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</a> <ul id="toc-Greco-Bactrians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kushan_Empire_(150_BC–300_AD)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kushan_Empire_(150_BC–300_AD)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Kushan Empire (150 BC–300 AD)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kushan_Empire_(150_BC–300_AD)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sasanian_&_Hephthalite_invasions_(300–650)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sasanian_&_Hephthalite_invasions_(300–650)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Sasanian & Hephthalite invasions (300–650)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sasanian_&_Hephthalite_invasions_(300–650)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kabul_Shahi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kabul_Shahi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Kabul Shahi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kabul_Shahi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Archaeological_remnants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archaeological_remnants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Archaeological remnants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archaeological_remnants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Other sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86_(%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B4_%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85)" title="تاریخ افغانستان (پیش از اسلام) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ افغانستان (پیش از اسلام)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiden_f%C3%B8r_islam_(Afghanistan)" title="Tiden før islam (Afghanistan) – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Tiden før islam (Afghanistan)" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile vcard plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Afghanistan" title="Category:History of Afghanistan">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Afghanistan" title="History of Afghanistan">History of <span class="fn org label">Afghanistan</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Shuja_Shah_Durrani_of_Afghanistan_in_1839.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Shuja_Shah_Durrani_of_Afghanistan_in_1839.jpg/200px-Shuja_Shah_Durrani_of_Afghanistan_in_1839.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Shuja_Shah_Durrani_of_Afghanistan_in_1839.jpg/300px-Shuja_Shah_Durrani_of_Afghanistan_in_1839.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Shuja_Shah_Durrani_of_Afghanistan_in_1839.jpg/400px-Shuja_Shah_Durrani_of_Afghanistan_in_1839.jpg 2x" data-file-width="968" data-file-height="712" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Afghan_history" title="Timeline of Afghan history">Timeline</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ancient</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilisation">Indus Valley civilisation</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2200–1800 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Oxus civilization</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2100–1800 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Gandhara_kingdom" title="Gandhara kingdom">Gandhara kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1500–535 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Median Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 728–550 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 550–330 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 330–312 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 312–150 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 305–180 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Bactrian kingdom">Greco-Bactrian kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 256–125 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 247 BC–224 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Greek kingdom">Indo-Greek kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 180–90 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Scythians" title="Indo-Scythians">Indo-Scythian kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 155–80? BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 135 BC – 248 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Parthian_kingdom" title="Indo-Parthian kingdom">Indo-Parthian kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 20 BC – 50? AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 230–651</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kidarites" title="Kidarites">Kidarite kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 320–465</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Rob" title="Kingdom of Rob">Rob</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Alchon_Huns" title="Alchon Huns">Alchon Huns</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 380–560</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Hephthalite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hephthalite Empire">Hephthalite Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 410–557</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Nezak_Huns" title="Nezak Huns">Nezak Huns</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 484–711</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Medieval</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Turk_Shahis" title="Turk Shahis">Kabul Shahi</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 565–879</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Chaghaniyan" title="Principality of Chaghaniyan">Principality of Chaghaniyan</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 7th–8th centuries</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 652–661</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang China</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 660–669</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 660–842</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyads</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 661–750</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Zunbils" title="Zunbils">Zunbils</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 680–870</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Lawik_dynasty" title="Lawik dynasty">Lawik</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">750-977</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 750–821</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 821–873</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 863–900</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 875–999</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 963–1187</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ghurid_dynasty" title="Ghurid dynasty">Ghurids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> before 879–1215</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuks</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1037–1194</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarezmids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1215–1231</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_the_Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire">Mongol Invasion</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1219–1226</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1226–1245</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Qarlughids" title="Qarlughids">Qarlughids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1224–1266</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1256–1335</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kart_dynasty" title="Kart dynasty">Kartids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1245–1381</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1370–1507</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Arghun_dynasty" title="Arghun dynasty">Arghuns</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1520–1591</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Modern</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughals</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1501–1738</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavids</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1510–1709</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kunduz_Khanate" title="Kunduz Khanate">Kunduz Khanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> ?–1859</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Hotak_dynasty" title="Hotak dynasty">Hotak dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1709–1738</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sadozai_Sultanate_of_Herat" title="Sadozai Sultanate of Herat">Sadozai Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1716–1732</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid Iran</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1738–1747</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Durrani Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1747–1823</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Maimana_Khanate" title="Maimana Khanate">Maimana Khanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1747–1892</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Herat_(1793%E2%80%931863)" title="Herat (1793–1863)">Herat</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1793–1863</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Qandahar" class="mw-redirect" title="Principality of Qandahar">Principality of Qandahar</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1818–1855</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Afghanistan" title="Emirate of Afghanistan">Emirate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1823–1926</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Afghanistan_(1929)" title="Emirate of Afghanistan (1929)">Saqqawist Emirate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1929</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Afghanistan" title="Kingdom of Afghanistan">Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1926–1973</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1973_Afghan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Afghan coup d'état">Daoud coup</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1973</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Afghanistan_(1973%E2%80%931978)" title="Republic of Afghanistan (1973–1978)">Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1973–1978</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1978</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Democratic Republic of Afghanistan">Democratic Republic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1978–1992</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/1990_Afghan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="1990 Afghan coup d'état attempt">Tanai coup attempt</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1990</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Afghanistan" title="Islamic State of Afghanistan">Islamic State</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1992–1996</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Emirate_of_Afghanistan_(1996%E2%80%932001)" title="Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)">Islamic Emirate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1996–2001</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Afghanistan" title="United States invasion of Afghanistan">US invasion</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2001</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Afghanistan" title="Islamic State of Afghanistan">Islamic State</a> (reinstated)</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2001</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Interim_Administration" title="Afghan Interim Administration">Interim</a>/<a href="/wiki/Transitional_Islamic_State_of_Afghanistan" title="Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan">Transitional Administration</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2001–2004</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Islamic Republic of Afghanistan">Islamic Republic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Islamic_Republic_of_Afghanistan" title="Politics of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan">politics</a>)</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2004–2021</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Islamic Emirate</a> (reinstated)</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <span style="font-size:85%;">since</span> 2021</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Related historical regions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arachosia" title="Arachosia">Arachosia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aria_(region)" title="Aria (region)">Aria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariana" title="Ariana">Ariana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran" title="Greater Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabulistan" title="Kabulistan">Kabulistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kafiristan" title="Kafiristan">Kafiristan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushanshahr" title="Kushanshahr">Kushanshahr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paropamisadae" title="Paropamisadae">Paropamisadae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sistan" title="Sistan">Sistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zabulistan" title="Zabulistan">Zabulistan</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Political history of Afghanistan">Political history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence_in_Afghanistan" title="Political violence in Afghanistan">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Afghanistan" title="Culture of Afghanistan">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic history of Afghanistan">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Name_of_Afghanistan" title="Name of Afghanistan">Name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_(ethnonym)" title="Afghan (ethnonym)">Afghan (ethnonym)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_Afghanistan" title="List of years in Afghanistan">List of years</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_Afghanistan" title="List of heads of state of Afghanistan">List of heads of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_in_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Wars in Afghanistan">Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Afghanistan" title="List of wars involving Afghanistan">List of wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hinduism_in_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Hinduism in Afghanistan">Hinduism history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_and_Buddhist_heritage_of_Afghanistan" title="Hindu and Buddhist heritage of Afghanistan">Hindu and Buddhist heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Afghanistan" title="History of the Jews in Afghanistan">Jewish history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests_of_Afghanistan" title="Muslim conquests of Afghanistan">Muslim conquests</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="font-weight:bold;"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Afghanistan" title="Category:History of Afghanistan">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_Taliban.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Afghanistan" title="Portal:Afghanistan">Afghanistan portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Afghanistan" title="Template:History of Afghanistan"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Afghanistan" title="Template talk:History of Afghanistan"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Afghanistan" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Afghanistan"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>ancient history of Afghanistan</b>, also referred to as the <b>pre-Islamic period of Afghanistan</b>, dates back to the <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Prehistoric era">prehistoric era</a> and the <b><a href="/wiki/Helmand_culture" title="Helmand culture">Helmand civilization</a></b> around 3300–2350 BCE. <a href="/wiki/Archaeological" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological">Archaeological</a> exploration began in <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> in earnest after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> and proceeded until the late 1970s during the <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a>. Archaeologists and historians suggest that humans were living in Afghanistan at least 50,000 years ago, and that farming communities of the region were among the earliest in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-JFS_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JFS-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urbanized</a> culture has existed in the land from between 3000 and 2000 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-JFS_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JFS-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-LoC_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LoC-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dupree_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dupree-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Artifacts typical of the <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesolithic" title="Mesolithic">Mesolithic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron</a> ages have been found inside Afghanistan.<sup id="cite_ref-Dupree_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dupree-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the Indus Valley civilization stretched up to northeast Afghanistan,<sup id="cite_ref-The_Ancient_Indus_pp.1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Ancient_Indus_pp.1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it was inhabited by the <a href="/wiki/Iranic" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranic">Iranic</a> tribes and controlled by the <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Medes</a> until about 500 BC when <a href="/wiki/Darius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius I">Darius the Great (Darius I)</a> marched with his <a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persian</a> army to make it part of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a>. In 330 BC, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> of <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonia</a> invaded the land after defeating <a href="/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III</a> of <a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran" title="Greater Iran">Persia</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gaugamela" title="Battle of Gaugamela">Battle of Gaugamela</a>. Much of Afghanistan became part of the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> followed by the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Greco-Bactrian Kingdom</a>. <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_I_Nicator" title="Seleucus I Nicator">Seleucus I Nicator was defeated by</a> <a href="/wiki/Chandragupta_Maurya" title="Chandragupta Maurya">Chandragupta Maurya</a> and gave his daughter in peace treaty. The land was inhabited by various tribes and ruled by many different kingdoms for the next two millenniums. Before the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_conquest_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic conquest of Afghanistan">arrival of Islam</a> in the 7th century, there were a number of religions practiced in modern-day Afghanistan, including <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Iranian_religion" title="Ancient Iranian religion">Ancient Iranian religions</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Afghanistan" title="Buddhism in Afghanistan">Buddhism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_Afghanistan" title="Hinduism in Afghanistan">Hinduism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EndeSteinbach2010_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EndeSteinbach2010-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Kafiristan" title="Kafiristan">Kafiristan</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Nuristan_Province" title="Nuristan Province">Nuristan</a>) region, in the <a href="/wiki/Hindu_Kush" title="Hindu Kush">Hindu Kush</a> mountain range, was not converted until the 19th century. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prehistoric_era">Prehistoric era</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Prehistoric era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Louis_Dupree_(professor)" title="Louis Dupree (professor)">Louis Dupree</a>, the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution">Smithsonian Institution</a> and others suggest that humans were living in Afghanistan at least 50,000 years ago, and that <a href="/wiki/Farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Farming">farming</a> communities of the region were among the earliest in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-JFS_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JFS-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeologists</a> have found evidence of human habitation in Afghanistan from as far back as 50,000 BC. The artifacts indicate that the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous people">indigenous people</a> were small farmers and herdsmen, as they are today, very probably grouped into tribes, with small local kingdoms rising and falling through the ages.</p></blockquote> <p>Afghanistan seems in prehistory, as well as in ancient and modern times, to have been connected by culture and trade with the neighbouring regions. Urban civilization may have begun as early as 3000 to 2000 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Dupree_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dupree-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Archaeological finds indicate the possible beginnings of the Bronze Age, which would ultimately spread throughout the ancient world from Afghanistan. It is also believed that the region had early trade contacts with <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indus_Valley_civilization">Indus Valley civilization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Indus Valley civilization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilization">Indus Valley civilization</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilization">Indus Valley civilization</a> (IVC) was a <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> civilization (3300–1300 BCE; mature period 2600–1900 BCE) extending from what today is northwest <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> to northwest <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and northeast Afghanistan.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Ancient_Indus_pp.1_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Ancient_Indus_pp.1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An Indus Valley site has been found on the <a href="/wiki/Oxus_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxus River">Oxus River</a> at <a href="/wiki/Shortugai" title="Shortugai">Shortugai</a> in northern Afghanistan.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Apart from Shortughai is <a href="/wiki/Mundigak" title="Mundigak">Mundigak</a>, another notable site. There are several smaller IVC colonies to be found in Afghanistan. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aryan_expansion_into_Mesopotamia_and_the_Medean_rule_(1500_BC–551_BC)"><span id="Aryan_expansion_into_Mesopotamia_and_the_Medean_rule_.281500_BC.E2.80.93551_BC.29"></span>Aryan expansion into Mesopotamia and the Medean rule (1500 BC–551 BC)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Aryan expansion into Mesopotamia and the Medean rule (1500 BC–551 BC)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Aryan" title="Aryan">Aryan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arya_(Iran)" title="Arya (Iran)">Arya (Iran)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avestan_period" title="Avestan period">Avestan period</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Medes</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Young_avestan_geography.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Young_avestan_geography.png/220px-Young_avestan_geography.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Young_avestan_geography.png/330px-Young_avestan_geography.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Young_avestan_geography.png/440px-Young_avestan_geography.png 2x" data-file-width="2330" data-file-height="1391" /></a><figcaption>Geographical horizon of the <a href="/wiki/Arya_(Iran)" title="Arya (Iran)">People</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Avesta" title="Avesta">Avesta</a> vis-a-vis other <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranians" title="Indo-Iranians">Indo-Iranian</a> groups during the <a href="/wiki/Avestan_period" title="Avestan period">Young Avestan period</a> (c. 900-500 BCE).</figcaption></figure> <p>Between 2000–1200 BC, a branch of <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a>-speaking tribes known as the <a href="/wiki/Aryan" title="Aryan">Aryans</a> began migrating into the region. This is part of a dispute in regards to the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_migration" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Aryan migration">Indo-Aryan migration</a>. They split into <a href="/wiki/Iranic" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranic">Iranic</a> peoples, <a href="/wiki/Nuristani_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuristani people">Nuristani</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryans" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Aryans">Indo-Aryan</a> groups at an early stage, possibly between 1500 and 1000 BC in what is today Afghanistan or much earlier as eastern remnants of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryans" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Aryans">Indo-Aryans</a> drifted much further west as with the <a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a>. The Iranians dominated the modern day plateau, while the Indo-Aryans ultimately headed towards the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Avesta" title="Avesta">Avesta</a> is believed to have been composed possibly as early as 1800 BC and written in ancient <a href="/wiki/Ariana" title="Ariana">Ariana</a> (Aryana), the earliest name of Afghanistan which indicates an early link with today's Iranian tribes to the west, or adjacent regions in Central Asia or northeastern Iran in the 6th century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the similarity between early Avestan and <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> (and other related early Indo-European languages such as <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a>), it is believed that the split between the old Persians and Indo-Aryan tribes had taken place at least by 1000 BC. There are striking similarities between <a href="/wiki/Avestan" title="Avestan">Avestan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>, which may support the notion that the split was contemporary with the Indo-Aryans living in Afghanistan at a very early stage. Also, the Avesta itself divides into Old and New sections and neither mention the <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Medes</a> who are known to have ruled Afghanistan starting around 700 BC. This suggests an early time-frame for the Avesta that has yet to be exactly determined as most academics believe it was written over the course of centuries if not millennia. Much of the archaeological data comes from the <a href="/wiki/Bactria-Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex">Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex</a> (BMAC and <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilization">Indus Valley civilization</a>) that probably played a key role in early Aryanic civilization in Afghanistan. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Median_empire_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Median_empire_map.png/300px-Median_empire_map.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Median_empire_map.png/450px-Median_empire_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Median_empire_map.png/600px-Median_empire_map.png 2x" data-file-width="833" data-file-height="469" /></a><figcaption>Territory controlled by the <a href="/wiki/Median_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Median Empire">Median Empire</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_peoples" title="Indo-Aryan peoples">Indo-Aryan</a> inhabitants of the region- mainly in the southern and eastern parts of the country were adherents of <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical Vedic Religion">Hinduism</a>. Notable among these were the <a href="/wiki/Gandhari_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Gandhari people">Gandharis</a><sup id="cite_ref-whc.unesco.org_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-whc.unesco.org-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Pashayi_people" title="Pashayi people">Pashayi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuristanis" title="Nuristanis">Nuristanis</a> are present day examples of these Indo-Iranian people.<sup id="cite_ref-Minahan2014_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Minahan2014-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Weekes1984_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weekes1984-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Khanam2005_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Khanam2005-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bethany1997_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bethany1997-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nuristan.info_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nuristan.info-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Medes, a Western Iranian people, arrived from what is today <a href="/wiki/Kurdistan" title="Kurdistan">Kurdistan</a> sometime around the 700s BC and came to dominate most of ancient Afghanistan.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were an early tribe that forged the first empire on the present Iranian plateau and sister-nations with the Persians whom they initially dominated in the province of <a href="/wiki/Fars_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Fars Province">Fars</a> to the south. Median control of parts of far off Afghanistan would last until Cyrus the Great, prince of the <a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persians</a>, assassinated and ultimately replaced his Median emperor father-in-law from rule. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Achaemenid_invasion_and_Zoroastrianism_(550_BC–331_BC)"><span id="Achaemenid_invasion_and_Zoroastrianism_.28550_BC.E2.80.93331_BC.29"></span>Achaemenid invasion and Zoroastrianism (550 BC–331 BC)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Achaemenid invasion and Zoroastrianism (550 BC–331 BC)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_conquest_of_the_Indus_Valley" title="Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley">Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Afghanistan_region_during_500_BC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Afghanistan_region_during_500_BC.jpg/220px-Afghanistan_region_during_500_BC.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Afghanistan_region_during_500_BC.jpg/330px-Afghanistan_region_during_500_BC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Afghanistan_region_during_500_BC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="348" data-file-height="347" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Arachosia" title="Arachosia">Arachosia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aria_(satrapy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aria (satrapy)">Aria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a> were the more eastern ancient <a href="/wiki/Satrap" title="Satrap">satraps</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> that made up most of what is now Afghanistan during 500 B.C. The inhabitants of Arachosia were known as Pactyans, possibly today's <a href="/wiki/Pashtun_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Pashtun people">Pakhtuns</a> or Pashtuns.</figcaption></figure> <p>The city of Bactra (which later became <a href="/wiki/Balkh" title="Balkh">Balkh</a>), is believed to have been the home of <a href="/wiki/Zoroaster" title="Zoroaster">Zarathustra</a>,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (September 2022)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> who founded the <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrian</a> religion. The <a href="/wiki/Avesta" title="Avesta">Avesta</a> refers to eastern Bactria as being the home of the Zoroastrian faith.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Regardless of the debate as to where Zoroaster was from, Zoroastrianism spread to become one of the world's most influential religions and became the main faith of the old Aryan people for centuries.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> It also remained the official religion of Persia until the defeat of the Sassanian ruler <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_III" title="Yazdegerd III">Yazdegerd III</a>—over a thousand years after its founding—by Muslim <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In what is today southern Iran, the Persians emerged to challenge Median supremacy on the Iranian plateau. By 550 BC, the Persians had replaced Median rule with their own dominion and even began to expand past previous Median imperial borders. Both <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kamboja_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamboja Kingdom">Kamboja</a> Mahajanapadas of the Buddhist texts soon fell a prey to the Achaemenian Dynasty during the reign of Achaemenid,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a> (558–530 BC), or in the first year of <a href="/wiki/Darius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius I">Darius I</a>, marking the region or of the easternmost provinces of the empire, located partly in nowadays Afghanistan. According to <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny</a>'s evidence, Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) had destroyed Kapisa in Capiscene<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was a Kamboja city. The former region of Gandhara and Kamboja (upper Indus) had constituted seventh satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire and annually contributed 170 talents of gold dust as a tribute to the Achaemenids. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a> had a special position in old Afghanistan, being the capital of a vice-kingdom. By the 4th century BC, Persian control of outlying areas and the internal cohesion of the empire had become somewhat tenuous. Although distant provinces like Bactriana had often been restless under Achaemenid rule, Bactrian troops nevertheless fought in the decisive <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gaugamela" title="Battle of Gaugamela">Battle of Gaugamela</a> in 330 BC against the advancing armies of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>. The Achaemenids were decisively defeated by Alexander and retreated from his advancing army of Greco-Macedonians and their allies. <a href="/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III</a>, the last Achaemenid ruler, tried to flee to Bactria but was assassinated by a subordinate lord, the Bactrian-born <a href="/wiki/Bessus" title="Bessus">Bessus</a>, who proclaimed himself the new ruler of Persia as Artaxerxes (V). Bessus was unable to mount a successful resistance to the growing military might of Alexander's army so he fled to his native Bactria, where he attempted to rally local tribes to his side but was instead turned over to Alexander who proceeded to have him tortured and executed for having committed <a href="/wiki/Regicide" title="Regicide">regicide</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alexander_the_Great_to_Greco-Bactrian_rule_(330_BC_–_c._150_BC)"><span id="Alexander_the_Great_to_Greco-Bactrian_rule_.28330_BC_.E2.80.93_c._150_BC.29"></span>Alexander the Great to Greco-Bactrian rule (330 BC – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 150 BC)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Alexander the Great to Greco-Bactrian rule (330 BC – c. 150 BC)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map-alexander-empire.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Map-alexander-empire.png/220px-Map-alexander-empire.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Map-alexander-empire.png/330px-Map-alexander-empire.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Map-alexander-empire.png/440px-Map-alexander-empire.png 2x" data-file-width="929" data-file-height="605" /></a><figcaption>Empire of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Moving thousands of kilometers eastward from recently subdued Persia, the Macedonian leader <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, encountered fierce resistance from the local tribes of <a href="/wiki/Aria_(satrapy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aria (satrapy)">Aria</a>, Drangiana, <a href="/wiki/Arachosia" title="Arachosia">Arachosia</a> (South and Eastern Afghanistan, North-West Pakistan) and Bactria (North and Central Afghanistan). One of the fiercest battles that he faced was in <a href="/wiki/Herat_Province" title="Herat Province">Herat</a>. One of his top commanding officers was killed by the rebels and he had to go there himself. He couldn't defeat them in time and he ended up burning down the forest to finish the rebellion.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Upon Alexander's death in 323 BC, his empire, which had never been politically consolidated, broke apart as his companions began to divide it amongst themselves. Alexander's cavalry commander, <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_I_Nicator" title="Seleucus I Nicator">Seleucus</a>, took nominal control of the eastern lands and founded the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a> dynasty. Under the Seleucids, as under Alexander, Greek colonists and soldiers colonized Bactria, roughly corresponding to modern Afghanistan's borders. However, the majority of Macedonian soldiers of Alexander the Great wanted to leave the east and return home to Greece. Later, Seleucus sought to guard his eastern frontier and moved <a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionian</a> Greeks (also known as <a href="/wiki/Yavanas" class="mw-redirect" title="Yavanas">Yavanas</a> to many local groups) to Bactria in the 3rd century BC. </p><p>Greece had one of the most advanced civilizations at that period. Wherever they went, they left and gained something from cultures and ultimately, they had a civilization that was compromised from other top civilizations of the time. Greek men were marrying with other women and this helped the process of mixing the cultures a lot.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maurya_Empire">Maurya Empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Maurya Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maurya_Empire,_c.250_BCE_2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Maurya_Empire%2C_c.250_BCE_2.png/170px-Maurya_Empire%2C_c.250_BCE_2.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Maurya_Empire%2C_c.250_BCE_2.png/255px-Maurya_Empire%2C_c.250_BCE_2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Maurya_Empire%2C_c.250_BCE_2.png/340px-Maurya_Empire%2C_c.250_BCE_2.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1121" /></a><figcaption>Maurya Empire at its maximum extent</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AsokaKandahar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/AsokaKandahar.jpg/170px-AsokaKandahar.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/AsokaKandahar.jpg/255px-AsokaKandahar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/AsokaKandahar.jpg/340px-AsokaKandahar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="683" data-file-height="717" /></a><figcaption>Bilingual edict (<a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a>) by Emperor <a href="/wiki/Ashoka_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashoka the Great">Ashoka</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Kandahar" title="Kandahar">Kandahar</a> - <a href="/wiki/Afghan_National_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Afghan National Museum">Afghan National Museum</a>. (Click image for translation.)</figcaption></figure> <p>While the <a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">Diadochi</a> were warring amongst themselves, the <a href="/wiki/Mauryan_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Mauryan dynasty">Mauryan Empire</a> was developing in the northern part of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>. The founder of the empire, <a href="/wiki/Chandragupta_Maurya" title="Chandragupta Maurya">Chandragupta Maurya</a>, confronted a Macedonian invasion force led by <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_I_Nicator" title="Seleucus I Nicator">Seleucus I</a> in 305 BC and following a brief conflict, an agreement was reached as Seleucus ceded <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arachosia" title="Arachosia">Arachosia</a> (centered around ancient <a href="/wiki/Kandahar" title="Kandahar">Kandahar</a>) and areas south of <a href="/wiki/Bagram" title="Bagram">Bagram</a> (corresponding to the extreme south-east of modern Afghanistan) to the Mauryans. During the 120 years of the Mauryans in southern Afghanistan, Buddhism was introduced and eventually become a major religion alongside Zoroastrianism and local pagan beliefs. The ancient <a href="/wiki/Grand_Trunk_Road" title="Grand Trunk Road">Grand Trunk Road</a> was built linking what is now Kabul to various cities in the Punjab and the Gangetic Plain. Commerce, art, and architecture (seen especially in the construction of <a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">stupas</a>) developed during this period. It reached its high point under Emperor Ashoka whose edicts, roads, and rest stops were found throughout the subcontinent. Although the vast majority of them throughout the subcontinent were written in Prakrit, Afghanistan is notable for the inclusion of 2 Greek and Aramaic ones alongside the court language of the Mauryans. </p><p>Inscriptions made by the Mauryan Emperor <a href="/wiki/Ashoka_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashoka the Great">Ashoka</a>, a fragment of <a href="/wiki/Edicts_of_Ashoka" title="Edicts of Ashoka">Edict 13</a> in Greek, as well as a full Edict, written in both Greek and Aramaic has been discovered in <a href="/wiki/Old_Kandahar" title="Old Kandahar">Old Kandahar</a>. It is said to be written in excellent Classical Greek, using sophisticated philosophical terms. In this Edict, Ashoka uses the word <a href="/wiki/Eusebeia" title="Eusebeia">Eusebeia</a> ("<a href="/wiki/Piety" title="Piety">Piety</a>") as the Greek translation for the ubiquitous "<a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a>" of his other Edicts written in <a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrit</a>: </p> <dl><dd>"Ten years (of reign) having been completed, King Piodasses (Ashoka) made known (the doctrine of) Piety (<i>εὐσέβεια</i>, <a href="/wiki/Eusebeia" title="Eusebeia">Eusebeia</a>) to men; and from this moment he has made men more pious, and everything thrives throughout the whole world. And the king abstains from (killing) living beings, and other men and those who (are) huntsmen and fishermen of the king have desisted from hunting. And if some (were) intemperate, they have ceased from their intemperance as was in their power; and obedient to their father and mother and to the elders, in opposition to the past also in the future, by so acting on every occasion, they will live better and more happily." (Trans. by G.P. Carratelli<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>)</dd></dl> <p>The last ruler in the region was probably <a href="/wiki/Subhagasena" class="mw-redirect" title="Subhagasena">Subhagasena</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sophagasenus" title="Sophagasenus">Sophagasenus</a> of <a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a>), who, in all probability, belonged to the <a href="/wiki/Ashvaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashvaka">Ashvaka</a> (q.v.) background. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greco-Bactrians">Greco-Bactrians</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Greco-Bactrians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Greco-Bactrian Kingdom</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tetradrachm_Eukratides.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Tetradrachm_Eukratides.jpg/170px-Tetradrachm_Eukratides.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Tetradrachm_Eukratides.jpg/255px-Tetradrachm_Eukratides.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Tetradrachm_Eukratides.jpg/340px-Tetradrachm_Eukratides.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2259" data-file-height="1063" /></a><figcaption>Coin of the Greco-Bactrian king <a href="/wiki/Eucratides_I" title="Eucratides I">Eucratides</a> (171-145 BC)</figcaption></figure> <p>In the middle of the 3rd century BC, an independent, Hellenistic state was declared in <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a> and eventually the control of the Seleucids and Mauryans was overthrown in western and southern Afghanistan. <a href="/wiki/Graeco-Bactrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Graeco-Bactrian">Graeco-Bactrian</a> rule spread until it included a large territory which stretched from Turkmenistan in the west to the Punjab in India in the east by about 170 BC. <a href="/wiki/Graeco-Bactrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Graeco-Bactrian">Graeco-Bactrian</a> rule was eventually defeated by a combination of internecine disputes that plagued Greek and Hellenized rulers to the west, continual conflict with Indian kingdoms, as well as the pressure of two groups of nomadic invaders from Central Asia—the <a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sakas" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakas">Sakas</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Kushan_Empire_(150_BC–300_AD)"><span id="Kushan_Empire_.28150_BC.E2.80.93300_AD.29"></span>Kushan Empire (150 BC–300 AD)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Kushan Empire (150 BC–300 AD)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coin_of_Heraios.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Coin_of_Heraios.jpg/170px-Coin_of_Heraios.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Coin_of_Heraios.jpg/255px-Coin_of_Heraios.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Coin_of_Heraios.jpg/340px-Coin_of_Heraios.jpg 2x" data-file-width="504" data-file-height="230" /></a><figcaption>Silver tetradrachm of Kushan king <a href="/wiki/Heraios" title="Heraios">Heraios</a> (1–30 AD) in <a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Bactrian">Greco-Bactrian</a> style, with horseman crowned by the Greek goddess of victory <a href="/wiki/Nike_(mythology)" title="Nike (mythology)">Nike</a>.<br />Greek legend: ΤVΡΑΝΝΟVΟΤΟΣ ΗΛΟV - ΣΛΝΛΒ - ΚΟÞÞΑΝΟΥ "Of the <a href="/wiki/Tyrant" title="Tyrant">Tyrant</a> Heraios, Sanav, the Kushan" (the meaning of "Sanav" is unknown).</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a></div> <p>In the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, the <a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthians</a>, a nomadic <a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian peoples</a>, arrived in Western Asia. While they made large inroads into the modern-day territory of Afghanistan, about 100 years later another Indo-European group from the north—the Kushans (a subgroup of the tribe called the <a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a> by the <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">Chinese</a>)—entered the region of Afghanistan and established an empire lasting almost four centuries, which would dominate most of the Afghanistan region. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a> spread from the <a href="/wiki/Kabul_River" title="Kabul River">Kabul River</a> valley to defeat other Central Asian tribes that had previously conquered parts of the northern central Iranian Plateau once ruled by the Parthians. By the middle of the 1st century BC, the Kushans' base of control became Afghanistan and their empire spanned from the north of the <a href="/wiki/Pamirs" class="mw-redirect" title="Pamirs">Pamir mountains</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Ganges" title="Ganges">Ganges river valley</a> in India. During rule of Kanishka, they had 2 seasonal capital cities which were Kabul in Spring and Summer then moving to Peshawr for Fall and Winter.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early in the 2nd century under <a href="/wiki/Kanishka" title="Kanishka">Kanishka</a>, the most powerful of the Kushan rulers, the empire reached its greatest geographic and cultural breadth to become a center of literature and art. Kanishka extended Kushan control to the mouth of the Indus River on the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Sea" title="Arabian Sea">Arabian Sea</a>, into <a href="/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a>, and into what is today the Chinese-controlled area north of <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>. Kanishka was a patron of religion and the arts. It was during his reign that Buddhism, which was promoted in northern <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> earlier by the <a href="/wiki/Mauryan_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Mauryan dynasty">Mauryan</a> emperor <a href="/wiki/Ashoka_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashoka the Great">Ashoka</a> (c. 260 BC–232 BC), reached its zenith in Central Asia. Though the Kushanas supported local Buddhists and Hindus as well as the worship of various local deities. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sasanian_&_Hephthalite_invasions_(300–650)"><span id="Sasanian_.26_Hephthalite_invasions_.28300.E2.80.93650.29"></span>Sasanian & Hephthalite invasions (300–650)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Sasanian & Hephthalite invasions (300–650)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Sassanid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid Empire">Sassanid Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kushano-Sasanian_Kingdom" title="Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom">Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coin_of_Hormizd_I_Kushanshah,_British_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Coin_of_Hormizd_I_Kushanshah%2C_British_Museum.jpg/220px-Coin_of_Hormizd_I_Kushanshah%2C_British_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Coin_of_Hormizd_I_Kushanshah%2C_British_Museum.jpg/330px-Coin_of_Hormizd_I_Kushanshah%2C_British_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Coin_of_Hormizd_I_Kushanshah%2C_British_Museum.jpg/440px-Coin_of_Hormizd_I_Kushanshah%2C_British_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2147" data-file-height="2176" /></a><figcaption>Coin of <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_I_Kushanshah" title="Hormizd I Kushanshah">Hormizd I Kushanshah</a>, issued in Khorasan, and derived from <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a> designs</figcaption></figure> <p>In the 3rd century, Kushan control fragmented into semi-independent kingdoms that became easy targets for conquest by the rising Iranian dynasty, the <a href="/wiki/Sassanid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid Empire">Sasanians</a> (c. 224–561) which annexed Afghanistan by 300 AD. In these far off easternmost territories, they established vassal kings as rulers, known as the <a href="/wiki/Kushanshahs" class="mw-redirect" title="Kushanshahs">Kushanshahs</a>. Sasanian control was tenuous at times as numerous challenges from Central Asian tribes led to instability and constant warfare in the region. </p><p>The disunited Kushan and Sasanian kingdoms were in a poor position to meet the threat several waves of <a href="/wiki/Xionite" class="mw-redirect" title="Xionite">Xionite</a>/<a href="/wiki/Huna_people" title="Huna people">Huna</a> invaders from the north from the 4th century onwards. In particular, the <a href="/wiki/Hephthalite" class="mw-redirect" title="Hephthalite">Hephthalites</a> (or <i>Ebodalo</i>; <a href="/wiki/Bactrian_language" title="Bactrian language">Bactrian script</a> ηβοδαλο) swept out of Central Asia during the 5th century into <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a> and Iran, overwhelming the last of the Kushan kingdoms. Historians believe that Hephthalite control continued for a century and was marked by constant warfare with the Sassanians to the west who exerted nominal control over the region. By the middle of the 6th century the Hephthalites were defeated in the territories north of the <a href="/wiki/Amu_Darya" title="Amu Darya">Amu Darya</a> (the Oxus River of antiquity) by another group of Central Asian nomads, the <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Göktürks</a>, and by the resurgent Sassanians in the lands south of the Amu Darya. It was the ruler of western Göktürks, Sijin (a.k.a. Sinjibu, Silzibul and Yandu Muchu Khan) who led the forces against the Hepthalites who were defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chach" title="Battle of Chach">Battle of Chach</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tashkent" title="Tashkent">Tashkent</a>) and at the Battle of Bukhara. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Kabul_Shahi">Kabul Shahi</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Kabul Shahi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Turk_Shahis" title="Turk Shahis">Turk Shahis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hindu_Shahis" title="Hindu Shahis">Hindu Shahis</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kushano-Hephthalites_600ad.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Kushano-Hephthalites_600ad.jpg/220px-Kushano-Hephthalites_600ad.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Kushano-Hephthalites_600ad.jpg/330px-Kushano-Hephthalites_600ad.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Kushano-Hephthalites_600ad.jpg/440px-Kushano-Hephthalites_600ad.jpg 2x" data-file-width="758" data-file-height="670" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hephthalite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hephthalite Empire">Kushano-Hephthalite kingdoms</a> around 600 AD</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Turk_Shahis" title="Turk Shahis">Shahi dynasties</a> ruled portions of the <a href="/wiki/Kabul_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Kabul Valley">Kabul Valley</a> (in eastern Afghanistan) and the old province of <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a> (northern Pakistan and <a href="/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a>) from the decline of the Kushan Empire in the 3rd century to the early 9th century.<sup id="cite_ref-EB_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EB-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are split into two eras the Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Turk_Shahis" title="Turk Shahis">Turk Shahis</a> and the later <a href="/wiki/Hindu_Shahis" title="Hindu Shahis">Hindu Shahis</a> with the change-over occurring around 870, and ruled up until the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_conquest_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic conquest of Afghanistan">Islamic conquest of Afghanistan</a>. </p><p>When <a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a> visited the region early in the 7th century, the <a href="/wiki/Kabulistan" title="Kabulistan">Kabul region</a> was ruled by a <a href="/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">Kshatriya</a> king, who is identified as the <i>Shahi Khingal</i>, and whose name has been found in an inscription found in <a href="/wiki/Gardez" title="Gardez">Gardez</a>. The Turkic Shahi regency was overthrown and replaced by a <a href="/wiki/Mohyal" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohyal">Mohyal</a> Shahi dynasty of Brahmins who began the first phase of the Hindu Shahi dynasty. </p><p>These <a href="/wiki/Hindu_Shahi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu Shahi">Hindu kings</a> of Kabul and Gandhara may have had links to some ruling families in neighboring <a href="/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a> and other areas to the east. The Shahis were rulers of predominantly <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrian">Zoroastrian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> populations and were thus patrons of numerous faiths, and various artifacts and coins from their rule have been found that display their multicultural domain. In 964 AD, the last Mohyal Shahi was succeeded by the <a href="/wiki/Janjua" title="Janjua">Janjua</a> overlord, Jayapala, of the <a href="/wiki/Pandavas" class="mw-redirect" title="Pandavas">Panduvanshi</a> dynasty. The last Shahi emperors <a href="/wiki/Jayapala" title="Jayapala">Jayapala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anandapala" class="mw-redirect" title="Anandapala">Anandapala</a> and Tirlochanpala fought the Muslim <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavids</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ghazni_Province" title="Ghazni Province">Ghazna</a> and were gradually defeated. Their remaining army were eventually exiled into northern India. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Archaeological_remnants">Archaeological remnants</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Archaeological remnants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BamyanBuddha_Smaller_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/BamyanBuddha_Smaller_1.jpg/150px-BamyanBuddha_Smaller_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/BamyanBuddha_Smaller_1.jpg/225px-BamyanBuddha_Smaller_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/BamyanBuddha_Smaller_1.jpg/300px-BamyanBuddha_Smaller_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2080" data-file-height="3095" /></a><figcaption>One of the <a href="/wiki/Buddhas_of_Bamiyan" title="Buddhas of Bamiyan">Buddhas of Bamiyan</a>. <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Afghanistan" title="Buddhism in Afghanistan">Buddhism</a> was widespread in the region before the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_conquest_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic conquest of Afghanistan">Islamic conquest of Afghanistan</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Most of the Zoroastrian, Greek, Hellenistic, Buddhist, Hindu and other indigenous cultures were replaced by the coming of Islam and little influence remains in Afghanistan today. Along ancient trade routes, however, stone monuments of the once flourishing Buddhist culture did exist as reminders of the past. The two massive sandstone <a href="/wiki/Buddhas_of_Bamyan" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhas of Bamyan">Buddhas of Bamyan</a>, 35 and 53 meters high, overlooked the ancient route through <a href="/wiki/Bamyan,_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Bamyan, Afghanistan">Bamyan</a> to <a href="/wiki/Balkh" title="Balkh">Balkh</a> and dated from the 3rd and 5th centuries. They survived until 2001, when they were destroyed by the <a href="/wiki/Taliban" title="Taliban">Taliban</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this and other key places in Afghanistan, <a href="/wiki/Archeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Archeology">archaeologists</a> have located <a href="/wiki/Fresco" title="Fresco">frescoes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stucco" title="Stucco">stucco</a> decorations, statuary, and rare objects from as far away as <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>, which were crafted as early as the 2nd century and bear witness to the influence of these ancient civilizations upon Afghanistan. </p><p>One of the <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">early Buddhist schools</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81s%C4%81%E1%B9%83ghika" title="Mahāsāṃghika">Mahāsāṃghika</a>-<a href="/wiki/Lokottarav%C4%81da" title="Lokottaravāda">Lokottaravāda</a>, were known to be prominent in the area of Bamiyan. The <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">Chinese</a> <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_monk" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist monk">Buddhist monk</a> <a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a> visited a Lokottaravāda monastery in the 7th century CE, at Bamiyan, Afghanistan, and this monastery site has since been rediscovered by archaeologists.<sup id="cite_ref-Schøyen_Collection:_Buddhism_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schøyen_Collection:_Buddhism-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Birchbark" class="mw-redirect" title="Birchbark">Birchbark</a> and <a href="/wiki/Palm_leaf_manuscript" class="mw-redirect" title="Palm leaf manuscript">palm leaf manuscripts</a> of texts in this monastery's collection, including <a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahāyāna sūtras</a>, have been discovered at the site, and these are now located in the <a href="/wiki/Schoyen_Collection" class="mw-redirect" title="Schoyen Collection">Schøyen Collection</a>. Some manuscripts are in the <a href="/wiki/G%C4%81ndh%C4%81r%C4%AB_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gāndhārī language">Gāndhārī language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kharosthi" title="Kharosthi">Kharoṣṭhī</a> script, while others are in Sanskrit and written in forms of the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_script" title="Gupta script">Gupta script</a>. Manuscripts and fragments that have survived from this monastery's collection include well-known Buddhist texts such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Mahaparinibbana_Sutta" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahaparinibbana Sutta">Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra</a></i> (from the <i><a href="/wiki/%C4%80gama_(Buddhism)" title="Āgama (Buddhism)">Āgamas</a></i>), the <i><a href="/wiki/Diamond_Sutra" title="Diamond Sutra">Diamond Sūtra</a></i> (<i>Vajracchedikā <a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81p%C4%81ramit%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Prajñāpāramitā">Prajñāpāramitā</a></i>), the <i><a href="/wiki/Medicine_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Medicine Buddha">Medicine Buddha Sūtra</a></i>, and the <i><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%ABm%C4%81l%C4%81dev%C4%AB_Si%E1%B9%83han%C4%81da_S%C5%ABtra" title="Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra">Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Schøyen_Collection:_Buddhism_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schøyen_Collection:_Buddhism-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2010, reports stated that about 42 Buddhist relics have been discovered in the <a href="/wiki/Logar_Province" title="Logar Province">Logar Province</a> of Afghanistan, which is south of Kabul. Some of these items date back to the 2nd century according to Archaeologists. The items included two <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_temple" title="Buddhist temple">Buddhist temples</a> (<a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">Stupas</a>), Buddha statues, frescos, silver and gold coins and precious beads.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="overflow-x: auto;"><table id="Container" role="presentation" class="toccolours searchaux mw-collapsed nomobile mw-collapsible" style="text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;border-style:solid;float:center;margin:0.3em 1.4em 0.8em 1.4em;overflow:hidden;min-width:80.9em"><tbody><tr><td colspan="3" id="Title" style="padding:1em 1em 1em 1em"><div style="background-color:#77bb77;padding:0 0.2em 0 0.2em;font-weight:bold;text-align:center">Chronological chart for the historical periods of Afghanistan</div></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td id="Scale" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;width:4.2em;position:relative;float:left;font-size:100%;height:60em;border-right:1px solid #242020"><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:58.68em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−2200 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:57.36em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:56.04em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−2000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:54.73em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:53.41em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−1800 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:52.09em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:50.77em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−1600 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:49.45em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:48.13em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−1400 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:46.81em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:45.49em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−1200 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:44.18em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:42.86em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−1000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:41.54em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:40.22em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−800 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:38.90em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:37.58em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−600 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:36.26em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:34.95em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−400 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:33.63em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:32.31em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−200 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:30.99em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:29.67em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">0 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:28.35em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:27.03em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">200 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:25.71em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:24.40em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">400 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:23.08em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:21.76em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">600 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:20.44em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:19.12em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">800 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:17.80em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:16.48em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">1000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:15.16em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:13.85em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">1200 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:12.53em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:11.21em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">1400 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:9.89em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:8.57em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">1600 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:7.25em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:5.93em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">1800 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:4.62em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:3.30em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">2000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:1.98em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:0.66em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">2200 —</span></div></td><td id="Timeline" class="toccolours notheme" style="padding:0px;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;position:relative;font-size:100%;width:75em;height:60em;float:left;border:none"><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ba8;border-width:0.1em;border-color:#996666;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:2.965em;left:0.750em;width:8.100em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.482em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Herat" title="Herat">Herāt</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ba8;border-width:0.1em;border-color:#996666;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:2.965em;left:9.000em;width:8.100em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.482em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Badghis_Province" title="Badghis Province">Bādghis</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ba8;border-width:0.1em;border-color:#996666;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:2.965em;left:17.250em;width:8.100em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.482em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Balkh" title="Balkh">Balkh</a></b><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Badakhshan" title="Badakhshan">Badakhshān</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ba8;border-width:0.1em;border-color:#996666;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:2.965em;left:25.500em;width:8.100em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.482em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Kabul" title="Kabul">Kābul</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ba8;border-width:0.1em;border-color:#996666;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:2.965em;left:33.750em;width:8.100em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.482em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Jalalabad" title="Jalalabad">Jalālābād</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ba8;border-width:0.1em;border-color:#996666;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:2.965em;left:42.000em;width:8.100em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.482em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Ghazni" title="Ghazni">Ghazni</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ba8;border-width:0.1em;border-color:#996666;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:2.965em;left:50.250em;width:8.100em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.482em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Kandahar" title="Kandahar">Kandahār</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ba8;border-width:0.1em;border-color:#996666;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:2.965em;left:58.500em;width:8.100em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.482em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Lashkargah" title="Lashkargah">Bust</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ba8;border-width:0.1em;border-color:#996666;border-style:solid none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:2.965em;left:66.750em;width:8.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.482em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Sistan" title="Sistan">Seistān</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#66CC99;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:53.407em;height:6.593em;left:58.500em;width:16.500em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-3.297em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Elamite">Proto Elamite Culture</a></b><br /><div style="font-size: 85%;"><b><span style="color: black">in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gardan_Rig&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gardan Rig (page does not exist)">Gardān Rīg</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dam,_Afghanistan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dam, Afghanistan (page does not exist)">Dam</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nimruz_Province" title="Nimruz Province">Nīmrūz Province</a>)</span></b></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ba8;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:53.407em;height:5.275em;left:25.500em;width:32.850em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.637em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley Civilisation</a></b><br /><div style="font-size: 85%;"><b><span style="color: black">in <a href="/wiki/Mundigak" title="Mundigak">Mundigak</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Deh_Morasi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Deh Morasi (page does not exist)">Deh Morāsi Ghūndai</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kandahar_Province" title="Kandahar Province">Kandahār Province</a>) and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shurtughai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shurtughai (page does not exist)">Shūrtūghai</a> (<a href="/wiki/Takhar_Province" title="Takhar Province">Takhār Province</a>)</span></b></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFFFC0;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:53.407em;height:3.956em;left:0.750em;width:24.600em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.978em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex</a></b><br /><div style="font-size: 85%;"><b><span style="color: black">in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dashli,_Afghanistan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dashli, Afghanistan (page does not exist)">Dashli</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jawzjan_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Jawzjan Province">Jawzjān Province</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Tepe_Fullol" title="Tepe Fullol">Tepe Fullol</a> (<a href="/wiki/Baghlan_Province" title="Baghlan Province">Baghlān Province</a>)</span></b></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFFFC0;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:36.923em;height:16.484em;left:0.750em;width:74.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-8.242em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Aryan_migration" class="mw-redirect" title="Aryan migration">Coming of Iranians</a></b><br /><br /><div style="font-size: 85%;"><b><span style="color: black">c.1700-1100 BC: The <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a>, one of the oldest known texts written in an <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European language</a>, is composed in a region described as <i><a href="/wiki/Sapta_Sindhu" class="mw-redirect" title="Sapta Sindhu">Sapta Sindhu</a></i> ('land of seven great rivers', which may correspond to the <a href="/wiki/Kabul_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Kabul Valley">Kabul Valley</a>).<br />c. 1350 BC: Migration of waves of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Iranian_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Iranian peoples">Iranian tribes</a> begin from the <a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex</a> westwards to the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_plateau" title="Iranian plateau">Iranian plateau</a>, western Afghanistan and western <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>. According to the <a href="/wiki/Avesta" title="Avesta">Avesta</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vendidad" title="Vendidad">Vendidad</a> 1.1-21), they are compelled to leave their homeland <i><a href="/wiki/Airyanem_Vaejah" title="Airyanem Vaejah">Airyana Vaēǰah</a></i> because <a href="/wiki/Angra_Mainyu" class="mw-redirect" title="Angra Mainyu">Aŋra Mainyu</a> so altered the climate that the winter became ten months long and the summer only two. Along the way, they settle down near large rivers, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bāxδī</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Aria_(satrapy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aria (satrapy)">Harōiva</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Arachosia" title="Arachosia">Haraxᵛaitī</a></i>, etc. (See <a href="/wiki/Avestan_geography" title="Avestan geography">Avestan geography</a>.)<br />c. 1100-550 BC: <a href="/wiki/Zoroaster" title="Zoroaster">Zoroaster</a> introduces a new religion at <a href="/wiki/Bactra" class="mw-redirect" title="Bactra">Bactra</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Balkh" title="Balkh">Balkh</a>) - <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a> - which spreads across <a href="/wiki/Iranian_plateau" title="Iranian plateau">Iranian plateau</a>. He composes Older (i.e. '<a href="/wiki/Gathas" class="mw-redirect" title="Gathas">Gathic</a>') <a href="/wiki/Avesta" title="Avesta">Avesta</a> and later Younger Avesta is composed - at least - in <a href="/wiki/Sistan" title="Sistan">Sīstān</a>/<a href="/wiki/Arachosia" title="Arachosia">Arachosia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Herat" title="Herat">Herāt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a> and Bactria.</span></b></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#35CCFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:34.022em;height:2.901em;left:0.750em;width:74.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.451em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_dynasty" title="Achaemenid dynasty">Achaemenids</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFCC00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:32.967em;height:1.055em;left:0.750em;width:74.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.527em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucids</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFCC00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:32.110em;height:1.912em;left:66.750em;width:8.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.956em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#CCCC99;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:32.110em;height:1.187em;left:33.750em;width:33.000em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.593em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Mauryans</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FF6633;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:31.780em;height:1.187em;left:0.750em;width:16.500em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.593em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FF6633;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:31.121em;height:1.846em;left:17.250em;width:16.500em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.923em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Greco-Bactrians</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FF6633;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:31.121em;height:0.989em;left:33.750em;width:41.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.495em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FF9966;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:30.857em;height:0.857em;left:25.500em;width:24.750em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.429em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greeks</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#33CCFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:26.703em;height:5.077em;left:0.750em;width:16.500em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.538em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthians</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#33CCFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:29.407em;height:2.308em;left:66.750em;width:8.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.154em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthians</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#33CCFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:30.857em;height:0.857em;left:50.250em;width:24.750em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.429em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#66CC99;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:28.681em;height:2.440em;left:17.250em;width:8.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.220em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Early Kushans</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#66CC99;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:26.703em;height:1.978em;left:17.250em;width:33.000em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.989em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Great Kushans</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFCC99;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:29.407em;height:1.451em;left:25.500em;width:41.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.725em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Indo-Scythians" title="Indo-Scythians">Sakas</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#99CCFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:26.703em;height:2.703em;left:50.250em;width:24.750em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.352em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Indo-Parthian_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Parthian Kingdom">Indo-Parthians</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#99CCFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:28.681em;height:0.725em;left:25.500em;width:49.500em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.363em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FF6633;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:21.099em;height:5.604em;left:0.750em;width:74.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.802em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanians</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#66CC99;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:24.000em;height:1.121em;left:17.250em;width:24.750em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.560em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Indo-Scythians" title="Indo-Scythians">Kushano-Sasanians</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#339900;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:23.604em;height:0.396em;left:17.250em;width:24.750em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.198em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><small><b><a href="/wiki/Kidarites" title="Kidarites">Kidarites</a></b> </small></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFCC00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:22.220em;height:1.385em;left:17.250em;width:8.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.692em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFCC00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:22.615em;height:0.989em;left:25.500em;width:33.000em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.495em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">Hephthalites</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFCC00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:22.220em;height:1.055em;left:9.000em;width:8.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.527em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#339900;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:18.857em;height:2.242em;left:0.750em;width:8.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.121em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests_of_Afghanistan" title="Muslim conquests of Afghanistan">Arabs</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#339900;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:18.857em;height:2.242em;left:66.750em;width:8.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.121em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquests_of_Afghanistan" title="Muslim conquests of Afghanistan">Arabs</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#339900;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:18.857em;height:1.451em;left:7.500em;width:18.000em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.725em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFCC99;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:20.308em;height:0.791em;left:9.000em;width:16.500em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.396em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Turkish Khanates</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFCC00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:18.132em;height:2.967em;left:25.500em;width:33.000em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.484em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Turk_Shahis" title="Turk Shahis">Turk Shahis</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFCC00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:19.121em;height:1.978em;left:58.500em;width:8.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.989em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#33CCFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:16.484em;height:1.648em;left:33.750em;width:8.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.824em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Hindu_Shahis" title="Hindu Shahis">Hindu Shahis</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#33CCFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:16.747em;height:1.385em;left:25.500em;width:8.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.692em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#33CCFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:17.011em;height:1.121em;left:42.000em;width:8.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.560em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#CCCC99;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:18.462em;height:0.989em;left:58.500em;width:16.500em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.495em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Kharijites</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFFFC0;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:18.132em;height:0.725em;left:0.750em;width:24.750em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.363em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirids</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#99CCFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:17.538em;height:0.923em;left:58.500em;width:16.500em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.462em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarids</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#99CCFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:17.802em;height:0.330em;left:50.250em;width:8.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.165em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#66CC99;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:16.484em;height:1.648em;left:0.750em;width:24.750em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.824em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanids</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#66CC99;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:16.747em;height:1.055em;left:50.250em;width:8.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.527em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#66CC99;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:16.484em;height:1.187em;left:58.500em;width:16.500em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.593em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanids</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FF6633;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:15.824em;height:0.659em;left:0.750em;width:24.750em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.330em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FF6633;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:14.505em;height:2.242em;left:25.500em;width:8.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.121em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FF6633;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:14.505em;height:1.978em;left:33.750em;width:8.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.989em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavids</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FF6632;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:14.505em;height:2.505em;left:42.000em;width:8.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.253em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FF6633;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:14.505em;height:2.242em;left:50.250em;width:8.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.121em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FF6633;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:14.505em;height:1.978em;left:58.500em;width:16.500em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.989em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFCC00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:14.505em;height:1.319em;left:0.750em;width:24.750em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.659em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_dynasty" title="Seljuk dynasty">Seljuks</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#33CCFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:13.662em;height:0.844em;left:0.750em;width:74.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.422em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Ghurids" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghurids">Ghurids</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#339900;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:13.596em;height:0.066em;left:0.750em;width:74.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.033em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><small><b><a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Khwarazmian dynasty">Khwārazm-Shāh</a></b></small></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFCC00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:13.055em;height:0.541em;left:0.750em;width:74.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.270em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFCC00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:12.132em;height:1.305em;left:17.250em;width:41.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.653em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate (Mongols)</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFCC99;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:11.473em;height:0.659em;left:17.250em;width:41.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.330em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chaghatais</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFCC99;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:11.473em;height:0.396em;left:0.750em;width:16.500em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.198em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#33CCFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:11.868em;height:1.385em;left:0.750em;width:16.500em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.692em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Kart_dynasty" title="Kart dynasty">Kartids</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:##339900;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:11.473em;height:1.582em;left:58.500em;width:16.500em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.791em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Kayani_Ghakar" title="Kayani Ghakar">Kayanis</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#66CC99;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:9.758em;height:1.714em;left:0.750em;width:74.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.857em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurids</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFCC00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:8.044em;height:1.767em;left:17.250em;width:8.100em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.884em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><small><b><a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Bukhara" title="Khanate of Bukhara">(Uzbeks)</a></b></small></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFCC00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:6.580em;height:1.332em;left:17.250em;width:8.100em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.666em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Bukhara" title="Khanate of Bukhara">Khanate of Bukhara</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FF6633;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:6.633em;height:3.125em;left:25.500em;width:33.000em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.563em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughals</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FF6633;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:7.912em;height:0.132em;left:17.250em;width:41.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.066em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#33CCFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:7.134em;height:2.624em;left:0.750em;width:16.350em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.312em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Safavids" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavids">Safavids</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#33CCFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:7.134em;height:2.624em;left:50.250em;width:24.750em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.312em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Safavids" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavids">Safavids</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#339900;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:6.752em;height:0.382em;left:0.750em;width:16.500em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.191em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><small><b><a href="/wiki/Hotak_dynasty" title="Hotak dynasty">Hotak dynasty</a></b></small></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#339900;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:6.752em;height:0.382em;left:50.250em;width:24.750em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.191em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><small><b><a href="/wiki/Hotak_dynasty" title="Hotak dynasty">Hotak dynasty</a></b></small></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#33CCFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:6.633em;height:0.119em;left:0.750em;width:74.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.059em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><small><b><a href="/wiki/Afsharids" class="mw-redirect" title="Afsharids">Afsharids</a></b></small></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#66CC99;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:5.591em;height:1.042em;left:0.750em;width:74.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.521em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Durrani Empire</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#339900;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:5.182em;height:0.738em;left:0.750em;width:16.500em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.369em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><small><b><a href="/wiki/Qajar_dynasty" title="Qajar dynasty">Qajar dynasty</a></b></small></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFCC00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:4.708em;height:0.884em;left:0.750em;width:74.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.442em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Barakzai_dynasty" title="Barakzai dynasty">Barakzai dynasty</a></b></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#33CCFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:3.165em;height:1.543em;left:0.750em;width:74.250em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.771em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Modern Afghanistan</a></b></div></div></td></tr><tr><td id="Caption" colspan="3" style="padding:0;margin:0 0.2em 0.7em 0.2em"><div id="Caption" class="toccolours" style="margin:0 0.5em;border-style:none;clear:both;text-align:center;width:79.75em"></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre_Islamic_Hindu_and_Buddhist_heritage_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre Islamic Hindu and Buddhist heritage of Afghanistan">Pre Islamic Hindu and Buddhist heritage of Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_scripts_in_Afghanistan" title="Pre-Islamic scripts in Afghanistan">Pre-Islamic scripts in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zunbils" title="Zunbils">Zunbils</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-JFS-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JFS_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JFS_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JFS_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091031052339/http://encarta.msn.com/text_761569370___42/Afghanistan.html">"Afghanistan: VII. History (Archived)"</a>. <i>John Ford Shroder</i>. University of Nebraska. 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encarta.msn.com/text_761569370___42/Afghanistan.html">the original</a> on October 31, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-10-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=John+Ford+Shroder&rft.atitle=Afghanistan%3A+VII.+History+%28Archived%29&rft.date=2009&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fencarta.msn.com%2Ftext_761569370___42%2FAfghanistan.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+history+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LoC-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LoC_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+af0002)">"The Pre-Islamic Period"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Country_Studies" title="Library of Congress Country Studies">Library of Congress Country Studies</a> on Afghanistan. 1997<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-08-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Pre-Islamic+Period&rft.pub=Library+of+Congress+Country+Studies+on+Afghanistan&rft.date=1997&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flcweb2.loc.gov%2Fcgi-bin%2Fquery%2Fr%3Ffrd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID%2Baf0002%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+history+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dupree-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dupree_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dupree_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dupree_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDupree1977" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Dupree, Nancy Hatch (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T__DHAAACAAJ"><i>An Historical Guide To Afghanistan</i></a>. Vol. 2. Edition. Afghan Air Authority, Afghan Tourist Organization. p. 492<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-08-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Historical+Guide+To+Afghanistan&rft.pages=492&rft.pub=Afghan+Air+Authority%2C+Afghan+Tourist+Organization&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Dupree&rft.aufirst=Nancy+Hatch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DT__DHAAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+history+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Ancient_Indus_pp.1-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Ancient_Indus_pp.1_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Ancient_Indus_pp.1_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy, and Society. pp.1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://ri.urd.ac.ir/article_43974.html">https://ri.urd.ac.ir/article_43974.html</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EndeSteinbach2010-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EndeSteinbach2010_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEndeSteinbach2010" class="citation book cs1">Ende, Werner; Steinbach, Udo (15 April 2010). <i>Islam in the World Today: A Handbook of Politics, Religion, Culture, and Society</i>. Cornell University Press. p. 257. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801464898" title="Special:BookSources/9780801464898"><bdi>9780801464898</bdi></a>. <q>At the time of the first Muslim advances, numerous local natural religions were competing with Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, and Hinduism in the territory of modern Afghanistan.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+in+the+World+Today%3A+A+Handbook+of+Politics%2C+Religion%2C+Culture%2C+and+Society&rft.pages=257&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2010-04-15&rft.isbn=9780801464898&rft.aulast=Ende&rft.aufirst=Werner&rft.au=Steinbach%2C+Udo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+history+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Warwick Ball, 2008, 'The Monuments of Afghanistan: History, Archaeology and Architecture': 261, London.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1998). Ancient cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. pp.96</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/EJVS-7-3.pdf">"Autochthonous Aryans-corr.doc"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Autochthonous+Aryans-corr.doc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.people.fas.harvard.edu%2F~witzel%2FEJVS-7-3.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+history+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-whc.unesco.org-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-whc.unesco.org_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/139">"UNESCO World Heritage Centre: Taxila"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=UNESCO+World+Heritage+Centre%3A+Taxila&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwhc.unesco.org%2Fen%2Flist%2F139&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+history+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Minahan2014-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Minahan2014_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMinahan2014" class="citation book cs1">Minahan, James B. (10 February 2014). <i>Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia</i>. ABC-CLIO. p. 217. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781610690188" title="Special:BookSources/9781610690188"><bdi>9781610690188</bdi></a>. <q>Historically, north and east Afghanistan was considered part of the Indian cultural and religious sphere. Early accounts of the region mention the Pashayi as living in a region producing rice and sugarcane, with many wooded areas. Many of the people of the region were Buddhists, though small groups of Hindus and others with tribal religions were noted.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethnic+Groups+of+North%2C+East%2C+and+Central+Asia%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=217&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2014-02-10&rft.isbn=9781610690188&rft.aulast=Minahan&rft.aufirst=James+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+history+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Weekes1984-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Weekes1984_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeekes1984" class="citation book cs1">Weekes, Richard V. (1984). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/muslimpeopleswor00week/page/601"><i>Muslim peoples: a world ethnographic survey</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Greenwood Publishing Group</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/muslimpeopleswor00week/page/601">601</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313233920" title="Special:BookSources/9780313233920"><bdi>9780313233920</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muslim+peoples%3A+a+world+ethnographic+survey&rft.pages=601&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=9780313233920&rft.aulast=Weekes&rft.aufirst=Richard+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmuslimpeopleswor00week%2Fpage%2F601&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+history+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Khanam2005-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Khanam2005_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhanam2005" class="citation book cs1">Khanam, R. (2005). <i>Encyclopaedic ethnography of Middle-East and Central Asia</i>. 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Bethany World Prayer Center. 1997<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 April</span> 2019</span>. <q>Before their conversion to Islam, the Pashayi followed a religion that was probably a corrupt form of Hinduism and Buddhism. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-08-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Sayed+Salahuddin&rft.atitle=Afghan+archaeologists+find+Buddhist+site+as+war+rages&rft.date=2010-08-17&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newsdaily.com%2Fstories%2Ftre67g1cn-us-afghanistan-buddhist-relics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+history+of+Afghanistan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_sources">Other sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Other sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Ahmed, Akbar S. 1980. TAJIK economy and society. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.</li> <li>Bryant, Edwin. 'The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003).</li> <li>Dupree, Louis. 'Afghanistan' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0060505087">Ewans, Martin. Afghanistan: A Short History of Its People and Politics, Harper Perennial; 1st Perennial ed edition (September 1, 2002)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A1nos_Harmatta" title="János Harmatta">Harmatta, János</a>, ed., 1994. <i>History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250</i>. Paris, UNESCO Publishing.</li> <li>Hill, John E. 2004. <i>The Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu.</i> Draft annotated English translation.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/texts/hhshu/hou_han_shu.html">[1]</a></li> <li>Hill, John E. 2004. <i>The Peoples of the West from the Weilue</i> 魏略 <i>by Yu Huan</i> 魚豢<i>: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 AD.</i> Draft annotated English translation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html">[2]</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0520211405">Holt, Frank L. Thundering Zeus: The Making of Hellenistic Bactria, University of California Press (March, 1999)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/1400031427">Kriwaczek, Paul. In Search of Zarathustra: Across Iran and Central Asia to Find the World's First Prophet, Vintage (March 9, 2004)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Boris_Anatol%27evich_Lirvinsky&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Boris Anatol'evich Lirvinsky (page does not exist)">Litvinsky, B. A</a>., ed., 1996. <i>History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750</i>. Paris, UNESCO Publishing.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0226627772">Olmstead, A.T. History of the Persian Empire, University Of Chicago Press (February 15, 1959)</a></li> <li>Reat, Ross. 'Buddhism: A History', (Jain Publishing Company, 1996).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0405065671">Rowland, Benjamin, Jr. Ancient Art from Afghanistan: Treasures of the Kabul Museum, Ayer Co Pub (October, 1981)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viktor_Sarianidi" title="Viktor Sarianidi">Sarianidi, Viktor</a>. 1985. <i>The Golden Hoard of Bactria: From the Tillya-tepe Excavations in Northern Afghanistan</i>. <a href="/wiki/Harry_N._Abrams,_Inc." class="mw-redirect" title="Harry N. Abrams, Inc.">Harry N. Abrams, Inc.</a> New York.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.umich.edu/~aos/abs974.htm">Shayegan, Rahim. The Avesta and the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/EJVS-7-3.pdf">Witzel, Michael. Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/kafirshindukush00robe">"The Káfirs of the Hindu-Kush" By Sir George Scott Robertson (1896)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_history_of_Afghanistan&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; 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