.pdf">"United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review Case No. 08-01 In Re Directives [redacted text] Pursuant to Section 105B of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Foreign_Intelligence_Surveillance_Court_of_Review" title="United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review">United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review</a> (via the <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_American_Scientists" title="Federation of American Scientists">Federation of American Scientists</a>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190803025150/https://fas.org/irp/agency/doj/fisa/fiscr082208.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on August 3, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 15,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=United+States+Foreign+Intelligence+Surveillance+Court+of+Review+Case+No.+08-01+In+Re+Directives+%5Bredacted+text%5D+Pursuant+to+Section+105B+of+the+Foreign+Intelligence+Surveillance+Act&rft.pub=United+States+Foreign+Intelligence+Surveillance+Court+of+Review+%28via+the+Federation+of+American+Scientists%29&rft.date=2008-08-22&rft.au=Selya%2C+Bruce+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffas.org%2Firp%2Fagency%2Fdoj%2Ffisa%2Ffiscr082208.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+landmark+court+decisions+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Laura Langer, <i>Judicial Review in State Supreme Courts: A Comparative Study</i> (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002), p. 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sundara_Rajan-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sundara_Rajan_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSundara_Rajan2011" class="citation book cs1">Sundara Rajan, Mira T. (2011). <i>Moral Rights: Principles, Practice and New Technology</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 142. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-539031-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-539031-5"><bdi>978-0-19-539031-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Moral+Rights%3A+Principles%2C+Practice+and+New+Technology&rft.pages=142&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-539031-5&rft.aulast=Sundara+Rajan&rft.aufirst=Mira+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+landmark+court+decisions+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrossardShanahanClint_Nesbitt2007" class="citation book cs1">Brossard, Dominique; Shanahan, James; Clint Nesbitt, T. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=meIUxGV8rcIC&q=Diamond+v.+Chakrabarty+landmark+decision&pg=PA161"><i>The Media, the Public and Agricultural Biotechnology</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781845932039" title="Special:BookSources/9781845932039"><bdi>9781845932039</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Media%2C+the+Public+and+Agricultural+Biotechnology&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9781845932039&rft.aulast=Brossard&rft.aufirst=Dominique&rft.au=Shanahan%2C+James&rft.au=Clint+Nesbitt%2C+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmeIUxGV8rcIC%26q%3DDiamond%2Bv.%2BChakrabarty%2Blandmark%2Bdecision%26pg%3DPA161&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+landmark+court+decisions+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bannerwitcoff.com/_docs/library/articles/Chakrabarty.pdf">"Diamond v. Chakrabarty: A Retrospective on 25 Years of Biotech Patents"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160122201859/http://bannerwitcoff.com/_docs/library/articles/Chakrabarty.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on January 22, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 3,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Diamond+v.+Chakrabarty%3A+A+Retrospective+on+25+Years+of+Biotech+Patents&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbannerwitcoff.com%2F_docs%2Flibrary%2Farticles%2FChakrabarty.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+landmark+court+decisions+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Justia-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Justia_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/447/303/">"Diamond v. Chakrabarty, 447 U.S. 303 (1980)"</a>. <i>Justia Law</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120107012535/http://supreme.justia.com/us/447/303/case.html">Archived</a> from the original on January 7, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 30,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Justia+Law&rft.atitle=Diamond+v.+Chakrabarty%2C+447+U.S.+303+%281980%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsupreme.justia.com%2Fcases%2Ffederal%2Fus%2F447%2F303%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AList+of+landmark+court+decisions+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Marshall Court">Marshall Court</a> (1801–1835)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Taney_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Taney Court">Taney Court</a> (1836–1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Chase_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Chase Court">Chase Court</a> (1864–1873)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Waite_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Waite Court">Waite Court</a> (1874–1888)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Fuller_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Fuller Court">Fuller Court</a> (1888–1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_White_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the White Court">White Court</a> (1910–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Taft_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Taft Court">Taft Court</a> (1921–1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Hughes_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Hughes Court">Hughes Court</a> (1930–1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Stone_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Stone Court">Stone Court</a> (1941–1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Vinson_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Vinson Court">Vinson Court</a> (1946–1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Warren_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Warren Court">Warren Court</a> (1953–1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Burger_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Burger Court">Burger Court</a> (1969–1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Rehnquist_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Rehnquist Court">Rehnquist Court</a> (1986–2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Roberts_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Roberts Court">Roberts Court</a> (2005–present)</li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Seal of the United States Supreme Court"><img alt="Seal of the United States Supreme Court" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/125px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/188px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/250px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Seal of the United States Supreme Court</figcaption></figure></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Complete list</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_volume" title="Lists of United States Supreme Court cases by volume">List of cases by volume</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">United States Reports</a></i>)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By recent term</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1999_term_opinions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="1999 term opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States">1999</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2000_term_opinions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="2000 term opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States">2000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2001_term_opinions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="2001 term opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States">2001</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2002_term_opinions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="2002 term opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States">2002</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2003_term_opinions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="2003 term opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States">2003</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2004_term_opinions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="2004 term opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States">2004</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2005_term_opinions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="2005 term opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States">2005</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2006_term_opinions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="2006 term opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States">2006</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007_term_opinions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="2007 term opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States">2007</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_term_opinions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="2008 term opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States">2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_term_opinions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="2009 term opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States">2009</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010_term_opinions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="2010 term opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States">2010</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_term_opinions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="2011 term opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States">2011</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_term_opinions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="2012 term opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States">2012</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013_term_opinions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="2013 term opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States">2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_term_opinions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="2014 term opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States">2014</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_term_opinions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="2015 term opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States">2015</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_term_opinions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="2016 term opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States">2016</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_term_opinions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="2017 term opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States">2017</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_term_opinions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="2018 term opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States">2018</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_term_opinions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="2019 term opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_term_opinions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="2020 term opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States">2020</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_term_opinions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="2021 term opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_term_opinions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="2022 term opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_term_opinions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="2023 term opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_term_opinions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="2024 term opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States">2024</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By subject matter</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_abortion_case_law" title="Category:United States abortion case law">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbitration_case_law_in_the_United_States" title="Arbitration case law in the United States">Arbitration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_bankruptcy_case_law" title="List of United States Supreme Court bankruptcy case law">Bankruptcy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_opinions_involving_capital_punishment" title="List of United States Supreme Court opinions involving capital punishment">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_involving_the_First_Amendment" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases involving the First Amendment">First Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_immigration_case_law" title="List of United States Supreme Court immigration case law">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_involving_Indian_tribes" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases involving Indian tribes">Indian tribes</a></li> <li>Intellectual property <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_copyright_case_law" title="List of United States Supreme Court copyright case law">Copyright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_patent_case_law" title="List of United States Supreme Court patent case law">Patents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_trademark_case_law" title="List of United States Supreme Court trademark case law">Trademarks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_involving_standing" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases involving standing">Legal standing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_United_States#History_of_U.S._Supreme_Court_decisions_on_LGBT_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the United States">LGBTQ rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_involving_mental_health" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases involving mental health">Mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_military_case_law" title="List of United States Supreme Court military case law">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_taxation_and_revenue_case_law" title="List of United States Supreme Court taxation and revenue case law">Taxation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Landmark decisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pending_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases" title="List of pending United States Supreme Court cases">Pending cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-chambers_opinion#List_of_in-chambers_opinions_since_1990" title="In-chambers opinion">In-chambers opinions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certiorari_before_judgment#List_of_petitions_granted" title="Certiorari before judgment">Certiorari before judgment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dismissed_as_improvidently_granted#DIGs_after_oral_argument_since_Term_1989" title="Dismissed as improvidently granted">Certiorari dismissed as improvidently granted</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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