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</ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mendel's_genetic_discoveries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mendel's_genetic_discoveries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Mendel's genetic discoveries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mendel's_genetic_discoveries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mendel's_laws_of_inheritance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mendel's_laws_of_inheritance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Mendel's laws of inheritance</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mendel's_laws_of_inheritance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Mendel's laws of inheritance subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Mendel's_laws_of_inheritance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Law_of_Dominance_and_Uniformity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law_of_Dominance_and_Uniformity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Law of Dominance and Uniformity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law_of_Dominance_and_Uniformity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Law_of_Segregation_of_genes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law_of_Segregation_of_genes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Law of Segregation of genes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law_of_Segregation_of_genes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Law_of_Independent_Assortment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law_of_Independent_Assortment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Law of Independent Assortment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law_of_Independent_Assortment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mendelian_trait" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mendelian_trait"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Mendelian trait</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mendelian_trait-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-Mendelian_inheritance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-Mendelian_inheritance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Non-Mendelian inheritance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-Mendelian_inheritance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Mendelian inheritance</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 55 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-55" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">55 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wette_van_Mendel" title="Wette van Mendel – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Wette van Mendel" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendelsche_Regeln" title="Mendelsche Regeln – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Mendelsche Regeln" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AB%D8%A9_%D9%85%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="وراثة مندلية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="وراثة مندلية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lleis_de_Mendel" title="Lleis de Mendel – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Lleis de Mendel" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendel_qanunu" title="Mendel qanunu – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Mendel qanunu" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF" title="মেন্ডেলীয় বংশগতি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মেন্ডেলীয় বংশগতি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendel_%C3%AA_hoat-chek" title="Mendel ê hoat-chek – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Mendel ê hoat-chek" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="Закони на Мендел – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Закони на Мендел" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendelovi_zakoni" title="Mendelovi zakoni – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Mendelovi zakoni" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gen%C3%A8tica_mendeliana" title="Genètica mendeliana – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Genètica mendeliana" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendelovy_z%C3%A1kony_d%C4%9Bdi%C4%8Dnosti" title="Mendelovy zákony dědičnosti – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Mendelovy zákony dědičnosti" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendelsche_Regeln" title="Mendelsche Regeln – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Mendelsche Regeln" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendeli_seadused" title="Mendeli seadused – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Mendeli seadused" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%BA%CE%BB%CE%B7%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%B1" title="Μεντελική κληρονομικότητα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μεντελική κληρονομικότητα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leyes_de_Mendel" title="Leyes de Mendel – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Leyes de Mendel" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendelen_legeak" title="Mendelen legeak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Mendelen legeak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%86_%D9%85%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%84" title="قوانین مندل – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="قوانین مندل" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lois_de_Mendel" title="Lois de Mendel – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Lois de Mendel" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oidhreacht%C3%BAlacht_Mendel" title="Oidhreachtúlacht Mendel – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Oidhreachtúlacht Mendel" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herdanza_mendeliana" title="Herdanza mendeliana – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Herdanza mendeliana" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A9%98%EB%8D%B8%EC%9D%98_%EC%9C%A0%EC%A0%84%EB%B2%95%EC%B9%99" title="멘델의 유전법칙 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="멘델의 유전법칙" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%A4%D5%A5%D5%AC%D5%AB_%D5%A1%D5%BC%D5%A1%D5%BB%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D6%85%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%B6%D6%84" title="Մենդելի առաջին օրենք – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մենդելի առաջին օրենք" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE" title="मेंडेलियन वंशानुक्रम – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मेंडेलियन वंशानुक्रम" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hukum_Pewarisan_Mendel" title="Hukum Pewarisan Mendel – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Hukum Pewarisan Mendel" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregor_Mendel#Le_leggi_di_Mendel" title="Gregor Mendel – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Gregor Mendel" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%97%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%99_%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%A9%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%93%D7%9C" title="חוקי התורשה של מנדל – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="חוקי התורשה של מנדל" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hukum_Segregasi_mendel" title="Hukum Segregasi mendel – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Hukum Segregasi mendel" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A1%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%A8_%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%B3%E0%B3%81" title="ಮೆಂಡಲನ ನಿಯಮಗಳು – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಮೆಂಡಲನ ನಿಯಮಗಳು" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D2%A3%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Мендель заңдылықтары – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Мендель заңдылықтары" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bomaweya_Mendel%C3%AE" title="Bomaweya Mendelî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Bomaweya Mendelî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%BC%D1%8B%D0%B9%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Мендель мыйзамдары – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Мендель мыйзамдары" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendel-szab%C3%A1lyok" title="Mendel-szabályok – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Mendel-szabályok" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Менделови закони – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Менделови закони" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE" title="मेंडेलचे आनुवंशिकतेचे नियम – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="मेंडेलचे आनुवंशिकतेचे नियम" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendeliaanse_overerving" title="Mendeliaanse overerving – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Mendeliaanse overerving" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%A1%E3%83%B3%E3%83%87%E3%83%AB%E3%81%AE%E6%B3%95%E5%89%87" title="メンデルの法則 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="メンデルの法則" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendels_arvelover" title="Mendels arvelover – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Mendels arvelover" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prawa_Mendla" title="Prawa Mendla – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Prawa Mendla" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gen%C3%A9tica_mendeliana" title="Genética mendeliana – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Genética mendeliana" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legile_lui_Mendel" title="Legile lui Mendel – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Legile lui Mendel" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8F" title="Законы Менделя – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Законы Менделя" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Mendelian inheritance" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendelizmus" title="Mendelizmus – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Mendelizmus" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Менделови закони – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Менделови закони" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendelovi_zakoni" title="Mendelovi zakoni – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Mendelovi zakoni" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendelism" title="Mendelism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Mendelism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagmamanang_Mendeliano" title="Pagmamanang Mendeliano – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pagmamanang Mendeliano" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="மெண்டலின் விதிகள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மெண்டலின் விதிகள்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A5" title="พันธุศาสตร์ของเม็นเดิล – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="พันธุศาสตร์ของเม็นเดิล" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendel_geneti%C4%9Fi" title="Mendel genetiği – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Mendel genetiği" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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href="/w/index.php?title=Mendelian_genetics&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Mendelian genetics">Mendelian genetics</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Type of biological inheritance</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a non-technical introduction to the topic, see <a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_genetics" title="Introduction to genetics">Introduction to genetics</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid 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1.6em!important;padding:0!important;width:auto;display:block}body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox.mbox-small-left{font-size:100%;width:auto;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-text{padding:0!important;margin:0!important}.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-text-span{display:list-item;line-height:1.5em;list-style-type:disc}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .multiple-issues-text>.mw-collapsible-toggle,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-image,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-imageright,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-empty-cell,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .hide-when-compact{display:none}</style><table class="box-Multiple_issues plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-multiple_issues compact-ambox" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span"><div class="multiple-issues-text mw-collapsible"><b>This article has multiple issues.</b> Please help <b><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Special:EditPage/Mendelian inheritance">improve it</a></b> or discuss these issues on the <b><a href="/wiki/Talk:Mendelian_inheritance" title="Talk:Mendelian inheritance">talk page</a></b>. <small><i>(<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove these messages</a>)</i></small> <div class="mw-collapsible-content"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expert_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs attention from an expert in biology</b>. The specific problem is: <b>Does not have an adequate section/referral to a page citing published research that contradicts Mendelian inheritance theory.</b><span class="hide-when-compact"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Biology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Biology">WikiProject Biology</a> may be able to help recruit an expert.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2023</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Missing_information plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/44px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png" decoding="async" width="44" height="44" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/66px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/88px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="44" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>is missing information</b> about a succinct statement of the theorem.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please expand the article to include this information. Further details may exist on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Mendelian_inheritance" title="Talk:Mendelian inheritance">talk page</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2024</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gregor_Mendel.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Gregor_Mendel.png/220px-Gregor_Mendel.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Gregor_Mendel.png 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="304" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gregor_Mendel" title="Gregor Mendel">Gregor 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.mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:17em;border:2px solid #90db90"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#90db90;font-size:175%;font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg/150px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="74" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg/225px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg/300px-Hybridogenesis_in_water_frogs_gametes.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="225" data-file-height="111" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Key components</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">Chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">Genome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">Heredity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">Nucleotide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Genetic variation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">Allele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acid</a></li></ul></div></div> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_genetics" title="Outline of genetics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_genetics_articles" title="Index of genetics articles">Index</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">History and topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_genetics" title="Introduction to genetics">Introduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_genetics" title="History of genetics">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a> (<a href="/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">molecular</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mendelian inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_genetics" title="Quantitative genetics">Quantitative genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular genetics</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div 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title="Classical genetics">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_genetics" title="Conservation genetics">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunogenetics" title="Immunogenetics">Immunogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_genetics" title="Microbial genetics">Microbial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_genetics" title="Quantitative genetics">Quantitative</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:#e7f4e7;padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90db90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Personalized medicine</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Personalized_medicine" title="Personalized medicine">Personalized medicine</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Genetics" title="Category:Genetics">Category</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Genetics_sidebar" title="Template:Genetics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Genetics_sidebar" title="Template talk:Genetics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Genetics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Genetics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Mendelian inheritance</b> (also known as <b>Mendelism</b>) is a type of <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biological</a> <a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">inheritance</a> following the principles originally proposed by <a href="/wiki/Gregor_Mendel" title="Gregor Mendel">Gregor Mendel</a> in 1865 and 1866, re-discovered in 1900 by <a href="/wiki/Hugo_de_Vries" title="Hugo de Vries">Hugo de Vries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carl_Correns" title="Carl Correns">Carl Correns</a>, and later popularized by <a href="/wiki/William_Bateson" title="William Bateson">William Bateson</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These principles were initially controversial. When Mendel's theories were integrated with the <a href="/wiki/Boveri%E2%80%93Sutton_chromosome_theory" title="Boveri–Sutton chromosome theory">Boveri–Sutton chromosome theory</a> of inheritance by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan" title="Thomas Hunt Morgan">Thomas Hunt Morgan</a> in 1915, they became the core of <a href="/wiki/Classical_genetics" title="Classical genetics">classical genetics</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Fisher" title="Ronald Fisher">Ronald Fisher</a> combined these ideas with the theory of <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> in his 1930 book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Genetical_Theory_of_Natural_Selection" title="The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection">The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection</a></i>, putting <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> onto a <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematical</a> footing and forming the basis for <a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">population genetics</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">modern evolutionary synthesis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-grafen_69_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grafen_69-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mendelian_inheritance&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_genetics" title="History of genetics">History of genetics</a></div> <p>The principles of Mendelian inheritance were named for and first derived by <a href="/wiki/Gregor_Johann_Mendel" class="mw-redirect" title="Gregor Johann Mendel">Gregor Johann Mendel</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Fairbanks-2001_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fairbanks-2001-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a nineteenth-century <a href="/wiki/Moravians" title="Moravians">Moravian</a> <a href="/wiki/Monk" title="Monk">monk</a> who formulated his ideas after conducting simple hybridization experiments with pea plants <i>(<a href="/wiki/Pisum_sativum" class="mw-redirect" title="Pisum sativum">Pisum sativum</a>)</i> he had planted in the garden of his monastery.<sup id="cite_ref-Henig-2000_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Henig-2000-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1856 and 1863, Mendel cultivated and tested some 5,000 pea plants. From these experiments, he induced two generalizations which later became known as <i>Mendel's Principles of Heredity</i> or <i>Mendelian inheritance</i>. He described his experiments in a two-part paper, <i>Versuche über Pflanzen-Hybriden</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Experiments_on_Plant_Hybridization" title="Experiments on Plant Hybridization">Experiments on Plant Hybridization</a></i>),<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that he presented to the Natural History Society of <a href="/wiki/Brno" title="Brno">Brno</a> on 8 February and 8 March 1865, and which was published in 1866.<sup id="cite_ref-Fairbanks-2001_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fairbanks-2001-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mendel's results were at first largely ignored. Although they were not completely unknown to biologists of the time, they were not seen as generally applicable, even by Mendel himself, who thought they only applied to certain categories of species or traits. A major roadblock to understanding their significance was the importance attached by 19th-century biologists to the <a href="/wiki/Blending_inheritance" title="Blending inheritance">apparent blending</a> of <a href="/wiki/Complex_traits" title="Complex traits">many inherited traits</a> in the overall appearance of the progeny,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> now known to be due to <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_trait_locus" title="Quantitative trait locus">multi-gene interactions</a>, in contrast to the organ-specific binary characters studied by Mendel.<sup id="cite_ref-Henig-2000_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Henig-2000-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1900, however, his work was "re-discovered" by three European scientists, <a href="/wiki/Hugo_de_Vries" title="Hugo de Vries">Hugo de Vries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carl_Correns" title="Carl Correns">Carl Correns</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Erich_von_Tschermak" title="Erich von Tschermak">Erich von Tschermak</a>. The exact nature of the "re-discovery" has been debated: De Vries published first on the subject, mentioning Mendel in a footnote, while Correns pointed out Mendel's priority after having read De Vries' paper and realizing that he himself did not have priority. De Vries may not have acknowledged truthfully how much of his knowledge of the laws came from his own work and how much came only after reading Mendel's paper. Later scholars have accused Von Tschermak of not truly understanding the results at all.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Regardless, the "re-discovery" made Mendelism an important but controversial theory. Its most vigorous promoter in Europe was <a href="/wiki/William_Bateson" title="William Bateson">William Bateson</a>, who coined the terms "<a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">allele</a>" to describe many of its tenets.<sup id="cite_ref-Goldschmidt-1951_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldschmidt-1951-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The model of <a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">heredity</a> was contested by other biologists because it implied that heredity was discontinuous, in opposition to the apparently continuous variation observable for many traits.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many biologists also dismissed the theory because they were not sure it would apply to all species. However, later work by biologists and statisticians such as <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Fisher" title="Ronald Fisher">Ronald Fisher</a> showed that if multiple Mendelian factors were involved in the expression of an individual trait, they could produce the diverse results observed, thus demonstrating that Mendelian genetics is compatible with <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fisher-1999_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fisher-1999-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fisher_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fisher-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan" title="Thomas Hunt Morgan">Thomas Hunt Morgan</a> and his assistants later integrated Mendel's theoretical model with the <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a> theory of inheritance, in which the chromosomes of <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a> were thought to hold the actual hereditary material, and created what is now known as <a href="/wiki/Classical_genetics" title="Classical genetics">classical genetics</a>, a highly successful foundation which eventually cemented Mendel's place in history.<sup id="cite_ref-Fairbanks-2001_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fairbanks-2001-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Goldschmidt-1951_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldschmidt-1951-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mendel's findings allowed scientists such as Fisher and <a href="/wiki/J.B.S._Haldane" class="mw-redirect" title="J.B.S. Haldane">J.B.S. Haldane</a> to predict the expression of traits on the basis of mathematical probabilities. An important aspect of Mendel's success can be traced to his decision to start his crosses only with plants he demonstrated were <a href="/wiki/True-breeding_organism" class="mw-redirect" title="True-breeding organism">true-breeding</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Henig-2000_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Henig-2000-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fisher-1999_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fisher-1999-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He only measured discrete (binary) characteristics, such as color, shape, and position of the seeds, rather than quantitatively variable characteristics. He expressed his results numerically and subjected them to <a href="/wiki/Statistics#Statistical_methods" title="Statistics">statistical analysis</a>. His method of data analysis and his large <a href="/wiki/Sample_size" class="mw-redirect" title="Sample size">sample size</a> gave credibility to his data. He had the foresight to follow several successive generations (P, F<sub>1</sub>, F<sub>2</sub>, F<sub>3</sub>) of pea plants and record their variations. Finally, he performed "test crosses" (<a href="/wiki/Backcrossing" title="Backcrossing">backcrossing</a> descendants of the initial <a href="/wiki/Hybridization_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hybridization (biology)">hybridization</a> to the initial true-breeding lines) to reveal the presence and proportions of <a href="/wiki/Recessive" class="mw-redirect" title="Recessive">recessive</a> characters.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Inheritance_tools">Inheritance tools</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mendelian_inheritance&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Inheritance tools"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Punnett_Squares">Punnett Squares</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mendelian_inheritance&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Punnett Squares"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Punnett Squares are a well known genetics tool that was created by an English geneticist, Reginald Punnett, which can visually demonstrate all the possible genotypes that an offspring can receive, given the genotypes of their parents.<sup id="cite_ref-palomar_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-palomar-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Churchill-1974_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Churchill-1974-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Edwards-2012_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edwards-2012-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each parent carries two alleles, which can be shown on the top and the side of the chart, and each contribute one of them towards reproduction at a time. Each of the squares in the middle demonstrates the number of times each pairing of parental alleles could combine to make potential offspring. Using probabilities, one can then determine which genotypes the parents can create, and at what frequencies they can be created.<sup id="cite_ref-palomar_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-palomar-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Edwards-2012_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edwards-2012-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For example, if two parents both have a heterozygous genotype, then there would be a 50% chance for their offspring to have the same genotype, and a 50% chance they would have a homozygous genotype. Since they could possibly contribute two identical alleles, the 50% would be halved to 25% to account for each type of homozygote, whether this was a homozygous dominant genotype, or a homozygous recessive genotype.<sup id="cite_ref-palomar_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-palomar-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Churchill-1974_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Churchill-1974-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Edwards-2012_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edwards-2012-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pedigrees">Pedigrees</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mendelian_inheritance&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Pedigrees"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pedigrees are visual tree like representations that demonstrate exactly how alleles are being passed from past generations to future ones.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller-2020_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller-2020-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also provide a diagram displaying each individual that carries a desired allele, and exactly which side of inheritance it was received from, whether it was from their mother's side or their father's side.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller-2020_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller-2020-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pedigrees can also be used to aid researchers in determining the inheritance pattern for the desired allele, because they share information such as the gender of all individuals, the phenotype, a predicted genotype, the potential sources for the alleles, and also based its history, how it could continue to spread in the future generations to come. By using pedigrees, scientists have been able to find ways to control the flow of alleles over time, so that alleles that act problematic can be resolved upon discovery.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mendel's_genetic_discoveries"><span id="Mendel.27s_genetic_discoveries"></span>Mendel's genetic discoveries</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mendelian_inheritance&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Mendel's genetic discoveries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Five parts of Mendel's discoveries were an important divergence from the common theories at the time and were the prerequisite for the establishment of his rules. </p> <ol><li>Characters are unitary, that is, they are discrete e.g.: purple <i>vs</i>. white, tall <i>vs</i>. dwarf. There is no medium-sized plant or light purple flower.</li> <li>Genetic characteristics have alternate forms, each inherited from one of two parents. Today these are called <a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">alleles</a>.</li> <li>One allele is dominant over the other. The phenotype reflects the dominant allele.</li> <li>Gametes are created by random segregation. Heterozygotic individuals produce gametes with an equal frequency of the two alleles.</li> <li>Different traits have independent assortment. In modern terms, genes are unlinked.</li></ol> <p>According to customary terminology, the principles of inheritance discovered by Gregor Mendel are here referred to as Mendelian laws, although today's geneticists also speak of <i>Mendelian rules</i> or <i>Mendelian principles</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as there are many exceptions summarized under the collective term <a href="/wiki/Non-Mendelian_inheritance" title="Non-Mendelian inheritance">Non-Mendelian inheritance</a>. The laws were initially formulated by the geneticist <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan" title="Thomas Hunt Morgan">Thomas Hunt Morgan</a> in 1916.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gregor_Mendel_-_characteristics_of_pea_plants_-_english.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Gregor_Mendel_-_characteristics_of_pea_plants_-_english.png/220px-Gregor_Mendel_-_characteristics_of_pea_plants_-_english.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Gregor_Mendel_-_characteristics_of_pea_plants_-_english.png/330px-Gregor_Mendel_-_characteristics_of_pea_plants_-_english.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Gregor_Mendel_-_characteristics_of_pea_plants_-_english.png/440px-Gregor_Mendel_-_characteristics_of_pea_plants_-_english.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="627" /></a><figcaption>Characteristics Mendel used in his experiments<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dominant-recessive_inheritance_-_flowers_of_pea_plants.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Dominant-recessive_inheritance_-_flowers_of_pea_plants.png/220px-Dominant-recessive_inheritance_-_flowers_of_pea_plants.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Dominant-recessive_inheritance_-_flowers_of_pea_plants.png/330px-Dominant-recessive_inheritance_-_flowers_of_pea_plants.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Dominant-recessive_inheritance_-_flowers_of_pea_plants.png/440px-Dominant-recessive_inheritance_-_flowers_of_pea_plants.png 2x" data-file-width="1936" data-file-height="886" /></a><figcaption>P-Generation and F<sub>1</sub>-Generation: The dominant allele for purple-red flower hides the phenotypic effect of the recessive allele for white flowers. F<sub>2</sub>-Generation: The recessive trait from the P-Generation phenotypically reappears in the individuals that are homozygous with the recessive genetic trait.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mendel-flowers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Mendel-flowers.jpg/220px-Mendel-flowers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Mendel-flowers.jpg/330px-Mendel-flowers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Mendel-flowers.jpg/440px-Mendel-flowers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1123" data-file-height="1110" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Myosotis" title="Myosotis">Myosotis</a>: Colour and distribution of colours are inherited independently.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Mendel selected for the experiment the following characters of pea plants: </p> <ul><li>Form of the ripe seeds (round or roundish, surface shallow or wrinkled)</li> <li>Colour of the <a href="/wiki/Seed_coat" class="mw-redirect" title="Seed coat">seed–coat</a> (white, gray, or brown, with or without violet spotting)</li> <li>Colour of the <a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">seeds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cotyledon" title="Cotyledon">cotyledons</a> (yellow or green)</li> <li>Flower colour (white or violet-red)</li> <li>Form of the ripe pods (simply inflated, not contracted, or constricted between the seeds and wrinkled)</li> <li>Colour of the unripe pods (yellow or green)</li> <li>Position of the flowers (axial or terminal)</li> <li>Length of the stem <sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>When he crossed purebred white flower and purple flower pea plants (the parental or P generation) by <a href="/wiki/Artificiality" title="Artificiality">artificial</a> pollination, the resulting flower colour was not a blend. Rather than being a mix of the two, the offspring in the first generation (<a href="/wiki/F1_generation" class="mw-redirect" title="F1 generation">F<sub>1</sub>-generation</a>) were all purple-flowered. Therefore, he called this <a href="/wiki/Trait_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trait (biology)">biological trait</a> dominant. When he allowed <a href="/wiki/Self-fertilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-fertilization">self-fertilization</a> in the uniform looking F<sub>1</sub>-generation, he obtained both colours in the F<sub>2</sub> generation with a purple flower to white flower ratio of 3 : 1. In some of the other characters also one of the traits was dominant. </p><p>He then conceived the idea of heredity units, which he called hereditary "factors". Mendel found that there are alternative forms of factors—now called <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a>—that account for variations in inherited characteristics. For example, the gene for flower color in pea plants exists in two forms, one for purple and the other for white. The alternative "forms" are now called <a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">alleles</a>. For each trait, an organism inherits two alleles, one from each parent. These alleles may be the same or different. An organism that has two identical alleles for a gene is said to be <a href="/wiki/Homozygous" class="mw-redirect" title="Homozygous">homozygous</a> for that gene (and is called a homozygote). An organism that has two different alleles for a gene is said to be <a href="/wiki/Heterozygous" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterozygous">heterozygous</a> for that gene (and is called a heterozygote). </p><p>Mendel hypothesized that allele pairs separate randomly, or segregate, from each other during the production of the <a href="/wiki/Gametes" class="mw-redirect" title="Gametes">gametes</a> in the seed plant (<a href="/wiki/Egg_cell" title="Egg cell">egg cell</a>) and the pollen plant (<a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm</a>). Because allele pairs separate during gamete production, a <a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm</a> or <a href="/wiki/Egg" title="Egg">egg</a> carries only one allele for each inherited trait. When sperm and egg unite at <a href="/wiki/Fertilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertilization">fertilization</a>, each contributes its allele, restoring the paired condition in the offspring. Mendel also found that each pair of alleles segregates independently of the other pairs of alleles during gamete formation. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Genotype" title="Genotype">genotype</a> of an individual is made up of the many alleles it possesses. The <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotype</a> is the result of the <a href="/wiki/Genetic_expression" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic expression">expression</a> of all characteristics that are genetically determined by its alleles as well as by its environment. The presence of an allele does not mean that the trait will be expressed in the individual that possesses it. If the two alleles of an inherited pair differ (the heterozygous condition), then one determines the organism's appearance and is called the <a href="/wiki/Dominance_(genetics)" title="Dominance (genetics)">dominant allele</a>; the other has no noticeable effect on the organism's appearance and is called the <a href="/wiki/Dominance_(genetics)" title="Dominance (genetics)">recessive allele</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mendel's_laws_of_inheritance"><span id="Mendel.27s_laws_of_inheritance"></span>Mendel's laws of inheritance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mendelian_inheritance&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Mendel's laws of inheritance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table border="1" class="wikitable"> <caption>Mendel's laws of inheritance </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Law </th> <th>Definition </th></tr> <tr> <td>Law of dominance and uniformity </td> <td>Some alleles are dominant while others are recessive; an organism with at least one dominant allele will display the effect of the dominant allele.<sup id="cite_ref-Mendelian_Principles_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mendelian_Principles-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Law of segregation </td> <td>During gamete formation, the alleles for each gene segregate from each other so that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Law of independent assortment </td> <td>Genes of different traits can segregate independently during the formation of gametes. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Law_of_Dominance_and_Uniformity"><span class="anchor" id="Law_of_Dominance_and_Uniformity"></span>Law of Dominance and Uniformity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mendelian_inheritance&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Law of Dominance and Uniformity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dominant-recessive_inheritance_P_-_F1_-_F2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Dominant-recessive_inheritance_P_-_F1_-_F2.png/220px-Dominant-recessive_inheritance_P_-_F1_-_F2.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Dominant-recessive_inheritance_P_-_F1_-_F2.png/330px-Dominant-recessive_inheritance_P_-_F1_-_F2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Dominant-recessive_inheritance_P_-_F1_-_F2.png/440px-Dominant-recessive_inheritance_P_-_F1_-_F2.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="1100" /></a><figcaption>F<sub>1</sub> generation: All individuals have the same genotype and same phenotype expressing the dominant trait (<span style="color:#990000;">red</span>).<br />F<sub>2</sub> generation: The phenotypes in the second generation show a 3 : 1 ratio.<br />In the genotype 25 % are homozygous with the dominant trait, 50 % are heterozygous <a href="/wiki/Genetic_carrier" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic carrier">genetic carriers</a> of the recessive trait, 25 % are homozygous with the recessive genetic trait and <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">expressing</a> the recessive character.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Intermediate_inheritance_P_-_F1_-_F2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Intermediate_inheritance_P_-_F1_-_F2.png/220px-Intermediate_inheritance_P_-_F1_-_F2.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Intermediate_inheritance_P_-_F1_-_F2.png/330px-Intermediate_inheritance_P_-_F1_-_F2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Intermediate_inheritance_P_-_F1_-_F2.png/440px-Intermediate_inheritance_P_-_F1_-_F2.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="1100" /></a><figcaption>In <a href="/wiki/Mirabilis_jalapa" title="Mirabilis jalapa">Mirabilis jalapa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antirrhinum_majus" title="Antirrhinum majus">Antirrhinum majus</a> are examples for intermediate inheritance.<sup id="cite_ref-Mendelian_Genetics_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mendelian_Genetics-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As seen in the F<sub>1</sub>-generation, heterozygous plants have "<span style="color:magenta;">light pink</span>" flowers—a mix of "<span style="color:#990000;">red</span>" and "white". The F<sub>2</sub>-generation shows a 1:2:1 ratio of <span style="color:#990000;">red</span>: <span style="color:magenta;">light pink</span>: <span style="color:black;">white.</span></figcaption></figure> <p>If two parents are mated with each other who differ in one <a href="/wiki/Genetic_trait" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic trait">genetic characteristic</a> for which they are both <a href="/wiki/Homozygous" class="mw-redirect" title="Homozygous">homozygous</a> (each pure-bred), all offspring in the first generation (F<sub>1</sub>) are equal to the examined characteristic in <a href="/wiki/Genotype" title="Genotype">genotype</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotype</a> showing the dominant trait. This <i>uniformity rule</i> or <i>reciprocity rule</i> applies to all individuals of the F<sub>1</sub>-generation.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The principle of dominant inheritance discovered by Mendel states that in a heterozygote the dominant allele will cause the recessive allele to be "masked": that is, not expressed in the phenotype. Only if an individual is homozygous with respect to the recessive allele will the recessive trait be expressed. Therefore, a cross between a homozygous dominant and a homozygous recessive organism yields a heterozygous organism whose phenotype displays only the dominant trait. </p><p>The F<sub>1</sub> offspring of Mendel's pea crosses always looked like one of the two parental varieties. In this situation of "complete dominance", the dominant allele had the same phenotypic effect whether present in one or two copies. </p><p>But for some characteristics, the F<sub>1</sub> hybrids have an appearance <i>in between</i> the phenotypes of the two parental varieties. A cross between two four o'clock (<i><a href="/wiki/Mirabilis_jalapa" title="Mirabilis jalapa">Mirabilis jalapa</a></i>) plants shows an exception to Mendel's principle, called <i>incomplete dominance</i>. Flowers of heterozygous plants have a phenotype somewhere between the two homozygous genotypes. In cases of intermediate inheritance (incomplete dominance) in the F<sub>1</sub>-generation Mendel's principle of uniformity in genotype and phenotype applies as well. Research about intermediate inheritance was done by other scientists. The first was <a href="/wiki/Carl_Correns" title="Carl Correns">Carl Correns</a> with his studies about Mirabilis jalapa.<sup id="cite_ref-Mendelian_Genetics_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mendelian_Genetics-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Law_of_Segregation_of_genes"><span class="anchor" id="Law_of_Segregation"></span>Law of Segregation of genes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mendelian_inheritance&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Law of Segregation of genes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg/250px-Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg/375px-Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg/500px-Punnett_square_mendel_flowers.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Punnett_square" title="Punnett square">Punnett square</a> for one of Mendel's pea plant experiments – <a href="/wiki/Self-fertilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-fertilization">self-fertilization</a> of the F1 generation</figcaption></figure> <p>The Law of Segregation of genes applies when two individuals, both heterozygous for a certain trait are crossed, for example, hybrids of the F<sub>1</sub>-generation. The offspring in the F<sub>2</sub>-generation differ in genotype and phenotype so that the characteristics of the grandparents (P-generation) regularly occur again. In a dominant-recessive inheritance, an average of 25% are homozygous with the dominant trait, 50% are heterozygous showing the dominant trait in the phenotype (<a href="/wiki/Genetic_carrier" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic carrier">genetic carriers</a>), 25% are homozygous with the recessive trait and therefore <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">express</a> the recessive trait in the phenotype. The genotypic ratio is 1: 2 : 1, and the phenotypic ratio is 3: 1. </p><p>In the pea plant example, the capital "B" represents the dominant allele for purple blossom and lowercase "b" represents the recessive allele for white blossom. The <a href="/wiki/Gynoecium" title="Gynoecium">pistil</a> plant and the <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a> plant are both F<sub>1</sub>-hybrids with genotype "B b". Each has one allele for purple and one allele for white. In the offspring, in the F<sub>2</sub>-plants in the Punnett-square, three combinations are possible. The genotypic ratio is 1 <i>BB</i> : 2 <i>Bb</i> : 1 <i>bb</i>. But the phenotypic ratio of plants with purple blossoms to those with white blossoms is 3 : 1 due to the dominance of the allele for purple. Plants with homozygous "b b" are white flowered like one of the grandparents in the P-generation. </p><p>In cases of <a href="/wiki/Incomplete_dominance" class="mw-redirect" title="Incomplete dominance">incomplete dominance</a> the same segregation of alleles takes place in the F<sub>2</sub>-generation, but here also the phenotypes show a ratio of 1 : 2 : 1, as the heterozygous are different in phenotype from the homozygous because the <a href="/wiki/Expression_of_genes" class="mw-redirect" title="Expression of genes">genetic expression</a> of one allele compensates the missing expression of the other allele only partially. This results in an intermediate inheritance which was later described by other scientists. </p><p>In some literature sources, the principle of segregation is cited as the "first law". Nevertheless, Mendel did his crossing experiments with heterozygous plants after obtaining these hybrids by crossing two purebred plants, discovering the principle of dominance and uniformity first.<sup id="cite_ref-Neil_A_2003,_page_293-315_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neil_A_2003,_page_293-315-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mendelian_Principles_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mendelian_Principles-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Molecular proof of segregation of genes was subsequently found through observation of <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a> by two scientists independently, the German botanist <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Hertwig" title="Oscar Hertwig">Oscar Hertwig</a> in 1876, and the Belgian zoologist <a href="/wiki/Edouard_Van_Beneden" title="Edouard Van Beneden">Edouard Van Beneden</a> in 1883. Most alleles are located in <a href="/wiki/Chromosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromosomes">chromosomes</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">cell nucleus</a>. Paternal and maternal chromosomes get separated in meiosis because during <a href="/wiki/Spermatogenesis" title="Spermatogenesis">spermatogenesis</a> the chromosomes are segregated on the four sperm cells that arise from one mother sperm cell, and during <a href="/wiki/Oogenesis" title="Oogenesis">oogenesis</a> the chromosomes are distributed between the <a href="/wiki/Polar_body" title="Polar body">polar bodies</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Egg_cell" title="Egg cell">egg cell</a>. Every individual organism contains two alleles for each trait. They segregate (separate) during meiosis such that each <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gamete</a> contains only one of the alleles.<sup id="cite_ref-Bailey-2015_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bailey-2015-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the gametes unite in the <a href="/wiki/Zygote" title="Zygote">zygote</a> the alleles—one from the mother one from the father—get passed on to the offspring. An offspring thus receives a pair of alleles for a trait by inheriting <a href="/wiki/Homologous_chromosome" title="Homologous chromosome">homologous chromosomes</a> from the parent organisms: one allele for each trait from each parent.<sup id="cite_ref-Bailey-2015_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bailey-2015-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Heterozygous individuals with the dominant trait in the phenotype are <a href="/wiki/Genetic_carrier" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic carrier">genetic carriers</a> of the recessive trait. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Law_of_Independent_Assortment"><span class="anchor" id="Law_of_Independent_Assortment"></span>Law of Independent Assortment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mendelian_inheritance&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Law of Independent Assortment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Independent_assortment_%26_segregation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Independent_assortment_%26_segregation.svg/220px-Independent_assortment_%26_segregation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Independent_assortment_%26_segregation.svg/330px-Independent_assortment_%26_segregation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Independent_assortment_%26_segregation.svg/440px-Independent_assortment_%26_segregation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="628" data-file-height="650" /></a><figcaption>Segregation and independent assortment are consistent with the <a href="/wiki/Boveri%E2%80%93Sutton_chromosome_theory" title="Boveri–Sutton chromosome theory">chromosome theory of inheritance</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dihybrid_inheritance_pattern_-_cat_coat.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Dihybrid_inheritance_pattern_-_cat_coat.png/220px-Dihybrid_inheritance_pattern_-_cat_coat.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Dihybrid_inheritance_pattern_-_cat_coat.png/330px-Dihybrid_inheritance_pattern_-_cat_coat.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Dihybrid_inheritance_pattern_-_cat_coat.png/440px-Dihybrid_inheritance_pattern_-_cat_coat.png 2x" data-file-width="1914" data-file-height="2172" /></a><figcaption> When the parents are homozygous for two different genetic traits (<b>llSS</b> and <b>LL s<sub>P</sub> s<sub>P</sub></b>), their children in the F<sub>1</sub> generation are heterozygous at both loci and only show the dominant phenotypes (<b>Ll S s<sub>P</sub></b>). P-Generation: Each parent possesses one dominant and one recessive trait purebred (<a href="/wiki/Homozygous" class="mw-redirect" title="Homozygous">homozygous</a>). In this example, solid coat color is indicated by <b>S</b> (dominant), <a href="/wiki/Piebald" title="Piebald">Piebald spotting</a> by <b>s<sub>P</sub></b> (recessive), while fur length is indicated by <b>L</b> (short, dominant) or <b>l</b> (long, recessive). All individuals are equal in genotype and phenotype. In the F<sub>2</sub> generation all combinations of coat color and fur length occur: 9 are short haired with solid colour, 3 are short haired with spotting, 3 are long haired with solid colour and 1 is long haired with spotting. The traits are inherited independently, so that new combinations can occur. Average number ratio of phenotypes 9:3:3:1<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Independent_assortment.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Independent_assortment.svg/220px-Independent_assortment.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Independent_assortment.svg/330px-Independent_assortment.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Independent_assortment.svg/440px-Independent_assortment.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="217" /></a><figcaption>For example 3 pairs of homologous chromosomes allow 8 possible combinations, all equally likely to move into the gamete during <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>. This is the main reason for independent assortment. The equation to determine the number of possible combinations given the number of homologous pairs = 2<sup>x</sup> (x = number of homologous pairs)</figcaption></figure> <p>The Law of Independent Assortment proposes alleles for separate traits are passed independently of one another.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Neil_A_2003,_page_293-315_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neil_A_2003,_page_293-315-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That is, the biological selection of an allele for one trait has nothing to do with the selection of an allele for any other trait. Mendel found support for this law in his dihybrid cross experiments. In his monohybrid crosses, an idealized 3:1 ratio between dominant and recessive phenotypes resulted. In dihybrid crosses, however, he found a 9:3:3:1 ratios. This shows that each of the two alleles is inherited independently from the other, with a 3:1 phenotypic ratio for each. </p><p>Independent assortment occurs in <a href="/wiki/Eukaryotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryotic">eukaryotic</a> organisms during meiotic metaphase I, and produces a gamete with a mixture of the organism's chromosomes. The physical basis of the independent assortment of chromosomes is the random orientation of each bivalent chromosome along the metaphase plate with respect to the other bivalent chromosomes. Along with <a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_crossover" title="Chromosomal crossover">crossing over</a>, independent assortment increases genetic diversity by producing novel genetic combinations. </p><p>There are many deviations from the principle of independent assortment due to <a href="/wiki/Genetic_linkage" title="Genetic linkage">genetic linkage</a>. </p><p>Of the 46 chromosomes in a normal <a href="/wiki/Diploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Diploid">diploid</a> human cell, half are maternally derived (from the mother's <a href="/wiki/Ovum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ovum">egg</a>) and half are paternally derived (from the father's <a href="/wiki/Spermatozoon" title="Spermatozoon">sperm</a>). This occurs as <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual reproduction</a> involves the fusion of two <a href="/wiki/Haploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Haploid">haploid</a> gametes (the egg and sperm) to produce a zygote and a new organism, in which every cell has two sets of chromosomes (diploid). During <a href="/wiki/Gametogenesis" title="Gametogenesis">gametogenesis</a> the normal complement of 46 chromosomes needs to be halved to 23 to ensure that the resulting haploid gamete can join with another haploid gamete to produce a diploid organism. </p><p>In independent assortment, the chromosomes that result are randomly sorted from all possible maternal and paternal chromosomes. Because zygotes end up with a mix instead of a pre-defined "set" from either parent, chromosomes are therefore considered assorted independently. As such, the zygote can end up with any combination of paternal or maternal chromosomes. For human gametes, with 23 chromosomes, the number of possibilities is 2<sup>23</sup> or 8,388,608 possible combinations.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This contributes to the genetic variability of progeny. Generally, the recombination of genes has important implications for many evolutionary processes.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Law_of_Dominance"></span><span id="Third_Law"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mendelian_trait">Mendelian trait</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mendelian_inheritance&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Mendelian trait"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A Mendelian trait is one whose inheritance follows Mendel's principles—namely, the trait depends only on a single <a href="/wiki/Locus_(genetics)" title="Locus (genetics)">locus</a>, whose <a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">alleles</a> are either <a href="/wiki/Dominance_(genetics)" title="Dominance (genetics)">dominant</a> or recessive. </p><p>Many traits are inherited in a <a href="/wiki/Non-Mendelian_inheritance" title="Non-Mendelian inheritance">non-Mendelian</a> fashion.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Non-Mendelian_inheritance">Non-Mendelian inheritance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mendelian_inheritance&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Non-Mendelian inheritance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Non-Mendelian_inheritance" title="Non-Mendelian inheritance">Non-Mendelian inheritance</a></div> <p>Mendel himself warned that care was needed in extrapolating his patterns to other organisms or traits. Indeed, many organisms have traits whose inheritance works differently from the principles he described; these traits are called non-Mendelian.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For example, Mendel focused on traits whose genes have only two alleles, such as "A" and "a". However, many genes have <a href="/wiki/Multiple_alleles" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiple alleles">more than two alleles.</a> He also focused on traits determined by a single gene. But some traits, such as height, depend on many genes rather than just one. Traits dependent on multiple genes are called <a href="/wiki/Polygene" title="Polygene">polygenic traits</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mendelian_inheritance&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output 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class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mendelian_inheritance&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/William_Bateson" title="William Bateson">William Bateson</a>: <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=p5QDQAAACAAJ">Mendel's Principles of Heredity - A Defence, with a Translation of Mendel's Original Papers on Hybridisation</a></i> Cambridge University Press 2009, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-00613-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-00613-2">978-1-108-00613-2</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-grafen_69-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-grafen_69_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrafenRidley,_Mark2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Grafen" title="Alan Grafen">Grafen, Alan</a>; Ridley, Mark (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/richarddawkinsho00alan/page/69"><i>Richard Dawkins: How A Scientist Changed the Way We Think</i></a>. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/richarddawkinsho00alan/page/69">69</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-929116-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-929116-8"><bdi>978-0-19-929116-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Richard+Dawkins%3A+How+A+Scientist+Changed+the+Way+We+Think&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pages=69&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-19-929116-8&rft.aulast=Grafen&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft.au=Ridley%2C+Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fricharddawkinsho00alan%2Fpage%2F69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMendelian+inheritance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fairbanks-2001-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fairbanks-2001_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fairbanks-2001_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fairbanks-2001_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFairbanksRytting2001" class="citation journal cs1">Fairbanks, Daniel J.; Rytting, Bryce (May 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bsapubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2307/2657027">"Mendelian controversies: a botanical and historical review"</a>. <i>American Journal of Botany</i>. <b>88</b> (5): 737–752. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2657027">10.2307/2657027</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9122">0002-9122</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2657027">2657027</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11353700">11353700</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Botany&rft.atitle=Mendelian+controversies%3A+a+botanical+and+historical+review&rft.volume=88&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=737-752&rft.date=2001-05&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11353700&rft.issn=0002-9122&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2657027%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2657027&rft.aulast=Fairbanks&rft.aufirst=Daniel+J.&rft.au=Rytting%2C+Bryce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbsapubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.2307%2F2657027&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMendelian+inheritance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Henig-2000-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Henig-2000_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Henig-2000_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Henig-2000_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenig2000" class="citation book cs1">Henig, Robin Marantz (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/monkingardenlost00heni"><i>The monk in the garden : the lost and found genius of Gregor Mendel, the father of genetics</i></a>. Internet Archive. Boston : Houghton Mifflin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-395-97765-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-395-97765-1"><bdi>978-0-395-97765-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+monk+in+the+garden+%3A+the+lost+and+found+genius+of+Gregor+Mendel%2C+the+father+of+genetics&rft.pub=Boston+%3A+Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-395-97765-1&rft.aulast=Henig&rft.aufirst=Robin+Marantz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmonkingardenlost00heni&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMendelian+inheritance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMendelMendel1866" class="citation book cs1">Mendel, Gregor; Mendel, Gregor (1866). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/61004"><i>Versuche über Pflanzen-Hybriden</i></a>. Brünn: Im Verlage des Vereines.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Versuche+%C3%BCber+Pflanzen-Hybriden&rft.place=Br%C3%BCnn&rft.pub=Im+Verlage+des+Vereines&rft.date=1866&rft.aulast=Mendel&rft.aufirst=Gregor&rft.au=Mendel%2C+Gregor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biodiversitylibrary.org%2Fbibliography%2F61004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMendelian+inheritance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mendelweb.org/Mendel.html">"Mendel's Paper (English - Annotated)"</a>. <i>www.mendelweb.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Series B, Biological Sciences</i>. <b>372</b> (1736). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2017.0279">10.1098/rstb.2017.0279</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5698631">5698631</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29109232">29109232</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Recombination%3A+The+good%2C+the+bad+and+the+variable&rft.volume=372&rft.issue=1736&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5698631%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29109232&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.2017.0279&rft.aulast=Stapley&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Feulner%2C+P.+G.&rft.au=Johnston%2C+S.+E.&rft.au=Santure%2C+A.+W.&rft.au=Smadja%2C+C.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5698631&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMendelian+inheritance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReeveOrtiz-BarrientosEngelstädter2016" class="citation journal cs1">Reeve, James; Ortiz-Barrientos, Daniel; Engelstädter, Jan (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5095376">"The evolution of recombination rates in finite populations during ecological speciation"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</i>. <b>283</b> (1841). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2016.1243">10.1098/rspb.2016.1243</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5095376">5095376</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27798297">27798297</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+B%3A+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+evolution+of+recombination+rates+in+finite+populations+during+ecological+speciation&rft.volume=283&rft.issue=1841&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5095376%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27798297&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspb.2016.1243&rft.aulast=Reeve&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Ortiz-Barrientos%2C+Daniel&rft.au=Engelst%C3%A4dter%2C+Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5095376&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMendelian+inheritance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHickeyGolding2018" class="citation journal cs1">Hickey, Donal A.; Golding, G. Brian (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jtbi.2018.01.018">"The advantage of recombination when selection is acting at many genetic Loci"</a>. <i>Journal of Theoretical Biology</i>. <b>442</b>: 123–128. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018JThBi.442..123H">2018JThBi.442..123H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jtbi.2018.01.018">10.1016/j.jtbi.2018.01.018</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29355539">29355539</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Theoretical+Biology&rft.atitle=The+advantage+of+recombination+when+selection+is+acting+at+many+genetic+Loci&rft.volume=442&rft.pages=123-128&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29355539&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jtbi.2018.01.018&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018JThBi.442..123H&rft.aulast=Hickey&rft.aufirst=Donal+A.&rft.au=Golding%2C+G.+Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.jtbi.2018.01.018&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMendelian+inheritance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.genome.gov/19016930/faq-about-genetic-disorders/">"Genetic Disorders"</a>. <i>National Human Genome Research Institute</i>. 18 May 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Human+Genome+Research+Institute&rft.atitle=Genetic+Disorders&rft.date=2018-05-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.genome.gov%2F19016930%2Ffaq-about-genetic-disorders%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMendelian+inheritance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchacherer2016" class="citation journal cs1">Schacherer, Joseph (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.crvi.2016.04.006">"Beyond the simplicity of Mendelian inheritance"</a>. <i>Comptes Rendus Biologies</i>. <b>339</b> (7–8): 284–288. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.crvi.2016.04.006">10.1016/j.crvi.2016.04.006</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27344551">27344551</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comptes+Rendus+Biologies&rft.atitle=Beyond+the+simplicity+of+Mendelian+inheritance&rft.volume=339&rft.issue=7%E2%80%938&rft.pages=284-288&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.crvi.2016.04.006&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27344551&rft.aulast=Schacherer&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.crvi.2016.04.006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMendelian+inheritance" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Khan Academy: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/classical-genetics/variations-on-mendelian-genetics/a/variations-on-mendels-laws-overview">Variations on Mendel's laws (overview)</a></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mendelian_inheritance&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowler,_Peter_J.1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_J._Bowler" title="Peter J. Bowler">Bowler, Peter J.</a> (1989). <i>The Mendelian Revolution: The Emergence of Hereditarian Concepts in Modern Science and Society</i>. Johns Hopkins University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mendelian+Revolution%3A+The+Emergence+of+Hereditarian+Concepts+in+Modern+Science+and+Society&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.au=Bowler%2C+Peter+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMendelian+inheritance" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtics" class="citation book cs1">Atics, Jean. <i>Genetics: The life of DNA</i>. ANDRNA press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genetics%3A+The+life+of+DNA&rft.pub=ANDRNA+press&rft.aulast=Atics&rft.aufirst=Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMendelian+inheritance" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReece,_Jane_B.Campbell,_Neil_A.2011" class="citation book cs1">Reece, Jane B.; Campbell, Neil A. (2011). <i>Mendel and the Gene Idea</i> (9th ed.). Benjamin Cummings / Pearson Education. p. 265.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mendel+and+the+Gene+Idea&rft.pages=265&rft.edition=9th&rft.pub=Benjamin+Cummings+%2F+Pearson+Education&rft.date=2011&rft.au=Reece%2C+Jane+B.&rft.au=Campbell%2C+Neil+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMendelian+inheritance" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mendelian_inheritance&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.khanacademy.org/video/introduction-to-heredity?playlist=Biology">Khan Academy, video lecture</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://anthro.palomar.edu/mendel/mendel_2.htm">Probability of Inheritance</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biotechlearn.org.nz/themes/mendel_and_inheritance/mendel_s_principles_of_inheritance">Mendel's principles of Inheritance</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ndsu.edu/pubweb/~mcclean/plsc431/mendel/mendel1.htm">Mendelian genetics</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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Bernal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VASKhNIL" title="VASKhNIL">VASKhNIL</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dissidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wac%C5%82aw_Gajewski" title="Wacław Gajewski">Wacław Gajewski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgii_Karpechenko" title="Georgii Karpechenko">Georgii Karpechenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhores_Medvedev" title="Zhores Medvedev">Zhores Medvedev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgii_Nadson" title="Georgii Nadson">Georgii Nadson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Stubbe" title="Hans Stubbe">Hans Stubbe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tan_Jiazhen" title="Tan Jiazhen">Tan Jiazhen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Vavilov" title="Nikolai Vavilov">Nikolai Vavilov</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">Heredity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heritability" title="Heritability">Heritability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)" title="Hybrid (biology)">Hybridization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inheritance_of_acquired_characteristics" class="mw-redirect" title="Inheritance of acquired characteristics">Inheritance of acquired characteristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mendelian inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernalization" title="Vernalization">Vernalization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Soviet policies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bourgeois_pseudoscience" title="Bourgeois pseudoscience">Bourgeois pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavlovian_session" title="Pavlovian session">Pavlovian session</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppressed_research_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppressed research in the Soviet Union">Suppressed research in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politicization_of_science" title="Politicization of science">Politicization of science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q185055#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q185055#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q185055#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, 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class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Mendel, Lois de"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb122695148">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00567584">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Mendelovy zákony"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph117070&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007563000705171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=66512">Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mendelian_inheritance&oldid=1256253318">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mendelian_inheritance&oldid=1256253318</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Classical_genetics" title="Category:Classical genetics">Classical genetics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Gregor_Mendel" 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