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class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">開/收內容一覽</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">古典物理學</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="去睇另一種語文嘅文章。有61種語言版本。" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-61" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">61種語言</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%AA%D9%82%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="فيزياء تقليدية – 阿拉伯文" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فيزياء تقليدية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="阿拉伯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A7_%D9%83%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="فيزيا كلاسيكية – 埃及阿拉伯文" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="فيزيا كلاسيكية" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="埃及阿拉伯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klassik_fizika" title="Klassik fizika – 亞塞拜然文" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Klassik fizika" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="亞塞拜然文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%84%D1%96%D0%B7%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Класічная фізіка – 白俄羅斯文" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Класічная фізіка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="白俄羅斯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Класическа физика – 保加利亞文" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Класическа физика" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="保加利亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%A4_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="চিরায়ত পদার্থবিজ্ঞান – 孟加拉文" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="চিরায়ত পদার্থবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="孟加拉文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klasi%C4%8Dna_fizika" title="Klasična fizika – 波士尼亞文" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Klasična fizika" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="波士尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsica_cl%C3%A0ssica" title="Física clàssica – 加泰羅尼亞文" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Física clàssica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="加泰羅尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="فیزیکی کلاسیک – 索拉尼庫爾德文" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="فیزیکی کلاسیک" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="索拉尼庫爾德文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klasick%C3%A1_fyzika" title="Klasická fyzika – 捷克文" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Klasická fyzika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="捷克文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BA%C4%83%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Классикăлла физика – 楚瓦什文" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Классикăлла физика" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="楚瓦什文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ffiseg_glasurol" title="Ffiseg glasurol – 威爾斯文" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ffiseg glasurol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="威爾斯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klassisk_fysik" title="Klassisk fysik – 丹麥文" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Klassisk fysik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="丹麥文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klassische_Physik" title="Klassische Physik – 德文" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Klassische Physik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="德文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%BB%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%A6%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Κλασική Φυσική – 希臘文" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κλασική Φυσική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="希臘文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics – 英文" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Classical physics" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="英文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klasika_fiziko" title="Klasika fiziko – 世界文" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Klasika fiziko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="世界文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsica_cl%C3%A1sica" title="Física clásica – 西班牙文" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Física clásica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="西班牙文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klassikaline_f%C3%BC%C3%BCsika" title="Klassikaline füüsika – 愛沙尼亞文" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Klassikaline füüsika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="愛沙尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisika_klasiko" title="Fisika klasiko – 巴斯克文" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Fisika klasiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="巴斯克文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%A9_%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="فیزیک کلاسیک – 波斯文" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فیزیک کلاسیک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="波斯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klassinen_fysiikka" title="Klassinen fysiikka – 芬蘭文" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Klassinen fysiikka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="芬蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physique_classique" title="Physique classique – 法文" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Physique classique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="法文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisic_chlaisiceach" title="Fisic chlaisiceach – 愛爾蘭文" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Fisic chlaisiceach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="愛爾蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsica_cl%C3%A1sica" title="Física clásica – 加里西亞文" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Física clásica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="加里西亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%96%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94_%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%AA" title="פיזיקה קלאסית – 希伯來文" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פיזיקה קלאסית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="希伯來文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80" title="चिरसम्मत भौतिकी – 北印度文" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="चिरसम्मत भौतिकी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="北印度文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klasi%C4%8Dna_fizika" title="Klasična fizika – 克羅埃西亞文" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Klasična fizika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="克羅埃西亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klasszikus_fizika" title="Klasszikus fizika – 匈牙利文" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Klasszikus fizika" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="匈牙利文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B4%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D6%86%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1" title="Դասական ֆիզիկա – 亞美尼亞文" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Դասական ֆիզիկա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="亞美尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisika_klasik" title="Fisika klasik – 印尼文" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Fisika klasik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="印尼文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ADgild_e%C3%B0lisfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Sígild eðlisfræði – 冰島文" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Sígild eðlisfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="冰島文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="正文"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisica_classica" title="Fisica classica – 義大利文" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Fisica classica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="義大利文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="古典物理学 – 日文" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="古典物理学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="日文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A0%EC%A0%84%EB%AC%BC%EB%A6%AC%ED%95%99" title="고전물리학 – 韓文" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="고전물리학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="韓文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisica_clasica" title="Fisica clasica – 新共同語言" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Fisica clasica" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="新共同語言" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Класична физика – 馬其頓文" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Класична физика" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="馬其頓文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%89%E0%B4%A6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%AD%E0%B5%97%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%82" title="ഉദാത്തഭൗതികം – 馬來亞拉姆文" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഉദാത്തഭൗതികം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="馬來亞拉姆文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%BE%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B8_%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B0%E1%80%95%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="ရှေးရိုး ရူပဗေဒ – 緬甸文" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ရှေးရိုး ရူပဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="緬甸文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klassieke_natuurkunde" title="Klassieke natuurkunde – 荷蘭文" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Klassieke natuurkunde" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="荷蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klassisk_fysikk" title="Klassisk fysikk – 耐諾斯克挪威文" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Klassisk fysikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="耐諾斯克挪威文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klassisk_fysikk" title="Klassisk fysikk – 巴克摩挪威文" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Klassisk fysikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="巴克摩挪威文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%B2_%E0%A8%AD%E0%A9%8C%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%95_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8" title="ਕਲਾਸੀਕਲ ਭੌਤਿਕ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ – 旁遮普文" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਕਲਾਸੀਕਲ ਭੌਤਿਕ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="旁遮普文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcm mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klassikal_fysiks" title="Klassikal fysiks – 尼日利亞皮欽語" lang="pcm" hreflang="pcm" data-title="Klassikal fysiks" data-language-autonym="Naijá" data-language-local-name="尼日利亞皮欽語" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Naijá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizyka_klasyczna" title="Fizyka klasyczna – 波蘭文" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Fizyka klasyczna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="波蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D9%81%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="کلاسیک فزیک – 普什圖文" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="کلاسیک فزیک" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="普什圖文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria_cl%C3%A1ssica_(f%C3%ADsica)" title="Teoria clássica (física) – 葡萄牙文" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Teoria clássica (física)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="葡萄牙文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizic%C4%83_clasic%C4%83" title="Fizică clasică – 羅馬尼亞文" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Fizică clasică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="羅馬尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Классическая физика – 俄文" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Классическая физика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="俄文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klasi%C4%8Dna_fizika" title="Klasična fizika – 塞爾維亞克羅埃西亞文" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Klasična fizika" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="塞爾維亞克羅埃西亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasengama_tazaykut" title="Tasengama tazaykut – 希爾哈文" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Tasengama tazaykut" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="希爾哈文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taclḥit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Classical physics" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klasick%C3%A1_fyzika" title="Klasická fyzika – 斯洛伐克文" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Klasická fyzika" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="斯洛伐克文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizika_klasike" title="Fizika klasike – 阿爾巴尼亞文" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Fizika klasike" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="阿爾巴尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klassisk_fysik" title="Klassisk fysik – 瑞典文" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Klassisk fysik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="瑞典文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klasikong_pisika" title="Klasikong pisika – 塔加路族文" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Klasikong pisika" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="塔加路族文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klasik_fizik" title="Klasik fizik – 土耳其文" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Klasik fizik" 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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">收埋</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">出自維基百科，自由嘅百科全書</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="yue" dir="ltr"><p><b>古典物理學</b>（<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E7%B2%B5%E6%96%87%E6%8B%BC%E9%9F%B3" title="Wikipedia:粵文拼音">粵拼</a>：<span class="plainlinks" style="display:inline-block"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://yue.forvo.com/word/yue/古典物理學/#yue"><span>gu<span class="Jpingtone">2</span> din<span class="Jpingtone">2</span> mat<span class="Jpingtone">6</span> lei<span class="Jpingtone">5</span> hok<span class="Jpingtone">6</span></span></a></span>）泛指一柞 15 至 19 世紀成形嘅<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="物理學">物理學</a><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96" title="科學理論">理論</a>，一般包括<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8" title="古典力學">古典力學</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E9%9B%BB%E7%A3%81%E5%AD%B8" title="古典電磁學">古典電磁學</a>、同<a href="/wiki/%E7%86%B1%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8" title="熱力學">熱力學</a>等嘅理論框架。 </p><p>物理學知識喺 15 至 19 世紀期間嘅歐美地區有重大嘅躍進，而呢個時期嗰套物理學理論就係所謂嘅<b>古典物理學</b>。「古典物理學」一詞可以指廿世紀之前嘅物理學，而狹義上係指 15 世紀晚期至 19 世紀晚期嘅一柞物理理論；當時嘅<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%AD%90" title="西歐">西歐</a>（同後嚟<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B" title="美國">美國</a>）喺各門嘅科學上有咗重大進展，出咗好似<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%9B%E9%A0%93" class="mw-redirect" title="牛頓">牛頓</a>（Sir Isaac Newton）等嘅大科學家以及一套完整嘅科學方法思想，開始全面噉運用<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B8%E5%AD%B8%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B" title="數學模型">數學模型</a>描述物理學所研究嘅現象（比起齋用文字描述現象更加精確），產生咗好多到咗今日都仲有用嘅理論同概念－呢啲物理理論可以喺一般<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%83" title="地球">地球</a>環境下做非常準確嘅預測。另一方面，西人亦都係喺呢個時期開始將物理學視為一個獨立領域嘅<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="涵括"><span id=".E6.B6.B5.E6.8B.AC"></span>涵括</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&section=1" title="編輯小節: 涵括"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>古典物理學包含咗三大重要理論（以下嘅理論會用到<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%AE%E7%A9%8D%E5%88%86" title="微積分">微積分</a>）： </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8" title="古典力學">古典力學</a>：由牛頓等人搞起嘅一套理論框架；呢套理論假設咗<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilean_invariance" class="extiw" title="en:Galilean invariance">伽利略式相對性</a>（運動定律喺所有<a href="/wiki/%E6%85%A3%E6%80%A7%E5%8F%83%E8%80%83%E7%B3%BB" title="慣性參考系">慣性參考系</a>入面都一樣），會運用<a href="/wiki/%E7%89%9B%E9%A0%93%E9%81%8B%E5%8B%95%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B" title="牛頓運動定律">牛頓運動定律</a>等嘅少數幾條定律嚟描述物件喺空間入面嘅郁動，喺一般地球環境下可以做到好準嘅預測。古典力學當中比較重要嘅定律有以下呢啲<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>：</li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%89%9B%E9%A0%93%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B" title="牛頓第二定律">牛頓第二定律</a>：</li></ul> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {F_{net}} =m\mathbf {a} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi mathvariant="bold">F</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">n</mi> <mi mathvariant="bold">e</mi> <mi mathvariant="bold">t</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">a</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {F_{net}} =m\mathbf {a} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/39e8930040c834039b75d57232790f8a04659f52" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:11.005ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {F_{net}} =m\mathbf {a} }"></span>；「一件物件受嘅<a href="/wiki/%E6%B7%A8%E5%8A%9B" title="淨力">淨力</a>（<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {F_{net}} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi mathvariant="bold">F</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">n</mi> <mi mathvariant="bold">e</mi> <mi mathvariant="bold">t</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {F_{net}} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a5fc9e690bcf45fa852ac877ceffb9ddbf002769" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:4.566ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {F_{net}} }"></span>）等如佢嘅<a href="/wiki/%E8%B3%AA%E9%87%8F" title="質量">質量</a>（<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>m</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0a07d98bb302f3856cbabc47b2b9016692e3f7bc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.04ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m}"></span>）乘以<a href="/wiki/%E5%8A%A0%E9%80%9F%E5%BA%A6" title="加速度">加速度</a>（<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {a} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">a</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {a} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1a957216653a9ee0d0133dcefd13fb75e36b8b9d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.299ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {a} }"></span>）」，呢條定律又可以寫做</dd> <dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {F_{net}} ={\frac {d{\vec {p}}}{dt}}=m{\vec {a}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msub> <mi mathvariant="bold">F</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">n</mi> <mi mathvariant="bold">e</mi> <mi mathvariant="bold">t</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>p</mi> <mo stretchy="false">→</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>a</mi> <mo stretchy="false">→</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {F_{net}} ={\frac {d{\vec {p}}}{dt}}=m{\vec {a}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d83a27d22d5ff02e016e4a3234d9741d88266513" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:17.411ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {F_{net}} ={\frac {d{\vec {p}}}{dt}}=m{\vec {a}}}"></span>；<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>p</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:1.259ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p}"></span> 係指<a href="/wiki/%E5%8B%95%E9%87%8F" title="動量">動量</a>（嚿物體嘅質量同<a href="/wiki/%E9%80%9F%E5%BA%A6" title="速度">速度</a>相乘），而 <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {d{\vec {p}}}{dt}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mover> <mi>p</mi> <mo stretchy="false">→</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {d{\vec {p}}}{dt}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/08b443e9b1ecdf3f1be9b14e222791a5e60c1cde" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:3.377ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {d{\vec {p}}}{dt}}}"></span> 係動量隨住<a href="/wiki/%E6%99%82%E9%96%93" title="時間">時間</a>改變嘅率。</dd></dl> <ul><li>由古典力學嘅推論嗰度仲可以帶出<a href="/wiki/%E5%8B%95%E8%83%BD" title="動能">動能</a>（KE）嘅概念，一件物件帶嘅動能可以用以下呢條式表達：</li></ul> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {KE} ={{1 \over 2}mv^{2}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">K</mi> <mi mathvariant="bold">E</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mn>2</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> <mi>m</mi> <msup> <mi>v</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {KE} ={{1 \over 2}mv^{2}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ace4e39c20e4af5c6df22dc760b8d7f2f04ac23d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:13.17ex; height:5.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {KE} ={{1 \over 2}mv^{2}}}"></span>，當中 <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle v}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>v</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle v}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e07b00e7fc0847fbd16391c778d65bc25c452597" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.128ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle v}"></span> 係件物件嘅速度。</dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E9%9B%BB%E7%A3%81%E5%AD%B8" title="古典電磁學">古典電磁學</a>：建基於古典力學，用古典力學嘅方法嚟分析帶<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E8%8D%B7" title="電荷">電荷</a>物件嘅郁動，以及呢啲郁動會點樣影響<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E5%A0%B4" title="電場">電場</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E7%A3%81%E5%A0%B4" title="磁場">磁場</a>；古典電磁學包括咗<a href="/wiki/%E9%BA%A5%E5%A3%AB%E7%B6%AD%E6%96%B9%E7%A8%8B%E7%B5%84" title="麥士維方程組">麥士維方程組</a>－由<a href="/wiki/%E9%BA%A5%E5%A3%AB%E7%B6%AD_(%E8%8B%B1%E5%9C%8B%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8%E5%AE%B6)" class="mw-redirect" title="麥士維 (英國物理學家)">麥士維</a>（James Clerk Maxwell）諗出嚟、用四條方程式解釋嗮（當時已知嘅）電磁現象嘅理論。以 <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {E} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">E</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {E} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0d7f22b39d51f780fc02859059c1757c606b9de2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.757ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {E} }"></span> 表示電場，<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {B} }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">B</mi> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {B} }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/cafb0ef39b0f5ffa23c170aa7f7b4e718327c4d1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.901ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {B} }"></span> 代表磁場，用<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%AE%E5%88%86" title="微分">微分</a>方程寫嘅話<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>：</li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E9%AB%98%E6%96%AF%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B" title="高斯定律">高斯定律</a>：</li></ul> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {E} ={\frac {\rho }{\varepsilon _{0}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">∇</mi> <mo>⋅</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">E</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>ρ</mi> <msub> <mi>ε</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {E} ={\frac {\rho }{\varepsilon _{0}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ff0076e721a4b485bda8ff427f00e73c6efb6006" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:11.444ex; height:5.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {E} ={\frac {\rho }{\varepsilon _{0}}}}"></span>；簡單啲用口常用語講，即係「電荷嘅存在會產生電場，而一個封閉表面嘅<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E9%80%9A%E9%87%8F" title="電通量">電通量</a>同電荷量成<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%A3%E6%AF%94" class="mw-redirect" title="正比">正比</a>」。</dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E9%AB%98%E6%96%AF%E7%A3%81%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B" title="高斯磁定律">高斯磁定律</a>：</li></ul> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {B} =0}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">∇</mi> <mo>⋅</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">B</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0</mn> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {B} =0}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/16ee950683349dacdd9e9c262ff6133812747edd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:9.777ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {B} =0}"></span>；用口常用語講，即係「當一個<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_dipole" class="extiw" title="en:Magnetic dipole">磁偶極</a>產生磁場，成個空間嘅磁場總和會係 0」。</dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E6%8B%89%E7%AC%AC%E9%9B%BB%E7%A3%81%E6%84%9F%E6%87%89%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B" title="法拉第電磁感應定律">法拉第電磁感應定律</a>：</li></ul> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \nabla \times \mathbf {E} =-{\frac {\partial \mathbf {B} }{\partial t}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">∇</mi> <mo>×</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">E</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">B</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \nabla \times \mathbf {E} =-{\frac {\partial \mathbf {B} }{\partial t}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2eb118e22c941e34f5537dbbdcaa3d7ba23603e0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:15.495ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \nabla \times \mathbf {E} =-{\frac {\partial \mathbf {B} }{\partial t}}}"></span>；簡單啲講就係「當一個空間有磁場改變嗰陣，就會產生電場」。</dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%89%E5%9F%B9%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B" title="安培定律">安培定律</a>：</li></ul> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \nabla \times \mathbf {B} =\mu _{0}\left(\mathbf {J} +\varepsilon _{0}{\frac {\partial \mathbf {E} }{\partial t}}\right)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">∇</mi> <mo>×</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">B</mi> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>μ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">J</mi> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>ε</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="bold">E</mi> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">∂</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \nabla \times \mathbf {B} =\mu _{0}\left(\mathbf {J} +\varepsilon _{0}{\frac {\partial \mathbf {E} }{\partial t}}\right)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3101c3aa5b146fb449d62d1816e12f38b81afadc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:26.31ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \nabla \times \mathbf {B} =\mu _{0}\left(\mathbf {J} +\varepsilon _{0}{\frac {\partial \mathbf {E} }{\partial t}}\right)}"></span>；簡單啲講就係「穩定嘅電場或者電場改變會產生磁場」。</dd></dl> <ul><li>上述呢柞定律仲可以攞嚟分析<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89" title="光">光</a>等嘅<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E7%A3%81%E6%B3%A2" title="電磁波">電磁波</a>嘅行為<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。</li></ul></dd></dl> <div style="clear: both;"></div> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Direzione_convenzionale_della_corrente_elettrica.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Direzione_convenzionale_della_corrente_elettrica.svg/600px-Direzione_convenzionale_della_corrente_elettrica.svg.png" decoding="async" width="600" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Direzione_convenzionale_della_corrente_elettrica.svg/900px-Direzione_convenzionale_della_corrente_elettrica.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Direzione_convenzionale_della_corrente_elettrica.svg/1200px-Direzione_convenzionale_della_corrente_elettrica.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="677" data-file-height="269" /></a><figcaption>有電場就表示帶電粒子會受力，而根據牛頓第二定律，任何嘢受力都會得到一個非零嘅加速度；帶電粒子嘅移動產生<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E6%B5%81" title="電流">電流</a>。</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%86%B1%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8" title="熱力學">熱力學</a>：用幾條<a href="/wiki/%E7%86%B1%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B" title="熱力學定律">熱力學定律</a>解釋<a href="/wiki/%E8%83%BD%E9%87%8F" title="能量">能量</a>相關現象嘅理論<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>：</li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%83%BD%E9%87%8F%E5%AE%88%E6%81%86%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B" title="能量守恆定律">能量守恆定律</a>：</li></ul> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Delta U_{\rm {system}}=Q+W}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <msub> <mi>U</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">y</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mi>Q</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>W</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Delta U_{\rm {system}}=Q+W}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/6a0770cae530add3362380ccc24dc30927de823e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:18.87ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Delta U_{\rm {system}}=Q+W}"></span>；<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Delta U_{\rm {system}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <msub> <mi>U</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">y</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">t</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">e</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> </mrow> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Delta U_{\rm {system}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/94965d2f64b6a263b91b22306d61a5e6d90f2d85" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:8.658ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Delta U_{\rm {system}}}"></span> 指一個封閉系統嘅能量改變，<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Q}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>Q</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Q}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8752c7023b4b3286800fe3238271bbca681219ed" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.838ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Q}"></span> 指以<a href="/wiki/%E7%86%B1" title="熱">熱</a>形式供俾個系統嘅能量，而 <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle W}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>W</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle W}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/54a9c4c547f4d6111f81946cad242b18298d70b7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.435ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle W}"></span> 指個系統作喺周圍嗰度嘅熱<a href="/wiki/%E4%BD%9C%E5%8A%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="作功">作功</a>－簡單講就係，「一個<a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%81%E9%96%89%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1" title="封閉系統">封閉系統</a>嘅能量改變等如佢吸嘅能量同釋放嘅能量嘅總和，能量唔會無端端多咗或者少咗」。</dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%86%B1%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B" title="熱力學第二定律">熱力學第二定律</a>：</li></ul> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \delta Q=T\,dS\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>δ</mi> <mi>Q</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>T</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> <mi>d</mi> <mi>S</mi> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \delta Q=T\,dS\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/33a1e37dfba9b5f8c6bc535a2f36c205f7ef2f5e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:11.111ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \delta Q=T\,dS\,}"></span>，呢個 <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>S</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.499ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S}"></span> 係<a href="/wiki/%E7%86%B5" title="熵">熵</a>；簡單講，意思係兩個互相有能量交流嘅系統梗係會傾向最後變成<a href="/wiki/%E7%86%B1%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8%E5%B9%B3%E8%A1%A1" title="熱力學平衡">平衡</a>嘅狀態。</dd></dl></dd> <dd>（可以睇埋<a href="/wiki/%E7%B5%B1%E8%A8%88%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8" title="統計力學">統計力學</a>）</dd> <dd>... 等等。</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="影響"><span id=".E5.BD.B1.E9.9F.BF"></span>影響</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&section=2" title="編輯小節: 影響"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div role="note" class="hatnote">睇埋：<a href="/wiki/%E6%B1%BA%E5%AE%9A%E8%AB%96" title="決定論">決定論</a></div> <p>古典物理學喺廿世紀前取得巨大嘅成功，而且當中嘅某啲諗法助長咗<a href="/wiki/%E6%B1%BA%E5%AE%9A%E8%AB%96" title="決定論">決定論</a>嘅思潮：由呢柞理論組成嘅世界觀能夠解釋同預測大部份用肉眼觀察到嘅物理現象，而且呢啲理論做起預測嗰陣嘅<a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%A4%E5%B7%AE" class="mw-redirect" title="誤差">誤差</a>好細，勁到有物理學家仲揚言話呢套理論框架有能力解釋嗮所有嘢，未來嘅物理學家將會冇嘢做；除此之外，古典物理學好多諗法都同古典嘅決定論相容－呢個理論框架冇本質上<a href="/wiki/%E9%9A%A8%E6%A9%9F" title="隨機">隨機</a>嘅現象（例如上述嗰啲方程式冇任何隨機<a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%8A%E6%95%B8_(%E7%A7%91%E7%A0%94)" title="變數 (科研)">變數</a>），所以好多當時嘅哲學家同物理學家都認為，宇宙喺本質上係合乎決定論嘅－佢哋相信喺任何一個時間點，喺一個封閉系統入面，只要人完全知道嗮嗰個系統嘅狀態，就會有能力完全預測個系統下一刻所有部份嘅狀態，而人做唔到呢樣嘢純粹係因為技術問題搞到佢哋做唔到完美嘅<a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%BA%A6" title="量度">量度</a><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。呢種世界觀係所謂嘅<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/clockwork_universe" class="extiw" title="en:clockwork universe">機械鐘宇宙</a>－佢哋話一個噉樣嘅宇宙就好似一個機械鐘噉，係一部完美噉跟住物理定律嚟行嘅<a href="/wiki/%E6%A9%9F%E6%A2%B0" title="機械">機械</a><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="睇埋"><span id=".E7.9D.87.E5.9F.8B"></span>睇埋</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&section=3" title="編輯小節: 睇埋"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="現代物理學">現代物理學</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="引述"><span id=".E5.BC.95.E8.BF.B0"></span>引述</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&section=4" title="編輯小節: 引述"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r2020813">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-1">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Guicciardini, N. (1999). <i>Reading the Principia: The Debate on Newton's Methods for Natural Philosophy from 1687 to 1736</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-2">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ben-Chaim, M. (2004). <i>Experimental Philosophy and the Birth of Empirical Science: Boyle, Locke and Newton</i>. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-3">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Morin, David (2008). <i>Introduction to Classical Mechanics</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E6%9B%B8%E6%9C%AC%E4%BE%86%E6%BA%90/9780521876223" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 9780521876223</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-4">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Barut, Asim O. (1980) [1964]. <i>Introduction to Classical Mechanics</i>. New York: Dover Publications. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E6%9B%B8%E6%9C%AC%E4%BE%86%E6%BA%90/9780486640389" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 9780486640389</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-5">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Imaeda, K. (1995), "<i>Biquaternionic formulation of Maxwell’s Equations and their solutions</i>", Clifford Algebras and Spinor Structures (editors—Rafał Ablamowicz, Pertti Lounesto) Springer.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-6">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bruce J. Hunt (1991). <i>The Maxwellians</i>, chapter 5 and appendix, Cornell University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-7">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Whittaker, E. T., 1960, <i>History of the Theories of the Aether and Electricity</i>, Harper Torchbooks, New York.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-8">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Guggenheim, E.A. (1985). <i>Thermodynamics. An Advanced Treatment for Chemists and Physicists</i>, seventh edition, North Holland, Amsterdam.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-9">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lebon, G., Jou, D., Casas-Vázquez, J. (2008). <i>Understanding Non-equilibrium Thermodynamics. Foundations, Applications, Frontiers</i>, Springer, Berlin,</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-10">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Born, M. (1969). Is classical mechanics in fact deterministic?. In <i>Physics in My Generation</i> (pp. 78-83). Springer: Berlin Heidelberg.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-11">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Levinson, M. H. (2012). <i>The clockwork universe: Isaac newton, the royal society, and the birth of the modern world. ETC.: A Review of General Semantics</i>, 69(4), 479-480.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="物理學各領域" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8%E5%88%86%E6%9E%9D" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:物理學分枝"><abbr title="去睇呢個模" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">睇</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8%E5%88%86%E6%9E%9D&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:物理學分枝 (無呢版)"><abbr title="傾呢個模" style=";;background:none 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style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="物理學哲學">物理學哲學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="理論物理學">理論</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AF%A6%E9%A9%97%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="實驗物理學">實驗</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B8%E7%90%86%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="數理物理學">數理</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%81%8B%E7%AE%97%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="運算物理學">運算</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%87%89%E7%94%A8%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="應用物理學">應用</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E9%87%8F" title="物理量">物理量</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%83%BD%E9%87%8F" title="能量">能量</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E8%B3%AA" title="物質">物質</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.png/150px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.png/225px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.png 2x" data-file-width="260" data-file-height="296" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">古<br />典</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8" title="古典力學">古典力學</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E9%80%A3%E7%BA%8C%E4%BB%8B%E8%B3%AA%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8" title="連續介質力學">連續介質力學</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%BA%E9%AB%94%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8" title="固體力學">固體力學</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E6%B5%81%E9%AB%94%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8" title="流體力學">流體力學</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E9%AB%94%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8" title="天體力學">天體力學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E6%9E%90%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8" title="分析力學">分析力學</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E7%A3%81%E5%AD%B8" title="電磁學">電磁學</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E9%9B%BB%E7%A3%81%E5%AD%B8" title="古典電磁學">古典電磁學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%9C%E9%9B%BB%E5%AD%B8" title="靜電學">靜電學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%9C%E7%A3%81%E5%AD%B8" title="靜磁學">靜磁學</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%86%B1%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8" title="熱力學">熱力學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B5%B1%E8%A8%88%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8" title="統計力學">統計力學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%89%E5%AD%B8" title="光學">光學</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E5%B9%BE%E4%BD%95%E5%85%89%E5%AD%B8" title="幾何光學">幾何光學</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%85%89%E5%AD%B8" title="物理光學">物理光學</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%81%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="聲學">聲學</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="現代物理學">現<br />代</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="量子力學" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%E9%87%8F%E5%AD%90%E5%8A%9B%E5%AD%B8" title="量子力學">量子力學</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a 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