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vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Grammar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Southern Athabaskan languages</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 23 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-23" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">23 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lling%C3%BCes_apacheanes" title="Llingües apacheanes – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Llingües apacheanes" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A6%DB%8C_%D8%A2%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%DA%A9_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%D9%84%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="گونئی آتاباسک دیللری – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="گونئی آتاباسک دیللری" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yezho%C3%B9_atabaskek_ar_su" title="Yezhoù atabaskek ar su – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Yezhoù atabaskek ar su" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lleng%C3%BCes_atapascanes_meridionals" title="Llengües atapascanes meridionals – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Llengües atapascanes meridionals" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_(sprog)" title="Apache (sprog) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Apache (sprog)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache-Sprachen" title="Apache-Sprachen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Apache-Sprachen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenguas_apacheanas" title="Lenguas apacheanas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Lenguas apacheanas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langues_athapascanes_m%C3%A9ridionales" title="Langues athapascanes méridionales – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Langues athapascanes méridionales" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BAdatapaskyske_talen" title="Súdatapaskyske talen – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Súdatapaskyske talen" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teangacha_Atapascacha_Deisceartacha" title="Teangacha Atapascacha Deisceartacha – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Teangacha Atapascacha Deisceartacha" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguas_apacheanas" title="Linguas apacheanas – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Linguas apacheanas" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apa%C4%8Dki_jezici" title="Apački jezici – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Apački jezici" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingue_apache" title="Lingue apache – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingue apache" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dienvidu_atapasku_valodas" title="Dienvidu atapasku valodas – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Dienvidu atapasku valodas" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piet%C5%B3_atapask%C5%B3_kalbos" title="Pietų atapaskų kalbos – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Pietų atapaskų kalbos" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BC%C3%BCd-Atapaskisk_spriaken" title="Süüd-Atapaskisk spriaken – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Süüd-Atapaskisk spriaken" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B8rathabaskiske_spr%C3%A5k" title="Sørathabaskiske språk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Sørathabaskiske språk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_apache" title="Língua apache – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Língua apache" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apachi_rimaykuna" title="Apachi rimaykuna – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Apachi rimaykuna" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Южноатабаскские языки – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Южноатабаскские языки" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%BCney_Atabask_dilleri" title="Güney Atabask dilleri – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Güney Atabask dilleri" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nh%C3%B3m_ng%C3%B4n_ng%E1%BB%AF_Athabasca_Nam" title="Nhóm ngôn ngữ Athabasca Nam – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nhóm ngôn ngữ Athabasca Nam" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E5%BE%B7%E5%86%85%E8%AF%AD%E6%94%AF" title="南德内语支 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Subfamily of Athabaskan languages</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width:22em;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: #99ddff;">Southern Athabascan</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #99ddff;">Apachean</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Geographic<br />distribution</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_United_States" title="Southwestern United States">Southwestern United States</a> and northern <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Linguistic classification</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Den%C3%A9%E2%80%93Yeniseian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Dené–Yeniseian languages">Dené–Yeniseian</a>?<ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:15px;padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Na-Den%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Na-Dené">Na-Dené</a><ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:5px;padding-left:0"><li>Athabaskan–Eyak<ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:5px;padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Athabaskan_languages" title="Athabaskan languages">Athabaskan</a><ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:5px;padding-left:0"><li><b>Southern Athabascan</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></td></tr><tr class="plainlist"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Subdivisions</th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plains_Apache_language" title="Plains Apache language">Plains Apache</a></li> <li>Western Apachean</li> <li>Eastern Apachean</li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #99ddff;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a> / <a href="/wiki/ISO_639-5" title="ISO 639-5">5</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><samp><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/apa" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:apa">apa</a></code></samp></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><samp><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/apac1239">apac1239</a></code></samp></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Southern_Athabaskan_languages.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Southern_Athabaskan_languages.svg/300px-Southern_Athabaskan_languages.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Southern_Athabaskan_languages.svg/450px-Southern_Athabaskan_languages.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Southern_Athabaskan_languages.svg/600px-Southern_Athabaskan_languages.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="377" /></a></span><div style="text-align:left;">Historical distribution of Southern Athabaskan languages</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Southern Athabaskan</b> (also <b>Apachean</b>) is a subfamily of <a href="/wiki/Athabaskan_languages" title="Athabaskan languages">Athabaskan languages</a> spoken primarily in the <a href="/wiki/Southwestern_United_States" title="Southwestern United States">Southwestern United States</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colorado" title="Colorado">Colorado</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Utah" title="Utah">Utah</a>) with two outliers in <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a>. The languages are spoken in the northern Mexican states of <a href="/wiki/Sonora" title="Sonora">Sonora</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chihuahua_(state)" title="Chihuahua (state)">Chihuahua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coahuila" title="Coahuila">Coahuila</a> and to a much lesser degree in <a href="/wiki/Durango" title="Durango">Durango</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuevo_Le%C3%B3n" title="Nuevo León">Nuevo León</a>. Those languages are spoken by various groups of <a href="/wiki/Apache" title="Apache">Apache</a> and <a href="/wiki/Navajo_Nation" title="Navajo Nation">Navajo</a> peoples. Elsewhere, Athabaskan is spoken by many indigenous groups of peoples in Alaska, Canada, Oregon and northern California. </p><p>Self-designations for Western Apache and Navajo are <i>N'dee biyat'i,</i> and <span style="font-family: Aboriginal Sans, DejaVu Sans, Calibri, Arial Unicode MS, sans-serif;"><span title="Navajo-language text"><i lang="nv">Diné bizaad</i></span></span> or <span style="font-family: Aboriginal Sans, DejaVu Sans, Calibri, Arial Unicode MS, sans-serif;"><span title="Navajo-language text"><i lang="nv">Naabeehó bizaad</i></span></span>, respectively. </p><p>There are several well-known historical people whose first language was Southern Athabaskan. <a href="/wiki/Geronimo" title="Geronimo">Geronimo</a> (Goyaałé) who spoke <a href="/wiki/Mescalero-Chiricahua_language" title="Mescalero-Chiricahua language">Chiricahua</a> was a famous raider and war leader. <a href="/wiki/Manuelito" title="Manuelito">Manuelito</a> spoke <a href="/wiki/Navajo_language" title="Navajo language">Navajo</a> and is famous for his leadership during and after the <a href="/wiki/Long_Walk_of_the_Navajo" title="Long Walk of the Navajo">Long Walk of the Navajo</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Family_division">Family division</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_Athabaskan_languages&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Family division"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The seven Southern Athabaskan languages can be divided into two groups according to the classification of <a href="/wiki/Harry_Hoijer" title="Harry Hoijer">Harry Hoijer</a>: (I) Plains and (II) Southwestern. <a href="/wiki/Plains_Apache" title="Plains Apache">Plains Apache</a> is the only member of the Plains Apache group. The Southwestern group can be further divided into two subgroups (A) Western and (B) Eastern. The Western subgroup consists of <a href="/wiki/Western_Apache_language" title="Western Apache language">Western Apache</a>, <a href="/wiki/Navajo_language" title="Navajo language">Navajo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mescalero" title="Mescalero">Mescalero</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chiricahua" title="Chiricahua">Chiricahua</a>. The Eastern subgroup consists of <a href="/wiki/Jicarilla_language" title="Jicarilla language">Jicarilla</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lipan_Apache_people" title="Lipan Apache people">Lipan</a>. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1116488514">.mw-parser-output .treeview ul{padding:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .treeview li{padding:0;margin:0;list-style-type:none;list-style-image:none}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Treeview-grey-line.png")no-repeat 0 -2981px;padding-left:21px;text-indent:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li:last-child{background-position:0 -5971px}.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>.mw-empty-elt:first-child+.emptyline,.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>li:first-child{background-position:0 9px}</style><div class="treeview"> <ul><li><b>Southern Athabaskan</b> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Plains_Apache_language" title="Plains Apache language">Plains Apache</a></b> (<abbr title="also known as">a.k.a.</abbr> Kiowa–Apache) (in Apache: <b>Naishan</b>)</li> <li>Southwestern <ul><li>Western <ul><li>Chiricahua-Mescalero (in Apache: <b>Ndee Bizaa</b>) <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Chiricahua_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Chiricahua language">Chiricahua</a></b> (in Apache: <b>N'nee biyat'i</b>) <ul><li>Chiricahua proper</li> <li>Warm Springs</li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Mescalero_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mescalero language">Mescalero</a></b> (in Apache: <b>Ndé Bizaa'</b>)</li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Navajo_language" title="Navajo language">Navajo</a></b> (a.k.a. Navahu˙) (in Navajo: <b>Naabeehó bizaad</b>, <b>Diné bizaad</b>)</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Western_Apache_language" title="Western Apache language">Western Apache</a></b> (a.k.a. Coyotero Apache) (in Apache: <b>N'dee biyát'i</b>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tonto_Apache" title="Tonto Apache">Tonto</a> (in Apache: <b>Dilzhę́’é</b>) <ul><li>Northern Tonto</li> <li>Southern Tonto</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Mountain_Apache" class="mw-redirect" title="White Mountain Apache">White Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Carlos_Apache_Indian_Reservation" title="San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation">San Carlos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apache" title="Apache">Cibecue</a> (ˀa˙paču)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Eastern <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Jicarilla_language" title="Jicarilla language">Jicarilla</a></b> (a.k.a. Hikariya Apache) (in Apache: <b>Abáachi, Abáachi mizaa</b>)</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Lipan_language" title="Lipan language">Lipan</a></b> (in Apache: <b>Ndé miizaa</b>)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <p>Hoijer's classification is based primarily on the differences of the pronunciation of the initial <a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">consonant</a> of noun and verb stems. His earlier 1938 classification had only two branches with Plains Apache grouped together with the other Eastern languages (i.e. with Jicarilla and Lipan). </p><p>Mescalero and Chiricahua are considered different languages even though they are mutually intelligible. Western Apache (especially the Dilzhe'e <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">variety</a>) and Navajo are closer to each other than either is to Mescalero/Chiricahua. Lipan Apache and Plains Apache are nearly extinct, and Chiricahua is severely endangered. Mescalero, Jicarilla, and Western Apache are considered endangered as well, with some children still learning the languages despite the number of child speakers continuing to diminish. Navajo is one of the most vigorous North American languages, but has still faced decline, with use among first-graders decreasing from 90% in 1968 to 30% in 1998.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Southern Athabaskan languages spoken in Mexico are regulated by the <a href="/wiki/Instituto_Nacional_de_Lenguas_Ind%C3%ADgenas" title="Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas">Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas</a> (INALI) and have the official status of national languages of Mexico. To revitalize the languages, the institute created a community based Language Planning Council with native speakers to establish and develop grammar rules and the normalization of the writing system, an official alphabet has been validated since then while other grammar topics are still in development.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_Athabaskan_languages&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right noprint selfref"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This article contains <b><a href="/wiki/Phonetic_transcription" title="Phonetic transcription">phonetic transcriptions</a> in the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> (IPA)</b>. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>. For the distinction between <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ ]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ /</span> and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"> </span>⟩, see <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#Brackets_and_transcription_delimiters" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters</a>.</div></div> </div> <p>All Southern Athabaskan languages are somewhat similar in their <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a>. The following description will concentrate on <a href="/wiki/Western_Apache" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Apache">Western Apache</a>. One can expect minor variations for other related languages (such as <a href="/wiki/Navajo_language#Sounds" title="Navajo language">Navajo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jicarilla_Apache#Consonants" title="Jicarilla Apache">Jicarilla</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chiricahua#Consonants" title="Chiricahua">Chiricahua</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_Athabaskan_languages&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Southern Athabaskan languages generally have a consonant inventory similar to the set of 33 consonants below (based mostly on Western Apache): </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" rowspan="2"> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">Lateral</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatal" class="mw-redirect" title="Palatal">Palatal</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr style="font-size: x-small;"> <th colspan="3"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Affricate" title="Affricate">affricate</a> series)</span> </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Stop</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Affricate" title="Affricate">Affricate</a> </th> <th style="font-size: x-small;"><a href="/wiki/Aspiration_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspiration (phonetics)">unaspirated</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">ts</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar lateral affricate">tɬ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">tʃ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a></span> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kʷ</span>) </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="font-size: x-small;"><a href="/wiki/Aspiration_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspiration (phonetics)">aspirated</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʰ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tsʰ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tɬʰ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">tʃʰ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kʰ<span class="wrap"> </span>(kʷʰ)</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="font-size: x-small;"><a href="/wiki/Ejective" class="mw-redirect" title="Ejective">glottalized</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_ejective_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar ejective stop">tʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_ejective_affricate" title="Alveolar ejective affricate">tsʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_lateral_ejective_affricate" title="Alveolar lateral ejective affricate">tɬʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Palato-alveolar_ejective_affricate" title="Palato-alveolar ejective affricate">tʃʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Velar_ejective_stop" title="Velar ejective stop">kʼ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="font-size: x-small;">prenasalized/<br />voiced </th> <td>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ⁿb</span>) </td> <td>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ⁿd</span>/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a></span>/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a></span>) </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">Nasal</a> </th> <th style="font-size: x-small;">simple </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="font-size: x-small;"><a href="/wiki/Glottalization" title="Glottalization">glottalized</a> </th> <td>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˀm</span>) </td> <td>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˀn</span>) </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a> </th> <th style="font-size: x-small;"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless consonant">voiceless</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar lateral fricative">ɬ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="font-size:x-small;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced consonant">voiced</a> </th> <td>(<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a></span>) </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiced postalveolar fricative">ʒ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a></span> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɣʷ</span>) </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">Approximant</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a></span> </td> <td>(<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a></span>) </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>Only Navajo and Western Apache have glottalized nasals.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Orthography_(consonants)"><span id="Orthography_.28consonants.29"></span>Orthography (consonants)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_Athabaskan_languages&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Orthography (consonants)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The practical orthography corresponds to the pronunciation of the Southern Athabaskan languages fairly well (as opposed to the writing systems of English or Vietnamese). Below is a table pairing up the phonetic notation with the orthographic symbol: </p> <table cellpadding="5"> <tbody><tr> <th align="center">IPA </th> <th align="center">spelling </th> <th align="center">IPA </th> <th align="center">spelling </th> <th align="center">IPA </th> <th align="center">spelling </th> <th align="center">IPA </th> <th align="center">spelling </th></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t]</span> </td> <td>d </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tʰ]</span> </td> <td>t </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tʼ]</span> </td> <td>t’ </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<span class="wrap"> </span>j<span class="wrap"> </span>]</span> </td> <td>y </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[k]</span> </td> <td>g </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʰ]</span> </td> <td>k </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʼ]</span> </td> <td>k’ </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[h]</span> </td> <td>h </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ts]</span> </td> <td>dz </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tsʰ]</span> </td> <td>ts </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tsʼ]</span> </td> <td>ts’ </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʔ]</span> </td> <td>’ </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tʃ]</span> </td> <td>j </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tʃʰ]</span> </td> <td>ch </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tʃʼ]</span> </td> <td>ch’ </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[l]</span> </td> <td>l </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tɬ]</span> </td> <td>dl </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tɬʰ]</span> </td> <td>tł </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tɬʼ]</span> </td> <td>tł’ </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɬ]</span> </td> <td>ł </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[p]</span> </td> <td>b </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[pʰ]</span> </td> <td>p </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ⁿb]</span> </td> <td>b/m </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ⁿd]</span> </td> <td>d/n/nd </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[s]</span> </td> <td>s </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʃ]</span> </td> <td>sh </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[m]</span> </td> <td>m </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[n]</span> </td> <td>n </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[z]</span> </td> <td>z </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʒ]</span> </td> <td>zh </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˀm]</span> </td> <td>’m </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˀn]</span> </td> <td>’n </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[x]</span> </td> <td>h </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɣ]</span> </td> <td>gh </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td> <td>  </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Some spelling conventions: </p> <ol><li>Fricatives <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[h]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[x]</span> are both written as <i><b>h</b></i>. <small>(see also #2 below)</small></li> <li>The fricative <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[x]</span> is usually written as <i><b>h</b></i>, but after <i><b>o</b></i> it may be written as <i><b>hw</b></i>, especially in Western Apache (may be pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[xʷ]</span>).</li> <li>The fricative <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɣ]</span> is written <i><b>gh</b></i> the majority of the time, but before <i><b>i</b></i> and <i><b>e</b></i> it is written as <i><b>y</b></i> (& may be pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʝ]</span>), and before <i><b>o</b></i> it is written as <i><b>w</b></i> (& may be pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɣʷ]</span>).</li> <li>All words that begin with a vowel are pronounced with a glottal stop <i><b>’</b></i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʔ]</span>. This glottal stop is never written at the beginning of a word.</li> <li>Some words are pronounced either as <i><b>d</b></i> or <i><b>n</b></i> or <i><b>nd</b></i>, depending on the dialect of the speaker. This is represented in the consonant table above as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ⁿd]</span>. The same is true with <i><b>b</b></i> and <i><b>m</b></i> in a few words.</li> <li>In many words <i><b>n</b></i> can occur in a syllable by itself in which case it is a syllabic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[n̩]</span>. This is not indicated in the spelling.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_Athabaskan_languages&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Southern Athabaskan languages have four vowels of contrasting tongue dimensions (as written in a general "practical" orthography): </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Front </th> <th>Central </th> <th>Back </th></tr> <tr> <th>High </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">i</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Mid </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e</span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">o</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Low </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">a</span> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>These vowels may also be short or long and oral (non-nasal) or nasal. Nasal vowels are indicated by an <a href="/wiki/Ogonek" title="Ogonek">ogonek</a> (or nasal hook) diacritic <b>˛</b> in Western Apache, Navajo, Mescalero, and Chiricahua; in Jicarilla, the nasal vowels are indicated by underlining the vowel, results in 16 different vowels: </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th>High-Front </th> <th>Mid-Front </th> <th>Mid-Back </th> <th>Low-Central </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Oral </th> <th>short </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">i</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">o</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">a</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>long </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ii</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ee</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">oo</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">aa</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Nasal </th> <th>short </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">į</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ę</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ǫ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ą</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>long </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">įį</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ęę</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ǫǫ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ąą</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>IPA equivalents for Western Apache oral vowels: </p><p><b><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">i</span></b> = <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɪ]</span>, <b><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ii</span></b> = <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[iː]</span>, <b><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e</span></b> = <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɛ]</span>, <b><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ee</span></b> = <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɛː]</span>, <b><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">o</span></b> = <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[o]</span>, <b><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">oo</span></b> = <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʊː]</span>, <b><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">a</span></b> = <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɐ]</span>, <b><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">aa</span></b> = <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɑː]</span>. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Western_Apache" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Apache">Western Apache</a>, there is a practice where orthographic vowels <i><b>o</b></i> and <i><b>oo</b></i> are written as <i><b>u</b></i> in certain contexts. These contexts do not include nasalized vowels, so nasal <i><b>u</b></i> never occurs in the orthography. This practice continues into the present (perhaps somewhat inconsistently). </p><p>However, in <a href="/wiki/Harry_Hoijer" title="Harry Hoijer">Harry Hoijer</a> and other American linguists' work all <b>o</b>-vowels are written as <i><b>o</b></i>. Similarly, Navajo does not use orthographic <i><b>u</b></i>, consistently writing this vowel as <i><b>o</b></i>. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Chiricahua" title="Chiricahua">Chiricahua</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mescalero" title="Mescalero">Mescalero</a>, this vowel is written as <i><b>u</b></i> in all contexts (including nasalized <b>ų</b>). </p><p>Other practices may be used in other Apachean languages. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tone">Tone</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_Athabaskan_languages&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Tone"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Southern Athabaskan languages are <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tonal</a> languages. Hoijer and other linguists analyze Southern Athabaskan languages as having four tones (using Americanist transcription system): </p> <ul><li><i><b>high</b></i> (marked with acute accent <b>´</b>, Example: <b>á</b>)</li> <li><i><b>low</b></i> (marked with grave accent <b>`</b>, Example: <b>à</b>)</li> <li><i><b>rising</b></i> (marked with háček <b>ˇ</b>, Example: <b>ǎ</b>)</li> <li><i><b>falling</b></i> (marked with circumflex <b>ˆ</b>, Example: <b>â</b>)</li></ul> <p>Rising and falling tones are less common in the language (often occurring over morpheme boundaries) and often occur on long vowels. Vowels can carry tone as well as syllabic <b>n</b> (Example: <b>ń</b>). </p><p>The practical orthography has tried to simplify the <a href="/wiki/Americanist_phonetic_notation" title="Americanist phonetic notation">Americanist transcription</a> system by representing only high tone with an acute accent and leaving low tone unmarked: </p> <ul><li>high tone: <b>á</b></li> <li>low tone: <b>a</b></li></ul> <p>Then, <b>niziz</b> is written instead of the previous <b>nìzìz</b>. </p><p>Additionally, rising tone on long vowels is indicated by an unmarked first vowel and an acute accent on the second. It is vice versa for falling tone: </p> <ul><li>rising: <b>aá</b> (instead of Americanist: <b>ǎ·</b>)</li> <li>falling: <b>áa</b> (instead of Americanist: <b>â·</b>)</li></ul> <p>Nasal vowels carry tone as well, resulting in a two diacritics on vowels with high tone: <b>ą́</b> (presenting problems for computerization). Recently, de Reuse (2006) has found that Western Apache also has a mid tone, which he indicates with a macron diacritic <b>¯</b>, as in <b>ō</b>, <b>ǭ</b>. In <a href="/wiki/Chiricahua" title="Chiricahua">Chiricahua</a>, a falling tone can occur on a syllabic <b>n</b>: <b>n̂</b>. </p><p>Here are some vowel contrasts involving nasalization, tone, and length from <a href="/wiki/Chiricahua" title="Chiricahua">Chiricahua Apache</a>: </p> <dl><dd><b>cha̧a̧</b>  'feces'</dd> <dd><b>chaa</b>  'beaver'</dd> <dd><b>shiban</b>  'my buckskin'</dd> <dd><b>shibán</b>  'my bread'</dd> <dd><b>bik’ai’</b>  'his hip'</dd> <dd><b>bík’ai’</b>  'his stepmother'</dd> <dd><b>hah’aał</b>  'you two are going to chew it'</dd> <dd><b>hah’ał</b>  'you two are chewing it'</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparative_phonology">Comparative phonology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_Athabaskan_languages&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Comparative phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Southern_Athabaskan_languages&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2008</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The Southern Athabascan branch was defined by <a href="/wiki/Harry_Hoijer" title="Harry Hoijer">Harry Hoijer</a> primarily according to its <a href="/wiki/Sound_change" title="Sound change">merger</a> of <a href="/wiki/Word_stem" title="Word stem">stem</a>-initial <a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">consonants</a> of the Proto-Athabascan series <i><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*k̯</span></i> and <i><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*c</span></i> into <i><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*c</span></i> (in addition to the widespread merger of <i><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*č</span></i> and <i><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*čʷ</span></i> into <i><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*č</span></i> also found in many <a href="/wiki/Northern_Athabascan" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Athabascan">Northern Athabascan</a> languages). </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; margin-left:1em"> <tbody><tr style="line-height:1.2em"> <th>Proto-<br />Athabascan </th> <th> </th> <th>Navajo </th> <th>Western<br />Apache </th> <th>Chiricahua </th> <th>Mescalero </th> <th>Jicarilla </th> <th>Lipan </th> <th>Plains<br />Apache </th></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*k̯uʔs</span> </td> <td>"handle fabric-like object" </td> <td><i>-tsooz</i> </td> <td><i>-tsooz</i> </td> <td><i>-tsuuz</i> </td> <td><i>-tsuudz</i> </td> <td><i>-tsoos</i> </td> <td><i>-tsoos</i> </td> <td><i>-tsoos</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*ce·</span> </td> <td>"stone" </td> <td><i>tsé</i> </td> <td><i>tséé</i> </td> <td><i>tsé</i> </td> <td><i>tsé</i> </td> <td><i>tsé</i> </td> <td><i>tsí</i> </td> <td><i>tséé</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Hoijer (1938) divided the Apachean sub-family into an Eastern branch consisting of Jicarilla, Lipan, and Plains Apache and a Western branch consisting of Navajo, Western Apache (San Carlos), Chiricahua, and Mescalero based on the merger of Proto-Apachean <i><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*t</span></i> and <i><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*k</span></i> to <i>k</i> in the Eastern branch. Thus, as can be seen in the example below, when the Western languages have noun or verb stems that start with <i>t</i>, the related forms in the Eastern languages will start with a <i>k</i>: </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; margin-left:1em"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="4"><i>Western</i> </th> <th colspan="3"><i>Eastern</i> </th></tr> <tr style="line-height:1.2em"> <th> </th> <th>Navajo </th> <th>Western<br />Apache </th> <th>Chiricahua </th> <th>Mescalero </th> <th>Jicarilla </th> <th>Lipan </th> <th>Plains<br />Apache </th></tr> <tr> <td>"water" </td> <td><i>tó</i> </td> <td><i>tū</i> </td> <td><i>tú</i> </td> <td><i>tú</i> </td> <td><i>kó</i> </td> <td><i>kó</i> </td> <td><i>kóó</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>"fire" </td> <td><i>kǫʼ</i> </td> <td><i>kǫʼ</i> </td> <td><i>kųų</i> </td> <td><i>kų</i> </td> <td><i>ko̱ʼ</i> </td> <td><i>kǫǫʼ</i> </td> <td><i>kǫʼ</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>He later revised his proposal in 1971 when he found that Plains Apache did not participate in the <i><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*k̯/*c</span></i> merger, to consider Plains Apache to be equidistant from the other languages, now called Southwestern Apachean. Thus, some stems that originally started with <i>*k̯</i> in Proto-Athabascan start with <i>ch</i> in Plains Apache, but the other languages start with <i>ts</i>. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; margin-left:1em"> <tbody><tr style="line-height:1.2em"> <th>Proto-<br />Athabascan </th> <th> </th> <th>Navajo </th> <th>Chiricahua </th> <th>Mescalero </th> <th>Jicarilla </th> <th>Plains<br />Apache </th></tr> <tr> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*k̯aʔx̣ʷ</span> </td> <td>"big" </td> <td><i>-tsaa</i> </td> <td><i>-tsaa</i> </td> <td><i>-tsaa</i> </td> <td><i>-tsaa</i> </td> <td><i>-cha</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Morris Opler (1975) has suggested that Hoijer's original formulation that Jicarilla and Lipan in an Eastern branch was more in agreement with the cultural similarities between both and their differences from the other Western Apachean groups. Other linguists, particularly <a href="/wiki/Michael_E._Krauss" title="Michael E. Krauss">Michael Krauss</a> (1973), have noted that a classification based only on the initial consonants of noun and verb stems is arbitrary and when other <a href="/wiki/Sound_correspondence" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound correspondence">sound correspondences</a> are considered the relationships between the languages appear to be more complex. Additionally, it has been pointed out by Martin Huld (1983) that since Plains Apache does not merge Proto-Athabascan <i><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*k̯/*c</span></i>, Plains Apache cannot be considered an Apachean language as defined by Hoijer. </p><p>Other differences and similarities among the Southern Athabaskan languages can be observed in the following modified and abbreviated <a href="/wiki/Swadesh_list" title="Swadesh list">Swadesh list</a>: </p> <table class="wikitable" style="margin-left:1em"> <tbody><tr style="line-height:1.2em"> <th>  </th> <th>Navajo </th> <th>Chiricahua </th> <th>Western Apache<br /><small>(San Carlos)</small> </th> <th>Jicarilla </th> <th>Lipan </th></tr> <tr> <td>I</td> <td>shí</td> <td>shí</td> <td>shíí</td> <td>shí</td> <td>shí </td></tr> <tr> <td>you</td> <td>ni</td> <td>ⁿdí</td> <td>ⁿdi</td> <td>ni</td> <td>ⁿdí </td></tr> <tr> <td>we</td> <td>nihí</td> <td>náhí</td> <td>nohwíí</td> <td>nahí</td> <td>nahí </td></tr> <tr> <td>many</td> <td>łą́</td> <td>łą́</td> <td>łą́ą́</td> <td>łá</td> <td>łą́ </td></tr> <tr> <td>one</td> <td>ła’</td> <td>ła’</td> <td>ła’-</td> <td>ła’</td> <td>ła’- </td></tr> <tr> <td>two</td> <td>naaki</td> <td>naaki</td> <td>naaki</td> <td>naaki</td> <td>naaki </td></tr> <tr> <td>big</td> <td>-tso</td> <td>-tso</td> <td>-tso</td> <td>-tso</td> <td>-tso </td></tr> <tr> <td>long</td> <td>-neez</td> <td>-neez</td> <td>-neez</td> <td>-ⁿdees</td> <td>-ⁿdiis </td></tr> <tr> <td>small</td> <td>-yáázh</td> <td>-zą́ą́yé</td> <td>-zhaazh</td> <td>-zhááh</td> <td>-zhą́ą́yí </td></tr> <tr> <td>woman</td> <td>’asdzání</td> <td>’isdzáń</td> <td>’isdzánhń</td> <td>’isdzání</td> <td>’isdzání </td></tr> <tr> <td>man</td> <td>diné</td> <td>nⁿdé</td> <td>nnéé</td> <td>diⁿdé</td> <td>diⁿdí </td></tr> <tr> <td>fish</td> <td>łóó’</td> <td>łóí’</td> <td>łóg</td> <td>łógee</td> <td>łǫ́’ </td></tr> <tr> <td>dog</td> <td>łééchą́ą́’í</td> <td>kéjaa</td> <td>łį́į́chaayáné</td> <td>chíníí</td> <td>nii’łį́ </td></tr> <tr> <td>louse</td> <td>yaa’</td> <td>yaa</td> <td>yaa’</td> <td>yaa’</td> <td>yaa </td></tr> <tr> <td>tree</td> <td>tsin</td> <td>tsin</td> <td>ch’il</td> <td>nooshchíí</td> <td>chish </td></tr> <tr> <td>leaf</td> <td>-t’ąą’</td> <td>-t’ąą</td> <td>-t’ąą’</td> <td>-t’ąą’</td> <td>-t’ąą’ </td></tr> <tr> <td>meat</td> <td>-tsį’</td> <td>-tsįį</td> <td>-tsį’</td> <td>-tsį</td> <td>-tsįį </td></tr> <tr> <td>blood</td> <td>dił</td> <td>dił</td> <td>dił</td> <td>dił</td> <td>dił </td></tr> <tr> <td>bone</td> <td>ts’in</td> <td>ts’į’</td> <td>ts’in</td> <td>-ts’in</td> <td>-ts’įh </td></tr> <tr> <td>grease</td> <td>-k’ah</td> <td>k’ah</td> <td>k’ah</td> <td>ik'a</td> <td>xáí </td></tr> <tr> <td>egg</td> <td>-yęęzhii</td> <td>-gheezhe</td> <td>-ghęęzh</td> <td>-yezhii</td> <td>-ghaish </td></tr> <tr> <td>horn</td> <td>-dee’</td> <td>-dee’</td> <td>-dee’</td> <td>-dee’</td> <td>-dii’ </td></tr> <tr> <td>tail</td> <td>-tsee’</td> <td>-tsee’</td> <td>-tsee’</td> <td>-tsee’</td> <td>-dzistsii’ </td></tr> <tr> <td>feather</td> <td>-t’a’</td> <td>-t’a’</td> <td>-t’a’</td> <td>-t’a’</td> <td>-t’a’ </td></tr> <tr> <td>hair</td> <td>-ghaa’</td> <td>-ghaa</td> <td>-ghaa</td> <td>-ghaa’</td> <td>-ghaa </td></tr> <tr> <td>head</td> <td>-tsii’</td> <td>-tsii</td> <td>-tsii</td> <td>-tsii</td> <td>-tsii’ </td></tr> <tr> <td>ear</td> <td>-jaa’</td> <td>-zhaa</td> <td>-jaa</td> <td>-jaa</td> <td>-jaa </td></tr> <tr> <td>eye</td> <td>-náá’</td> <td>-ⁿdáa</td> <td>-náá</td> <td>-ⁿdáá</td> <td>-ⁿdáa </td></tr> <tr> <td>nose</td> <td>-´-chį́į́h</td> <td>-´-chį́</td> <td>-chį́h</td> <td>-chį́sh</td> <td>-´-chį́sh </td></tr> <tr> <td>mouth</td> <td>-zéé’</td> <td>-zé</td> <td>-zé’</td> <td>-zé’</td> <td>-zí’ </td></tr> <tr> <td>tooth</td> <td>-woo’</td> <td>-ghoo</td> <td>-ghoo’</td> <td>-woo</td> <td>-ghoo </td></tr> <tr> <td>tongue</td> <td>-tsoo’</td> <td>-zaade</td> <td>-zaad</td> <td>-zaadi</td> <td>-zaadi </td></tr> <tr> <td>claw</td> <td>-s-gaan</td> <td>-s-gan</td> <td>-gan</td> <td>-s-gan</td> <td>-s-gąą </td></tr> <tr> <td>foot</td> <td>-kee’</td> <td>-kee</td> <td>-kee’</td> <td>-kee</td> <td>-kii </td></tr> <tr> <td>knee</td> <td>-god</td> <td>-go’</td> <td>-god</td> <td>-go’</td> <td>-goh </td></tr> <tr> <td>hand</td> <td>-´-la’</td> <td>-laa</td> <td>-la’</td> <td>-la’</td> <td>-laa’ </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_Athabaskan_languages&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Southern_Athabascan_grammar" title="Southern Athabascan grammar">Southern Athabascan grammar</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_Athabaskan_languages&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1998/04/09/us/indians-striving-to-save-their-languages.html">https://www.nytimes.com/1998/04/09/us/indians-striving-to-save-their-languages.html</a> Brooke, James. "Indians Striving to Save Their Languages." New York Times, p. A1, April 9, 1998.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.inali.gob.mx/detalle/lengua-ndee-nnee-nde">"Lengua N'dee/N'nee/Ndé"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lengua+N%27dee%2FN%27nee%2FNd%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.inali.gob.mx%2Fdetalle%2Flengua-ndee-nnee-nde&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+Athabaskan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_Athabaskan_languages&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Cremony, John Carey. 1868. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qOkNAAAAIAAJ&q=mumbl&pg=PA1">Life Among the Apaches</a>. A. Roman, 1868. Length 322 pages. Chapter XX discusses the Apache language, number system, and grammar.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Hoijer" title="Harry Hoijer">Hoijer, Harry</a>. (1938). The southern Athapaskan languages. <i>American Anthropologist</i>, <i>40</i> (1), 75-87.</li> <li>Hoijer, Harry. (1945). Classificatory verb stems in the Apachean languages. <i>International Journal of American Linguistics</i>, <i>11</i> (1), 13-23.</li> <li>Hoijer, Harry. (1945). The Apachean verb, part I: Verb structure and pronominal prefixes. <i>International Journal of American Linguistics</i>, <i>11</i> (4), 193-203.</li> <li>Hoijer, Harry. (1946). The Apachean verb, part II: The prefixes for mode and tense. <i>International Journal of American Linguistics</i>, <i>12</i> (1), 1-13.</li> <li>Hoijer, Harry. (1946). The Apachean verb, part III: The classifiers. <i>International Journal of American Linguistics</i>, <i>12</i> (2), 51-59.</li> <li>Hoijer, Harry. (1948). The Apachean verb, part IV: Major form classes. <i>International Journal of American Linguistics</i>, <i>14</i> (4), 247–259.</li> <li>Hoijer, Harry. (1949). The Apachean verb, part V: The theme and prefix complex. <i>International Journal of American Linguistics</i>, <i>15</i> (1), 12–22.</li> <li>Hoijer, Harry. (1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdfplus/10.1086/464374">The Chronology of the Athapaskan languages</a>. <i>International Journal of American Linguistics</i>, <i>22</i> (4), 219-232.</li> <li>Hoijer, Harry. (1963). The Athapaskan languages. In H. Hoijer (Ed.), <i>Studies in the Athapaskan languages</i> (pp. 1–29). University of California publications in linguistics 29. Berkeley: University of California Press.</li> <li>Hoijer, Harry (Ed.). (1963). <i>Studies in the Athapaskan languages</i>. University of California publications in linguistics 29. Berkeley: University of California Press.</li> <li>Hoijer, Harry. (1971). The position of the Apachean languages in the Athapaskan stock. In K. H. Basso & M. E. Opler (Eds.), <i>Apachean culture history and ethnology</i> (pp. 3–6). Anthropological papers of the University of Arizona (No. 21). Tucson: University of Arizona Press.</li> <li>Hymes, Dell H. (1957). A note on Athapaskan glottochronology. <i>International Journal of American Linguistics</i>, <i>22</i> (4), 291-297.</li> <li>Liebe-Harkot, Marie-Louise. (1984). A comparison of Apachean languages, exemplified by the verb system for handling verbs. In H. Krenn, J. Niemeyer, & U. Eberhardt (Eds.), <i>Sprache und Text: Akten des 18: Linguistischen Kolloquiums, Linz 1983</i>. Linguistische Arbeiten (Max Niemeyer Verlag) (Nos. 145-146). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-484-30145-7" title="Special:BookSources/3-484-30145-7">3-484-30145-7</a> (Bd. 1); <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-484-30146-5" title="Special:BookSources/3-484-30146-5">3-484-30146-5</a> (Bd. 2).</li> <li>de Reuse, Willem J. (2001). Prototypes and fuzziness in the system and usage of Apachean classificatory verb stems. In S. Tuttle & G. Holton (Eds.), <i>Proceedings of the 2001 Athabaskan Languages Conference</i> (No. 1, pp. 75–94). Fairbanks, AK: Alaska Native Language Center.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir">Sapir, Edward</a>. (1936). Linguistic evidence suggestive of the northern origin of the Navaho. <i>American Anthropologist</i>, <i>38</i> (2), 224-235.</li> <li>Young, Robert W. (1983). Apachean languages. In A. Ortiz, W. C. Sturtevant (Eds.), <i>Handbook of North American Indians: Southwest</i> (Vol. 10, pp. 393–400). Washington: Smithsonian Institution. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-16-004579-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-16-004579-7">0-16-004579-7</a>.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Chiricahua</dt></dl> <ul><li>Hoijer, Harry. (n.d.). Chiricahua Apache stems. (Unpublished manuscript).</li> <li>Hoijer, Harry. (1938). <i>Chiricahua and Mescalero Apache texts</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-404-15783-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-404-15783-1">0-404-15783-1</a>.</li> <li>Hoijer, Harry. (1939). Chiricahua loan-words from Spanish. <i>Language</i>, <i>15</i> (2), 110-115.</li> <li>Hoijer, Harry. (1946). Chiricahua Apache. In C. Osgood (Ed.), <i>Linguistic structures in North America</i>. New York: Wenner-Green Foundation for Anthropological Research.</li> <li>Opler, Morris E., & Hoijer, Harry. (1940). The raid and war-path language of the Chiricahua Apache. <i>Language</i>, <i>42</i> (4), 617-634.</li> <li>Pinnow, Jürgen. (1988). <i>Die Sprache der Chiricahua-Apachen: Mit Seitenblicken auf das Mescalero </i>[<i>The language of the Chiricahua Apache: With side glances at the Mescalero</i>]. Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag.</li> <li>Webster, Anthony K. (1999). Sam Kenoi's "Coyote and the Whiteman": Contact in and out of a Chiricahua narrative. In A. Trefzer & R. L. Murray (Eds.), <i>Reclaiming Native American cultures, proceedings of the Native American Symposium</i> (pp. 67–80). Durant, OK: Southeastern Oklahoma State University.</li> <li>Webster, Anthony K. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/download/1968929/webster_sam_kenoi_ethnopoetics_aicrj_1999.pdf">Sam Kenoi's coyote stories: Poetics and rhetoric in some Chiricahua Apache narratives</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged July 2022">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup>. <i>American Indian Culture and Research Journal</i>, <i>23</i>, 137-163.</li> <li>Webster, Anthony K. (1999). Lisandro Medez's "Coyote and Deer": On reciprocity, narrative structures, and interactions. <i>American Indian Quarterly</i>, <i>23</i>, 1-24.</li> <li>Webster, Anthony K. (2006). On Speaking to Him (Coyote): The Discourse Function of the <i>yi-/bi-</i> Alternation in Some Chiricahua Apache Narratives. <i>Southwest Journal of Linguistics</i>, <i>25(2)</i>, 143-160.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Mescalero</dt></dl> <ul><li>Breunginger, Evelyn; Hugar, Elbys; & Lathan, Ellen Ann. (1982). <i>Mescalero Apache dictionary</i>. Mescalero: NM: Mescalero Apache Tribe.</li> <li>Hoijer, Harry. (1938). <i>Chiricahua and Mescalero Apache texts</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-404-15783-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-404-15783-1">0-404-15783-1</a>.</li> <li>Pinnow, Jürgen. (1988). <i>Die Sprache der Chiricahua-Apachen: Mit Seitenblicken auf das Mescalero [The language of the Chiricahua Apache: With side glances at the Mescalero]</i>. Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag.</li> <li>Rushforth, Scott. (1991). Uses of Bearlake and Mescalero (Athapaskan) classificatory verbs. <i>International Journal of American Linguistics</i>, <i>57</i>, 251-266.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Jicarilla</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoddard1911" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Pliny_Earle_Goddard" title="Pliny Earle Goddard">Goddard, Pliny Earle</a> (1911). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_die0AAAAIAAJ"><i>Jicarilla Apache texts</i></a>. The Trustees<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 August</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jicarilla+Apache+texts&rft.pub=The+Trustees&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Goddard&rft.aufirst=Pliny+Earle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_die0AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+Athabaskan+languages" class="Z3988"></span> Anthropological papers of the American Museum of Natural History (Vol. 8). New York: The American Museum of Natural History.</li> <li>Phone, Wilhelmina; Olson, Maureen; & Martinez, Matilda. (forthcoming). <i>Abáachi mizaa łáo iłkee’ shijai: Dictionary of Jicarilla Apache</i>. Axelrod, Melissa; Gómez de García, Jule; Lachler, Jordan; & Burke, Sean (Eds.). UNM Press. (Estimated publication date: summer 2006).</li> <li>Phone, Wilma; & Torivio, Patricia. (1981). <i>Jicarilla mizaa medaóołkai dáłáéé</i>. Albuquerque: Native American Materials Development Center.</li> <li>Tuttle, Siri G.; & Sandoval, Merton. (2002). Jicarilla Apache. <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>, <i>32</i>, 105-112.</li> <li>Vicenti, Carson. (1981). <i>Jicarilla Apache dictionary</i>. Native American Materials Development Center, Ramah Navajo School Board.</li> <li>Wilson, Alan, & Vigil Martine, Rita. (1996). <i>Apache (Jicarilla)</i>. Guilford, CT: Audio-Forum. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88432-903-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-88432-903-8">0-88432-903-8</a>. (Includes book and cassette recording).</li></ul> <dl><dt>Navajo</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Navajo_language#Bibliography" title="Navajo language">Navajo language § Bibliography</a></div> <dl><dt>Western Apache</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keith_H._Basso" title="Keith H. Basso">Basso, Keith H.</a> (1979). <i>Portraits of "the whiteman": Linguistic play and cultural symbols among the Western Apache</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-29593-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-29593-9">0-521-29593-9</a>.</li> <li>Basso, Keith H. (1990). <i>Western Apache language and culture: Essays in linguistic anthropology</i>. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8165-1323-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8165-1323-6">0-8165-1323-6</a>.</li> <li>Basso, Keith H. (1996). <i>Wisdom sits in places: Landscape and language among the Western Apache</i>. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8263-1724-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8263-1724-3">0-8263-1724-3</a>.</li> <li>Bray, Dorothy, & White Mountain Apache Tribe. (1998). <i>Western Apache-English dictionary: A community-generated bilingual dictionary</i>. Tempe, AZ: Bilingual Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-927534-79-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-927534-79-7">0-927534-79-7</a>.</li> <li>Durbin, Marshall. (1964). A componential analysis of the San Carlos dialect of Western Apache: A study based on the analysis of the phonology, morphophonics, and morphemics. (Doctoral dissertation, State University of New York, Buffalo).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoddard1919" class="citation book cs1">Goddard, Pliny Earle (1919). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sancarlosapache00goddgoog"><i>San Carlos Apache texts</i></a>. American Museum of Natural History<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 August</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=San+Carlos+Apache+texts&rft.pub=American+Museum+of+Natural+History&rft.date=1919&rft.aulast=Goddard&rft.aufirst=Pliny+Earle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsancarlosapache00goddgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+Athabaskan+languages" class="Z3988"></span> Anthropological papers of the American Museum of Natural History, (Vol. 24, Part 3). New York: The American Museum of Natural History.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoddard1920" class="citation book cs1">Goddard, Pliny Earle (1920). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whitemountainap00goddgoog"><i>White Mountain Apache texts</i></a>. The Trustees<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 August</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=White+Mountain+Apache+texts&rft.pub=The+Trustees&rft.date=1920&rft.aulast=Goddard&rft.aufirst=Pliny+Earle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwhitemountainap00goddgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASouthern+Athabaskan+languages" class="Z3988"></span> Anthropological papers of the American Museum of Natural History, (Vol. 24, Part 4). New York: The American Museum of Natural History.</li> <li>Goodwin, Grenville. (1939). <i>Myth and tales of the White Mountain Apache</i>. New York: American Folk-Lore Society (J. J. Augustin). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8165-1451-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8165-1451-8">0-8165-1451-8</a></li> <li>Gordon, Matthew; Potter, Brian; Dawson, John; de Reuse, Willem; & Ladefoged, Peter. (2001). Phonetic structures of Western Apache. <i>International Journal of American Linguistics</i>, <i>67</i> (4), 415-481.</li> <li>Greenfeld, Philip J. (1971). Playing card names in Western Apache. <i>International Journal of American Linguistics</i>, <i>37</i> (3), 195-196.</li> <li>Greenfeld, Philip J. (1972). The phonological hierarchy of the White Mountain dialect of Western Apache. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Arizona, Tucson).</li> <li>Greenfeld, Philip J. (1978). Some special phonological characteristics of the White Mountain dialect of Apachean. <i>Anthropological Linguistics</i>, <i>20</i> (1), 150-157.</li> <li>Greenfeld, Philip J. (1984). A treatment for stress in Apache. <i>International Journal of American Linguistics</i>, <i>50</i> (1), 105-111.</li> <li>Hill, Faith. (1963). Some comparisons between the San Carlos and White Mountain dialects of Western Apache. In H. Hoijer (Ed.), <i>Studies in the Athapaskan languages</i> (pp. 149–154). University of California publications in linguistics 29. Berkeley: University of California Press.</li> <li>Mierau, Eric. (1963). Concerning Yavapai-Apache bilingualism. <i>International Journal of American Linguistics</i>, <i>29</i> (1), 1-3.</li> <li>Potter, Brian. (1997). Wh/indefinites and the structure of the clause in Western Apache. (Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles.</li> <li>de Reuse, Willem J. (1993). Stylistic and dialectal variation in Western Apache phonology. Unpublished manuscript, Department of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson.</li> <li>de Reuse, Willem J. (2006). <i>A practical grammar of the San Carlos Apache language</i>. Lincom Studies in Native American Linguistics 51. Lincom. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-89586-861-2" title="Special:BookSources/3-89586-861-2">3-89586-861-2</a>.</li> <li>White Mountain Apache Culture Center. (1972). <i>Western Apache dictionary</i>. Fort Apache, AZ: White Mountain Apache Culture Center.</li> <li>White Mountain Apache Culture Center. (1983). <i>New! keys to reading and writing Apache</i> (rev. ed.). Fort Apache, AZ: White Mountain Apache Culture Center.</li></ul> <dl><dt>Other</dt></dl> <ul><li>Hoijer, Harry. (1975). The history and customs of the Lipan, as told by Augustina Zuazua. <i>Linguistics</i>, <i>161</i>, 5-38.</li> <li>Bittle. 1963. “Kiowa–Apache.” In <i>Studies in the Athapaskan Languages</i>. (Ed. Hoijer, Harry). University of California Studies in Linguistics vol. 29. Berkeley: California UP. 76-101.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Southern_Athabaskan_languages&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050829225624/http://home.bluemarble.net/~langmin/miniatures/navajo.htm">How Different can Languages be?: The grammatical mosaic of Navajo</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091028154134/http://www.geocities.com/Athens/8352/lang.htm">Simplified Apache Pronunciation</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/apache/">Chiricahua and Mescalero Texts</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/apache/frames/grammar.html">Grammatical Sketch of Chiricahua/Mescalero</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/apache/Resources/resources.html">Other Apache Ethnographical Sources</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070630095142/http://www.freewebs.com/apache-texts/">Apache texts</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/nam/pla/jat/">Goddard's Jicarilla Texts (translation only)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jar/TIL_11.html">Issues in Language Textbook Development: The Case of Western Apache</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jar/TIL_12.html">White Mountain Apache Language: Issues in Language Shift, Textbook Development, and Native Speaker-University Collaboration</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" 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href="/wiki/Template:Athabaskan_languages" title="Template:Athabaskan languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Athabaskan_languages" title="Template talk:Athabaskan languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Athabaskan_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Athabaskan languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Athabaskan_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Athabaskan_languages" title="Athabaskan languages">Athabaskan languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Athabaskan_languages" title="Northern Athabaskan languages">Northern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southern Alaskan</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahtna_language" title="Ahtna language">Ahtna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dena%CA%BCina_language" title="Denaʼina language">Denaʼina</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central Alaska–Yukon</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deg_Xinag_language" title="Deg Xinag language">Deg Hitʼan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwich%CA%BCin_language" title="Gwichʼin language">Gwichʼin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A4n_language" title="Hän language">Hän</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Holikachuk_language" title="Holikachuk language">Holikachuk</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koyukon_language" title="Koyukon language">Koyukon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Tanana_language" title="Lower Tanana language">Lower Tanana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tutchone_language" title="Tutchone language">Northern Tutchone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tutchone_language" title="Tutchone language">Southern Tutchone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanacross_language" title="Tanacross language">Tanacross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Kuskokwim_language" title="Upper Kuskokwim language">Upper Kuskokwim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Tanana_language" title="Upper Tanana language">Upper Tanana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Northwestern Canada</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chipewyan_language" title="Chipewyan language">Dene Suline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogrib_language" title="Dogrib language">Dogrib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dane-zaa_language" title="Dane-zaa language">Dunneza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaska_language" title="Kaska language">Kaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sekani_language" title="Sekani language">Sekani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavey_language" title="Slavey language">Slavey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagish_language" title="Tagish language">Tagish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahltan_language" title="Tahltan language">Tahltan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central British Columbia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babine-Witsuwit%CA%BCen_language" title="Babine-Witsuwitʼen language">Babine–Witsuwitʼen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsilhqot%CA%BCin_language" title="Tsilhqotʼin language">Chilcotin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrier_language" title="Carrier language">Dakelh</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Carrier_language" title="Southern Carrier language">Southern Carrier</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other North Athabaskan</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kwalhioqua%E2%80%93Clatskanie_language" title="Kwalhioqua–Clatskanie language">Kwalhioqua–Clatskanie</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nicola_language" title="Nicola language">Nicola</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tsetsaut_language" title="Tsetsaut language">Tsetsaut</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsuut%CA%BCina_language" title="Tsuutʼina language">Tsuutʼina</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Coast_Athabaskan_languages" title="Pacific Coast Athabaskan languages">Pacific Coast</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">California Athabaskan</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cahto_language" title="Cahto language">Kato</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hupa_language" title="Hupa language">Hupa</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mattole_language" title="Mattole language">Mattole</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wailaki_language" title="Wailaki language">Wailaki</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oregon Athabaskan</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tolowa_language" title="Tolowa language">Tolowa</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tututni_language" title="Tututni language">Lower Rogue River</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Galice_language" title="Galice language">Upper Rogue River</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Upper_Umpqua_language" title="Upper Umpqua language">Upper Umpqua</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Southern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western Apachean</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mescalero-Chiricahua_language" title="Mescalero-Chiricahua language">Chiricahua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mescalero-Chiricahua_language" title="Mescalero-Chiricahua language">Mescalero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_language" title="Navajo language">Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Apache_language" title="Western Apache language">Western Apache</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern Apachean</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jicarilla_language" title="Jicarilla language">Jicarilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipan_language" title="Lipan language">Lipan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plains Apachean</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Plains_Apache_language" title="Plains Apache language">Plains Apache</a></i></li></ul> 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