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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_history_and_legend"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Early history and legend </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_history_and_legend-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Involvement_in_the_Classical_Greek_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Involvement_in_the_Classical_Greek_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Involvement in the Classical Greek world </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Involvement_in_the_Classical_Greek_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rise_of_Macedon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_of_Macedon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Rise of Macedon </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_of_Macedon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hellenistic_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hellenistic_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Hellenistic era </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hellenistic_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conflict_with_Rome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conflict_with_Rome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Conflict with Rome </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conflict_with_Rome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Institutions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Institutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Institutions </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Institutions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Institutions subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Institutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Division_of_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Division_of_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Division of power </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Division_of_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kingship_and_the_royal_court" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kingship_and_the_royal_court"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Kingship and the royal court </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kingship_and_the_royal_court-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Royal_pages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Royal_pages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Royal pages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Royal_pages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bodyguards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bodyguards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Bodyguards </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bodyguards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Companions,_friends,_councils,_and_assemblies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Companions,_friends,_councils,_and_assemblies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Companions, friends, councils, and assemblies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Companions,_friends,_councils,_and_assemblies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Magistrates,_the_commonwealth,_local_government,_and_allied_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magistrates,_the_commonwealth,_local_government,_and_allied_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Magistrates, the commonwealth, local government, and allied states </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magistrates,_the_commonwealth,_local_government,_and_allied_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Military </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_Macedonian_army" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Macedonian_army"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7.1 Early Macedonian army </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Macedonian_army-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philip_II_and_Alexander_the_Great" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philip_II_and_Alexander_the_Great"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7.2 Philip II and Alexander the Great </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philip_II_and_Alexander_the_Great-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antigonid_period_military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antigonid_period_military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7.3 Antigonid period military </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antigonid_period_military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Society and culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Society and culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Language_and_dialects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_and_dialects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Language and dialects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language_and_dialects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_beliefs_and_funerary_practices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_beliefs_and_funerary_practices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Religious beliefs and funerary practices </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_beliefs_and_funerary_practices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economics_and_social_class" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economics_and_social_class"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Economics and social class </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economics_and_social_class-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Visual_arts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Visual_arts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Visual arts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Visual_arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theatre,_music_and_performing_arts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theatre,_music_and_performing_arts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Theatre, music and performing arts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theatre,_music_and_performing_arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature,_education,_philosophy,_and_patronage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature,_education,_philosophy,_and_patronage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Literature, education, philosophy, and patronage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature,_education,_philosophy,_and_patronage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sports_and_leisure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sports_and_leisure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 Sports and leisure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sports_and_leisure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dining_and_cuisine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dining_and_cuisine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8 Dining and cuisine </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dining_and_cuisine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethnic_identity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnic_identity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.9 Ethnic identity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnic_identity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technology_and_engineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technology_and_engineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Technology and engineering </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Technology_and_engineering-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Technology and engineering subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Technology_and_engineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Architecture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_technology_and_engineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_technology_and_engineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Military technology and engineering </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_technology_and_engineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_innovations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_innovations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Other innovations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_innovations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Currency,_finances,_and_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Currency,_finances,_and_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Currency, finances, and resources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Currency,_finances,_and_resources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Online" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Online"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.1 Online </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Online-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Print" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Print"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.2 Print </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Print-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Macedonia (ancient kingdom)</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 97 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-97" aria-hidden="true" > 97 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koninkryk_Masedoni%C3%AB" title="Koninkryk Masedonië – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Koninkryk Masedonië" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9_%D9%85%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="مملكة مقدونيا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مملكة مقدونيا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A5%D5%A4%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%A1_(%D5%B0%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%A9%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%A1%D6%82%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6)" title="Մակեդոնիա (հին թագաւորութիւն) – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Մակեդոնիա (հին թագաւորութիւն)" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinu_de_Macedonia" title="Reinu de Macedonia – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Reinu de Macedonia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tavet%C3%A3_Masend%C3%B3%C3%B1a" title="Tavetã Masendóña – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Tavetã Masendóña" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makedoniya_%C3%A7arl%C4%B1%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Makedoniya çarlığı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Makedoniya çarlığı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%87_%DA%86%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%BA%DB%8C" title="مقدونیه چارلیغی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="مقدونیه چارلیغی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A1%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE_(%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF)" title="ম্যাসেডোনিয়া (প্রাচীন রাজ্য) – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ম্যাসেডোনিয়া (প্রাচীন রাজ্য)" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(k%C3%B3%CD%98-t%C4%81i_%C3%B4ng-kok)" title="Macedonia (kó͘-tāi ông-kok) – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Macedonia (kó͘-tāi ông-kok)" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Старажытная Македонія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Старажытная Македонія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Старажытная Македонія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Старажытная Македонія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Древна Македония – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Древна Македония" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti%C4%8Dka_Makedonija" title="Antička Makedonija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Antička Makedonija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rouantelezh_Makedonia" title="Rouantelezh Makedonia – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Rouantelezh Makedonia" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regne_de_Maced%C3%B2nia" title="Regne de Macedònia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Regne de Macedònia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makedonie_(kr%C3%A1lovstv%C3%AD)" title="Makedonie (království) – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Makedonie (království)" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedon" title="Macedon – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Macedon" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makedonien_i_oldtiden" title="Makedonien i oldtiden – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Makedonien i oldtiden" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makedonien_(antikes_K%C3%B6nigreich)" title="Makedonien (antikes Königreich) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Makedonien (antikes Königreich)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vana-Makedoonia" title="Vana-Makedoonia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Vana-Makedoonia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%B5%CE%B4%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%AF%CE%B1_(%CE%B1%CF%81%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%AF%CE%BF_%CE%B2%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%BF)" title="Μακεδονία (αρχαίο βασίλειο) – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μακεδονία (αρχαίο βασίλειο)" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reino_de_Macedonia" title="Reino de Macedonia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Reino de Macedonia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikva_Makedonio" title="Antikva Makedonio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Antikva Makedonio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia" title="Macedonia – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Macedonia" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazedonia_(antzinako_erresuma)" title="Mazedonia (antzinako erresuma) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Mazedonia (antzinako erresuma)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%87_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="مقدونیه باستان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مقدونیه باستان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royaume_de_Mac%C3%A9doine" title="Royaume de Macédoine – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Royaume de Macédoine" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masedoanje_(Aldheid)" title="Masedoanje (Aldheid) – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Masedoanje (Aldheid)" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%ADocht_na_Macad%C3%B3ine" title="Ríocht na Macadóine – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ríocht na Macadóine" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reino_de_Macedonia" title="Reino de Macedonia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Reino de Macedonia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A7%88%EC%BC%80%EB%8F%84%EB%8B%88%EC%95%84_%EC%99%95%EA%B5%AD" title="마케도니아 왕국 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="마케도니아 왕국" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daular_Macedoniya" title="Daular Macedoniya – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Daular Macedoniya" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%84%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A5%D5%A4%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Հին Մակեդոնիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հին Մակեդոնիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="मकदूनिया साम्राज्य – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मकदूनिया साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraljevina_Makedonija" title="Kraljevina Makedonija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kraljevina Makedonija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rejio_Makedonia" title="Rejio Makedonia – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Rejio Makedonia" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makedonia_(kerajaan_kuno)" title="Makedonia (kerajaan kuno) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Makedonia (kerajaan kuno)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maked%C3%B3n%C3%ADa_(forn%C3%B6ld)" title="Makedónía (fornöld) – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Makedónía (fornöld)" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regno_di_Macedonia" title="Regno di Macedonia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Regno di Macedonia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%93%D7%95%D7%9F" title="מוקדון – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מוקדון" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AB%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%99%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ძველი მაკედონია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ძველი მაკედონია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B3%D1%96_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Ежелгі Македония – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ежелгі Македония" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keyaniya_Makedon%C3%AE" title="Keyaniya Makedonî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Keyaniya Makedonî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%BA%D1%8B" title="Македония Байыркы – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Македония Байыркы" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_antiqua" title="Macedonia antiqua – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Macedonia antiqua" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sen%C4%81_Ma%C4%B7edonija" title="Senā Maķedonija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Senā Maķedonija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinnekr%C3%A4ich_Makedonien" title="Kinnekräich Makedonien – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Kinnekräich Makedonien" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senov%C4%97s_Makedonija" title="Senovės Makedonija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Senovės Makedonija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impero_de_Alexandro" title="Impero de Alexandro – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Impero de Alexandro" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maked%C3%B3nia" title="Makedónia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Makedónia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Античка Македонија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Античка Македонија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanjakan%27_i_Maked%C3%B4nia" title="Fanjakan' i Makedônia – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fanjakan' i Makedônia" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AF%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%99%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ჯვეში მაკედონია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ჯვეში მაკედონია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empayar_Makedonia" title="Empayar Makedonia – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Empayar Makedonia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C4%81-g%C3%AC-d%C3%B3ng_U%C3%B2ng-gu%C3%B3k" title="Mā-gì-dóng Uòng-guók – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Mā-gì-dóng Uòng-guók" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD_(%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%81)" title="Македон (эртний улс) – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Македон (эртний улс)" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedoni%C3%AB_(oudheid)" title="Macedonië (oudheid) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Macedonië (oudheid)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE_(%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF)" title="मेसोडोनिया (प्राचीन अधिराज्य) – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="मेसोडोनिया (प्राचीन अधिराज्य)" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="मेसेडोनियन साम्राज्य – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="मेसेडोनियन साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9E%E3%82%B1%E3%83%89%E3%83%8B%E3%82%A2%E7%8E%8B%E5%9B%BD" title="マケドニア王国 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="マケドニア王国" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldtidens_Makedonia" title="Oldtidens Makedonia – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Oldtidens Makedonia" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makedonia_i_antikken" title="Makedonia i antikken – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Makedonia i antikken" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reialme_de_Maced%C3%B2nia" title="Reialme de Macedònia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Reialme de Macedònia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makedoniya_(qadimgi_davlat)" title="Makedoniya (qadimgi davlat) – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Makedoniya (qadimgi davlat)" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7_(%D9%82%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%85_%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%AA)" title="مقدونیا (قدیم مملکت) – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="مقدونیا (قدیم مملکت)" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masidan" title="Masidan – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Masidan" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makedonien_(Antike)" title="Makedonien (Antike) – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Makedonien (Antike)" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staro%C5%BCytna_Macedonia" title="Starożytna Macedonia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Starożytna Macedonia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maced%C3%B3nia_Antiga" title="Macedónia Antiga – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Macedónia Antiga" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_Antic%C4%83" title="Macedonia Antică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Macedonia Antică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Антична Македония – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Антична Македония" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8F%D1%8F_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Древняя Македония – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Древняя Македония" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedon" title="Macedon – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Macedon" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maqedonia_e_lasht%C3%AB" title="Maqedonia e lashtë – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Maqedonia e lashtë" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%90%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%A9%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80_(%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%AD%E0%B6%B1_%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%A2%E0%B6%B0%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA)" title="මැසඩෝනියාව (පුරාතන රාජධානිය) – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="මැසඩෝනියාව (පුරාතන රාජධානිය)" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom) – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A7_(%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85_%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA)" title="مقدونيا (قديم رياست) – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="مقدونيا (قديم رياست)" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maced%C3%B3nia_(historick%C3%A9_%C3%BAzemie)" title="Macedónia (historické územie) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Macedónia (historické územie)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makedonija_(kraljestvo)" title="Makedonija (kraljestvo) – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Makedonija (kraljestvo)" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C_%D9%85%DB%95%D9%82%D8%AF%DB%86%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="شانشینی مەقدۆنیا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="شانشینی مەقدۆنیا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_(%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%99%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0)" title="Македонија (античка краљевина) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Македонија (античка краљевина)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti%C4%8Dka_Makedonija" title="Antička Makedonija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Antička Makedonija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makedonian_valtakunta" title="Makedonian valtakunta – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Makedonian valtakunta" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kungariket_Makedonien" title="Kungariket Makedonien – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kungariket Makedonien" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaharian_ng_Macedonia" title="Kaharian ng Macedonia – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kaharian ng Macedonia" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE_(%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D)" title="மக்கெடோனியா (பண்டைய இராச்சியம்) – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மக்கெடோனியா (பண்டைய இராச்சியம்)" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B3%D1%8B_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Борынгы Македония – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Борынгы Македония" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%81%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2" title="ราชอาณาจักรมาเกโดนีอา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ราชอาณาจักรมาเกโดนีอา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makedonya_(antik_krall%C4%B1k)" title="Makedonya (antik krallık) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Makedonya (antik krallık)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Стародавня Македонія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Стародавня Македонія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C%DB%81_(%D9%82%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%85_%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%AA)" title="مقدونیہ (قدیم مملکت) – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="مقدونیہ (قدیم مملکت)" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_qu%E1%BB%91c_Macedonia" title="Vương quốc Macedonia – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Vương quốc Macedonia" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mak%C3%B5doonia_kuningriik" title="Makõdoonia kuningriik – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Makõdoonia kuningriik" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(hadto_nga_ginhadian)" title="Macedonia (hadto nga ginhadian) – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Macedonia (hadto nga ginhadian)" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E5%85%B6%E9%A1%BF%E7%8E%8B%E5%9B%BD" title="马其顿王国 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="马其顿王国" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A6%AC%E5%85%B6%E9%A0%93%E7%8E%8B%E5%9C%8B" title="馬其頓王國 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="馬其頓王國" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A6%AC%E5%85%B6%E9%A0%93%E7%8E%8B%E5%9C%8B" title="馬其頓王國 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="馬其頓王國" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q83958#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> 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.ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Macedonia</div><div class="ib-country-names">Μακεδονία</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 7th century – 168 BC</li> <li>150–148 BC</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div style="padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Vergina Sun of Macedon"><img alt="Vergina Sun of Macedon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg/100px-Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg/150px-Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg/200px-Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="573" data-file-height="573" /></a></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Vergina_Sun" title="Vergina Sun"> Vergina Sun</a></div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Macedonia_336_BC-en.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Kingdom of Macedonia in 336 BC (orange)"><img alt="The Kingdom of Macedonia in 336 BC (orange)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Map_Macedonia_336_BC-en.svg/250px-Map_Macedonia_336_BC-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Map_Macedonia_336_BC-en.svg/375px-Map_Macedonia_336_BC-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Map_Macedonia_336_BC-en.svg/500px-Map_Macedonia_336_BC-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="992" data-file-height="794" /></a><div class="ib-country-map-caption">The Kingdom of Macedonia in 336 BC (orange)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aegae_(Macedonia)" title="Aegae (Macedonia)">Aigai</a><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> (before 399 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pella" title="Pella">Pella</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> (399–168 BC)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_language" title="Ancient Macedonian language">Ancient Macedonian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Attic_Greek" title="Attic Greek">Attic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Greek polytheism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic religion</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">Macedonian</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hereditary_monarchy" title="Hereditary monarchy">Hereditary monarchy</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kings of Macedon">Basileus</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 359–336 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 336–323 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 179–168 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Perseus_of_Macedon" title="Perseus of Macedon">Perseus</a> (last)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 149–148 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Andriscus" title="Andriscus">Andriscus</a> (rebel claim)</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Legislature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Synedrion" title="Synedrion">Synedrion</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Classical_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Antiquity">Classical Antiquity</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• legendary <a href="/wiki/Founding_myth" class="mw-redirect" title="Founding myth">foundation</a> by <a href="/wiki/Caranus_(king)" class="mw-redirect" title="Caranus (king)">Caranus</a> or <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas_I_of_Macedon" title="Perdiccas I of Macedon">Perdiccas I</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">7th century BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Vassal" title="Vassal">Vassal</a> of <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid Persia">Persia</a><a href="#cite_note-sprawski_135–138_olbrycht_342–345-3">[3]</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">512/511–493 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Macedonia" title="Achaemenid Macedonia">Incorporated into the Persian Empire</a><a href="#cite_note-sprawski_135–138_olbrycht_342–345-3">[3]</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">492–479 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Rise_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Rise of Macedon">Rise of Macedon</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">359–336 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/League_of_Corinth" title="League of Corinth">Founding of the Hellenic League</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">338–337 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">Conquest of Persia</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">335–323 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Babylon" title="Partition of Babylon">Partition of Babylon</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">323 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Diadochi" title="Wars of the Diadochi">Wars of the Diadochi</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">322–275 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pydna" title="Battle of Pydna">Battle of Pydna</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">168 BC</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Area</th></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">323 BC<a href="#cite_note-Turchin-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Taagepera-5">[5]</a></th><td class="infobox-data">5,200,000 km2 (2,000,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Tetradrachm" title="Tetradrachm">Tetradrachm</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> Preceded by</td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;">Succeeded by </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Greek_Dark_Ages" title="Greek Dark Ages">Greek Dark Ages</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Macedonia" title="Achaemenid Macedonia">Achaemenid Macedonia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/League_of_Corinth" title="League of Corinth">League of Corinth</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Pauravas" title="Pauravas">Pauravas</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Lysimachian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Lysimachian Empire">Lysimachian Empire</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Kingdom</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Attalid_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Attalid kingdom">Attalid kingdom</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(Roman_province)" title="Macedonia (Roman province)">Macedonia province</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> Macedonia (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˌmæsɪˈdoʊniə/</a> <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/5\/50\/En-us-Macedonia.ogg\/En-us-Macedonia.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"En-us-Macedonia.ogg"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/50/En-us-Macedonia.ogg/En-us-Macedonia.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a><a href="/wiki/File:En-us-Macedonia.ogg" title="File:En-us-Macedonia.ogg">ⓘ</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key">MASS-ih-DOH-nee-ə</a>; <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: Μακεδονία, Makedonía), also called Macedon (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈmæsɪdɒn/</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key">MASS-ih-don</a>), was an <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">ancient</a> <a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">kingdom</a> on the periphery of <a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a>,<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> which later became the dominant state of <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Greece" title="Hellenistic Greece">Hellenistic Greece</a>.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> The <a href="/wiki/History_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">kingdom was founded</a> and initially ruled by the royal <a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty" title="Argead dynasty">Argead dynasty</a>, which was followed by the <a href="/wiki/Antipatrid_dynasty" title="Antipatrid dynasty">Antipatrid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antigonid_dynasty" title="Antigonid dynasty">Antigonid</a> dynasties. Home to the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">ancient Macedonians</a>, the earliest kingdom was centered on the northeastern part of the <a href="/wiki/Greek_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek peninsula">Greek peninsula</a>,<a href="#cite_note-britannica-8">[8]</a> and bordered by <a href="/wiki/Epirus_(ancient_state)" title="Epirus (ancient state)">Epirus</a> to the southwest, <a href="/wiki/Illyria" title="Illyria">Illyria</a> to the northwest, <a href="/wiki/Paeonia_(kingdom)" title="Paeonia (kingdom)">Paeonia</a> to the north, <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a> to the east and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Thessaly" title="Ancient Thessaly">Thessaly</a> to the south. Before the 4th century BC, Macedonia was a small kingdom outside of the area dominated by the great <a href="/wiki/City-states" class="mw-redirect" title="City-states">city-states</a> of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Athens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Classical_Thebes" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Thebes">Thebes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Macedonia" title="Achaemenid Macedonia">briefly subordinate</a> to <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid Persia">Achaemenid Persia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-sprawski_135–138_olbrycht_342–345-3">[3]</a> During the reign of the Argead king <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II</a> (359–336 BC), Macedonia <a href="/wiki/Rise_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Rise of Macedon">subdued</a> <a href="/wiki/Mainland_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Mainland Greece">mainland Greece</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Thracians" title="Thracians">Thracian</a> <a href="/wiki/Odrysian_kingdom" title="Odrysian kingdom">Odrysian kingdom</a> through conquest and diplomacy. With a reformed <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_army" title="Ancient Macedonian army">army</a> containing <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_phalanx" title="Macedonian phalanx">phalanxes</a> wielding the <a href="/wiki/Sarissa" title="Sarissa">sarissa</a> pike, Philip II defeated the old powers of <a href="/wiki/Second_Athenian_League" title="Second Athenian League">Athens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theban_hegemony" title="Theban hegemony">Thebes</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chaeronea_(338_BC)" title="Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)">Battle of Chaeronea</a> in 338 BC. Philip II's son <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, leading a <a href="/wiki/League_of_Corinth" title="League of Corinth">federation of Greek states</a>, accomplished his father's objective of commanding the whole of Greece when he <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thebes" title="Battle of Thebes">destroyed Thebes</a> after the city revolted. During Alexander's subsequent <a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_the_expedition_of_Alexander_the_Great_into_Asia" title="Chronology of the expedition of Alexander the Great into Asia">campaign of conquest</a>, he <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">overthrew</a> the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> and conquered territory that stretched as far as the <a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Indus River</a>. For a brief period, his Macedonian Empire was the most powerful in the world – the definitive <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> state, inaugurating the transition to a new period of <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture of ancient Greece">Ancient Greek civilization</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_art" title="Hellenistic art">Greek arts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic literature">literature</a> flourished in the new conquered lands and advances in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek engineering">engineering</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek science">science</a> spread across the empire and beyond. Of particular importance were the contributions of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, tutor to Alexander, <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">whose writings</a> became a keystone of <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a>. After <a href="/wiki/Death_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Death of Alexander the Great">Alexander's death</a> in 323 BC, the ensuing <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Diadochi" title="Wars of the Diadochi">wars of the Diadochi</a>, and the partitioning of Alexander's short-lived empire, Macedonia remained a Greek cultural and political center in the Mediterranean region along with <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Egypt">Ptolemaic Egypt</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Attalid_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Attalid kingdom">Attalid kingdom</a>. Important cities such as <a href="/wiki/Pella" title="Pella">Pella</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pydna" title="Pydna">Pydna</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Amphipolis" title="Amphipolis">Amphipolis</a> were involved in power struggles for control of the territory. New cities were founded, such as <a href="/wiki/Thessalonica" class="mw-redirect" title="Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a> by the usurper <a href="/wiki/Cassander" title="Cassander">Cassander</a> (named after his wife <a href="/wiki/Thessalonike_of_Macedon" title="Thessalonike of Macedon">Thessalonike of Macedon</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Adams_2010_215-9">[9]</a> Macedonia's decline began with the <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Wars" title="Macedonian Wars">Macedonian Wars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rise_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Rise of Rome">the rise</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a> as the leading <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean region">Mediterranean</a> power. At the end of the <a href="/wiki/Third_Macedonian_War" title="Third Macedonian War">Third Macedonian War</a> in 168 BC, <a href="/wiki/Greece_in_the_Roman_era" title="Greece in the Roman era">the Macedonian monarchy was abolished</a> and replaced by Roman <a href="/wiki/Client_state" title="Client state">client states</a>. A short-lived revival of the monarchy during the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Macedonian_War" title="Fourth Macedonian War">Fourth Macedonian War</a> in 150–148 BC ended with the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Roman province</a> of <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(Roman_province)" title="Macedonia (Roman province)">Macedonia</a>. The Macedonian kings, who wielded <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute power</a> and commanded <a href="/wiki/State_ownership" title="State ownership">state resources</a> such as gold and silver, facilitated mining operations to <a href="/wiki/Mint_(facility)" title="Mint (facility)">mint</a> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_coinage" title="Ancient Greek coinage">currency</a>, finance <a href="/wiki/Antigonid_Macedonian_army" title="Antigonid Macedonian army">their armies</a> and, by the reign of Philip II, a Macedonian navy. Unlike the other <a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">diadochi</a> <a href="/wiki/Successor_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Successor state">successor states</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_cult" title="Imperial cult">imperial cult</a> fostered by Alexander was never adopted in Macedonia, yet Macedonian rulers nevertheless assumed roles as <a href="/wiki/High_priest" title="High priest">high priests</a> of the kingdom and leading patrons of domestic and international <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">cults</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic religion</a>. The authority of Macedonian kings was theoretically limited by the institution of the army, while <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">a few municipalities</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Koinon_of_Macedonians" class="mw-redirect" title="Koinon of Macedonians">Macedonian commonwealth</a> enjoyed a high degree of autonomy and even had <a href="/wiki/History_of_democracy" title="History of democracy">democratic governments</a> with <a href="/wiki/Popular_assemblies" class="mw-redirect" title="Popular assemblies">popular assemblies</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Makedon_(mythology)" title="Makedon (mythology)">Makedon (mythology)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)" title="Macedonia (terminology)">Macedonia (terminology)</a></div> The name Macedonia (<a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: Μακεδονία, Makedonía) comes from the <a href="/wiki/Ethnonym" title="Ethnonym">ethnonym</a> Μακεδόνες (Makedónes), which itself is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">ancient Greek</a> adjective <a href="/wiki/Makednos" class="mw-redirect" title="Makednos">μακεδνός</a> (makednós), meaning "tall, slim", also the name of a people related to the <a href="/wiki/Dorians" title="Dorians">Dorians</a> (<a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>), and possibly descriptive of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">Ancient Macedonians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeekes2009894-10">[10]</a> It is most likely <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">cognate</a> with the adjective μακρός (makrós), meaning "long" or "tall" in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeekes2009894-10">[10]</a> The name is believed to have originally meant either "highlanders", "the tall ones", or "high grown men".<a href="#cite_note-11">[note 1]</a> Linguist <a href="/wiki/Robert_S._P._Beekes" title="Robert S. P. Beekes">Robert S. P. Beekes</a> claims that both terms are of <a href="/wiki/Pre-Greek_substrate" title="Pre-Greek substrate">Pre-Greek substrate</a> origin and cannot be explained in terms of <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> morphology,<a href="#cite_note-12">[11]</a> however Filip De Decker rejects Beekesʼ arguments as insufficient.<a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_history_and_legend">Early history and legend</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Macedonia" title="Achaemenid Macedonia">Achaemenid Macedonia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty" title="Argead dynasty">Argead dynasty</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Macedonians#Kings" title="List of ancient Macedonians">List of ancient Macedonians § Kings</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vergina2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Vergina2.jpg/220px-Vergina2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Vergina2.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="201" /></a><figcaption>The entrance to one of the royal tombs at <a href="/wiki/Vergina" title="Vergina">Vergina</a>, a <a href="/wiki/UNESCO_World_Heritage_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="UNESCO World Heritage Site">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical</a> <a href="/wiki/Greek_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek historiography">Greek historians</a> <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a> reported the <a href="/wiki/Origin_myth" title="Origin myth">legend</a> that the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Macedonian_kings" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Macedonian kings">Macedonian kings</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty" title="Argead dynasty">Argead dynasty</a> were descendants of <a href="/wiki/Temenus" title="Temenus">Temenus</a>, king of <a href="/wiki/Argos,_Peloponnese" title="Argos, Peloponnese">Argos</a>, and could therefore claim the mythical <a href="/wiki/Heracles" title="Heracles">Heracles</a> as one of their <a href="/wiki/Ancestor" title="Ancestor">ancestors</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_the_Greek_gods" title="Family tree of the Greek gods">a direct lineage</a> from <a href="/wiki/Zeus" title="Zeus">Zeus</a>, chief god of the <a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Greek pantheon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-king_376_sprawski_127_errington_2_3-14">[13]</a> Contradictory legends state that either <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas_I_of_Macedon" title="Perdiccas I of Macedon">Perdiccas I of Macedon</a> or <a href="/wiki/Caranus_of_Macedon" title="Caranus of Macedon">Caranus of Macedon</a> were the founders of the Argead dynasty, with either five or eight kings before Amyntas I.<a href="#cite_note-15">[14]</a> The assertion that the Argeads descended from Temenus was accepted by the <a href="/wiki/Hellanodikai" title="Hellanodikai">Hellanodikai</a> authorities of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Olympic_Games" title="Ancient Olympic Games">Ancient Olympic Games</a>, permitting <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Macedon" title="Alexander I of Macedon">Alexander I of Macedon</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 498–454 BC) to enter the competitions owing to his perceived Greek heritage.<a href="#cite_note-16">[15]</a> Little is known about the kingdom before the reign of Alexander I's father <a href="/wiki/Amyntas_I_of_Macedon" title="Amyntas I of Macedon">Amyntas I of Macedon</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 547–498 BC) during the <a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic period</a>.<a href="#cite_note-king_2010_376-17">[16]</a> The <a href="/wiki/History_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">kingdom of Macedonia</a> was situated along the <a href="/wiki/Haliacmon" title="Haliacmon">Haliacmon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vardar" title="Vardar">Axius</a> rivers in <a href="/wiki/Lower_Macedonia" title="Lower Macedonia">Lower Macedonia</a>, north of <a href="/wiki/Mount_Olympus" title="Mount Olympus">Mount Olympus</a>. Historian <a href="/wiki/Robert_Malcolm_Errington" title="Robert Malcolm Errington">Robert Malcolm Errington</a> suggests that one of the earliest Argead kings established <a href="/wiki/Aegae_(Macedonia)" title="Aegae (Macedonia)">Aigai</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Vergina" title="Vergina">Vergina</a>) as their capital in the mid-7th century BC.<a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a> Before the 4th century BC, the kingdom covered a region corresponding roughly to the <a href="/wiki/Western_Macedonia" title="Western Macedonia">western</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Macedonia" title="Central Macedonia">central</a> parts of the <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(Greece)" title="Macedonia (Greece)">region of Macedonia</a> in modern <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>.<a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a> It gradually expanded into the region of <a href="/wiki/Upper_Macedonia" title="Upper Macedonia">Upper Macedonia</a>, inhabited by the Greek <a href="/wiki/Lynkestis" title="Lynkestis">Lyncestae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elimiotis" title="Elimiotis">Elimiotae</a> tribes, and into regions of <a href="/wiki/Emathia" title="Emathia">Emathia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eordaia" title="Eordaia">Eordaia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bottiaea" title="Bottiaea">Bottiaea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mygdonia" title="Mygdonia">Mygdonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crestonia" title="Crestonia">Crestonia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Almopia" title="Almopia">Almopia</a>, which were inhabited by various peoples such as <a href="/wiki/Thracians" title="Thracians">Thracians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phrygians" title="Phrygians">Phrygians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[note 2]</a> Macedonia's non-Greek neighbors included Thracians, inhabiting territories to the northeast, <a href="/wiki/Illyrians" title="Illyrians">Illyrians</a> to the northwest, and <a href="/wiki/Paeonians" title="Paeonians">Paeonians</a> to the north, while the lands of <a href="/wiki/Thessaly" title="Thessaly">Thessaly</a> to the south and <a href="/wiki/Epirus" title="Epirus">Epirus</a> to the west were inhabited by Greeks with similar cultures to that of the Macedonians.<a href="#cite_note-21">[19]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oktadrachm_of_Alexander_I_498_%E2%80%93_454_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Oktadrachm_of_Alexander_I_498_%E2%80%93_454_BCE.jpg/220px-Oktadrachm_of_Alexander_I_498_%E2%80%93_454_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Oktadrachm_of_Alexander_I_498_%E2%80%93_454_BCE.jpg/330px-Oktadrachm_of_Alexander_I_498_%E2%80%93_454_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Oktadrachm_of_Alexander_I_498_%E2%80%93_454_BCE.jpg/440px-Oktadrachm_of_Alexander_I_498_%E2%80%93_454_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="229" /></a><figcaption>A silver <a href="/wiki/Drachm" class="mw-redirect" title="Drachm">octadrachm</a> of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Macedon" title="Alexander I of Macedon">Alexander I of Macedon</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 498–454 BC), <a href="/wiki/Mint_(facility)" title="Mint (facility)">minted</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 465–460 BC, showing an <a href="/wiki/Equestrianism" title="Equestrianism">equestrian</a> figure wearing a <a href="/wiki/Chlamys" title="Chlamys">chlamys</a> (short cloak) and <a href="/wiki/Petasos" title="Petasos">petasos</a> (head cap) while holding two spears and leading a horse</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:264px;max-width:264px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:108px;max-width:108px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Xerxes_I_tomb_Ionian_with_petasos_or_kausia_soldier_circa_480_BCE_cleaned_up.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Xerxes_I_tomb_Ionian_with_petasos_or_kausia_soldier_circa_480_BCE_cleaned_up.jpg/106px-Xerxes_I_tomb_Ionian_with_petasos_or_kausia_soldier_circa_480_BCE_cleaned_up.jpg" decoding="async" width="106" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Xerxes_I_tomb_Ionian_with_petasos_or_kausia_soldier_circa_480_BCE_cleaned_up.jpg/159px-Xerxes_I_tomb_Ionian_with_petasos_or_kausia_soldier_circa_480_BCE_cleaned_up.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Xerxes_I_tomb_Ionian_with_petasos_or_kausia_soldier_circa_480_BCE_cleaned_up.jpg/212px-Xerxes_I_tomb_Ionian_with_petasos_or_kausia_soldier_circa_480_BCE_cleaned_up.jpg 2x" data-file-width="533" data-file-height="1009" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Xerxes_I_tomb_Ionian_with_petasos_or_kausia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Xerxes_I_tomb_Ionian_with_petasos_or_kausia.jpg/150px-Xerxes_I_tomb_Ionian_with_petasos_or_kausia.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Xerxes_I_tomb_Ionian_with_petasos_or_kausia.jpg/225px-Xerxes_I_tomb_Ionian_with_petasos_or_kausia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Xerxes_I_tomb_Ionian_with_petasos_or_kausia.jpg/300px-Xerxes_I_tomb_Ionian_with_petasos_or_kausia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="347" data-file-height="465" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:center">The "Ionians with shield-hats" (<a href="/wiki/Old_Persian_cuneiform" title="Old Persian cuneiform">Old Persian cuneiform</a>: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%90%8E%B9%F0%90%8E%A2%F0%90%8E%B4%F0%90%8E%A0_%F0%90%8F%90_%F0%90%8E%AB%F0%90%8E%A3%F0%90%8E%B2%F0%90%8E%BC%F0%90%8E%A0" class="extiw" title="wikt:𐎹𐎢𐎴𐎠 𐏐 𐎫𐎣𐎲𐎼𐎠">𐎹𐎢𐎴𐎠𐏐𐎫𐎣𐎲𐎼𐎠</a>, Yaunā takabarā)<a href="#cite_note-22">[20]</a> depicted on the tomb of <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes I</a> at <a href="/wiki/Naqsh-e_Rustam" class="mw-redirect" title="Naqsh-e Rustam">Naqsh-e Rustam</a>, were probably Macedonian soldiers in the service of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_army" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid army">Achaemenid army</a>, wearing the <a href="/wiki/Petasos" title="Petasos">petasos</a> or <a href="/wiki/Kausia" title="Kausia">kausia</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 480 BC.<a href="#cite_note-23">[21]</a></div></div></div></div> A year after <a href="/wiki/Darius_I_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius I of Persia">Darius I of Persia</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 522–486 BC) launched <a href="/wiki/European_Scythian_campaign_of_Darius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="European Scythian campaign of Darius I">an invasion</a> into Europe against the <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paeonians" title="Paeonians">Paeonians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thracians</a>, and several Greek city-states of the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a>, the Persian general <a href="/wiki/Megabazus" title="Megabazus">Megabazus</a> used diplomacy to convince Amyntas I to submit as a <a href="/wiki/Vassal_state" title="Vassal state">vassal</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a>, ushering in the period of <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Macedonia" title="Achaemenid Macedonia">Achaemenid Macedonia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-24">[note 3]</a> Achaemenid Persian <a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">hegemony</a> over Macedonia was briefly interrupted by the <a href="/wiki/Ionian_Revolt" title="Ionian Revolt">Ionian Revolt</a> (499–493 BC), yet the Persian general <a href="/wiki/Mardonius_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mardonius (general)">Mardonius</a> brought it back under Achaemenid <a href="/wiki/Suzerainty" title="Suzerainty">suzerainty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-25">[22]</a> Although Macedonia enjoyed a large degree of <a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">autonomy</a> and was never made a <a href="/wiki/Satrap" title="Satrap">satrapy</a> (i.e. province) of the Achaemenid Empire, it was expected to provide troops for the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_army" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid army">Achaemenid army</a>.<a href="#cite_note-26">[23]</a> Alexander I provided Macedonian military support to <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes I</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 486–465 BC) during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="Second Persian invasion of Greece">Second Persian invasion of Greece</a> in 480–479 BC, and Macedonian soldiers fought on the side of the Persians at the 479 BC <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Platea" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Platea">Battle of Platea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-27">[24]</a> Following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Greek victory at Salamis</a> in 480 BC, Alexander I was employed as an Achaemenid diplomat to propose a peace treaty and alliance with <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Athens</a>, an offer that was rejected.<a href="#cite_note-28">[25]</a> Soon afterwards, the Achaemenid forces were <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Delian_League" title="Wars of the Delian League">forced to withdraw from mainland Europe</a>, marking the end of Persian control over Macedonia.<a href="#cite_note-29">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Involvement_in_the_Classical_Greek_world">Involvement in the Classical Greek world</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Delian_League" title="Delian League">Delian League</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spartan_hegemony" title="Spartan hegemony">Spartan hegemony</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Theban_hegemony" title="Theban hegemony">Theban hegemony</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Peloponnesian_War_431_BC-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Map_Peloponnesian_War_431_BC-en.svg/260px-Map_Peloponnesian_War_431_BC-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Map_Peloponnesian_War_431_BC-en.svg/390px-Map_Peloponnesian_War_431_BC-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Map_Peloponnesian_War_431_BC-en.svg/520px-Map_Peloponnesian_War_431_BC-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="993" data-file-height="794" /></a><figcaption>Macedon (orange) during the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a> around 431 BC, with <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Athens</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Delian_League" title="Delian League">Delian League</a> (yellow), <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_League" title="Peloponnesian League">Peloponnesian League</a> (red), independent states (blue), and the Persian <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> (purple)</figcaption></figure> Although initially a Persian vassal, Alexander I of Macedon fostered friendly diplomatic relations with his former Greek enemies, the Athenian and <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Spartan</a>-led coalition of Greek city-states.<a href="#cite_note-30">[27]</a> His successor <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas_II_of_Macedon" title="Perdiccas II of Macedon">Perdiccas II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 454–413 BC) led the Macedonians to war in four separate conflicts against Athens, leader of the <a href="/wiki/Delian_League" title="Delian League">Delian League</a>, while incursions by the Thracian ruler <a href="/wiki/Sitalces" title="Sitalces">Sitalces</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Odrysian_kingdom" title="Odrysian kingdom">Odrysian kingdom</a> threatened Macedonia's <a href="/wiki/Territorial_integrity" title="Territorial integrity">territorial integrity</a> in the northeast.<a href="#cite_note-31">[28]</a> The Athenian statesman <a href="/wiki/Pericles" title="Pericles">Pericles</a> promoted colonization of the <a href="/wiki/Strymon_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Strymon River">Strymon River</a> near the Kingdom of Macedonia, where the colonial city of <a href="/wiki/Amphipolis" title="Amphipolis">Amphipolis</a> was founded in 437/436 BC so that it could provide Athens with a steady supply of silver and gold as well as <a href="/wiki/Timber" class="mw-redirect" title="Timber">timber</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pitch_(resin)" title="Pitch (resin)">pitch</a> to support the <a href="/wiki/Athenian_navy" class="mw-redirect" title="Athenian navy">Athenian navy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-32">[29]</a> Initially Perdiccas II did not take any action and might have even welcomed the Athenians, as the Thracians were foes to both of them.<a href="#cite_note-roisman_2010_146_147-33">[30]</a> This changed due to an Athenian alliance with a brother and cousin of Perdiccas II who had rebelled against him.<a href="#cite_note-roisman_2010_146_147-33">[30]</a> Thus, two separate wars were fought against Athens between 433 and 431 BC.<a href="#cite_note-roisman_2010_146_147-33">[30]</a> The Macedonian king retaliated by promoting the rebellion of Athens' allies in <a href="/wiki/Chalcidice" class="mw-redirect" title="Chalcidice">Chalcidice</a> and subsequently won over the strategic city of <a href="/wiki/Potidaea" title="Potidaea">Potidaea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-34">[31]</a> After capturing the Macedonian cities <a href="/wiki/Therma" title="Therma">Therma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Veria" title="Veria">Beroea</a>, Athens besieged Potidaea but failed to overcome it; Therma was returned to Macedonia and much of Chalcidice to Athens in a <a href="/wiki/Peace_treaty" title="Peace treaty">peace treaty</a> brokered by Sitalces, who provided Athens with military aid in exchange for acquiring new Thracian allies.<a href="#cite_note-35">[32]</a> Perdiccas II sided <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_League" title="Peloponnesian League">with Sparta</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a> (431–404 BC) between Athens and Sparta, and in 429 BC Athens retaliated by persuading Sitalces to invade Macedonia, but he was forced to retreat owing to a shortage of provisions in winter.<a href="#cite_note-36">[33]</a> In 424 BC, <a href="/wiki/Arrhabaeus" title="Arrhabaeus">Arrhabaeus</a>, a local ruler of <a href="/wiki/Lynkestis" title="Lynkestis">Lynkestis</a> in Upper Macedonia, rebelled against his <a href="/wiki/Suzerain" class="mw-redirect" title="Suzerain">overlord</a> Perdiccas, and the Spartans agreed to help in putting down the revolt.<a href="#cite_note-37">[34]</a> At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lyncestis" title="Battle of Lyncestis">Battle of Lyncestis</a> the Macedonians panicked and fled before the fighting began, enraging the Spartan general <a href="/wiki/Brasidas" title="Brasidas">Brasidas</a>, whose soldiers looted the unattended Macedonian <a href="/wiki/Baggage_train" class="mw-redirect" title="Baggage train">baggage train</a>.<a href="#cite_note-38">[35]</a> Perdiccas then changed sides and supported Athens, and he was able to put down Arrhabaeus's revolt.<a href="#cite_note-39">[36]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Didrachm_of_Archelaos_I_King_of_Macedonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Didrachm_of_Archelaos_I_King_of_Macedonia.jpg/220px-Didrachm_of_Archelaos_I_King_of_Macedonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Didrachm_of_Archelaos_I_King_of_Macedonia.jpg/330px-Didrachm_of_Archelaos_I_King_of_Macedonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Didrachm_of_Archelaos_I_King_of_Macedonia.jpg/440px-Didrachm_of_Archelaos_I_King_of_Macedonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="232" /></a><figcaption>A Macedonian <a href="/wiki/Didrachm" class="mw-redirect" title="Didrachm">didrachm</a> minted during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Archelaus_I_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Archelaus I of Macedon">Archelaus I of Macedon</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 413–399 BC)</figcaption></figure> Brasidas died in 422 BC, the year Athens and Sparta struck an accord, the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Nicias" title="Peace of Nicias">Peace of Nicias</a>, that freed Macedonia from its obligations as an Athenian ally.<a href="#cite_note-40">[37]</a> Following the 418 BC <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mantinea_(418_BC)" title="Battle of Mantinea (418 BC)">Battle of Mantinea</a>, the victorious Spartans formed an alliance with <a href="/wiki/History_of_Argos" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Argos">Argos</a>, a military pact Perdiccas II was keen to join given the threat of Spartan allies remaining in Chalcidice.<a href="#cite_note-41">[38]</a> When Argos suddenly switched sides as a pro-Athenian <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a>, the Athenian navy was able to form a <a href="/wiki/Blockade" title="Blockade">blockade</a> against Macedonian <a href="/wiki/Seaport" class="mw-redirect" title="Seaport">seaports</a> and invade Chalcidice in 417 BC.<a href="#cite_note-42">[39]</a> Perdiccas II sued for peace in 414 BC, forming an alliance with Athens that was continued by his son and successor <a href="/wiki/Archelaus_I_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Archelaus I of Macedon">Archelaus I</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 413–399 BC).<a href="#cite_note-43">[40]</a> Athens then provided naval support to Archelaus I in the 410 BC Macedonian siege of <a href="/wiki/Pydna" title="Pydna">Pydna</a>, in exchange for timber and naval equipment.<a href="#cite_note-44">[41]</a> Although Archelaus I was faced with some internal revolts and had to fend off an invasion of Illyrians led by <a href="/wiki/Sirras" title="Sirras">Sirras</a> of Lynkestis, he was able to project Macedonian power into Thessaly where he sent military aid to his allies.<a href="#cite_note-45">[42]</a> Although he retained Aigai as a ceremonial and religious center, Archelaus I moved the <a href="/wiki/Capital_city" title="Capital city">capital</a> of the kingdom north to <a href="/wiki/Pella" title="Pella">Pella</a>, which was then positioned by a lake with a river connecting it to the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean Sea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-46">[43]</a> He improved Macedonia's <a href="/wiki/Currency" title="Currency">currency</a> by minting <a href="/wiki/Coin" title="Coin">coins</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Silver_coin" title="Silver coin">higher silver content</a> as well as issuing separate <a href="/wiki/Coinage_metals" title="Coinage metals">copper coinage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Roisman_2010_156_157-47">[44]</a> His royal court attracted the presence of well-known intellectuals such as the Athenian <a href="/wiki/Playwright" title="Playwright">playwright</a> <a href="/wiki/Euripides" title="Euripides">Euripides</a>.<a href="#cite_note-48">[45]</a> When Archelaus I was assassinated (perhaps following a <a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_in_ancient_Greece" title="Homosexuality in ancient Greece">homosexual</a> love affair with <a href="/wiki/Royal_page" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal page">royal pages</a> at his court), the kingdom was plunged into chaos, in an era lasting from 399 to 393 BC that included the reign of four different monarchs: <a href="/wiki/Orestes_of_Macedon" title="Orestes of Macedon">Orestes</a>, son of Archelaus I; <a href="/wiki/Aeropus_II_of_Macedon" title="Aeropus II of Macedon">Aeropus II</a>, uncle, <a href="/wiki/Regent" title="Regent">regent</a>, and murderer of Orestes; <a href="/wiki/Pausanias_of_Macedon" title="Pausanias of Macedon">Pausanias</a>, son of Aeropus II; and <a href="/wiki/Amyntas_II_of_Macedon" title="Amyntas II of Macedon">Amyntas II</a>, who was married to the youngest daughter of Archelaus I.<a href="#cite_note-49">[46]</a> Very little is known about this turbulent period; it came to an end when <a href="/wiki/Amyntas_III_of_Macedon" title="Amyntas III of Macedon">Amyntas III</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 393–370 BC), son of Arrhidaeus and grandson of Amyntas I, killed Pausanias and claimed the Macedonian throne.<a href="#cite_note-50">[47]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coin_of_Amyntas_III-161113.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Coin_of_Amyntas_III-161113.jpg/220px-Coin_of_Amyntas_III-161113.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Coin_of_Amyntas_III-161113.jpg/330px-Coin_of_Amyntas_III-161113.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Coin_of_Amyntas_III-161113.jpg/440px-Coin_of_Amyntas_III-161113.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="252" /></a><figcaption>A silver <a href="/wiki/Stater" title="Stater">stater</a> of <a href="/wiki/Amyntas_III_of_Macedon" title="Amyntas III of Macedon">Amyntas III of Macedon</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 393–370 BC)</figcaption></figure> Amyntas III was forced to flee his kingdom in either 393 or 383 BC (based on conflicting accounts), owing to a massive invasion by the <a href="/wiki/Illyrians" title="Illyrians">Illyrians</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Bardylis" title="Bardylis">Bardylis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-51">[note 4]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Pretender" title="Pretender">pretender</a> to the throne <a href="/wiki/Argaeus_II_of_Macedon" title="Argaeus II of Macedon">Argaeus</a> ruled in his absence, yet Amyntas III eventually returned to his kingdom with the aid of Thessalian allies.<a href="#cite_note-52">[48]</a> Amyntas III was also nearly overthrown by the forces of the Chalcidian city of <a href="/wiki/Olynthos" class="mw-redirect" title="Olynthos">Olynthos</a>, but with the aid of <a href="/wiki/Teleutias" title="Teleutias">Teleutias</a>, brother of the Spartan king <a href="/wiki/Agesilaus_II" title="Agesilaus II">Agesilaus II</a>, the Macedonians forced Olynthos to surrender and dissolve their <a href="/wiki/Chalcidian_League" title="Chalcidian League">Chalcidian League</a> in 379 BC.<a href="#cite_note-53">[49]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Macedon" title="Alexander II of Macedon">Alexander II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 370–368 BC), son of <a href="/wiki/Eurydice_I_of_Macedon" title="Eurydice I of Macedon">Eurydice I</a> and Amyntas III, succeeded his father and immediately invaded Thessaly to wage war against the <a href="/wiki/Tagus_(title)" title="Tagus (title)">tagus</a> (supreme Thessalian military leader) <a href="/wiki/Alexander_of_Pherae" title="Alexander of Pherae">Alexander of Pherae</a>, capturing the city of <a href="/wiki/Larissa" title="Larissa">Larissa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-54">[50]</a> The Thessalians, desiring to remove both Alexander II and Alexander of Pherae as their <a href="/wiki/Overlord" title="Overlord">overlords</a>, appealed to <a href="/wiki/Pelopidas" title="Pelopidas">Pelopidas</a> of <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Greece" title="Thebes, Greece">Thebes</a> for aid; he succeeded in recapturing Larissa and, in the peace agreement arranged with Macedonia, received aristocratic <a href="/wiki/Hostage" title="Hostage">hostages</a> including Alexander II's brother and future king <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 359–336 BC).<a href="#cite_note-55">[51]</a> When Alexander was assassinated by his brother-in-law <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_of_Aloros" title="Ptolemy of Aloros">Ptolemy of Aloros</a>, the latter acted as an overbearing regent for <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas_III_of_Macedon" title="Perdiccas III of Macedon">Perdiccas III</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 368–359 BC), younger brother of Alexander II, who eventually had Ptolemy executed when reaching the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_majority" title="Age of majority">age of majority</a> in 365 BC.<a href="#cite_note-56">[52]</a> The remainder of Perdiccas III's reign was marked by political stability and financial recovery.<a href="#cite_note-57">[53]</a> However, an Athenian invasion led by <a href="/wiki/Timotheus_(general)" title="Timotheus (general)">Timotheus</a>, son of <a href="/wiki/Conon" title="Conon">Conon</a>, managed to capture <a href="/wiki/Methoni,_Pieria" title="Methoni, Pieria">Methone</a> and Pydna, and an Illyrian invasion led by Bardylis succeeded in killing Perdiccas III and 4,000 Macedonian troops in battle.<a href="#cite_note-58">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rise_of_Macedon">Rise of Macedon</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Expansion_of_Macedonia_under_Philip_II" title="Expansion of Macedonia under Philip II">Expansion of Macedonia under Philip II</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty" title="Argead dynasty">Argead dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amyntas_IV_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Amyntas IV of Macedon">Amyntas IV of Macedon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/League_of_Corinth" title="League of Corinth">League of Corinth</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:393px;max-width:393px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:187px;max-width:187px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Filip_II_Macedonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Filip_II_Macedonia.jpg/185px-Filip_II_Macedonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="185" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Filip_II_Macedonia.jpg/278px-Filip_II_Macedonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Filip_II_Macedonia.jpg/370px-Filip_II_Macedonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1016" data-file-height="1466" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Philip-ii-of-macedon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Philip-ii-of-macedon.jpg/200px-Philip-ii-of-macedon.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Philip-ii-of-macedon.jpg/300px-Philip-ii-of-macedon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Philip-ii-of-macedon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="338" data-file-height="450" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Left, a bust of <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 359–336 BC) from the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a>, located at <a href="/wiki/Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek" title="Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek">Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek</a>. Right, another bust of Philip II, a 1st-century AD <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_art#Later_Roman_copies" title="Hellenistic art">Roman copy</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_art" title="Hellenistic art">Hellenistic Greek</a> original, now in the <a href="/wiki/Vatican_Museums" title="Vatican Museums">Vatican Museums</a>.</div></div></div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Expansion_of_Macedon_(English).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Expansion_of_Macedon_%28English%29.svg/260px-Expansion_of_Macedon_%28English%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Expansion_of_Macedon_%28English%29.svg/390px-Expansion_of_Macedon_%28English%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Expansion_of_Macedon_%28English%29.svg/520px-Expansion_of_Macedon_%28English%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="992" data-file-height="794" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Kingdom of Macedon at the death of <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II</a> in 336 BC (light blue), with the original territory that existed in 431 BC (red outline), and <a href="/wiki/Dependent_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Dependent state">dependent states</a> (yellow)</figcaption></figure> Philip II was twenty-four years old when he acceded to the throne in 359 BC.<a href="#cite_note-59">[55]</a> Through the use of deft diplomacy, he was able to convince the Thracians under <a href="/wiki/Berisades" title="Berisades">Berisades</a> to cease their support of <a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(pretender)" title="Pausanias (pretender)">Pausanias</a>, a pretender to the throne, and the Athenians to halt their support of <a href="/wiki/Argaeus_II_of_Macedon" title="Argaeus II of Macedon">another pretender</a>.<a href="#cite_note-60">[56]</a> He achieved these by bribing the Thracians and their <a href="/wiki/Paeonia_(kingdom)" title="Paeonia (kingdom)">Paeonian</a> allies and establishing a treaty with Athens that relinquished his claims to Amphipolis.<a href="#cite_note-61">[57]</a> He was also able to make peace with the Illyrians who <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Erigon_Valley" title="Battle of Erigon Valley">had threatened his borders</a>.<a href="#cite_note-62">[58]</a> Philip II spent his initial years radically transforming the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_army" title="Ancient Macedonian army">Macedonian army</a>. A reform of its organization, equipment, and training, including the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_phalanx" title="Macedonian phalanx">Macedonian phalanx</a> armed with <a href="/wiki/Pike_(weapon)" title="Pike (weapon)">long pikes</a> (i.e. the <a href="/wiki/Sarissa" title="Sarissa">sarissa</a>), proved immediately successful when tested against his Illyrian and Paeonian enemies.<a href="#cite_note-63">[59]</a> Confusing accounts in ancient sources have led modern scholars to debate how much Philip II's royal predecessors may have contributed to these reforms and the extent to which his ideas were influenced by his <a href="/wiki/Adolescence" title="Adolescence">adolescent</a> years of captivity in Thebes as a political hostage during the <a href="/wiki/Theban_hegemony" title="Theban hegemony">Theban hegemony</a>, especially after meeting with the general <a href="/wiki/Epaminondas" title="Epaminondas">Epaminondas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-64">[60]</a> The Macedonians, like the other Greeks, traditionally practiced <a href="/wiki/Monogamy" title="Monogamy">monogamy</a>, but Philip II practiced <a href="/wiki/Polygamy" title="Polygamy">polygamy</a> and married seven wives with <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_Eurydice" title="Cleopatra Eurydice">perhaps only one</a> that did not involve the loyalty of his aristocratic subjects or new allies.<a href="#cite_note-65">[note 5]</a> His first marriages were to <a href="/wiki/Phila_of_Elimeia" title="Phila of Elimeia">Phila of Elimeia</a> of the Upper Macedonian aristocracy as well as the Illyrian princess <a href="/wiki/Audata" title="Audata">Audata</a> to ensure a marriage alliance.<a href="#cite_note-66">[61]</a> To establish an alliance with Larissa in Thessaly, he married the Thessalian noblewoman <a href="/wiki/Philinna" title="Philinna">Philinna</a> in 358 BC, who bore him a son who would later rule as <a href="/wiki/Philip_III_Arrhidaeus" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip III Arrhidaeus">Philip III Arrhidaeus</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 323–317 BC).<a href="#cite_note-67">[62]</a> In 357 BC, he married <a href="/wiki/Olympias" title="Olympias">Olympias</a> to secure an alliance with <a href="/wiki/Arybbas_of_Epirus" title="Arybbas of Epirus">Arybbas</a>, the <a href="/wiki/King_of_Epirus" class="mw-redirect" title="King of Epirus">King of Epirus</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Molossians" title="Molossians">Molossians</a>. This marriage would bear a son who would later rule as Alexander III (better known as <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>) and claim descent from the legendary <a href="/wiki/Achilles" title="Achilles">Achilles</a> by way of his <a href="/wiki/Aeacidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Aeacidae">dynastic heritage from Epirus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-68">[63]</a> It is unclear whether or not the Achaemenid Persian kings influenced Philip II's practice of polygamy, although his predecessor Amyntas III had three sons with a possible second wife Gygaea: Archelaus, Arrhidaeus, and <a href="/wiki/Menelaus_(son_of_Amyntas_III)" title="Menelaus (son of Amyntas III)">Menelaus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-69">[64]</a> Philip II had Archelaus put to death in 359 BC, while Philip II's other two half brothers fled to Olynthos, serving as a <a href="/wiki/Casus_belli" title="Casus belli">casus belli</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Olynthian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Olynthian War">Olynthian War</a> (349–348 BC) against the Chalcidian League.<a href="#cite_note-70">[65]</a> While Athens was preoccupied with the <a href="/wiki/Social_War_(357%E2%80%93355_BC)" title="Social War (357–355 BC)">Social War (357–355 BC)</a>, Philip II retook Amphipolis from them in 357 BC and the following year recaptured Pydna and Potidaea, the latter of which he handed over to the Chalcidian League as promised in a treaty.<a href="#cite_note-71">[66]</a> In 356 BC, he took <a href="/wiki/Crenides_(Macedonia)" title="Crenides (Macedonia)">Crenides</a>, refounding it as <a href="/wiki/Philippi" title="Philippi">Philippi</a>, while his general <a href="/wiki/Parmenion" title="Parmenion">Parmenion</a> defeated the Illyrian king <a href="/wiki/Grabos_II" title="Grabos II">Grabos II</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Grabaei" title="Grabaei">Grabaei</a>.<a href="#cite_note-72">[67]</a> During the 355–354 BC siege of Methone, Philip II lost his right eye to an arrow wound, but managed to capture the city and treated the inhabitants cordially, unlike the Potidaeans, who had been enslaved.<a href="#cite_note-73">[note 6]</a> Philip II then involved Macedonia in the <a href="/wiki/Third_Sacred_War" title="Third Sacred War">Third Sacred War</a> (356–346 BC). It began when <a href="/wiki/Phocis_(ancient_region)" title="Phocis (ancient region)">Phocis</a> captured and plundered the temple of <a href="/wiki/Apollo" title="Apollo">Apollo</a> at <a href="/wiki/Delphi" title="Delphi">Delphi</a> instead of submitting unpaid fines, causing the <a href="/wiki/Amphictyonic_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphictyonic League">Amphictyonic League</a> to declare war on Phocis and a <a href="/wiki/Civil_war" title="Civil war">civil war</a> among the members of the <a href="/wiki/Thessalian_League" title="Thessalian League">Thessalian League</a> aligned with either Phocis or Thebes.<a href="#cite_note-74">[68]</a> Philip II's initial campaign against <a href="/wiki/Pherae" title="Pherae">Pherae</a> in Thessaly in 353 BC at the behest of Larissa ended in two disastrous defeats by the Phocian general <a href="/wiki/Onomarchus" title="Onomarchus">Onomarchus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-75">[note 7]</a> Philip II in turn defeated Onomarchus in 352 BC at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Crocus_Field" title="Battle of Crocus Field">Battle of Crocus Field</a>, which led to Philip II's election as leader (<a href="/wiki/Archon" title="Archon">archon</a>) of the Thessalian League, provided him a seat on the Amphictyonic Council, and allowed for a marriage alliance with Pherae by wedding <a href="/wiki/Nicesipolis" title="Nicesipolis">Nicesipolis</a>, niece of the tyrant <a href="/wiki/Jason_of_Pherae" title="Jason of Pherae">Jason of Pherae</a>.<a href="#cite_note-76">[69]</a> Philip II had some early involvement with the Achaemenid Empire, especially by supporting <a href="/wiki/Satraps" class="mw-redirect" title="Satraps">satraps</a> and mercenaries who rebelled against the central authority of the Achaemenid king. The satrap of <a href="/wiki/Hellespontine_Phrygia" title="Hellespontine Phrygia">Hellespontine Phrygia</a> <a href="/wiki/Artabazos_II" title="Artabazos II">Artabazos II</a>, who was in rebellion against <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_III" title="Artaxerxes III">Artaxerxes III</a>, was able to take refuge as an exile at the Macedonian court from 352 to 342 BC. He was accompanied in exile by his family and by his mercenary general <a href="/wiki/Memnon_of_Rhodes" title="Memnon of Rhodes">Memnon of Rhodes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-77">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-EDC-78">[71]</a> <a href="/wiki/Barsine" title="Barsine">Barsine</a>, daughter of Artabazos, and future wife of Alexander the Great, grew up at the Macedonian court.<a href="#cite_note-EDC-78">[71]</a> After campaigning against the Thracian ruler <a href="/wiki/Cersobleptes" title="Cersobleptes">Cersobleptes</a>, in 349 BC, Philip II began his war against the Chalcidian League, which had been reestablished in 375 BC following a temporary disbandment.<a href="#cite_note-79">[72]</a> Despite an Athenian intervention by <a href="/wiki/Charidemus" title="Charidemus">Charidemus</a>,<a href="#cite_note-80">[73]</a> Olynthos was captured by Philip II in 348 BC, and its inhabitants were <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">sold into slavery</a>, including some <a href="/wiki/Athenian_citizenship" class="mw-redirect" title="Athenian citizenship">Athenian citizens</a>.<a href="#cite_note-81">[74]</a> The Athenians, especially in a series of speeches by <a href="/wiki/Demosthenes" title="Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Olynthiacs" title="Olynthiacs">Olynthiacs</a>, were unsuccessful in persuading their allies to counterattack and in 346 BC concluded a treaty with Macedonia <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Philocrates" title="Peace of Philocrates">known as the Peace</a> of <a href="/wiki/Philocrates" title="Philocrates">Philocrates</a>.<a href="#cite_note-82">[75]</a> The treaty stipulated that Athens would relinquish claims to Macedonian coastal territories, the Chalcidice, and Amphipolis in return for the release of the enslaved Athenians as well as guarantees that Philip II would not attack Athenian settlements in the <a href="/wiki/Thracian_Chersonese" class="mw-redirect" title="Thracian Chersonese">Thracian Chersonese</a>.<a href="#cite_note-83">[76]</a> Meanwhile, Phocis and <a href="/wiki/Thermopylae" title="Thermopylae">Thermopylae</a> were captured by Macedonian forces, the <a href="/wiki/Pythia" title="Pythia">Delphic temple</a> robbers were executed, and Philip II was awarded the two Phocian seats on the Amphictyonic Council and the position of <a href="/wiki/Master_of_ceremonies" title="Master of ceremonies">master of ceremonies</a> over the <a href="/wiki/Pythian_Games" title="Pythian Games">Pythian Games</a>.<a href="#cite_note-84">[77]</a> Athens initially opposed his membership on the council and refused to attend the games in protest, but they eventually accepted these conditions, perhaps after some persuasion by Demosthenes in his oration <a href="/wiki/On_the_Peace" title="On the Peace">On the Peace</a>.<a href="#cite_note-85">[78]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:460px;max-width:460px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Philip_II_of_Macedon_CdM.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Philip_II_of_Macedon_CdM.jpg/200px-Philip_II_of_Macedon_CdM.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Philip_II_of_Macedon_CdM.jpg/300px-Philip_II_of_Macedon_CdM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Philip_II_of_Macedon_CdM.jpg/400px-Philip_II_of_Macedon_CdM.jpg 2x" data-file-width="955" data-file-height="903" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:254px;max-width:254px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Olympia_(12).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Olympia_%2812%29.jpg/252px-Olympia_%2812%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="252" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Olympia_%2812%29.jpg/378px-Olympia_%2812%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Olympia_%2812%29.jpg/504px-Olympia_%2812%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2240" data-file-height="1680" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Left, a Niketerion (victory medallion) bearing the effigy of king <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</a>, 3rd century AD, probably minted during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Emperor">Roman Emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Severus" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Severus">Alexander Severus</a>. Right, the ruins of the <a href="/wiki/Philippeion" title="Philippeion">Philippeion</a> at <a href="/wiki/Olympia,_Greece" title="Olympia, Greece">Olympia, Greece</a>, which was built by <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</a> to celebrate his victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chaeronea_(338_BC)" title="Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)">Battle of Chaeronea</a> in 338 BC.<a href="#cite_note-86">[79]</a></div></div></div></div> Over the next few years, Philip II reformed local governments in Thessaly, campaigned against the Illyrian ruler <a href="/wiki/Pleuratus_I" title="Pleuratus I">Pleuratus I</a>, deposed Arybbas in <a href="/wiki/Epirus_(ancient_state)" title="Epirus (ancient state)">Epirus</a> in favor of his brother-in-law <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Epirus" title="Alexander I of Epirus">Alexander I</a> (through Philip II's marriage to Olympias), and defeated Cersebleptes in Thrace. This allowed him to extend Macedonian control over the <a href="/wiki/Hellespont" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellespont">Hellespont</a> in anticipation of an invasion into <a href="/wiki/Classical_Anatolia" title="Classical Anatolia">Achaemenid Anatolia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-87">[80]</a> In 342 BC, Philip II conquered <a href="/wiki/History_of_Plovdiv" title="History of Plovdiv">a Thracian city</a> in what is now <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a> and renamed it <a href="/wiki/Philippopolis_(Thracia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippopolis (Thracia)">Philippopolis</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Plovdiv" title="Plovdiv">Plovdiv</a>).<a href="#cite_note-88">[81]</a> War broke out with Athens in 340 BC while Philip II was engaged in two ultimately unsuccessful sieges of <a href="/wiki/Perinthus" title="Perinthus">Perinthus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantion" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantion">Byzantion</a>, followed by a successful campaign against the Scythians along the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a> and Macedonia's involvement in the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Sacred_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourth Sacred War">Fourth Sacred War</a> against <a href="/wiki/Amphissa_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphissa (city)">Amphissa</a> in 339 BC.<a href="#cite_note-89">[82]</a> Thebes ejected a Macedonian garrison from <a href="/wiki/Nicaea,_Locris" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicaea, Locris">Nicaea (near Thermopylae)</a>, leading Thebes to join Athens, <a href="/wiki/Megara" title="Megara">Megara</a>, Corinth, <a href="/wiki/Achaea" title="Achaea">Achaea</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Euboea" title="Euboea">Euboea</a> in a final confrontation against Macedonia at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chaeronea_(338_BC)" title="Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)">Battle of Chaeronea</a> in 338 BC.<a href="#cite_note-90">[83]</a> After the Macedonian victory at Chaeronea, Philip II installed an <a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">oligarchy</a> in Thebes, yet was lenient toward Athens, wishing to utilize their navy in a planned invasion of the Achaemenid Empire.<a href="#cite_note-91">[84]</a> He was then chiefly responsible for the formation of the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Corinth" title="League of Corinth">League of Corinth</a> that included the major Greek city-states except Sparta. Despite the Kingdom of Macedonia's official exclusion from the league, in 337 BC, Philip II was elected as the leader (<a href="/wiki/Hegemon" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegemon">hegemon</a>) of its council (<a href="/wiki/Synedrion" title="Synedrion">synedrion</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Commander-in-chief" title="Commander-in-chief">commander-in-chief</a> (<a href="/wiki/Strategos" title="Strategos">strategos</a> <a href="/wiki/Autokrator" title="Autokrator">autokrator</a>) of a forthcoming campaign to invade the Achaemenid Empire.<a href="#cite_note-92">[85]</a> Philip's plan to punish the Persians for the suffering of the Greeks and to liberate the Greek cities of Asia Minor<a href="#cite_note-93">[86]</a> as well as perhaps the panhellenic fear of another Persian invasion of Greece, contributed to his decision to invade the Achaemenid Empire.<a href="#cite_note-94">[87]</a> The Persians offered aid to Perinthus and Byzantion in 341–340 BC, highlighting Macedonia's strategic need to secure Thrace and the Aegean Sea against increasing Achaemenid encroachment, as the Persian king <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_III" title="Artaxerxes III">Artaxerxes III</a> further consolidated his control over satrapies in <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Anatolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of Anatolia">western Anatolia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-95">[88]</a> The latter region, yielding far more wealth and valuable resources than the Balkans, was also coveted by the Macedonian king for its sheer economic potential.<a href="#cite_note-96">[89]</a> When Philip II married <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_Eurydice_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra Eurydice of Macedon">Cleopatra Eurydice</a>, niece of general <a href="/wiki/Attalus_(general)" title="Attalus (general)">Attalus</a>, talk of providing new potential heirs at the wedding feast infuriated Philip II's son Alexander, a veteran of the Battle of Chaeronea, and his mother Olympias.<a href="#cite_note-muller_179–180_cawkwell_170-97">[90]</a> They fled together to Epirus before Alexander was recalled to Pella by Philip II.<a href="#cite_note-muller_179–180_cawkwell_170-97">[90]</a> When Philip II arranged a marriage between his son Arrhidaeus and <a href="/wiki/Ada_of_Caria" title="Ada of Caria">Ada of Caria</a>, daughter of <a href="/wiki/Pixodarus" title="Pixodarus">Pixodarus</a>, the Persian satrap of <a href="/wiki/Caria" title="Caria">Caria</a>, Alexander intervened and proposed to marry Ada instead. Philip II then cancelled the wedding altogether and exiled Alexander's advisors <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy I">Ptolemy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nearchus" title="Nearchus">Nearchus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Harpalus" title="Harpalus">Harpalus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-98">[91]</a> To reconcile with Olympias, Philip II had their daughter <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_of_Macedon" title="Cleopatra of Macedon">Cleopatra</a> marry Olympias' brother (and Cleopatra's uncle) Alexander I of Epirus, but Philip II was assassinated by his bodyguard, <a href="/wiki/Pausanias_of_Orestis" title="Pausanias of Orestis">Pausanias of Orestis</a>, during their wedding feast and succeeded by Alexander in 336 BC.<a href="#cite_note-99">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Empire">Empire</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">Wars of Alexander the Great</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Diadochi" title="Wars of the Diadochi">Wars of the Diadochi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_the_expedition_of_Alexander_the_Great_into_Asia" title="Chronology of the expedition of Alexander the Great into Asia">Chronology of the expedition of Alexander the Great into Asia</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:318px;max-width:318px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:162px;max-width:162px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:ACMA_1331_Alexander_2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/ACMA_1331_Alexander_2.JPG/160px-ACMA_1331_Alexander_2.JPG" decoding="async" width="160" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/ACMA_1331_Alexander_2.JPG/240px-ACMA_1331_Alexander_2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/ACMA_1331_Alexander_2.JPG/320px-ACMA_1331_Alexander_2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="2000" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:AlexandreLouvre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/AlexandreLouvre.jpg/150px-AlexandreLouvre.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/AlexandreLouvre.jpg/225px-AlexandreLouvre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/AlexandreLouvre.jpg/300px-AlexandreLouvre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="576" data-file-height="768" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Left, Bust of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> by the Athenian sculptor <a href="/wiki/Leochares" title="Leochares">Leochares</a>, 330 BC, <a href="/wiki/Acropolis_Museum" title="Acropolis Museum">Acropolis Museum</a>, Athens. Right, Bust of Alexander the Great, a <a href="/wiki/Roman_sculpture" title="Roman sculpture">Roman copy</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Imperial Era</a> (1st or 2nd century AD) after an original <a href="/wiki/Bronze_sculpture" title="Bronze sculpture">bronze sculpture</a> made by the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_sculpture" title="Ancient Greek sculpture">Greek sculptor</a> <a href="/wiki/Lysippos" title="Lysippos">Lysippos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louvre" title="Louvre">Louvre</a>, Paris.</div></div></div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MacedonEmpire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/MacedonEmpire.jpg/260px-MacedonEmpire.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/MacedonEmpire.jpg/390px-MacedonEmpire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/MacedonEmpire.jpg/520px-MacedonEmpire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1990" data-file-height="951" /></a><figcaption>Alexander's empire and his route</figcaption></figure> Modern scholars have argued over the possible role of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander III of Macedon">Alexander III "the Great"</a> and his mother Olympias in the assassination of Philip II, noting the latter's choice to exclude Alexander from his planned invasion of Asia, choosing instead for him to act as regent of Greece and deputy hegemon of the League of Corinth, and the potential bearing of another male heir between Philip II and his new wife, Cleopatra Eurydice.<a href="#cite_note-100">[note 8]</a> Alexander III (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 336–323 BC) was immediately proclaimed king by <a href="/wiki/Popular_assembly" title="Popular assembly">an assembly</a> of the army and leading aristocrats, chief among them being <a href="/wiki/Antipater" title="Antipater">Antipater</a> and Parmenion.<a href="#cite_note-101">[93]</a> By the end of his reign and military career in 323 BC, Alexander would rule over an empire consisting of <a href="/wiki/Mainland_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Mainland Greece">mainland Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a>, and much of <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a> (i.e. modern <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>).<a href="#cite_note-102">[94]</a> Among his first acts was the burial of his father at Aigai.<a href="#cite_note-103">[95]</a> The members of the League of Corinth revolted at the news of Philip II's death, but were soon quelled by military force alongside persuasive diplomacy, electing Alexander as hegemon of the league to carry out the planned invasion of Achaemenid Persia.<a href="#cite_note-104">[96]</a> In 335 BC, Alexander <a href="/wiki/Alexander%27s_Balkan_campaign" title="Alexander's Balkan campaign">fought against the Thracian tribe</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Triballi" title="Triballi">Triballi</a> at <a href="/wiki/Haemus_Mons" class="mw-redirect" title="Haemus Mons">Haemus Mons</a> and along the <a href="/wiki/Danube" title="Danube">Danube</a>, forcing their surrender on <a href="/wiki/Peuce_Island" title="Peuce Island">Peuce Island</a>.<a href="#cite_note-105">[97]</a> Shortly thereafter, the Illyrian chieftain <a href="/wiki/Cleitus_(son_of_Bardylis)" title="Cleitus (son of Bardylis)">Cleitus</a>, son of <a href="/wiki/Bardylis" title="Bardylis">Bardylis</a>, threatened to attack Macedonia with the aid of <a href="/wiki/Glaucias_of_Taulantii" title="Glaucias of Taulantii">Glaucias</a>, king of the <a href="/wiki/Taulantii" title="Taulantii">Taulantii</a>, but Alexander took the initiative and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Pelium" title="Siege of Pelium">besieged the Illyrians</a> at <a href="/wiki/Pelion_(Illyria)" title="Pelion (Illyria)">Pelion</a> (in modern <a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albania</a>).<a href="#cite_note-106">[98]</a> When Thebes had once again revolted from the League of Corinth and was besieging the Macedonian garrison in the <a href="/wiki/Cadmea" title="Cadmea">Cadmea</a>, Alexander left the Illyrian front and marched to Thebes, which he <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thebes" title="Battle of Thebes">placed under siege</a>.<a href="#cite_note-107">[99]</a> After breaching the walls, Alexander's forces killed 6,000 Thebans, took 30,000 inhabitants as <a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoners of war">prisoners of war</a>, and burned the city to the ground as a warning that convinced all other Greek states except Sparta not to challenge Alexander again.<a href="#cite_note-108">[100]</a> Throughout his military career, Alexander won every battle that he personally commanded.<a href="#cite_note-109">[101]</a> His first victory against the Persians in Asia Minor at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Granicus" title="Battle of the Granicus">Battle of the Granicus</a> in 334 BC used a small cavalry contingent as a distraction to allow his infantry to cross the river followed by a <a href="/wiki/Cavalry_charge" class="mw-redirect" title="Cavalry charge">cavalry charge</a> from his <a href="/wiki/Companion_cavalry" title="Companion cavalry">companion cavalry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-gilley_worthington_2010_193-110">[102]</a> Alexander led the cavalry charge at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Issus" title="Battle of Issus">Battle of Issus</a> in 333 BC, forcing the Persian king <a href="/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III</a> and his army to flee.<a href="#cite_note-gilley_worthington_2010_193-110">[102]</a> Darius III, despite having superior numbers, was again forced to flee the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gaugamela" title="Battle of Gaugamela">Battle of Gaugamela</a> in 331 BC.<a href="#cite_note-gilley_worthington_2010_193-110">[102]</a> The Persian king was later captured and executed by his own satrap of <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a> and kinsman, <a href="/wiki/Bessus" title="Bessus">Bessus</a>, in 330 BC. The Macedonian king subsequently hunted down and executed Bessus in what is now <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, securing the region of <a href="/wiki/Sogdia" title="Sogdia">Sogdia</a> in the process.<a href="#cite_note-111">[103]</a> At the 326 BC <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Hydaspes" title="Battle of the Hydaspes">Battle of the Hydaspes</a> (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Punjab" title="Punjab">Punjab</a>), when the <a href="/wiki/War_elephant" title="War elephant">war elephants</a> of <a href="/wiki/King_Porus" class="mw-redirect" title="King Porus">King Porus</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Pauravas" title="Pauravas">Pauravas</a> threatened Alexander's troops, he had them form open ranks to surround the elephants and dislodge their handlers by using their sarissa pikes.<a href="#cite_note-112">[104]</a> When his Macedonian troops threatened <a href="/wiki/Mutiny" title="Mutiny">mutiny</a> in 324 BC at <a href="/wiki/Opis" title="Opis">Opis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a> (near modern <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>), Alexander offered Macedonian military titles and greater responsibilities to Persian officers and units instead, forcing his troops to seek forgiveness at a staged banquet of reconciliation between Persians and Macedonians.<a href="#cite_note-113">[105]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stag_hunt_mosaic,_Pella.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Stag_hunt_mosaic%2C_Pella.jpg/220px-Stag_hunt_mosaic%2C_Pella.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Stag_hunt_mosaic%2C_Pella.jpg/330px-Stag_hunt_mosaic%2C_Pella.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Stag_hunt_mosaic%2C_Pella.jpg/440px-Stag_hunt_mosaic%2C_Pella.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1533" data-file-height="964" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Stag_Hunt_Mosaic" title="Stag Hunt Mosaic">Stag Hunt Mosaic</a>, c. 300 BC, from <a href="/wiki/Pella" title="Pella">Pella</a>; the figure on the right is possibly <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> due to the date of the <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaic</a> along with the depicted upsweep of his centrally-parted hair (anastole); the figure on the left wielding a double-edged axe (associated with <a href="/wiki/Hephaistos" class="mw-redirect" title="Hephaistos">Hephaistos</a>) is perhaps <a href="/wiki/Hephaestion" title="Hephaestion">Hephaestion</a>, one of Alexander's loyal companions.</figcaption></figure> Alexander perhaps undercut his own rule by demonstrating signs of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/megalomania" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:megalomania">megalomania</a>.<a href="#cite_note-gilley_worthington_2010_195-114">[106]</a> While utilizing effective propaganda such as the cutting of the <a href="/wiki/Gordian_Knot" title="Gordian Knot">Gordian Knot</a>, he also attempted to portray himself as a <a href="/wiki/Sacred_king" title="Sacred king">living god</a> and son of Zeus following his visit to the <a href="/wiki/Oracle" title="Oracle">oracle</a> at <a href="/wiki/Siwah" class="mw-redirect" title="Siwah">Siwah</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Libyan_Desert" title="Libyan Desert">Libyan Desert</a> (in modern-day Egypt) in 331 BC.<a href="#cite_note-115">[107]</a> His attempt in 327 BC to have his men prostrate before him in <a href="/wiki/Bactra" class="mw-redirect" title="Bactra">Bactra</a> in an act of <a href="/wiki/Proskynesis" title="Proskynesis">proskynesis</a> borrowed from the Persian kings was rejected as religious blasphemy by his Macedonian and Greek subjects after his court historian <a href="/wiki/Callisthenes" title="Callisthenes">Callisthenes</a> refused to perform this ritual.<a href="#cite_note-gilley_worthington_2010_195-114">[106]</a> When Alexander had Parmenion murdered at <a href="/wiki/Ecbatana" title="Ecbatana">Ecbatana</a> (near modern <a href="/wiki/Hamadan" title="Hamadan">Hamadan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>) in 330 BC, this was "symptomatic of the growing gulf between the king's interests and those of his country and people", according to Errington.<a href="#cite_note-116">[108]</a> His murder of <a href="/wiki/Cleitus_the_Black" title="Cleitus the Black">Cleitus the Black</a> in 328 BC is described as "vengeful and reckless" by Dawn L. Gilley and Ian Worthington.<a href="#cite_note-117">[109]</a> Continuing the polygamous habits of his father, Alexander encouraged his men to marry native women in Asia, leading by example when he wed <a href="/wiki/Roxana" title="Roxana">Roxana</a>, a Sogdian princess of Bactria.<a href="#cite_note-118">[110]</a> He then married <a href="/wiki/Stateira_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Stateira II">Stateira II</a>, eldest daughter of Darius III, and <a href="/wiki/Parysatis_II" title="Parysatis II">Parysatis II</a>, youngest daughter of <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_III" title="Artaxerxes III">Artaxerxes III</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/Susa_weddings" title="Susa weddings">Susa weddings</a> in 324 BC.<a href="#cite_note-119">[111]</a> Meanwhile, in Greece, the <a href="/wiki/Spartan_king" class="mw-redirect" title="Spartan king">Spartan king</a> <a href="/wiki/Agis_III" title="Agis III">Agis III</a> attempted to lead a rebellion of the Greeks against Macedonia.<a href="#cite_note-120">[112]</a> He was defeated in 331 BC at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Megalopolis" title="Battle of Megalopolis">Battle of Megalopolis</a> by Antipater, who was serving as regent of Macedonia and deputy hegemon of the League of Corinth in Alexander's stead.<a href="#cite_note-121">[note 9]</a> Before Antipater embarked on his campaign in the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnese" title="Peloponnese">Peloponnese</a>, Memnon, the governor of Thrace, was dissuaded from rebellion by use of diplomacy.<a href="#cite_note-122">[113]</a> Antipater deferred the punishment of Sparta to the League of Corinth headed by Alexander, who ultimately pardoned the Spartans on the condition that they submit fifty nobles as hostages.<a href="#cite_note-123">[114]</a> Antipater's hegemony was somewhat unpopular in Greece due to his practice (perhaps by order of Alexander) of exiling malcontents and garrisoning cities with Macedonian troops, yet in 330 BC, Alexander declared that the <a href="/wiki/Tyrannies" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyrannies">tyrannies</a> installed in Greece were to be abolished and Greek freedom was to be restored.<a href="#cite_note-124">[115]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diadochi_LA.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Diadochi_LA.svg/260px-Diadochi_LA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Diadochi_LA.svg/390px-Diadochi_LA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Diadochi_LA.svg/520px-Diadochi_LA.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="961" /></a><figcaption>Kingdoms of the <a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">Diadochi</a> c. 301 BC, after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ipsus" title="Battle of Ipsus">Battle of Ipsus</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  Kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy I Soter</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Cassander" title="Cassander">Cassander</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Lysimachus" title="Lysimachus">Lysimachus</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_I_Nicator" title="Seleucus I Nicator">Seleucus I Nicator</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Epirus" title="Epirus">Epirus</a></div> Other <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek States</a></div></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coins_of_Philip_III_Arrhidaeus._323-317_BC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Coins_of_Philip_III_Arrhidaeus._323-317_BC.jpg/220px-Coins_of_Philip_III_Arrhidaeus._323-317_BC.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Coins_of_Philip_III_Arrhidaeus._323-317_BC.jpg/330px-Coins_of_Philip_III_Arrhidaeus._323-317_BC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Coins_of_Philip_III_Arrhidaeus._323-317_BC.jpg/440px-Coins_of_Philip_III_Arrhidaeus._323-317_BC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="290" /></a><figcaption>A golden <a href="/wiki/Stater" title="Stater">stater</a> of <a href="/wiki/Philip_III_Arrhidaeus" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip III Arrhidaeus">Philip III Arrhidaeus</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 323–317 BC) bearing images of <a href="/wiki/Athena" title="Athena">Athena</a> (left) and <a href="/wiki/Nike_(mythology)" title="Nike (mythology)">Nike</a> (right)</figcaption></figure> When <a href="/wiki/Death_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Death of Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great died</a> at <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a> in 323 BC, his mother Olympias immediately accused Antipater and his faction of poisoning him, although there is no evidence to confirm this.<a href="#cite_note-125">[116]</a> With no official <a href="/wiki/Heir_apparent" title="Heir apparent">heir apparent</a>, the Macedonian military command split, with one side proclaiming Alexander's half-brother Philip III Arrhidaeus (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 323–317 BC) as king and the other siding with the infant son of Alexander and Roxana, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_IV_of_Macedon" title="Alexander IV of Macedon">Alexander IV</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 323–309 BC).<a href="#cite_note-126">[117]</a> Except for the Euboeans and Boeotians, the Greeks also immediately rose up in a rebellion against Antipater known as the <a href="/wiki/Lamian_War" title="Lamian War">Lamian War</a> (323–322 BC).<a href="#cite_note-127">[118]</a> When Antipater was defeated at the 323 BC <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae_(323_BC)" title="Battle of Thermopylae (323 BC)">Battle of Thermopylae</a>, he fled to <a href="/wiki/Lamia_(city)" title="Lamia (city)">Lamia</a> where he was besieged by the Athenian commander <a href="/wiki/Leosthenes" title="Leosthenes">Leosthenes</a>. A Macedonian army led by <a href="/wiki/Leonnatus" title="Leonnatus">Leonnatus</a> rescued Antipater by lifting the siege.<a href="#cite_note-128">[119]</a> Antipater defeated the rebellion, yet his death in 319 BC left a power vacuum wherein the two proclaimed kings of Macedonia became pawns in <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Diadochi" title="Wars of the Diadochi">a power struggle</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">diadochi</a>, the former generals of Alexander's army.<a href="#cite_note-129">[120]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Babylon" title="Partition of Babylon">council of the army convened in Babylon</a> immediately after Alexander's death, naming Philip III as king and the <a href="/wiki/Chiliarch" title="Chiliarch">chiliarch</a> <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas" title="Perdiccas">Perdiccas</a> as his regent.<a href="#cite_note-130">[121]</a> Antipater, <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_Monophthalmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Antigonus Monophthalmus">Antigonus Monophthalmus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Craterus" title="Craterus">Craterus</a>, and Ptolemy formed a coalition against Perdiccas in a civil war initiated by Ptolemy's <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Tomb of Alexander the Great">seizure of the hearse of Alexander the Great</a>.<a href="#cite_note-131">[122]</a> Perdiccas was assassinated in 321 BC by his own officers during a failed campaign in Egypt against Ptolemy, where his march along the <a href="/wiki/Nile_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Nile River">Nile River</a> resulted in the drowning of 2,000 of his men.<a href="#cite_note-132">[123]</a> Although <a href="/wiki/Eumenes_of_Cardia" class="mw-redirect" title="Eumenes of Cardia">Eumenes of Cardia</a> managed to kill Craterus in battle, this had little to no effect on the outcome of the 321 BC <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Triparadisus" title="Partition of Triparadisus">Partition of Triparadisus</a> in <a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syria</a> where the victorious coalition settled the issue of a new regency and territorial rights.<a href="#cite_note-133">[124]</a> Antipater was appointed as regent over the two kings. Before Antipater died in 319 BC, he named the staunch Argead loyalist <a href="/wiki/Polyperchon" title="Polyperchon">Polyperchon</a> as his successor, passing over his own son <a href="/wiki/Cassander" title="Cassander">Cassander</a> and ignoring the right of the king to choose a new regent (since Philip III was considered mentally unstable), in effect bypassing the council of the army as well.<a href="#cite_note-134">[125]</a> Forming an alliance with Ptolemy, Antigonus, and <a href="/wiki/Lysimachus" title="Lysimachus">Lysimachus</a>, Cassander had his officer <a href="/wiki/Nicanor_(Antipatrid_general)" title="Nicanor (Antipatrid general)">Nicanor</a> capture the <a href="/wiki/Munichia" title="Munichia">Munichia</a> fortress of Athens' port town <a href="/wiki/Piraeus" title="Piraeus">Piraeus</a> in defiance of Polyperchon's decree that Greek cities should be free of Macedonian garrisons, sparking the <a href="/wiki/Second_War_of_the_Diadochi" title="Second War of the Diadochi">Second War of the Diadochi</a> (319–315 BC).<a href="#cite_note-135">[126]</a> Given a string of military failures by Polyperchon, in 317 BC, Philip III, by way of his politically engaged wife <a href="/wiki/Eurydice_II_of_Macedon" title="Eurydice II of Macedon">Eurydice II of Macedon</a>, officially replaced him as regent with Cassander.<a href="#cite_note-adams_213_errington_126–127-136">[127]</a> Afterwards, Polyperchon desperately sought the aid of Olympias in Epirus.<a href="#cite_note-adams_213_errington_126–127-136">[127]</a> A joint force of Epirotes, Aetolians, and Polyperchon's troops invaded Macedonia and forced the surrender of Philip III and Eurydice's army, allowing Olympias to execute the king and force his queen to commit suicide.<a href="#cite_note-137">[128]</a> Olympias then had Nicanor and dozens of other Macedonian nobles killed, but by the spring of 316 BC, Cassander had defeated her forces, captured her, and placed her on trial for murder before sentencing her to death.<a href="#cite_note-138">[129]</a> Cassander married Philip II's daughter <a href="/wiki/Thessalonike_of_Macedon" title="Thessalonike of Macedon">Thessalonike</a> and briefly extended Macedonian control into Illyria as far as <a href="/wiki/Epidamnos" title="Epidamnos">Epidamnos</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Durr%C3%ABs" title="Durrës">Durrës</a>, Albania). By 313 BC, it was retaken by the Illyrian king <a href="/wiki/Glaucias_of_Taulantii" title="Glaucias of Taulantii">Glaucias of Taulantii</a>.<a href="#cite_note-139">[130]</a> By 316 BC, Antigonus had taken the territory of Eumenes and managed to eject <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_Nicator" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucus Nicator">Seleucus Nicator</a> from his Babylonian satrapy, leading Cassander, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus to issue a joint ultimatum to Antigonus in 315 BC for him to surrender various territories in Asia.<a href="#cite_note-Adams_2010_215-9">[9]</a> Antigonus promptly allied with Polyperchon, now based in Corinth, and issued an ultimatum of his own to Cassander, charging him with murder for executing Olympias and demanding that he hand over the royal family, King Alexander IV and the <a href="/wiki/Queen_mother" title="Queen mother">queen mother</a> Roxana.<a href="#cite_note-140">[131]</a> The conflict that followed lasted until the winter of 312/311 BC, when a new peace settlement recognized Cassander as general of Europe, Antigonus as "first in Asia", Ptolemy as general of Egypt, and Lysimachus as general of Thrace.<a href="#cite_note-141">[132]</a> Cassander had Alexander IV and Roxana put to death in the winter of 311/310 BC, and between 306 and 305 BC the diadochi were declared kings of their respective territories.<a href="#cite_note-142">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hellenistic_era">Hellenistic era</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Antipatrid_dynasty" title="Antipatrid dynasty">Antipatrid dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antigonid_dynasty" title="Antigonid dynasty">Antigonid dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhic_War" title="Pyrrhic War">Pyrrhic War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chremonidean_War" title="Chremonidean War">Chremonidean War</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cleomenean_War" title="Cleomenean War">Cleomenean War</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:144px;max-width:144px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:189px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Pyrrhus_MAN_Napoli_Inv6150_n03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Pyrrhus_MAN_Napoli_Inv6150_n03.jpg/142px-Pyrrhus_MAN_Napoli_Inv6150_n03.jpg" decoding="async" width="142" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Pyrrhus_MAN_Napoli_Inv6150_n03.jpg/213px-Pyrrhus_MAN_Napoli_Inv6150_n03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Pyrrhus_MAN_Napoli_Inv6150_n03.jpg/284px-Pyrrhus_MAN_Napoli_Inv6150_n03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2600" data-file-height="3466" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:144px;max-width:144px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:189px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Demetrios_Poliorketes_MAN_Napoli_Inv6149.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Demetrios_Poliorketes_MAN_Napoli_Inv6149.jpg/142px-Demetrios_Poliorketes_MAN_Napoli_Inv6149.jpg" decoding="async" width="142" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Demetrios_Poliorketes_MAN_Napoli_Inv6149.jpg/213px-Demetrios_Poliorketes_MAN_Napoli_Inv6149.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Demetrios_Poliorketes_MAN_Napoli_Inv6149.jpg/284px-Demetrios_Poliorketes_MAN_Napoli_Inv6149.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2650" data-file-height="3533" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:163px;max-width:163px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:229px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Seleuco_I_2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Seleuco_I_2.JPG/161px-Seleuco_I_2.JPG" decoding="async" width="161" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Seleuco_I_2.JPG/242px-Seleuco_I_2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Seleuco_I_2.JPG/322px-Seleuco_I_2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="4930" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:125px;max-width:125px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:229px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Lisimaco_(c.d.),_copia_augustea_(23_ac-14_dc)_da_orig._del_II_sec_ac._6141.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Lisimaco_%28c.d.%29%2C_copia_augustea_%2823_ac-14_dc%29_da_orig._del_II_sec_ac._6141.JPG/123px-Lisimaco_%28c.d.%29%2C_copia_augustea_%2823_ac-14_dc%29_da_orig._del_II_sec_ac._6141.JPG" decoding="async" width="123" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Lisimaco_%28c.d.%29%2C_copia_augustea_%2823_ac-14_dc%29_da_orig._del_II_sec_ac._6141.JPG/185px-Lisimaco_%28c.d.%29%2C_copia_augustea_%2823_ac-14_dc%29_da_orig._del_II_sec_ac._6141.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Lisimaco_%28c.d.%29%2C_copia_augustea_%2823_ac-14_dc%29_da_orig._del_II_sec_ac._6141.JPG/246px-Lisimaco_%28c.d.%29%2C_copia_augustea_%2823_ac-14_dc%29_da_orig._del_II_sec_ac._6141.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1316" data-file-height="2460" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">The portrait busts of <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhus_of_Epirus" title="Pyrrhus of Epirus">Pyrrhus of Epirus</a> (top left), <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Demetrius I of Macedon">Demetrius I of Macedon</a> (top right), <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_I_Nicator" title="Seleucus I Nicator">Seleucus I Nicator</a> (bottom left), and <a href="/wiki/Lysimachus" title="Lysimachus">Lysimachus</a> (bottom right), <a href="/wiki/Roman_portraiture" title="Roman portraiture">Roman-era copies</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_sculpture" title="Hellenistic sculpture">Hellenistic Greek originals</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Villa_of_the_Papyri" title="Villa of the Papyri">Villa of the Papyri</a> at <a href="/wiki/Herculaneum" title="Herculaneum">Herculaneum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naples_National_Archaeological_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Naples National Archaeological Museum">Naples National Archaeological Museum</a></div></div></div></div> The beginning of <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Greece" title="Hellenistic Greece">Hellenistic Greece</a> was defined by the struggle between the <a href="/wiki/Antipatrid_dynasty" title="Antipatrid dynasty">Antipatrid dynasty</a>, led first by <a href="/wiki/Cassander" title="Cassander">Cassander</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 305–297 BC), son of Antipater, and the <a href="/wiki/Antigonid_dynasty" title="Antigonid dynasty">Antigonid dynasty</a>, led by the Macedonian general <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_I_Monophthalmus" title="Antigonus I Monophthalmus">Antigonus I Monophthalmus</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 306–301 BC) and his son, the future king <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Demetrius I of Macedon">Demetrius I</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 294–288 BC). Cassander besieged Athens in 303 BC, but was forced to retreat to Macedonia when Demetrius invaded <a href="/wiki/Boeotia" title="Boeotia">Boeotia</a> to his rear, attempting to sever his path of retreat.<a href="#cite_note-143">[134]</a> While Antigonus and Demetrius attempted to recreate Philip II's <a href="/wiki/League_of_Corinth" title="League of Corinth">Hellenic league</a> with themselves as dual hegemons, a revived coalition of Cassander, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy I Soter</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 305–283 BC) of Egypt's <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty" title="Ptolemaic dynasty">Ptolemaic dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_I_Nicator" title="Seleucus I Nicator">Seleucus I Nicator</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 305–281 BC) of the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a>, and Lysimachus (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 306–281 BC), <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Thrace_and_Dacia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Thrace and Dacia">King of Thrace</a>, defeated the Antigonids at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ipsus" title="Battle of Ipsus">Battle of Ipsus</a> in 301 BC, killing Antigonus and forcing Demetrius into flight.<a href="#cite_note-144">[135]</a> Cassander died in 297 BC, and his sickly son <a href="/wiki/Philip_IV_of_Macedon" title="Philip IV of Macedon">Philip IV</a> died the same year, succeeded by Cassander's other sons <a href="/wiki/Alexander_V_of_Macedon" title="Alexander V of Macedon">Alexander V of Macedon</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 297–294 BC) and <a href="/wiki/Antipater_II_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Antipater II of Macedon">Antipater II of Macedon</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 297–294 BC), with their mother <a href="/wiki/Thessalonike_of_Macedon" title="Thessalonike of Macedon">Thessalonike of Macedon</a> acting as regent.<a href="#cite_note-adams_2010_218-145">[136]</a> While Demetrius fought against the Antipatrid forces in Greece, Antipater II killed his own mother to obtain power.<a href="#cite_note-adams_2010_218-145">[136]</a> His desperate brother Alexander V then requested aid from <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhus_of_Epirus" title="Pyrrhus of Epirus">Pyrrhus of Epirus</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 297–272 BC),<a href="#cite_note-adams_2010_218-145">[136]</a> who had fought alongside Demetrius at the Battle of Ipsus, but was sent to Egypt as a hostage as part of an agreement between Demetrius and Ptolemy I.<a href="#cite_note-bringmann_2007_61-146">[137]</a> In exchange for defeating the forces of Antipater II and forcing him to flee to the court of Lysimachus in Thrace, Pyrrhus was awarded the westernmost portions of the Macedonian kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-147">[138]</a> Demetrius had his nephew Alexander V assassinated and was then proclaimed king of Macedonia, but his subjects protested against his aloof, Eastern-style <a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">autocracy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-adams_2010_218-145">[136]</a> War broke out between Pyrrhus and Demetrius in 290 BC when <a href="/wiki/Lanassa_(wife_of_Pyrrhus)" title="Lanassa (wife of Pyrrhus)">Lanassa, wife of Pyrrhus</a>, daughter of <a href="/wiki/Agathocles_of_Syracuse" title="Agathocles of Syracuse">Agathocles of Syracuse</a>, left him for Demetrius and offered him her <a href="/wiki/Dowry" title="Dowry">dowry</a> of <a href="/wiki/Corcyra" class="mw-redirect" title="Corcyra">Corcyra</a>.<a href="#cite_note-adams_218–219_bringmann_61-148">[139]</a> The war dragged on until 288 BC, when Demetrius lost the support of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">the Macedonians</a> and fled the country. Macedonia was then divided between Pyrrhus and Lysimachus, the former taking <a href="/wiki/Western_Macedonia" title="Western Macedonia">western Macedonia</a> and the latter eastern Macedonia.<a href="#cite_note-adams_218–219_bringmann_61-148">[139]</a> By 286 BC, Lysimachus had expelled Pyrrhus and his forces from Macedonia.<a href="#cite_note-149">[note 10]</a> In 282 BC, a new war erupted between Seleucus I and Lysimachus; the latter was killed in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Corupedion" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Corupedion">Battle of Corupedion</a>, allowing Seleucus I to take control of Thrace and Macedonia.<a href="#cite_note-adams_219_bringmann_61-150">[140]</a> In two dramatic reversals of fortune, Seleucus I was assassinated in 281 BC by his officer <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_Keraunos" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy Keraunos">Ptolemy Keraunos</a>, son of Ptolemy I and grandson of Antipater, who was then proclaimed king of Macedonia before being killed in battle in 279 BC by <a href="/wiki/Galatians_(people)" title="Galatians (people)">Celtic invaders</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Gallic_invasion_of_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallic invasion of Greece">Gallic invasion of Greece</a>.<a href="#cite_note-151">[141]</a> The Macedonian army proclaimed the general <a href="/wiki/Sosthenes_of_Macedon" title="Sosthenes of Macedon">Sosthenes of Macedon</a> as king, although he apparently refused the title.<a href="#cite_note-152">[142]</a> After defeating the <a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gallic</a> ruler <a href="/wiki/Bolgios" title="Bolgios">Bolgios</a> and driving out the raiding party of <a href="/wiki/Brennus_(3rd_century_BC)" title="Brennus (3rd century BC)">Brennus</a>, Sosthenes died and left a chaotic situation in Macedonia.<a href="#cite_note-153">[143]</a> The Gallic invaders ravaged Macedonia until <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_Gonatas" class="mw-redirect" title="Antigonus Gonatas">Antigonus Gonatas</a>, son of Demetrius, defeated them in Thrace at the 277 BC <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lysimachia" title="Battle of Lysimachia">Battle of Lysimachia</a> and was then proclaimed king <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_II_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Antigonus II of Macedon">Antigonus II of Macedon</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 277–274, 272–239 BC).<a href="#cite_note-154">[144]</a> In 280 BC, Pyrrhus embarked on a campaign in <a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a> (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Southern_Italy" title="Southern Italy">southern Italy</a>) against the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhic_War" title="Pyrrhic War">Pyrrhic War</a>, followed by his <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Syracuse_(278_BC)" title="Siege of Syracuse (278 BC)">invasion of Sicily</a>.<a href="#cite_note-adams_219–220_bringmann_2007_63-155">[145]</a> Ptolemy Keraunos secured his position on the Macedonian throne by giving Pyrrhus five thousand soldiers and twenty <a href="/wiki/War_elephant" title="War elephant">war elephants</a> for this endeavor.<a href="#cite_note-bringmann_2007_61-146">[137]</a> Pyrrhus returned to Epirus in 275 BC after the ultimate failure of both campaigns, which contributed to the <a href="/wiki/Rise_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Rise of Rome">rise of Rome</a> because <a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">Greek cities in southern Italy</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Taranto" title="Taranto">Tarentum</a> now became Roman allies.<a href="#cite_note-adams_219–220_bringmann_2007_63-155">[145]</a> Pyrrhus invaded Macedonia in 274 BC, defeating the largely mercenary army of Antigonus II at the 274 BC <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Aous_(274_BC)" title="Battle of the Aous (274 BC)">Battle of Aous</a> and driving him out of Macedonia, forcing him to seek refuge with his naval fleet in the Aegean.<a href="#cite_note-156">[146]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ancient_Mieza,_Macedonian_tombs_of_Lefkadia,_Tomb_of_Lyson_and_Kallikles_a72b9b998c2e98a1390dbae9e032ea1c.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Ancient_Mieza%2C_Macedonian_tombs_of_Lefkadia%2C_Tomb_of_Lyson_and_Kallikles_a72b9b998c2e98a1390dbae9e032ea1c.jpg/220px-Ancient_Mieza%2C_Macedonian_tombs_of_Lefkadia%2C_Tomb_of_Lyson_and_Kallikles_a72b9b998c2e98a1390dbae9e032ea1c.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Ancient_Mieza%2C_Macedonian_tombs_of_Lefkadia%2C_Tomb_of_Lyson_and_Kallikles_a72b9b998c2e98a1390dbae9e032ea1c.jpg/330px-Ancient_Mieza%2C_Macedonian_tombs_of_Lefkadia%2C_Tomb_of_Lyson_and_Kallikles_a72b9b998c2e98a1390dbae9e032ea1c.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Ancient_Mieza%2C_Macedonian_tombs_of_Lefkadia%2C_Tomb_of_Lyson_and_Kallikles_a72b9b998c2e98a1390dbae9e032ea1c.jpg/440px-Ancient_Mieza%2C_Macedonian_tombs_of_Lefkadia%2C_Tomb_of_Lyson_and_Kallikles_a72b9b998c2e98a1390dbae9e032ea1c.jpg 2x" data-file-width="564" data-file-height="359" /></a><figcaption>Paintings of <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</a>-era military arms and armor from a tomb in ancient <a href="/wiki/Mieza,_Macedonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mieza, Macedonia">Mieza</a> (modern-day Lefkadia), <a href="/wiki/Imathia" title="Imathia">Imathia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_Macedonia" title="Central Macedonia">Central Macedonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>, 2nd century BC</figcaption></figure> Pyrrhus lost much of his support among the Macedonians in 273 BC when his unruly Gallic mercenaries plundered the royal cemetery of Aigai.<a href="#cite_note-157">[147]</a> Pyrrhus pursued Antigonus II in the Peloponnese, yet Antigonus II was ultimately able to recapture Macedonia.<a href="#cite_note-adams_2010_220-158">[148]</a> Pyrrhus was killed while besieging <a href="/wiki/Argos,_Peloponnese" title="Argos, Peloponnese">Argos</a> in 272 BC, allowing Antigonus II to reclaim the rest of Greece.<a href="#cite_note-159">[149]</a> He then restored the Argead dynastic graves at Aigai and annexed the <a href="/wiki/Paeonia_(kingdom)" title="Paeonia (kingdom)">Kingdom of Paeonia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-160">[150]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Aetolian_League" title="Aetolian League">Aetolian League</a> hampered Antigonus II's control over <a href="/wiki/Central_Greece_(geographic_region)" title="Central Greece (geographic region)">central Greece</a>, and the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Achaean_League" title="Achaean League">Achaean League</a> in 251 BC pushed Macedonian forces out of much of the Peloponnese and at times incorporated Athens and Sparta.<a href="#cite_note-161">[151]</a> While the Seleucid Empire aligned with Antigonid Macedonia against Ptolemaic Egypt during the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Wars" title="Syrian Wars">Syrian Wars</a>, the Ptolemaic navy heavily disrupted Antigonus II's efforts to control mainland Greece.<a href="#cite_note-162">[152]</a> With the aid of the Ptolemaic navy, the Athenian statesman <a href="/wiki/Chremonides" title="Chremonides">Chremonides</a> led a revolt against Macedonian authority known as the <a href="/wiki/Chremonidean_War" title="Chremonidean War">Chremonidean War</a> (267–261 BC).<a href="#cite_note-163">[153]</a> By 265 BC, Athens was surrounded and besieged by Antigonus II's forces, and a Ptolemaic fleet was defeated in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cos" title="Battle of Cos">Battle of Cos</a>. Athens finally surrendered in 261 BC.<a href="#cite_note-164">[154]</a> After Macedonia formed an alliance with the Seleucid ruler <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiochus II">Antiochus II</a>, a peace settlement between Antigonus II and <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_II_Philadelphus" title="Ptolemy II Philadelphus">Ptolemy II Philadelphus</a> of Egypt was finally struck in 255 BC.<a href="#cite_note-adams_2010_221-165">[155]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Apollon_Tempel_im_antiken_Korinth.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Apollon_Tempel_im_antiken_Korinth.jpg/220px-Apollon_Tempel_im_antiken_Korinth.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Apollon_Tempel_im_antiken_Korinth.jpg/330px-Apollon_Tempel_im_antiken_Korinth.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Apollon_Tempel_im_antiken_Korinth.jpg/440px-Apollon_Tempel_im_antiken_Korinth.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2004" data-file-height="1338" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_temple" title="Ancient Greek temple">Temple</a> of <a href="/wiki/Apollo" title="Apollo">Apollo</a> at <a href="/wiki/Corinth" title="Corinth">Corinth</a>, built c. 540 BC, with the <a href="/wiki/Acrocorinth" title="Acrocorinth">Acrocorinth</a> (i.e. the <a href="/wiki/Acropolis" title="Acropolis">acropolis</a> of Corinth that once held a <a href="/wiki/Antigonid_Macedonian_army" title="Antigonid Macedonian army">Macedonian garrison</a>)<a href="#cite_note-adams_2010_222-166">[156]</a> seen in the background</figcaption></figure> In 251 BC, <a href="/wiki/Aratus_of_Sicyon" title="Aratus of Sicyon">Aratus of Sicyon</a> led a rebellion against Antigonus II, and in 250 BC, Ptolemy II declared his support for the self-proclaimed King <a href="/wiki/Alexander_of_Corinth" title="Alexander of Corinth">Alexander of Corinth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-167">[157]</a> Although Alexander died in 246 BC and Antigonus was able to score a naval victory against the Ptolemies <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Andros_(246_BC)" title="Battle of Andros (246 BC)">at Andros</a>, the Macedonians lost the <a href="/wiki/Acrocorinth" title="Acrocorinth">Acrocorinth</a> to the forces of Aratus in 243 BC, followed by the induction of Corinth into the Achaean League.<a href="#cite_note-168">[158]</a> Antigonus II made peace with the Achaean League in 240 BC, ceding the territories that he had lost in Greece.<a href="#cite_note-169">[159]</a> Antigonus II died in 239 BC and was succeeded by his son <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_II_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Demetrius II of Macedon">Demetrius II of Macedon</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 239–229 BC). Seeking an alliance with Macedonia to defend against the Aetolians, the <a href="/wiki/Queen_mother" title="Queen mother">queen mother</a> and regent of Epirus, <a href="/wiki/Olympias_II_of_Epirus" title="Olympias II of Epirus">Olympias II</a>, offered her daughter <a href="/wiki/Phthia_of_Macedon" title="Phthia of Macedon">Phthia of Macedon</a> to Demetrius II in marriage. Demetrius II accepted her proposal, but he damaged relations with the Seleucids by divorcing <a href="/wiki/Stratonice_of_Macedon" title="Stratonice of Macedon">Stratonice of Macedon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-170">[160]</a> Although the Aetolians formed an alliance with the Achaean League as a result, Demetrius II was able to invade Boeotia and capture it from the Aetolians by 236 BC.<a href="#cite_note-adams_2010_222-166">[156]</a> The Achaean League managed to capture <a href="/wiki/Megalopolis,_Greece" title="Megalopolis, Greece">Megalopolis</a> in 235 BC, and by the end of Demetrius II's reign most of the Peloponnese except Argos was taken from the Macedonians.<a href="#cite_note-171">[161]</a> Demetrius II also lost an ally <a href="/wiki/Epirus_(ancient_state)" title="Epirus (ancient state)">in Epirus</a> when the <a href="/wiki/Deidamia_II_of_Epirus" title="Deidamia II of Epirus">monarchy was toppled</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Epirote_League" title="Epirote League">republican revolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-adams_223_errington_174-172">[162]</a> Demetrius II enlisted the aid of the <a href="/wiki/Illyria" title="Illyria">Illyrian</a> king <a href="/wiki/Agron_of_Illyria" title="Agron of Illyria">Agron</a> to defend <a href="/wiki/Acarnania" title="Acarnania">Acarnania</a> against Aetolia, and in 229 BC, they managed to defeat the combined navies of the Aetolian and Achaean Leagues at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Paxos" title="Battle of Paxos">Battle of Paxos</a>.<a href="#cite_note-adams_223_errington_174-172">[162]</a> Another Illyrian ruler, <a href="/wiki/Longarus" title="Longarus">Longarus</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Dardanian_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Dardanian Kingdom">Dardanian Kingdom</a>, invaded Macedonia and defeated an army of Demetrius II shortly before his death in 229 BC.<a href="#cite_note-173">[163]</a> Although his young son <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon" title="Philip V of Macedon">Philip</a> immediately inherited the throne, his regent <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_III_Doson" title="Antigonus III Doson">Antigonus III Doson</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 229–221 BC), nephew of Antigonus II, was proclaimed king by the army, with Philip as his heir, following a string of military victories against the Illyrians in the north and the Aetolians in Thessaly.<a href="#cite_note-174">[164]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tetradrachm,_229-221,_Antigonos_Doson.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Tetradrachm%2C_229-221%2C_Antigonos_Doson.jpg/220px-Tetradrachm%2C_229-221%2C_Antigonos_Doson.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Tetradrachm%2C_229-221%2C_Antigonos_Doson.jpg/330px-Tetradrachm%2C_229-221%2C_Antigonos_Doson.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Tetradrachm%2C_229-221%2C_Antigonos_Doson.jpg/440px-Tetradrachm%2C_229-221%2C_Antigonos_Doson.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="376" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Tetradrachm" title="Tetradrachm">tetradrachm</a> minted during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_III_Doson" title="Antigonus III Doson">Antigonus III Doson</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 229–221 BC), possibly at <a href="/wiki/Amphipolis" title="Amphipolis">Amphipolis</a>, bearing the portrait image of <a href="/wiki/Poseidon" title="Poseidon">Poseidon</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Obverse" class="mw-redirect" title="Obverse">obverse</a> and on the reverse a scene depicting <a href="/wiki/Apollo" title="Apollo">Apollo</a> sitting on the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic-era_warships" title="Hellenistic-era warships">prow of a ship</a></figcaption></figure> Aratus sent an embassy to Antigonus III in 226 BC seeking an unexpected alliance now that the reformist king <a href="/wiki/Cleomenes_III" title="Cleomenes III">Cleomenes III</a> of Sparta was threatening the rest of Greece in the <a href="/wiki/Cleomenean_War" title="Cleomenean War">Cleomenean War</a> (229–222 BC).<a href="#cite_note-175">[165]</a> In exchange for military aid, Antigonus III demanded the return of Corinth to Macedonian control, which Aratus finally agreed to in 225 BC.<a href="#cite_note-176">[166]</a> In 224 BC, Antigonus III's forces took <a href="/wiki/Arcadia_(ancient_region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arcadia (ancient region)">Arcadia</a> from Sparta. After forming a Hellenic league in the same vein as Philip II's League of Corinth, he managed to defeat Sparta at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sellasia" title="Battle of Sellasia">Battle of Sellasia</a> in 222 BC.<a href="#cite_note-177">[167]</a> Sparta was occupied by a foreign power for the first time in its history, restoring Macedonia's position as the leading power in Greece.<a href="#cite_note-178">[168]</a> Antigonus died a year later, perhaps from <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>, leaving behind a strong <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic kingdom</a> for his successor Philip V.<a href="#cite_note-179">[169]</a> <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon" title="Philip V of Macedon">Philip V of Macedon</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 221–179 BC) faced immediate challenges to his authority by the Illyrian <a href="/wiki/Dardani" title="Dardani">Dardani</a> and Aetolian League.<a href="#cite_note-180">[170]</a> Philip V and his allies were successful against the Aetolians and their allies in the <a href="/wiki/Social_War_(220%E2%80%93217_BC)" title="Social War (220–217 BC)">Social War (220–217 BC)</a>, yet he made peace with the Aetolians once he heard of incursions by the Dardani in the north and the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Carthage" title="History of Carthage">Carthaginian</a> victory over <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Roman Republic">the Romans</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Trasimene" title="Battle of Lake Trasimene">Battle of Lake Trasimene</a> in 217 BC.<a href="#cite_note-181">[171]</a> <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_of_Pharos" title="Demetrius of Pharos">Demetrius of Pharos</a> is alleged to have convinced Philip V to first <a href="/wiki/Illyrian_Wars" title="Illyrian Wars">secure Illyria</a> in advance of an invasion of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_peninsula" title="Italian peninsula">Italian peninsula</a>.<a href="#cite_note-182">[note 11]</a> In 216 BC, Philip V sent a hundred <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic-era_warships" title="Hellenistic-era warships">light warships</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Sea" title="Adriatic Sea">Adriatic Sea</a> to attack Illyria, a move that prompted <a href="/wiki/Scerdilaidas" title="Scerdilaidas">Scerdilaidas</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ardiaean_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Ardiaean Kingdom">Ardiaean Kingdom</a> to appeal to the Romans for aid.<a href="#cite_note-183">[172]</a> Rome responded by sending ten heavy <a href="/wiki/Quinquereme" class="mw-redirect" title="Quinquereme">quinqueremes</a> from <a href="/wiki/Roman_Sicily" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Sicily">Roman Sicily</a> to patrol the Illyrian coasts, causing Philip V to reverse course and order his fleet to retreat, averting open conflict for the time being.<a href="#cite_note-184">[173]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conflict_with_Rome">Conflict with Rome</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Wars" title="Macedonian Wars">Macedonian Wars</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Cretan_War_(205%E2%80%93200_BC)" title="Cretan War (205–200 BC)">Cretan War (205–200 BC)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars">Punic Wars</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Macedonian%E2%80%93Carthaginian_Treaty" title="Macedonian–Carthaginian Treaty">Macedonian–Carthaginian Treaty</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Macedonia_and_the_Aegean_World_c.200.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Macedonia_and_the_Aegean_World_c.200.png/260px-Macedonia_and_the_Aegean_World_c.200.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Macedonia_and_the_Aegean_World_c.200.png/390px-Macedonia_and_the_Aegean_World_c.200.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Macedonia_and_the_Aegean_World_c.200.png/520px-Macedonia_and_the_Aegean_World_c.200.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="599" /></a><figcaption>The Kingdom of Macedonia (orange) under <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon" title="Philip V of Macedon">Philip V</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 221–179 BC), with Macedonian <a href="/wiki/Dependent_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Dependent state">dependent states</a> (dark yellow), the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> (bright yellow), <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> <a href="/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate">protectorates</a> (dark green), the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pergamon" title="Kingdom of Pergamon">Kingdom of Pergamon</a> (light green), independent states (light purple), and possessions of the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Empire">Ptolemaic Empire</a> (violet purple)</figcaption></figure> In 215 BC, at the height of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second Punic War</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Carthaginian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Carthaginian Empire">Carthaginian Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> authorities intercepted a ship off the <a href="/wiki/Calabria" title="Calabria">Calabrian</a> coast holding a Macedonian envoy and a Carthaginian ambassador in possession of a treaty composed by <a href="/wiki/Hannibal" title="Hannibal">Hannibal</a> declaring an alliance with Philip V.<a href="#cite_note-185">[174]</a> <a href="/wiki/Macedonian%E2%80%93Carthaginian_Treaty" title="Macedonian–Carthaginian Treaty">The treaty</a> stipulated that <a href="/wiki/History_of_Carthage" title="History of Carthage">Carthage</a> had the sole right to negotiate the terms of Rome's hypothetical surrender and promised mutual aid if a resurgent Rome should seek revenge against either Macedonia or Carthage.<a href="#cite_note-186">[175]</a> Although the Macedonians were perhaps only interested in safeguarding their newly conquered territories in Illyria,<a href="#cite_note-187">[176]</a> the Romans were nevertheless able to thwart whatever grand ambitions Philip V had for the Adriatic region during the <a href="/wiki/First_Macedonian_War" title="First Macedonian War">First Macedonian War</a> (214–205 BC). In 214 BC, Rome positioned a <a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">naval fleet</a> at <a href="/wiki/Oricus" class="mw-redirect" title="Oricus">Oricus</a>, which was assaulted along with <a href="/wiki/Apollonia_(Illyria)" title="Apollonia (Illyria)">Apollonia</a> by Macedonian forces.<a href="#cite_note-188">[177]</a> When the Macedonians captured <a href="/wiki/Lissus_(Illyria)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lissus (Illyria)">Lissus</a> in 212 BC, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a> responded by inciting the Aetolian League, Sparta, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Elis" title="Ancient Elis">Elis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Messenia" title="Messenia">Messenia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Attalus_I" title="Attalus I">Attalus I</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 241–197 BC) of <a href="/wiki/Pergamon" title="Pergamon">Pergamon</a> to wage war against Philip V, keeping him occupied and away from Italy.<a href="#cite_note-189">[178]</a> The Aetolian League concluded a <a href="/wiki/Peace_agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Peace agreement">peace agreement</a> with Philip V in 206 BC, and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> negotiated the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Phoenice" title="Treaty of Phoenice">Treaty of Phoenice</a> in 205 BC, ending the war and allowing the Macedonians to retain some captured settlements in Illyria.<a href="#cite_note-190">[179]</a> Although the Romans rejected an Aetolian request in 202 BC for Rome to declare war on Macedonia once again, the Roman Senate gave serious consideration to the similar offer made by Pergamon and its ally <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a> in 201 BC.<a href="#cite_note-191">[180]</a> These states were concerned about Philip V's alliance with <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_III_the_Great" title="Antiochus III the Great">Antiochus III the Great</a> of the Seleucid Empire, which invaded the war-weary and financially exhausted Ptolemaic Empire in the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Syrian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth Syrian War">Fifth Syrian War</a> (202–195 BC) as Philip V captured Ptolemaic settlements in the Aegean Sea.<a href="#cite_note-192">[181]</a> Although Rome's envoys played a critical role in convincing Athens to join the anti-Macedonian alliance with Pergamon and Rhodes in 200 BC, the <a href="/wiki/Comitia_centuriata" class="mw-redirect" title="Comitia centuriata">comitia centuriata</a> (people's assembly) rejected the Roman Senate's proposal for a declaration of war on Macedonia.<a href="#cite_note-193">[182]</a> Meanwhile, Philip V conquered territories in the <a href="/wiki/Hellespont" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellespont">Hellespont</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bosporus" title="Bosporus">Bosporus</a> as well as Ptolemaic <a href="/wiki/Samos" title="Samos">Samos</a>, which led Rhodes to <a href="/wiki/Cretan_War_(205%E2%80%93200_BC)" title="Cretan War (205–200 BC)">form an alliance with Pergamon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyzicus" title="Cyzicus">Cyzicus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chios" title="Chios">Chios</a> against Macedonia.<a href="#cite_note-194">[183]</a> Despite Philip V's nominal alliance with the Seleucid king, he lost the naval <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chios_(201_BC)" title="Battle of Chios (201 BC)">Battle of Chios</a> in 201 BC and was blockaded at <a href="/wiki/Bargylia" title="Bargylia">Bargylia</a> by the Rhodian and Pergamene navies.<a href="#cite_note-195">[184]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Philip_V._221-179_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Philip_V._221-179_BCE.jpg/220px-Philip_V._221-179_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Philip_V._221-179_BCE.jpg/330px-Philip_V._221-179_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Philip_V._221-179_BCE.jpg/440px-Philip_V._221-179_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="211" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Tetradrachm" title="Tetradrachm">tetradrachm</a> of <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon" title="Philip V of Macedon">Philip V of Macedon</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 221–179 BC), with the king's portrait on the <a href="/wiki/Obverse" class="mw-redirect" title="Obverse">obverse</a> and <a href="/wiki/Athena_Alkidemos" title="Athena Alkidemos">Athena Alkidemos</a> brandishing a thunderbolt on the reverse</figcaption></figure> While Philip V was busy fighting Rome's Greek allies, Rome viewed this as an opportunity to punish this former ally of Hannibal with a war that they hoped would supply a victory and require few resources.<a href="#cite_note-196">[note 12]</a> The Roman Senate demanded that Philip V cease hostilities against neighboring Greek powers and defer to an international arbitration committee for settling grievances.<a href="#cite_note-197">[185]</a> When the comitia centuriata finally voted in approval of the Roman Senate's declaration of war in 200 BC and handed their <a href="/wiki/Ultimatum" title="Ultimatum">ultimatum</a> to Philip V, demanding that a <a href="/wiki/Tribunal" title="Tribunal">tribunal</a> assess the damages owed to Rhodes and Pergamon, the Macedonian king rejected it. This marked the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Macedonian_War" title="Second Macedonian War">Second Macedonian War</a> (200–197 BC), with <a href="/wiki/Publius_Sulpicius_Galba_Maximus" title="Publius Sulpicius Galba Maximus">Publius Sulpicius Galba Maximus</a> spearheading <a href="/wiki/Military_operation" title="Military operation">military operations</a> in Apollonia.<a href="#cite_note-198">[186]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eumene_II,_fondatore_della_biblioteca_di_pergamo,_copia_romana_(50_dc_ca)_da_orig,._ellenistico_su_busto_moderno,_MANN_02.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Eumene_II%2C_fondatore_della_biblioteca_di_pergamo%2C_copia_romana_%2850_dc_ca%29_da_orig%2C._ellenistico_su_busto_moderno%2C_MANN_02.JPG/170px-Eumene_II%2C_fondatore_della_biblioteca_di_pergamo%2C_copia_romana_%2850_dc_ca%29_da_orig%2C._ellenistico_su_busto_moderno%2C_MANN_02.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="292" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Eumene_II%2C_fondatore_della_biblioteca_di_pergamo%2C_copia_romana_%2850_dc_ca%29_da_orig%2C._ellenistico_su_busto_moderno%2C_MANN_02.JPG/255px-Eumene_II%2C_fondatore_della_biblioteca_di_pergamo%2C_copia_romana_%2850_dc_ca%29_da_orig%2C._ellenistico_su_busto_moderno%2C_MANN_02.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Eumene_II%2C_fondatore_della_biblioteca_di_pergamo%2C_copia_romana_%2850_dc_ca%29_da_orig%2C._ellenistico_su_busto_moderno%2C_MANN_02.JPG/340px-Eumene_II%2C_fondatore_della_biblioteca_di_pergamo%2C_copia_romana_%2850_dc_ca%29_da_orig%2C._ellenistico_su_busto_moderno%2C_MANN_02.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2046" data-file-height="3510" /></a><figcaption>Bronze bust of <a href="/wiki/Eumenes_II" title="Eumenes II">Eumenes II</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pergamon" title="Pergamon">Pergamon</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Roman_sculpture" title="Roman sculpture">Roman copy</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_art" title="Hellenistic art">Hellenistic</a> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_sculpture" title="Ancient Greek sculpture">Greek original</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/Villa_of_the_Papyri" title="Villa of the Papyri">Villa of the Papyri</a> in <a href="/wiki/Herculaneum" title="Herculaneum">Herculaneum</a></figcaption></figure> The Macedonians successfully defended their territory for roughly two years,<a href="#cite_note-199">[187]</a> but the <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Roman consul</a> <a href="/wiki/Titus_Quinctius_Flamininus" title="Titus Quinctius Flamininus">Titus Quinctius Flamininus</a> managed to expel Philip V from Macedonia in 198 BC, forcing his men to take refuge in Thessaly.<a href="#cite_note-bringmann_2007_88-200">[188]</a> When the Achaean League switched their loyalties from Macedonia to Rome, the Macedonian king sued for peace, but the terms offered were considered too stringent, and so the war continued.<a href="#cite_note-bringmann_2007_88-200">[188]</a> In June 197 BC, the Macedonians were defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cynoscephalae" title="Battle of Cynoscephalae">Battle of Cynoscephalae</a>.<a href="#cite_note-201">[189]</a> Rome then ratified a treaty that forced Macedonia to relinquish control of much of its Greek possessions outside of Macedonia proper, if only to act as a buffer against Illyrian and Thracian incursions into Greece.<a href="#cite_note-202">[190]</a> Although some Greeks suspected Roman intentions of supplanting Macedonia as the new hegemonic power in Greece, Flaminius announced at the <a href="/wiki/Isthmian_Games" title="Isthmian Games">Isthmian Games</a> of 196 BC that Rome intended to preserve Greek <a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">liberty</a> by leaving behind no garrisons and by not exacting <a href="/wiki/Tribute" title="Tribute">tribute</a> of any kind.<a href="#cite_note-203">[191]</a> His promise was delayed by negotiations with the Spartan king <a href="/wiki/Nabis_of_Sparta" title="Nabis of Sparta">Nabis</a>, who had meanwhile captured Argos, yet Roman forces evacuated Greece in 194 BC.<a href="#cite_note-204">[192]</a> Encouraged by the Aetolian League and their calls to liberate Greece from the Romans, the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_dynasty" title="Seleucid dynasty">Seleucid king</a> Antiochus III landed with his army at <a href="/wiki/Demetrias" title="Demetrias">Demetrias</a>, Thessaly, in 192 BC, and was elected strategos by the Aetolians.<a href="#cite_note-205">[193]</a> Macedonia, the Achaean League, and other Greek city-states maintained their alliance with Rome.<a href="#cite_note-206">[194]</a> The Romans <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Seleucid_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman–Seleucid War">defeated the Seleucids</a> in the 191 BC <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae_(191_BC)" title="Battle of Thermopylae (191 BC)">Battle of Thermopylae</a> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Magnesia" title="Battle of Magnesia">Battle of Magnesia</a> in 190 BC, forcing the Seleucids to pay a <a href="/wiki/War_indemnity" class="mw-redirect" title="War indemnity">war indemnity</a>, dismantle most of its navy, and abandon its claims to any territories north or west of the <a href="/wiki/Taurus_Mountains" title="Taurus Mountains">Taurus Mountains</a> in the 188 BC <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Apamea" title="Treaty of Apamea">Treaty of Apamea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-207">[195]</a> With Rome's acceptance, Philip V was able to capture some cities in central Greece in 191–189 BC that had been allied to Antiochus III, while Rhodes and <a href="/wiki/Eumenes_II" title="Eumenes II">Eumenes II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 197–159 BC) of Pergamon gained territories in Asia Minor.<a href="#cite_note-208">[196]</a> Failing to please all sides in various territorial disputes, the Roman Senate decided in 184/183 BC to force Philip V to abandon <a href="/wiki/Aenus_(Thrace)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aenus (Thrace)">Aenus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maroneia" title="Maroneia">Maronea</a>, since these had been declared free cities in the Treaty of Apamea.<a href="#cite_note-209">[note 13]</a> This assuaged the fear of Eumenes II that Macedonia could pose a threat to his lands in the Hellespont.<a href="#cite_note-210">[197]</a> <a href="/wiki/Perseus_of_Macedon" title="Perseus of Macedon">Perseus of Macedon</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 179–168 BC) succeeded Philip V and executed <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_(son_of_Philip_V)" title="Demetrius (son of Philip V)">his brother Demetrius</a>, who had been favored by the Romans but was charged by Perseus with <a href="/wiki/High_treason" class="mw-redirect" title="High treason">high treason</a>.<a href="#cite_note-211">[198]</a> Perseus then attempted to form marriage alliances with <a href="/wiki/Prusias_II_of_Bithynia" title="Prusias II of Bithynia">Prusias II of Bithynia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_IV_Philopator" title="Seleucus IV Philopator">Seleucus IV Philopator</a> of the Seleucid Empire, along with renewed relations with Rhodes that greatly unsettled Eumenes II.<a href="#cite_note-212">[199]</a> Although Eumenes II attempted to undermine these diplomatic relationships, Perseus fostered an alliance with the <a href="/wiki/Boeotian_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Boeotian League">Boeotian League</a>, extended his authority into Illyria <a href="/wiki/Abrupolis" title="Abrupolis">and Thrace</a>, and in 174 BC, won the role of managing the Temple of Apollo at Delphi as a member of the <a href="/wiki/Amphictyonic_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphictyonic Council">Amphictyonic Council</a>.<a href="#cite_note-213">[200]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:423px;max-width:423px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Perseus_of_Macedon_BM.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Perseus_of_Macedon_BM.jpg/170px-Perseus_of_Macedon_BM.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Perseus_of_Macedon_BM.jpg/255px-Perseus_of_Macedon_BM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Perseus_of_Macedon_BM.jpg/340px-Perseus_of_Macedon_BM.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1556" data-file-height="1495" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:247px;max-width:247px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Triumph_of_Aemilius_Paulus_(detail).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/The_Triumph_of_Aemilius_Paulus_%28detail%29.jpg/245px-The_Triumph_of_Aemilius_Paulus_%28detail%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="245" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/The_Triumph_of_Aemilius_Paulus_%28detail%29.jpg/368px-The_Triumph_of_Aemilius_Paulus_%28detail%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/The_Triumph_of_Aemilius_Paulus_%28detail%29.jpg/490px-The_Triumph_of_Aemilius_Paulus_%28detail%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2047" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Left, a <a href="/wiki/Tetradrachm" title="Tetradrachm">tetradrachm</a> of <a href="/wiki/Perseus_of_Macedon" title="Perseus of Macedon">Perseus of Macedon</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 179–168 BC), <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>. Right, The Triumph of <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Aemilius_Paullus_Macedonicus" title="Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus">Aemilius Paulus</a> (detail) by <a href="/wiki/Carle_Vernet" title="Carle Vernet">Carle Vernet</a>, 1789.</div></div></div></div> Eumenes II came to Rome in 172 BC and delivered a speech to <a href="/wiki/Senate_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Senate of the Roman Republic">the Senate</a> denouncing the alleged crimes and transgressions of Perseus.<a href="#cite_note-214">[201]</a> This convinced the Roman Senate to declare the <a href="/wiki/Third_Macedonian_War" title="Third Macedonian War">Third Macedonian War</a> (171–168 BC).<a href="#cite_note-215">[note 14]</a> Although Perseus's forces were victorious against the Romans at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Callinicus" title="Battle of Callinicus">Battle of Callinicus</a> in 171 BC, the Macedonian army was defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pydna" title="Battle of Pydna">Battle of Pydna</a> in June 168 BC.<a href="#cite_note-216">[202]</a> Perseus fled to <a href="/wiki/Samothrace" title="Samothrace">Samothrace</a> but surrendered shortly afterwards, was brought to <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Roman_triumph" title="Roman triumph">triumph</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Aemilius_Paullus_Macedonicus" title="Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus">Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus</a>, and was placed under <a href="/wiki/House_arrest" title="House arrest">house arrest</a> at <a href="/wiki/Alba_Fucens" title="Alba Fucens">Alba Fucens</a>, where he died in 166 BC.<a href="#cite_note-217">[203]</a> The Romans abolished the Macedonian monarchy by installing four separate allied <a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">republics</a> in its stead, their capitals located at <a href="/wiki/Amphipolis" title="Amphipolis">Amphipolis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thessalonica" class="mw-redirect" title="Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pella" title="Pella">Pella</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pelagonia" title="Pelagonia">Pelagonia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-bringmann_99–100_eckstein_245-218">[204]</a> The Romans imposed severe laws inhibiting many social and economic interactions between the inhabitants of these republics, including the banning of marriages between them and the (temporary) prohibition on gold and silver mining.<a href="#cite_note-bringmann_99–100_eckstein_245-218">[204]</a> A certain <a href="/wiki/Andriscus" title="Andriscus">Andriscus</a>, claiming Antigonid descent, rebelled against the Romans and was pronounced king of Macedonia, defeating the army of the Roman <a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">praetor</a> Publius Juventius Thalna during the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Macedonian_War" title="Fourth Macedonian War">Fourth Macedonian War</a> (150–148 BC).<a href="#cite_note-219">[205]</a> Despite this, Andriscus was defeated in 148 BC at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pydna_(148_BC)" title="Battle of Pydna (148 BC)">second Battle of Pydna</a> by <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Caecilius_Metellus_Macedonicus" title="Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus">Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus</a>, whose forces occupied the kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-220">[206]</a> This was followed in 146 BC by the Roman <a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_Carthage" class="mw-redirect" title="Destruction of Carthage">destruction of Carthage</a> and victory over the Achaean League at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Corinth_(146_BC)" title="Battle of Corinth (146 BC)">Battle of Corinth</a>, ushering in the era of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Greece">Roman Greece</a> and the gradual establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_province_of_Macedonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman province of Macedonia">Roman province of Macedonia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-221">[207]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Institutions">Institutions</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Division_of_power">Division of power</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_law" title="Ancient Greek law">Ancient Greek law</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Golden_larnax_and_wreath_of_Philip_II_of_Macedon_at_the_Vergina_museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Golden_larnax_and_wreath_of_Philip_II_of_Macedon_at_the_Vergina_museum.jpg/220px-Golden_larnax_and_wreath_of_Philip_II_of_Macedon_at_the_Vergina_museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Golden_larnax_and_wreath_of_Philip_II_of_Macedon_at_the_Vergina_museum.jpg/330px-Golden_larnax_and_wreath_of_Philip_II_of_Macedon_at_the_Vergina_museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Golden_larnax_and_wreath_of_Philip_II_of_Macedon_at_the_Vergina_museum.jpg/440px-Golden_larnax_and_wreath_of_Philip_II_of_Macedon_at_the_Vergina_museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="426" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Vergina_Sun" title="Vergina Sun">Vergina Sun</a>, the 16-ray star covering the royal burial <a href="/wiki/Larnax" title="Larnax">larnax</a> of <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 359–336 BC), discovered in the tomb of <a href="/wiki/Vergina" title="Vergina">Vergina</a>, formerly ancient <a href="/wiki/Aegae_(Macedonia)" title="Aegae (Macedonia)">Aigai</a></figcaption></figure> At the head of <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonia's government</a> was <a href="/wiki/List_of_Macedonian_kings" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Macedonian kings">the king</a> (<a href="/wiki/Basileus" title="Basileus">basileus</a>).<a href="#cite_note-222">[note 15]</a> From at least the reign of Philip II, the king was assisted by the <a href="/wiki/Royal_page" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal page">royal pages</a> (basilikoi paides), bodyguards (<a href="/wiki/Somatophylakes" title="Somatophylakes">somatophylakes</a>), companions (<a href="/wiki/Hetairoi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hetairoi">hetairoi</a>), friends (<a href="/wiki/Philoi" title="Philoi">philoi</a>), an assembly that included members of the military, and (during the Hellenistic period) <a href="/wiki/Magistrate" title="Magistrate">magistrates</a>.<a href="#cite_note-223">[208]</a> Evidence is lacking regarding the extent to which each of these groups shared authority with the king or if their existence had a basis in a formal constitutional framework.<a href="#cite_note-224">[note 16]</a> Before the reign of Philip II, the only institution supported by textual evidence is the monarchy.<a href="#cite_note-225">[note 17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kingship_and_the_royal_court">Kingship and the royal court</h3></div> The earliest known government of ancient Macedonia was that of its <a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">monarchy</a>, lasting until 167 BC when it was abolished by the Romans.<a href="#cite_note-king_2010_373-226">[209]</a> The Macedonian hereditary monarchy existed since at least the time of <a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic Greece</a>, with Homeric aristocratic roots in <a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean Greece</a>.<a href="#cite_note-227">[210]</a> Thucydides wrote that in previous ages, Macedonia was divided into small tribal regions, each having its own <a href="/wiki/Petty_king" class="mw-redirect" title="Petty king">petty king</a>, the tribes of <a href="/wiki/Lower_Macedonia" title="Lower Macedonia">Lower Macedonia</a> eventually coalescing under one great king who exercised power as an <a href="/wiki/Overlord" title="Overlord">overlord</a> over the lesser kings of <a href="/wiki/Upper_Macedonia" title="Upper Macedonia">Upper Macedonia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-king_2010_376-17">[16]</a> The direct line of <a href="/wiki/Order_of_succession" title="Order of succession">father-to-son succession</a> was broken after the assassination of <a href="/wiki/Orestes_of_Macedon" title="Orestes of Macedon">Orestes of Macedon</a> in 396 BC (allegedly by his <a href="/wiki/Regent" title="Regent">regent</a> and successor <a href="/wiki/Aeropus_II_of_Macedon" title="Aeropus II of Macedon">Aeropus II of Macedon</a>), clouding the issue of whether <a href="/wiki/Primogeniture" title="Primogeniture">primogeniture</a> was the established custom or if there was a constitutional right for an assembly of the army or <a href="/wiki/Popular_assembly" title="Popular assembly">of the people</a> to choose another king.<a href="#cite_note-228">[211]</a> It is unclear if the male offspring of Macedonian queens or <a href="/wiki/Queen_consort" title="Queen consort">consorts</a> were always preferred over others given the accession of <a href="/wiki/Archelaus_I_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Archelaus I of Macedon">Archelaus I of Macedon</a>, son of <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas_II_of_Macedon" title="Perdiccas II of Macedon">Perdiccas II of Macedon</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">slave woman</a>, although Archelaus succeeded the throne after murdering his father's designated <a href="/wiki/Heir_apparent" title="Heir apparent">heir apparent</a>.<a href="#cite_note-229">[212]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hades_abducting_Persephone.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Hades_abducting_Persephone.jpg/220px-Hades_abducting_Persephone.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Hades_abducting_Persephone.jpg/330px-Hades_abducting_Persephone.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Hades_abducting_Persephone.jpg/440px-Hades_abducting_Persephone.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2994" data-file-height="1091" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hades" title="Hades">Hades</a> abducting <a href="/wiki/Persephone" title="Persephone">Persephone</a>, fresco in the small Macedonian royal tomb at <a href="/wiki/Vergina" title="Vergina">Vergina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macedonia,_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonia, Greece">Macedonia, Greece</a>, c. 340 BC</figcaption></figure> It is known that Macedonian kings before Philip II upheld the privileges and carried out the responsibilities of hosting foreign diplomats, determining the kingdom's foreign policies, and negotiating alliances with foreign powers.<a href="#cite_note-king_2010_378-230">[213]</a> After the Greek victory at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Salamis</a> in 480 BC, the Persian commander <a href="/wiki/Mardonius_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mardonius (general)">Mardonius</a> had <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Macedon" title="Alexander I of Macedon">Alexander I of Macedon</a> sent to Athens as a chief envoy to orchestrate an alliance between the Achaemenid Empire and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Athens" title="History of Athens">Athens</a>. The decision to send Alexander was based on his <a href="/wiki/Marriage_of_state" title="Marriage of state">marriage alliance</a> with a noble Persian house and his previous formal relationship with the city-state of Athens.<a href="#cite_note-king_2010_378-230">[213]</a> With their ownership of natural resources including gold, silver, timber, and <a href="/wiki/Royal_land" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal land">royal land</a>, the early Macedonian kings were also capable of <a href="/wiki/Bribery" title="Bribery">bribing</a> foreign and domestic parties with impressive gifts.<a href="#cite_note-king_2010_379-231">[214]</a> Little is known about the <a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">judicial system</a> of ancient Macedonia except that the king acted as the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chief_judge" class="extiw" title="wikt:chief judge">chief judge</a> of the kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-errington_1990_222-232">[215]</a> The Macedonian kings were also <a href="/wiki/Commander-in-chief" title="Commander-in-chief">supreme commanders</a> of the military.<a href="#cite_note-233">[note 18]</a> Philip II was also highly regarded for his acts of piety in serving as the <a href="/wiki/High_priest" title="High priest">high priest</a> of the nation. He performed daily <a href="/wiki/Ritual_sacrifice" class="mw-redirect" title="Ritual sacrifice">ritual sacrifices</a> and led <a href="/wiki/Religious_festival" title="Religious festival">religious festivals</a>.<a href="#cite_note-king_2010_380-234">[216]</a> Alexander imitated various aspects of his father's reign, such as granting land and gifts to loyal aristocratic followers,<a href="#cite_note-king_2010_380-234">[216]</a> but lost some core support among them for adopting some of the trappings of an Eastern, Persian monarch, a "lord and master" as Carol J. King suggests, instead of a "comrade-in-arms" as was the traditional relationship of Macedonian kings with their companions.<a href="#cite_note-235">[217]</a> Alexander's father, Philip II, was perhaps influenced by Persian traditions when he adopted institutions similar to those found in the Achaemenid realm, such as having a <a href="/wiki/Royal_Secretary" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Secretary">royal secretary</a>, royal archive, royal pages, and a seated <a href="/wiki/Throne" title="Throne">throne</a>.<a href="#cite_note-236">[218]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Royal_pages">Royal pages</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:437px;max-width:437px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:251px;max-width:251px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Dionysos_on_a_cheetah,_Pella,_Greece.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Dionysos_on_a_cheetah%2C_Pella%2C_Greece.jpg/249px-Dionysos_on_a_cheetah%2C_Pella%2C_Greece.jpg" decoding="async" width="249" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Dionysos_on_a_cheetah%2C_Pella%2C_Greece.jpg/374px-Dionysos_on_a_cheetah%2C_Pella%2C_Greece.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Dionysos_on_a_cheetah%2C_Pella%2C_Greece.jpg/498px-Dionysos_on_a_cheetah%2C_Pella%2C_Greece.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1995" data-file-height="1920" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Framentuary_votive_relief_representing_a_youth_ladling_wine_for_a_krater_and_a_round_table_with_vases,_from_the_Agora,_end_of_4th_c._BC,_Archaeological_Museum,_Pella_(7065345633).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Framentuary_votive_relief_representing_a_youth_ladling_wine_for_a_krater_and_a_round_table_with_vases%2C_from_the_Agora%2C_end_of_4th_c._BC%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Pella_%287065345633%29.jpg/180px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Framentuary_votive_relief_representing_a_youth_ladling_wine_for_a_krater_and_a_round_table_with_vases%2C_from_the_Agora%2C_end_of_4th_c._BC%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Pella_%287065345633%29.jpg/270px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Framentuary_votive_relief_representing_a_youth_ladling_wine_for_a_krater_and_a_round_table_with_vases%2C_from_the_Agora%2C_end_of_4th_c._BC%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Pella_%287065345633%29.jpg/360px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3216" data-file-height="4288" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Left, the god <a href="/wiki/Dionysos" class="mw-redirect" title="Dionysos">Dionysos</a> riding a <a href="/wiki/Cheetah" title="Cheetah">cheetah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaic</a> floor in the "House of Dionysos" at <a href="/wiki/Pella" title="Pella">Pella</a>, Greece, c. 330–300 BC. Right, a framentary <a href="/wiki/Votive_offering" title="Votive offering">votive</a> <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">relief</a> depicting a youth <a href="/wiki/Ladle_(spoon)" title="Ladle (spoon)">ladling</a> <a href="/wiki/History_of_wine" title="History of wine">wine</a> from a <a href="/wiki/Krater" title="Krater">krater</a> next to a round table with vases, from the <a href="/wiki/Agora" title="Agora">agora</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pella" title="Pella">Pella</a>, end of 4th century BC, <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Pella" title="Archaeological Museum of Pella">Archaeological Museum of Pella</a>.</div></div></div></div> The <a href="/wiki/Royal_page" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal page">royal pages</a> were adolescent boys and young men <a href="/wiki/Conscripted" class="mw-redirect" title="Conscripted">conscripted</a> from aristocratic households and serving the kings of Macedonia perhaps from the reign of Philip II onward, although more solid evidence dates to the reign of Alexander the Great.<a href="#cite_note-237">[note 19]</a> Royal pages played no direct role in high politics and were conscripted as a means to introduce them to political life.<a href="#cite_note-king_2010_381-238">[219]</a> After a period of training and service, pages were expected to become members of the king's companions and personal retinue.<a href="#cite_note-Sawada_2010_403-239">[220]</a> During their training, pages were expected to guard the king as he slept, supply him with horses, aid him in mounting his horse, accompany him on royal hunts, and serve him during <a href="/wiki/Symposium" title="Symposium">symposia</a> (i.e. formal drinking parties).<a href="#cite_note-240">[221]</a> Although there is little evidence for royal pages in the Antigonid period, it is known that some of them fled with <a href="/wiki/Perseus_of_Macedon" title="Perseus of Macedon">Perseus of Macedon</a> to <a href="/wiki/Samothrace" title="Samothrace">Samothrace</a> following <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pydna" title="Battle of Pydna">his defeat</a> by the Romans in 168 BC.<a href="#cite_note-241">[222]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bodyguards">Bodyguards</h3></div> Royal bodyguards served as the closest members to the king at court and on the battlefield.<a href="#cite_note-king_2010_381-238">[219]</a> They were split into two categories: the <a href="/wiki/Agema" title="Agema">agema</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Hypaspistai" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypaspistai">hypaspistai</a>, a type of ancient <a href="/wiki/Special_forces" title="Special forces">special forces</a> usually numbering in the hundreds, and a smaller group of men handpicked by the king either for their individual merits or to honor the noble families to which they belonged.<a href="#cite_note-king_2010_381-238">[219]</a> Therefore, the bodyguards, limited in number and forming the king's inner circle, were not always responsible for protecting the king's life on and off the battlefield; their title and office was more a mark of distinction, perhaps used to quell rivalries between aristocratic houses.<a href="#cite_note-king_2010_381-238">[219]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Companions,_friends,_councils,_and_assemblies">Companions, friends, councils, and assemblies</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Synedrion" title="Synedrion">Synedrion</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:448px;max-width:448px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Pella_House_atrium.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Pella_House_atrium.jpg/220px-Pella_House_atrium.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Pella_House_atrium.jpg/330px-Pella_House_atrium.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Pella_House_atrium.jpg/440px-Pella_House_atrium.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Fragmentary_inscription_bearing_the_names_of_6_city_archons_(politarchs),_2nd_c._BC,_Archaeological_Museum,_Pella_(6929923448).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Fragmentary_inscription_bearing_the_names_of_6_city_archons_%28politarchs%29%2C_2nd_c._BC%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Pella_%286929923448%29.jpg/220px-Fragmentary_inscription_bearing_the_names_of_6_city_archons_%28politarchs%29%2C_2nd_c._BC%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Pella_%286929923448%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Fragmentary_inscription_bearing_the_names_of_6_city_archons_%28politarchs%29%2C_2nd_c._BC%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Pella_%286929923448%29.jpg/330px-Fragmentary_inscription_bearing_the_names_of_6_city_archons_%28politarchs%29%2C_2nd_c._BC%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Pella_%286929923448%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Fragmentary_inscription_bearing_the_names_of_6_city_archons_%28politarchs%29%2C_2nd_c._BC%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Pella_%286929923448%29.jpg/440px-Fragmentary_inscription_bearing_the_names_of_6_city_archons_%28politarchs%29%2C_2nd_c._BC%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Pella_%286929923448%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="3216" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Left, an <a href="/wiki/Atrium_(architecture)" title="Atrium (architecture)">atrium</a> with a pebble-<a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaic</a> paving, in <a href="/wiki/Pella" title="Pella">Pella</a>, Greece. Right, a fragmentary <a href="/wiki/Inscription" class="mw-redirect" title="Inscription">inscription</a> bearing the names of six city <a href="/wiki/Archon" title="Archon">archons</a> (<a href="/wiki/Politarch" title="Politarch">politarchs</a>), 2nd century BC, <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Pella" title="Archaeological Museum of Pella">Archaeological Museum of Pella</a>.</div></div></div></div> The companions, including the elite <a href="/wiki/Companion_cavalry" title="Companion cavalry">companion cavalry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pezhetairoi" class="mw-redirect" title="Pezhetairoi">pezhetairoi</a> infantry, represented a substantially larger group than the king's bodyguards.<a href="#cite_note-242">[note 20]</a> The most trusted or highest ranking companions formed a council that served as an advisory body to the king.<a href="#cite_note-243">[223]</a> A small amount of evidence suggests the existence of an assembly of the army during times of war and a <a href="/wiki/Direct_democracy" title="Direct democracy">people's assembly</a> during times of peace.<a href="#cite_note-244">[note 21]</a> Members of the council had the right to speak freely, and although there is no direct evidence that they voted on affairs of state, it is clear that the king was at least occasionally pressured to agree to their demands.<a href="#cite_note-245">[224]</a> The assembly was apparently given the right to judge cases of <a href="/wiki/High_treason" class="mw-redirect" title="High treason">high treason</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sentence_(law)" title="Sentence (law)">assign punishments</a> for them, such as when Alexander the Great acted as <a href="/wiki/Prosecutor" title="Prosecutor">prosecutor</a> in the trial and conviction of three alleged conspirators in his father's assassination plot (while many others <a href="/wiki/Acquittal" title="Acquittal">were acquitted</a>).<a href="#cite_note-246">[225]</a> However, there is perhaps insufficient evidence to allow a conclusion that councils and assemblies were regularly upheld or constitutionally grounded, or that their decisions were always heeded by the king.<a href="#cite_note-247">[226]</a> At the death of Alexander the Great, the companions <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Babylon" title="Partition of Babylon">immediately formed a council</a> to assume control of his empire, but it was soon destabilized by <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Diadochi" title="Wars of the Diadochi">open rivalry and conflict</a> between <a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">its members</a>.<a href="#cite_note-248">[227]</a> The army also used <a href="/wiki/Mutiny" title="Mutiny">mutiny</a> as a tool to achieve political ends.<a href="#cite_note-249">[note 22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Magistrates,_the_commonwealth,_local_government,_and_allied_states">Magistrates, the commonwealth, local government, and allied states</h3></div> Antigonid Macedonian kings relied on various regional officials to conduct affairs of state.<a href="#cite_note-king_2010_390-250">[228]</a> This included high-ranking municipal officials, such as the military <a href="/wiki/Strategos" title="Strategos">strategos</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Politarch" title="Politarch">politarch</a>, i.e. the elected governor (<a href="/wiki/Archon" title="Archon">archon</a>) of a large city (<a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">polis</a>), as well as the politico-religious office of the <a href="/wiki/Epistates" title="Epistates">epistates</a>.<a href="#cite_note-251">[note 23]</a> No evidence exists about the personal backgrounds of these officials, although they may have been chosen among the same group of aristocratic philoi and hetairoi who filled vacancies for army officers.<a href="#cite_note-errington_1990_222-232">[215]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:438px;max-width:438px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:282px;max-width:282px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Tetradrachm,_364-363_BC,_Amphipolis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Tetradrachm%2C_364-363_BC%2C_Amphipolis.jpg/280px-Tetradrachm%2C_364-363_BC%2C_Amphipolis.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Tetradrachm%2C_364-363_BC%2C_Amphipolis.jpg/420px-Tetradrachm%2C_364-363_BC%2C_Amphipolis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Tetradrachm%2C_364-363_BC%2C_Amphipolis.jpg/560px-Tetradrachm%2C_364-363_BC%2C_Amphipolis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="398" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Anfipoli,_statere_di_filippo_II,_340_o_336-328_ac_ca.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Anfipoli%2C_statere_di_filippo_II%2C_340_o_336-328_ac_ca.JPG/150px-Anfipoli%2C_statere_di_filippo_II%2C_340_o_336-328_ac_ca.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Anfipoli%2C_statere_di_filippo_II%2C_340_o_336-328_ac_ca.JPG/225px-Anfipoli%2C_statere_di_filippo_II%2C_340_o_336-328_ac_ca.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Anfipoli%2C_statere_di_filippo_II%2C_340_o_336-328_ac_ca.JPG/300px-Anfipoli%2C_statere_di_filippo_II%2C_340_o_336-328_ac_ca.JPG 2x" data-file-width="718" data-file-height="670" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:left">Left, a silver <a href="/wiki/Tetradrachm" title="Tetradrachm">tetradrachm</a> issued by the city of <a href="/wiki/Amphipolis" title="Amphipolis">Amphipolis</a> in 364–363 BC (before its conquest by <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</a> in 357 BC), showing the head of <a href="/wiki/Apollo" title="Apollo">Apollo</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Obverse" class="mw-redirect" title="Obverse">obverse</a> and <a href="/wiki/Olympic_flame" title="Olympic flame">racing torch</a> on the reverse. Right, a golden <a href="/wiki/Stater" title="Stater">stater</a> depicting Philip II, <a href="/wiki/Mint_(facility)" title="Mint (facility)">minted</a> at Amphipolis in 340 BC (or later during Alexander's reign), shortly after its conquest by Philip II and incorporation into the <a href="/wiki/Koinon_of_Macedonians" class="mw-redirect" title="Koinon of Macedonians">Macedonian commonwealth</a></div></div></div></div> In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Athens" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Athens">ancient Athens</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Athenian_democracy" title="Athenian democracy">Athenian democracy</a> was restored on three separate occasions following the initial conquest of the city by Antipater in 322 BC.<a href="#cite_note-252">[229]</a> When it fell repeatedly under Macedonian rule it was governed by a Macedonian-imposed <a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">oligarchy</a> composed of the wealthiest members of the city-state.<a href="#cite_note-253">[note 24]</a> Other city-states were handled quite differently and were allowed a greater degree of <a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">autonomy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-errington_1990_231-254">[230]</a> After Philip II conquered Amphipolis in 357 BC, the city was allowed to retain its <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a>, including its constitution, <a href="/wiki/Popular_assembly" title="Popular assembly">popular assembly</a>, <a href="/wiki/City_council" class="mw-redirect" title="City council">city council</a> (<a href="/wiki/Boule_(ancient_Greece)" title="Boule (ancient Greece)">boule</a>), and yearly <a href="/wiki/Election" title="Election">elections</a> for new officials, but a Macedonian garrison was housed within the city walls along with a Macedonian royal commissioner (epistates) to monitor the city's political affairs.<a href="#cite_note-255">[231]</a> <a href="/wiki/Philippi" title="Philippi">Philippi</a>, the city founded by Philip II, was the only other city in the Macedonian <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth" title="Commonwealth">commonwealth</a> that had a democratic government with popular assemblies, since the assembly (<a href="/wiki/Ecclesia_(ancient_Athens)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecclesia (ancient Athens)">ecclesia</a>) of <a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Thessaloniki</a> seems to have had only a passive function in practice.<a href="#cite_note-256">[232]</a> Some cities also maintained their own municipal <a href="/wiki/Revenue" title="Revenue">revenues</a>.<a href="#cite_note-errington_1990_231-254">[230]</a> The Macedonian king and central government administered the revenues generated by <a href="/wiki/Greek_temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek temple">temples</a> and <a href="/wiki/Priesthood" class="mw-redirect" title="Priesthood">priesthoods</a>.<a href="#cite_note-257">[233]</a> Within the <a href="/wiki/Koinon_of_Macedonians" class="mw-redirect" title="Koinon of Macedonians">Macedonian commonwealth</a>, some evidence from the 3rd century BC indicates that foreign relations were handled by the central government. Although individual Macedonian cities nominally participated in <a href="/wiki/Panhellenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Panhellenic">Panhellenic</a> events as independent entities, in reality, the granting of <a href="/wiki/Asylia" class="mw-redirect" title="Asylia">asylia</a> (inviolability, <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_immunity" title="Diplomatic immunity">diplomatic immunity</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Right_of_asylum" title="Right of asylum">right of asylum</a> at <a href="/wiki/Sanctuaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanctuaries">sanctuaries</a>) to certain cities was handled directly by the king.<a href="#cite_note-258">[234]</a> Likewise, the city-states within contemporary Greek <a href="/wiki/Koinon" title="Koinon">koina</a> (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Federation" title="Federation">federations</a> of city-states, the <a href="/wiki/Sympoliteia" title="Sympoliteia">sympoliteia</a>) obeyed the federal decrees <a href="/wiki/Vote" class="mw-redirect" title="Vote">voted</a> on collectively by the members of their league.<a href="#cite_note-259">[note 25]</a> In city-states belonging to a league or commonwealth, the granting of <a href="/wiki/Proxenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Proxenia">proxenia</a> (i.e. the hosting of foreign ambassadors) was usually a right shared by local and central authorities.<a href="#cite_note-260">[235]</a> Abundant evidence exists for the granting of proxenia as being the sole <a href="/wiki/Prerogative" title="Prerogative">prerogative</a> of central authorities in the neighboring <a href="/wiki/Epirote_League" title="Epirote League">Epirote League</a>, and some evidence suggests the same arrangement in the Macedonian commonwealth.<a href="#cite_note-261">[236]</a> City-states that were <a href="/wiki/Alliance" title="Alliance">allied</a> with Macedonia issued their own decrees regarding proxenia.<a href="#cite_note-262">[237]</a> Foreign leagues also formed alliances with the Macedonian kings, such as when the <a href="/wiki/Cretan_League" title="Cretan League">Cretan League</a> signed treaties with <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_II_Aetolicus" title="Demetrius II Aetolicus">Demetrius II Aetolicus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_III_Doson" title="Antigonus III Doson">Antigonus III Doson</a> ensuring enlistment of Cretan mercenaries into the Macedonian army, and elected <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon" title="Philip V of Macedon">Philip V of Macedon</a> as honorary protector (<a href="/wiki/Prostates" class="mw-redirect" title="Prostates">prostates</a>) of the league.<a href="#cite_note-errington_1990_242-263">[238]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military">Military</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_army" title="Ancient Macedonian army">Ancient Macedonian army</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antigonid_Macedonian_army" title="Antigonid Macedonian army">Antigonid Macedonian army</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_armies" title="Hellenistic armies">Hellenistic armies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_phalanx" title="Macedonian phalanx">Macedonian phalanx</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:346px;max-width:346px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:162px;max-width:162px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Macedonian_Army_Pezetairos.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Macedonian_Army_Pezetairos.jpg/160px-Macedonian_Army_Pezetairos.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Macedonian_Army_Pezetairos.jpg/240px-Macedonian_Army_Pezetairos.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Macedonian_Army_Pezetairos.jpg/320px-Macedonian_Army_Pezetairos.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1187" data-file-height="1412" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:180px;max-width:180px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82_%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%87%D0%B5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82_%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%87%D0%B5.jpg/178px-%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82_%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%87%D0%B5.jpg" decoding="async" width="178" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82_%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%87%D0%B5.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="232" data-file-height="247" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Left, a Macedonian infantryman, possibly a <a href="/wiki/Hypaspist" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypaspist">hypaspist</a>, equipped with an <a href="/wiki/Aspis" title="Aspis">aspis</a> shield and wearing a <a href="/wiki/Linothorax" title="Linothorax">linothorax</a> cuirass and <a href="/wiki/Thracian_helmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Thracian helmet">Thracian helmet</a>; <a href="/wiki/Bas_relief" class="mw-redirect" title="Bas relief">bas relief</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Sarcophagus" title="Alexander Sarcophagus">Alexander Sarcophagus</a>, 4th century BC. Right, an ancient Macedonian bronze <a href="/wiki/Shield" title="Shield">shield</a> excavated from the archaeological site at <a href="/wiki/Bon%C4%8De" title="Bonče">Bonče</a> in <a href="/wiki/North_Macedonia" title="North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a>, dated 4th century BC.</div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_Macedonian_army">Early Macedonian army</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)</a></div> The basic structure of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_army" title="Ancient Macedonian army">Ancient Macedonian army</a> was the division between the companion cavalry (<a href="/wiki/Hetairoi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hetairoi">hetairoi</a>) and the foot companions (<a href="/wiki/Pezhetairoi" class="mw-redirect" title="Pezhetairoi">pezhetairoi</a>), augmented by various allied troops, foreign levied soldiers, and mercenaries.<a href="#cite_note-264">[239]</a> The foot companions existed perhaps since the reign of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Macedon" title="Alexander I of Macedon">Alexander I of Macedon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-265">[240]</a> Macedonian cavalry, wearing <a href="/wiki/Muscled_cuirass" class="mw-redirect" title="Muscled cuirass">muscled cuirasses</a>, became renowned in Greece during and after their involvement in the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a>, at times siding with either Athens or Sparta.<a href="#cite_note-266">[241]</a> Macedonian infantry in this period consisted of poorly trained shepherds and farmers, while the cavalry was composed of noblemen.<a href="#cite_note-267">[242]</a> As evidenced by early 4th century BC artwork, there was a pronounced Spartan influence on the Macedonian army before Philip II.<a href="#cite_note-sekunda_2010_449-268">[243]</a> Nicholas Viktor Sekunda states that at the beginning of Philip II's reign in 359 BC, the Macedonian army consisted of 10,000 infantry and 600 cavalry,<a href="#cite_note-sekunda_2010_448_449-269">[244]</a> yet Malcolm Errington cautions that these figures cited by ancient authors should be treated with some skepticism.<a href="#cite_note-270">[245]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Philip_II_and_Alexander_the_Great">Philip II and Alexander the Great</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Military_tactics_in_Ancient_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Military tactics in Ancient Greece">Military tactics in Ancient Greece</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thessalian_cavalry" class="mw-redirect" title="Thessalian cavalry">Thessalian cavalry</a></div> After spending years as a political hostage in Thebes, Philip II sought to imitate the Greek example of <a href="/wiki/Military_exercise" title="Military exercise">martial exercises</a> and the issuing of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_military_personal_equipment" title="Ancient Greek military personal equipment">standard equipment</a> for citizen soldiery, and succeeded in transforming the Macedonian army from a levied force of unprofessional farmers into a well-trained, <a href="/wiki/Professional_army" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional army">professional army</a>.<a href="#cite_note-errington_1990_238-271">[246]</a> Philip II adopted some of the <a href="/wiki/Military_tactics" title="Military tactics">military tactics</a> of his enemies, such as the <a href="/wiki/Embolon" class="mw-redirect" title="Embolon">embolon</a> (flying wedge) cavalry formation of the <a href="/wiki/Scythia" title="Scythia">Scythians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-sekunda_2010_451-272">[247]</a> His infantry wielded peltai shields that replaced the earlier <a href="/wiki/Aspis" title="Aspis">aspis</a>-style shields, were equipped with <a href="/wiki/Greek_helmet_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Greek helmet (disambiguation)">protective helmets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greave" title="Greave">greaves</a>, and either <a href="/wiki/Cuirass" title="Cuirass">cuirasses</a> <a href="/wiki/Breastplate" title="Breastplate">breastplates</a> or <a href="/wiki/Kotthybos" title="Kotthybos">kotthybos</a> stomach bands, and armed with <a href="/wiki/Sarissa" title="Sarissa">sarissa</a> <a href="/wiki/Pike_(weapon)" title="Pike (weapon)">pikes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dagger" title="Dagger">daggers</a> as secondary weapons.<a href="#cite_note-273">[note 26]</a> The elite <a href="/wiki/Hypaspistai" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypaspistai">hypaspistai</a> infantry, composed of handpicked men from the ranks of the pezhetairoi, were formed during the reign of Philip II and saw continued use during the reign of Alexander the Great.<a href="#cite_note-274">[248]</a> Philip II was also responsible for the establishment of the royal bodyguards (<a href="/wiki/Somatophylakes" title="Somatophylakes">somatophylakes</a>).<a href="#cite_note-sekunda_2010_452-275">[249]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Agios_Athanasios_1_fresco.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Agios_Athanasios_1_fresco.jpg/220px-Agios_Athanasios_1_fresco.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Agios_Athanasios_1_fresco.jpg/330px-Agios_Athanasios_1_fresco.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Agios_Athanasios_1_fresco.jpg/440px-Agios_Athanasios_1_fresco.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="285" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Agios-Athanasios.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Agios-Athanasios.jpg/220px-Agios-Athanasios.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Agios-Athanasios.jpg/330px-Agios-Athanasios.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Agios-Athanasios.jpg/440px-Agios-Athanasios.jpg 2x" data-file-width="608" data-file-height="345" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:left">An ancient fresco of Macedonian soldiers from the tomb of <a href="/wiki/Agios_Athanasios,_Thessaloniki" title="Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki">Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki</a>, Greece, 4th century BC</div></div></div></div> For his lighter missile troops, Philip II employed mercenary <a href="/wiki/Cretan_archers" title="Cretan archers">Cretan archers</a> as well as Thracian, Paeonian, and Illyrian <a href="/wiki/Javelin" title="Javelin">javelin</a> throwers, <a href="/wiki/Sling_(weapon)" title="Sling (weapon)">slingers</a>, and archers.<a href="#cite_note-276">[250]</a> He hired engineers such as <a href="/wiki/Polyidus_of_Thessaly" title="Polyidus of Thessaly">Polyidus of Thessaly</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diades_of_Pella" title="Diades of Pella">Diades of Pella</a>, who were capable of building <a href="/wiki/State_of_the_art" title="State of the art">state of the art</a> <a href="/wiki/Siege_engine" title="Siege engine">siege engines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">artillery</a> that fired large <a href="/wiki/Crossbow_bolt" title="Crossbow bolt">bolts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-sekunda_2010_451-272">[247]</a> Following the acquisition of the lucrative mines at <a href="/wiki/Krinides" title="Krinides">Krinides</a> (renamed <a href="/wiki/Philippi" title="Philippi">Philippi</a>), the royal treasury could afford to field a permanent, professional <a href="/wiki/Standing_army" title="Standing army">standing army</a>.<a href="#cite_note-277">[251]</a> The increase in state revenues under Philip II allowed the Macedonians to build a small navy for the first time, which included <a href="/wiki/Trireme" title="Trireme">triremes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-278">[252]</a> The only Macedonian cavalry units attested under Alexander were the companion cavalry,<a href="#cite_note-sekunda_2010_452-275">[249]</a> yet he formed a <a href="/wiki/Hipparchus_(cavalry_officer)" title="Hipparchus (cavalry officer)">hipparchia</a> (i.e. unit of a few hundred horsemen) of companion cavalry composed entirely of ethnic <a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persians</a> while campaigning in Asia.<a href="#cite_note-sekunda_2010_453-279">[253]</a> When marching his forces into Asia, Alexander brought 1,800 cavalrymen from Macedonia, 1,800 <a href="/wiki/Thessalian_cavalry" class="mw-redirect" title="Thessalian cavalry">cavalrymen from Thessaly</a>, 600 cavalrymen from the rest of Greece, and 900 <a href="/wiki/Prodromoi" title="Prodromoi">prodromoi</a> cavalry from <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a>.<a href="#cite_note-sekunda_2010_454-280">[254]</a> Antipater was able to quickly raise a force of 600 native Macedonian cavalry to fight in the <a href="/wiki/Lamian_War" title="Lamian War">Lamian War</a> when it began in 323 BC.<a href="#cite_note-sekunda_2010_454-280">[254]</a> The most elite members of Alexander's hypaspistai were designated as the <a href="/wiki/Agema" title="Agema">agema</a>, and a new term for hypaspistai emerged after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gaugamela" title="Battle of Gaugamela">Battle of Gaugamela</a> in 331 BC: the <a href="/wiki/Argyraspides" title="Argyraspides">argyraspides</a> (silver shields).<a href="#cite_note-281">[255]</a> The latter continued to serve after the reign of Alexander the Great and may have been of Asian origin.<a href="#cite_note-282">[note 27]</a> Overall, his pike-wielding phalanx infantry numbered some 12,000 men, 3,000 of which were elite hypaspistai and 9,000 of which were pezhetairoi.<a href="#cite_note-283">[note 28]</a> Alexander continued the use of Cretan archers and introduced native Macedonian archers into the army.<a href="#cite_note-sekunda_2010_458_459-284">[256]</a> After the Battle of Gaugamela, archers of West Asian backgrounds became commonplace.<a href="#cite_note-sekunda_2010_458_459-284">[256]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Antigonid_period_military">Antigonid period military</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thueros_affresco.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Thueros_affresco.jpg/170px-Thueros_affresco.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Thueros_affresco.jpg/255px-Thueros_affresco.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Thueros_affresco.jpg/340px-Thueros_affresco.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2376" data-file-height="3564" /></a><figcaption>Fresco of an ancient Macedonian soldier (<a href="/wiki/Thorakitai" title="Thorakitai">thorakites</a>) wearing <a href="/wiki/Chainmail" class="mw-redirect" title="Chainmail">chainmail</a> armor and bearing a <a href="/wiki/Thureos" class="mw-redirect" title="Thureos">thureos</a> shield, 3rd century BC, <a href="/wiki/%C4%B0stanbul_Archaeology_Museums" class="mw-redirect" title="İstanbul Archaeology Museums">İstanbul Archaeology Museums</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Antigonid_Macedonian_army" title="Antigonid Macedonian army">The Macedonian army</a> continued to evolve under the <a href="/wiki/Antigonid_dynasty" title="Antigonid dynasty">Antigonid dynasty</a>. It is uncertain how many men were appointed as somatophylakes, which numbered eight men at the end of Alexander the Great's reign, while the hypaspistai seem to have morphed into assistants of the somatophylakes.<a href="#cite_note-285">[note 29]</a> At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cynoscephalae" title="Battle of Cynoscephalae">Battle of Cynoscephalae</a> in 197 BC, the Macedonians commanded some 16,000 phalanx pikemen.<a href="#cite_note-sekunda_2010_461-286">[257]</a> Alexander the Great's royal squadron of companion cavalry contained 800 men, the same number of cavalrymen in the sacred squadron (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: sacra ala; <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: hiera ile) commanded by <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon" title="Philip V of Macedon">Philip V of Macedon</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Social_War_(220%E2%80%93217_BC)" title="Social War (220–217 BC)">Social War</a> of 219 BC.<a href="#cite_note-sekunda_2010_460-287">[258]</a> The regular Macedonian cavalry numbered 3,000 at Callinicus, which was separate from the sacred squadron and royal cavalry.<a href="#cite_note-sekunda_2010_460-287">[258]</a> While Macedonian cavalry of the 4th century BC had fought without shields, the use of shields by cavalry was adopted from the <a href="/wiki/Celtic_settlement_of_Eastern_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic settlement of Eastern Europe">Celtic invaders</a> of the 270s BC who settled in <a href="/wiki/Galatia" title="Galatia">Galatia</a>, central Anatolia.<a href="#cite_note-288">[259]</a> Thanks to <a href="/wiki/Military_Decree_of_Amphipolis" title="Military Decree of Amphipolis">contemporary inscriptions</a> from Amphipolis and Greia dated 218 and 181 BC, respectively, historians have been able to partially piece together the organization of the Antigonid army under Philip V.<a href="#cite_note-289">[note 30]</a> From at least the time of <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_III_Doson" title="Antigonus III Doson">Antigonus III Doson</a>, the most elite Antigonid-period infantry were the <a href="/wiki/Peltast" title="Peltast">peltasts</a>, lighter and more maneuverable soldiers wielding peltai <a href="/wiki/Javelin" title="Javelin">javelins</a>, swords, and a smaller bronze shield than <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_phalanx" title="Macedonian phalanx">Macedonian phalanx</a> pikemen, although they sometimes served in that capacity.<a href="#cite_note-290">[note 31]</a> Among the peltasts, roughly 2,000 men were selected to serve in the elite agema <a href="/wiki/Vanguard" title="Vanguard">vanguard</a>, with other peltasts numbering roughly 3,000.<a href="#cite_note-sekunda_2010_462-291">[260]</a> The number of peltasts varied over time, perhaps never more than 5,000 men.<a href="#cite_note-292">[note 32]</a> They fought alongside the phalanx pikemen, divided now into <a href="/wiki/Chalkaspides" title="Chalkaspides">chalkaspides</a> (bronze shield) and <a href="/wiki/Leukaspides" title="Leukaspides">leukaspides</a> (white shield) regiments.<a href="#cite_note-293">[261]</a> The Antigonid Macedonian kings continued to expand and equip <a href="/wiki/Ancient_navies_and_vessels" title="Ancient navies and vessels">the navy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-294">[262]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cassander" title="Cassander">Cassander</a> maintained <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic-era_warships" title="Hellenistic-era warships">a small fleet</a> at <a href="/wiki/Pydna" title="Pydna">Pydna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Demetrius I of Macedon">Demetrius I of Macedon</a> had one at Pella, and <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_II_Gonatas" title="Antigonus II Gonatas">Antigonus II Gonatas</a>, while serving as a general for Demetrius in Greece, used the navy to secure the Macedonian holdings in <a href="/wiki/Demetrias" title="Demetrias">Demetrias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chalkis" class="mw-redirect" title="Chalkis">Chalkis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Piraeus" title="Piraeus">Piraeus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Corinth" title="Corinth">Corinth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-errington_1990_248-295">[263]</a> The navy was considerably expanded during the <a href="/wiki/Chremonidean_War" title="Chremonidean War">Chremonidean War</a> (267–261 BC), allowing the Macedonian navy to defeat the Ptolemaic Egyptian navy at the 255 BC <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cos" title="Battle of Cos">Battle of Cos</a> and 245 BC <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Andros_(246_BC)" title="Battle of Andros (246 BC)">Battle of Andros</a>, and enabling Macedonian influence to spread over the <a href="/wiki/Cyclades" title="Cyclades">Cyclades</a>.<a href="#cite_note-errington_1990_248-295">[263]</a> Antigonus III Doson used the Macedonian navy to invade <a href="/wiki/Caria" title="Caria">Caria</a>, while Philip V sent 200 ships to fight in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chios_(201_BC)" title="Battle of Chios (201 BC)">Battle of Chios</a> in 201 BC.<a href="#cite_note-errington_1990_248-295">[263]</a> The Macedonian navy was reduced to a mere six vessels as agreed in the 197 BC <a href="/wiki/Peace_treaty" title="Peace treaty">peace treaty</a> that concluded the <a href="/wiki/Second_Macedonian_War" title="Second Macedonian War">Second Macedonian War</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>, although <a href="/wiki/Perseus_of_Macedon" title="Perseus of Macedon">Perseus of Macedon</a> quickly assembled some <a href="/wiki/Lemboi" class="mw-redirect" title="Lemboi">lemboi</a> at the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Third_Macedonian_War" title="Third Macedonian War">Third Macedonian War</a> in 171 BC.<a href="#cite_note-errington_1990_248-295">[263]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">Ancient Macedonians</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture of ancient Greece">Culture of ancient Greece</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:328px;max-width:328px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:162px;max-width:162px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Relief_inscribed_stele,_mid_4th_century_B.C.,_Archaeological_Museum_of_Thessaloniki.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Relief_inscribed_stele%2C_mid_4th_century_B.C.%2C_Archaeological_Museum_of_Thessaloniki.jpg/160px-Relief_inscribed_stele%2C_mid_4th_century_B.C.%2C_Archaeological_Museum_of_Thessaloniki.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Relief_inscribed_stele%2C_mid_4th_century_B.C.%2C_Archaeological_Museum_of_Thessaloniki.jpg/240px-Relief_inscribed_stele%2C_mid_4th_century_B.C.%2C_Archaeological_Museum_of_Thessaloniki.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Relief_inscribed_stele%2C_mid_4th_century_B.C.%2C_Archaeological_Museum_of_Thessaloniki.jpg/320px-Relief_inscribed_stele%2C_mid_4th_century_B.C.%2C_Archaeological_Museum_of_Thessaloniki.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:162px;max-width:162px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Marble_cult_statue_of_Aphrodite_Hypolympidia,_from_the_santuary_of_Isis,_2nd_c._BC,_Archaeological_Museum,_Dion_(7079958443).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Marble_cult_statue_of_Aphrodite_Hypolympidia%2C_from_the_santuary_of_Isis%2C_2nd_c._BC%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Dion_%287079958443%29.jpg/160px-Marble_cult_statue_of_Aphrodite_Hypolympidia%2C_from_the_santuary_of_Isis%2C_2nd_c._BC%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Dion_%287079958443%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Marble_cult_statue_of_Aphrodite_Hypolympidia%2C_from_the_santuary_of_Isis%2C_2nd_c._BC%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Dion_%287079958443%29.jpg/240px-Marble_cult_statue_of_Aphrodite_Hypolympidia%2C_from_the_santuary_of_Isis%2C_2nd_c._BC%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Dion_%287079958443%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Marble_cult_statue_of_Aphrodite_Hypolympidia%2C_from_the_santuary_of_Isis%2C_2nd_c._BC%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Dion_%287079958443%29.jpg/320px-Marble_cult_statue_of_Aphrodite_Hypolympidia%2C_from_the_santuary_of_Isis%2C_2nd_c._BC%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Dion_%287079958443%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3216" data-file-height="4288" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:left">Left, a Macedonian funerary <a href="/wiki/Stele" title="Stele">stele</a>, with an <a href="/wiki/Epigram" title="Epigram">epigram</a> in <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>, mid-4th century BC, <a href="/wiki/Vergina" title="Vergina">Vergina</a>. Right, marble cult statue of <a href="/wiki/Aphrodite_Hypolympidia" title="Aphrodite Hypolympidia">Aphrodite Hypolympidia</a>, dated 2nd century BC, from the sanctuary of <a href="/wiki/Isis" title="Isis">Isis</a> at <a href="/wiki/Dion,_Pieria" title="Dion, Pieria">Dion, Pieria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_Macedonia" title="Central Macedonia">Central Macedonia</a>, Greece, now in the <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Dion" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological Museum of Dion">Archaeological Museum of Dion</a>.</div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language_and_dialects">Language and dialects</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_language" title="Ancient Macedonian language">Ancient Macedonian language</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Greek" title="History of Greek">History of Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_dialects" title="Ancient Greek dialects">Ancient Greek dialects</a></div> Following its adoption as the court language of <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</a>'s regime, authors of ancient Macedonia wrote their works in <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> of late <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Greece" title="Hellenistic Greece">Hellenistic Greece</a>.<a href="#cite_note-296">[note 33]</a> Rare textual evidence indicates that the native Macedonian language was either a dialect of <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> similar to <a href="/wiki/Thessalian_Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Thessalian Greek">Thessalian Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Northwestern Greek">Northwestern Greek</a>,<a href="#cite_note-297">[note 34]</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Hellenic_languages" title="Hellenic languages">language closely related to Greek</a>.<a href="#cite_note-298">[note 35]</a> The vast majority of surviving inscriptions from ancient Macedonia were written in <a href="/wiki/Attic_Greek" title="Attic Greek">Attic Greek</a> and its successor Koine.<a href="#cite_note-299">[264]</a> Attic (and later Koine) Greek was the preferred language of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_army" title="Ancient Macedonian army">Ancient Macedonian army</a>, although it is known that Alexander the Great once shouted an emergency order in Macedonian to his royal guards during the <a href="/wiki/Symposium" title="Symposium">drinking party</a> where he killed <a href="/wiki/Cleitus_the_Black" title="Cleitus the Black">Cleitus the Black</a>.<a href="#cite_note-engels_2010_95-300">[265]</a> Macedonian became <a href="/wiki/Extinct_language" title="Extinct language">extinct</a> in either the Hellenistic or the Roman period, and entirely replaced by Koine Greek.<a href="#cite_note-engels_2010_94-301">[266]</a><a href="#cite_note-302">[note 36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_beliefs_and_funerary_practices">Religious beliefs and funerary practices</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Ancient Greek religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Greek mythology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic religion</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_temple" title="Ancient Greek temple">Ancient Greek temple</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_hero_cult" title="Greek hero cult">Greek hero cult</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_mysteries" title="Greco-Roman mysteries">Greco-Roman mysteries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oracle_of_Delphi" class="mw-redirect" title="Oracle of Delphi">Oracle of Delphi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lion_of_Amphipolis" title="Lion of Amphipolis">Lion of Amphipolis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lion_of_Chaeronea" class="mw-redirect" title="Lion of Chaeronea">Lion of Chaeronea</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pella_curse_tablet" title="Pella curse tablet">Pella curse tablet</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Abduction_of_Persephone_by_Pluto,_Amphipolis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/The_Abduction_of_Persephone_by_Pluto%2C_Amphipolis.jpg/220px-The_Abduction_of_Persephone_by_Pluto%2C_Amphipolis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/The_Abduction_of_Persephone_by_Pluto%2C_Amphipolis.jpg/330px-The_Abduction_of_Persephone_by_Pluto%2C_Amphipolis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/The_Abduction_of_Persephone_by_Pluto%2C_Amphipolis.jpg/440px-The_Abduction_of_Persephone_by_Pluto%2C_Amphipolis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="995" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaic</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Kasta_Tomb" title="Kasta Tomb">Kasta Tomb</a> in <a href="/wiki/Amphipolis" title="Amphipolis">Amphipolis</a> depicting the abduction of <a href="/wiki/Persephone" title="Persephone">Persephone</a> by <a href="/wiki/Pluto_(mythology)" title="Pluto (mythology)">Pluto</a>, 4th century BC</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lion_of_Amphipolis_BW_2017-10-05_09-38-25.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Lion_of_Amphipolis_BW_2017-10-05_09-38-25.jpg/170px-Lion_of_Amphipolis_BW_2017-10-05_09-38-25.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Lion_of_Amphipolis_BW_2017-10-05_09-38-25.jpg/255px-Lion_of_Amphipolis_BW_2017-10-05_09-38-25.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Lion_of_Amphipolis_BW_2017-10-05_09-38-25.jpg/340px-Lion_of_Amphipolis_BW_2017-10-05_09-38-25.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3327" data-file-height="5335" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Lion_of_Amphipolis" title="Lion of Amphipolis">Lion of Amphipolis</a> in <a href="/wiki/Amphipolis" title="Amphipolis">Amphipolis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Greece" title="Northern Greece">northern Greece</a>, a 4th-century BC marble tomb sculpture<a href="#cite_note-Sansone_2017_223-303">[267]</a> erected in honor of <a href="/wiki/Laomedon_of_Mytilene" title="Laomedon of Mytilene">Laomedon of Mytilene</a>, a general who served under <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a></figcaption></figure> By the 5th century BC, the Macedonians and the southern Greeks worshiped more or less the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_deities" title="List of Greek deities">same deities of the Greek pantheon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-304">[268]</a> In Macedonia, political and religious offices were often intertwined. For instance, the head of state for the city of Amphipolis also served as the priest of <a href="/wiki/Asklepios" class="mw-redirect" title="Asklepios">Asklepios</a>, Greek god of medicine; a similar arrangement existed at <a href="/wiki/Cassandreia" title="Cassandreia">Cassandreia</a>, where a cult priest honoring the city's founder <a href="/wiki/Cassander" title="Cassander">Cassander</a> was the nominal head of the city.<a href="#cite_note-305">[269]</a> The main sanctuary of <a href="/wiki/Zeus" title="Zeus">Zeus</a> was maintained at <a href="/wiki/Dion,_Pieria" title="Dion, Pieria">Dion</a>, while another at <a href="/wiki/Veria" title="Veria">Veria</a> was dedicated to <a href="/wiki/Herakles" class="mw-redirect" title="Herakles">Herakles</a> and was patronized by <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_II_Aetolicus" title="Demetrius II Aetolicus">Demetrius II Aetolicus</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 239–229 BC).<a href="#cite_note-306">[270]</a> Meanwhile, foreign <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">cults from Egypt</a> were fostered by the royal court, such as the temple of <a href="/wiki/Sarapis" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarapis">Sarapis</a> at Thessaloniki.<a href="#cite_note-errington_1990_226-307">[271]</a> The Macedonians also had relations with "international" cults; for example, Macedonian kings <a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Macedon" title="Philip III of Macedon">Philip III of Macedon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_IV_of_Macedon" title="Alexander IV of Macedon">Alexander IV of Macedon</a> made <a href="/wiki/Votive_offering" title="Votive offering">votive offerings</a> to the internationally esteemed <a href="/wiki/Samothrace_temple_complex" title="Samothrace temple complex">Samothrace temple complex</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Cabeiri" title="Cabeiri">Cabeiri</a> <a href="/wiki/Mystery_cult" class="mw-redirect" title="Mystery cult">mystery cult</a>.<a href="#cite_note-errington_1990_226-307">[271]</a> In the three royal tombs at <a href="/wiki/Vergina" title="Vergina">Vergina</a>, professional painters decorated the walls with a mythological scene of <a href="/wiki/Hades" title="Hades">Hades</a> abducting <a href="/wiki/Persephone" title="Persephone">Persephone</a> and royal hunting scenes, while lavish <a href="/wiki/Grave_goods" title="Grave goods">grave goods</a> including <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_military_personal_equipment" title="Ancient Greek military personal equipment">weapons, armor</a>, drinking vessels, and personal items were housed with the dead, whose bones <a href="/wiki/Cremation" title="Cremation">were burned</a> before <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_funeral_and_burial_practices" title="Ancient Greek funeral and burial practices">burial in golden coffins</a>.<a href="#cite_note-308">[272]</a> Some grave goods and decorations were common in other Macedonian tombs, yet some items found at Vergina were distinctly tied to royalty, including a <a href="/wiki/Diadem" title="Diadem">diadem</a>, luxurious goods, and arms and armor.<a href="#cite_note-309">[273]</a> Scholars have debated about the identity of the tomb occupants since <a href="/wiki/Manolis_Andronikos" title="Manolis Andronikos">the discovery</a> of their remains in 1977–1978,<a href="#cite_note-310">[274]</a> and recent research and forensic examination have concluded that at least one of the persons buried was Philip II.<a href="#cite_note-311">[note 37]</a> Located near Tomb 1 are the above-ground ruins of a <a href="/wiki/Heroon" class="mw-redirect" title="Heroon">heroon</a>, a shrine for <a href="/wiki/Cult_(religion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cult (religion)">cult worship</a> of the dead.<a href="#cite_note-312">[275]</a> In 2014, the ancient Macedonian <a href="/wiki/Kasta_Tomb" title="Kasta Tomb">Kasta Tomb</a> was discovered outside of Amphipolis and is the largest ancient tomb found in Greece (as of 2017).<a href="#cite_note-313">[276]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economics_and_social_class">Economics and social class</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_ancient_Greece" title="Economy of ancient Greece">Economy of ancient Greece</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">Slavery in ancient Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_ancient_Greece" title="Prostitution in ancient Greece">Prostitution in ancient Greece</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pederasty_in_ancient_Greece" title="Pederasty in ancient Greece">Pederasty in ancient Greece</a></div> Young Macedonian men were typically expected to engage in <a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">hunting</a> and martial combat as a by-product of their <a href="/wiki/Transhumance" title="Transhumance">transhumance</a> lifestyle of herding <a href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">livestock</a> such as goats and sheep, while <a href="/wiki/Horse_breeding" title="Horse breeding">horse breeding</a> and raising <a href="/wiki/Cattle" title="Cattle">cattle</a> were other common pursuits.<a href="#cite_note-314">[277]</a> Some Macedonians engaged in farming, often with <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Land_reclamation" title="Land reclamation">land reclamation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">horticulture</a> activities supported by the Macedonian state.<a href="#cite_note-315">[note 38]</a> The Macedonian economy and state finances were mainly supported by <a href="/wiki/Logging" title="Logging">logging</a> and by <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a> valuable <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">minerals</a> such as copper, iron, gold, and silver.<a href="#cite_note-316">[278]</a> The conversion of these raw materials into finished products and the sale of those products encouraged the growth of urban centers and a gradual shift away from the traditional rustic Macedonian lifestyle during the course of the 5th century BC.<a href="#cite_note-hatzopoulos_2011a_48-317">[279]</a> The Macedonian king was an <a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">autocratic</a> figure at the head of both government and society, with arguably unlimited authority to handle affairs of state and public policy, but he was also the leader of a very personal regime with close relationships or connections to his <a href="/wiki/Hetairoi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hetairoi">hetairoi</a>, the core of the Macedonian <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-318">[280]</a> These aristocrats were second only to the king in terms of power and privilege, filling the ranks of his administration and serving as commanding officers in the military.<a href="#cite_note-anson_2010_10-319">[281]</a> It was in the more bureaucratic regimes of the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic kingdoms">Hellenistic kingdoms</a> that succeeded Alexander the Great's empire where greater <a href="/wiki/Social_mobility" title="Social mobility">social mobility</a> for members of society seeking to join the aristocracy could be found, especially in Ptolemaic Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-320">[282]</a> Although governed by a king and martial aristocracy, Macedonia seems to have lacked the widespread <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">use of slaves</a> seen in contemporaneous Greek states.<a href="#cite_note-321">[283]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Visual_arts">Visual arts</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_art" title="Ancient Greek art">Ancient Greek art</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_art" title="Hellenistic art">Hellenistic art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Music_in_ancient_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Music in ancient Greece">Music in ancient Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pottery_of_ancient_Greece" title="Pottery of ancient Greece">Pottery of ancient Greece</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_sculpture" title="Ancient Greek sculpture">Ancient Greek sculpture</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:303px;max-width:303px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:147px;max-width:147px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Fresco_of_a_Macedonian_soldier,_from_the_Tomb_of_Agios_Athanasios,_4th_century_BC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Fresco_of_a_Macedonian_soldier%2C_from_the_Tomb_of_Agios_Athanasios%2C_4th_century_BC.jpg/145px-Fresco_of_a_Macedonian_soldier%2C_from_the_Tomb_of_Agios_Athanasios%2C_4th_century_BC.jpg" decoding="async" width="145" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Fresco_of_a_Macedonian_soldier%2C_from_the_Tomb_of_Agios_Athanasios%2C_4th_century_BC.jpg/218px-Fresco_of_a_Macedonian_soldier%2C_from_the_Tomb_of_Agios_Athanasios%2C_4th_century_BC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Fresco_of_a_Macedonian_soldier%2C_from_the_Tomb_of_Agios_Athanasios%2C_4th_century_BC.jpg/290px-Fresco_of_a_Macedonian_soldier%2C_from_the_Tomb_of_Agios_Athanasios%2C_4th_century_BC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="507" data-file-height="960" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Ancient_Mieza,_Macedonian_tombs_of_Lefkadia,_The_Tomb_of_Jugdement_545fddcedb8f434cdb346f41dbd838ec.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Ancient_Mieza%2C_Macedonian_tombs_of_Lefkadia%2C_The_Tomb_of_Jugdement_545fddcedb8f434cdb346f41dbd838ec.jpg/150px-Ancient_Mieza%2C_Macedonian_tombs_of_Lefkadia%2C_The_Tomb_of_Jugdement_545fddcedb8f434cdb346f41dbd838ec.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Ancient_Mieza%2C_Macedonian_tombs_of_Lefkadia%2C_The_Tomb_of_Jugdement_545fddcedb8f434cdb346f41dbd838ec.jpg/225px-Ancient_Mieza%2C_Macedonian_tombs_of_Lefkadia%2C_The_Tomb_of_Jugdement_545fddcedb8f434cdb346f41dbd838ec.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Ancient_Mieza%2C_Macedonian_tombs_of_Lefkadia%2C_The_Tomb_of_Jugdement_545fddcedb8f434cdb346f41dbd838ec.jpg/300px-Ancient_Mieza%2C_Macedonian_tombs_of_Lefkadia%2C_The_Tomb_of_Jugdement_545fddcedb8f434cdb346f41dbd838ec.jpg 2x" data-file-width="421" data-file-height="768" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:left">Left, a fresco of a <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_army" title="Ancient Macedonian army">Macedonian soldier</a> resting a spear and <a href="/wiki/Kausia" title="Kausia">wearing a cap</a>, from the tomb of <a href="/wiki/Agios_Athanasios,_Thessaloniki" title="Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki">Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki</a>, 4th century BC. Right, fresco from the <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Judgement,_Lefkadia" title="Tomb of Judgement, Lefkadia">Tomb of Judgement</a> in ancient <a href="/wiki/Mieza,_Macedonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mieza, Macedonia">Mieza</a> (modern-day Lefkadia), <a href="/wiki/Imathia" title="Imathia">Imathia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_Macedonia" title="Central Macedonia">Central Macedonia</a>, Greece, depicting religious imagery of <a href="/wiki/Greek_underworld" title="Greek underworld">the afterlife</a>, 4th century BC.</div></div></div></div> By the reign of <a href="/wiki/Archelaus_I_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Archelaus I of Macedon">Archelaus I</a> in the 5th century BC, the ancient Macedonian elite was importing customs and artistic traditions from other regions of Greece while retaining more archaic, perhaps <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homeric</a>, funerary rites connected with the <a href="/wiki/Symposium" title="Symposium">symposium</a> that were typified by items such as the decorative metal <a href="/wiki/Krater" title="Krater">kraters</a> that held the ashes of deceased Macedonian nobility in their tombs.<a href="#cite_note-hardiman_2010_515-322">[284]</a> Among these is the large bronze <a href="/wiki/Derveni_Krater" title="Derveni Krater">Derveni Krater</a> from a 4th-century BC tomb of Thessaloniki, decorated with scenes of the Greek god <a href="/wiki/Dionysus" title="Dionysus">Dionysus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cult_of_Dionysus" title="Cult of Dionysus">his entourage</a> and belonging to an aristocrat who had had a military career.<a href="#cite_note-323">[285]</a> Macedonian <a href="/wiki/Metalwork" class="mw-redirect" title="Metalwork">metalwork</a> usually followed <a href="/wiki/Pottery_of_ancient_Greece" title="Pottery of ancient Greece">Athenian styles of vase shapes</a> from the 6th century BC onward, with drinking vessels, jewellery, containers, crowns, <a href="/wiki/Diadem" title="Diadem">diadems</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_coinage" title="Ancient Greek coinage">coins</a> among the many metal objects found in Macedonian tombs.<a href="#cite_note-hardiman_2010_517-324">[286]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lion_hunt_mosaic_from_Pella.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Lion_hunt_mosaic_from_Pella.jpg/220px-Lion_hunt_mosaic_from_Pella.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Lion_hunt_mosaic_from_Pella.jpg/330px-Lion_hunt_mosaic_from_Pella.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Lion_hunt_mosaic_from_Pella.jpg/440px-Lion_hunt_mosaic_from_Pella.jpg 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="384" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander</a> (left), wearing a <a href="/wiki/Kausia" title="Kausia">kausia</a> and fighting an <a href="/wiki/Asiatic_lion" title="Asiatic lion">Asiatic lion</a> with his friend <a href="/wiki/Craterus" title="Craterus">Craterus</a> (detail); late 4th-century BC <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaic</a>,<a href="#cite_note-325">[287]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pella" title="Pella">Pella</a> Museum.</figcaption></figure> Surviving Macedonian painted artwork includes <a href="/wiki/Fresco" title="Fresco">frescoes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mural" title="Mural">murals</a>, but also decoration on <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_sculpture" title="Ancient Greek sculpture">sculpted artwork</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Statue" title="Statue">statues</a> and <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">reliefs</a>. For instance, trace colors still exist on the <a href="/wiki/Bas-relief" class="mw-redirect" title="Bas-relief">bas-reliefs</a> of the late 4th-century BC <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Sarcophagus" title="Alexander Sarcophagus">Alexander Sarcophagus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-326">[288]</a> Macedonian paintings have allowed historians to investigate the clothing fashions as well as military gear worn by the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">ancient Macedonians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-327">[289]</a> Aside from metalwork and painting, <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaics</a> are another significant form of surviving Macedonian artwork.<a href="#cite_note-hardiman_2010_517-324">[286]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Stag_Hunt_Mosaic" title="Stag Hunt Mosaic">Stag Hunt Mosaic</a> of Pella, with its three-dimensional qualities and illusionist style, show clear influence from painted artwork and wider Hellenistic art trends, although the rustic theme of hunting was tailored to Macedonian tastes.<a href="#cite_note-hardiman_2010_518-328">[290]</a> The similar Lion Hunt Mosaic of Pella illustrates either a scene of Alexander the Great with his companion <a href="/wiki/Craterus" title="Craterus">Craterus</a>, or simply a conventional illustration of the royal diversion of hunting.<a href="#cite_note-hardiman_2010_518-328">[290]</a> Mosaics with mythological themes include scenes of Dionysus riding a panther and <a href="/wiki/Helen_of_Troy" title="Helen of Troy">Helen of Troy</a> being abducted by <a href="/wiki/Theseus" title="Theseus">Theseus</a>, the latter of which employs illusionist qualities and realistic shading similar to Macedonian paintings.<a href="#cite_note-hardiman_2010_518-328">[290]</a> Common themes of Macedonian paintings and mosaics include warfare, hunting, and aggressive masculine sexuality (i.e. abduction of women for rape or marriage); these subjects are at times combined within a single work and perhaps indicate a metaphorical connection.<a href="#cite_note-329">[note 39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theatre,_music_and_performing_arts">Theatre, music and performing arts</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Greece" title="Theatre of ancient Greece">Theatre of ancient Greece</a> and <a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Greece" title="Music of ancient Greece">Music of ancient Greece</a></div> Philip II was assassinated in 336 BC at the theatre of <a href="/wiki/Aegae_(Macedonia)" title="Aegae (Macedonia)">Aigai</a>, amid games and spectacles celebrating the marriage of his daughter <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_of_Macedon" title="Cleopatra of Macedon">Cleopatra</a>.<a href="#cite_note-muller_2010_182-330">[291]</a> Alexander the Great was allegedly a great admirer of both theatre and music.<a href="#cite_note-errington_1990_224-331">[292]</a> He was especially fond of the <a href="/wiki/Play_(theatre)" title="Play (theatre)">plays</a> by <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athenian" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Athenian">Classical Athenian</a> <a href="/wiki/Tragedian" class="mw-redirect" title="Tragedian">tragedians</a> <a href="/wiki/Aeschylus" title="Aeschylus">Aeschylus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sophocles" title="Sophocles">Sophocles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Euripides" title="Euripides">Euripides</a>, whose works formed part of a proper <a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Greece" title="Education in ancient Greece">Greek education</a> for his new eastern subjects alongside studies in the Greek language, including the <a href="/wiki/Epic_Cycle" title="Epic Cycle">epics</a> of <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-worthington_2014_186-332">[293]</a> While he and his army were stationed at <a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a> (in modern-day Lebanon), Alexander had his generals act as judges not only for athletic contests but also for stage performances of Greek tragedies.<a href="#cite_note-333">[294]</a> The contemporaneous famous actors <a href="/wiki/Thessalus_(actor)" title="Thessalus (actor)">Thessalus</a> and Athenodorus performed at the event.<a href="#cite_note-334">[note 40]</a> <a href="/wiki/History_of_music" title="History of music">Music</a> was also appreciated in Macedonia. In addition to the <a href="/wiki/Agora" title="Agora">agora</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Gymnasium_(ancient_Greece)" title="Gymnasium (ancient Greece)">gymnasium</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Theatre" title="Theatre">theatre</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Religious_sanctuary" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious sanctuary">religious sanctuaries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_temple" title="Ancient Greek temple">temples</a> dedicated to Greek gods and goddesses, one of the main markers of a true Greek city in the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Alexander_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Empire of Alexander the Great">empire of Alexander the Great</a> was the presence of an <a href="/wiki/Odeon_(building)" title="Odeon (building)">odeon</a> for <a href="/wiki/Concert" title="Concert">musical performances</a>.<a href="#cite_note-worthington_2014_183_186-335">[295]</a> This was the case not only for <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt" title="History of Egypt">Egypt</a>, but also for cities as distant as <a href="/wiki/Ai-Khanoum" title="Ai-Khanoum">Ai-Khanoum</a> in what is now modern-day <a href="/wiki/History_of_Afghanistan" title="History of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-worthington_2014_183_186-335">[295]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature,_education,_philosophy,_and_patronage">Literature, education, philosophy, and patronage</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Literature_in_ancient_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature in ancient Greece">Literature in ancient Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Greece" title="Education in ancient Greece">Education in ancient Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_ancient_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy in ancient Greece">Philosophy in ancient Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_medicine" title="Ancient Greek medicine">Ancient Greek medicine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_calendar" title="Ancient Macedonian calendar">Ancient Macedonian calendar</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aristoteles_Louvre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Aristoteles_Louvre.jpg/170px-Aristoteles_Louvre.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Aristoteles_Louvre.jpg/255px-Aristoteles_Louvre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Aristoteles_Louvre.jpg/340px-Aristoteles_Louvre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1680" data-file-height="2241" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bust_(sculpture)" title="Bust (sculpture)">Portrait bust</a> of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Imperial Roman</a> (1st or 2nd century AD) copy of a lost <a href="/wiki/Bronze_sculpture" title="Bronze sculpture">bronze sculpture</a> made by <a href="/wiki/Lysippos" title="Lysippos">Lysippos</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas_II_of_Macedon" title="Perdiccas II of Macedon">Perdiccas II of Macedon</a> was able to host well-known Classical Greek intellectual visitors at his royal court, such as the lyric poet <a href="/wiki/Melanippides" title="Melanippides">Melanippides</a> and the renowned medical doctor <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pindar" title="Pindar">Pindar</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Encomium" title="Encomium">enkomion</a> written for <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Macedon" title="Alexander I of Macedon">Alexander I of Macedon</a> may have been composed at his court.<a href="#cite_note-336">[296]</a> Archelaus I received many more Greek scholars, artists, and celebrities at his court than his predecessors.<a href="#cite_note-337">[297]</a> His honored guests included the <a href="/wiki/History_of_painting#Egypt,_Greece_and_Rome" title="History of painting">painter</a> <a href="/wiki/Zeuxis_(painter)" title="Zeuxis (painter)">Zeuxis</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_architecture" title="Ancient Greek architecture">architect</a> <a href="/wiki/Callimachus_(sculptor)" title="Callimachus (sculptor)">Callimachus</a>, the poets <a href="/wiki/Choerilus_of_Samos" title="Choerilus of Samos">Choerilus of Samos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Timotheus_of_Miletus" title="Timotheus of Miletus">Timotheus of Miletus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Agathon" title="Agathon">Agathon</a>, as well as the famous Athenian <a href="/wiki/Playwright" title="Playwright">playwright</a> <a href="/wiki/Euripides" title="Euripides">Euripides</a>.<a href="#cite_note-338">[note 41]</a> The philosopher <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, who studied at the <a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Platonic Academy</a> of Athens and established the <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelian school of thought</a>, moved to Macedonia, and is said to have tutored the young Alexander the Great, as well as serving as an esteemed diplomat for Philip II.<a href="#cite_note-339">[298]</a> Among Alexander's retinue of artists, writers, and philosophers was <a href="/wiki/Pyrrho_of_Elis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyrrho of Elis">Pyrrho of Elis</a>, founder of <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a>, the school of <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">philosophical skepticism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-worthington_2014_186-332">[293]</a> During the Antigonid period, <a href="/wiki/Antigonos_Gonatas" class="mw-redirect" title="Antigonos Gonatas">Antigonos Gonatas</a> fostered cordial relationships with <a href="/wiki/Menedemos_of_Eretria" class="mw-redirect" title="Menedemos of Eretria">Menedemos of Eretria</a>, founder of the <a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a> of philosophy, and <a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium" title="Zeno of Citium">Zenon</a>, the founder of <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-errington_1990_224-331">[292]</a> In terms of early <a href="/wiki/Greek_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek historiography">Greek historiography</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Roman_historiography" title="Roman historiography">Roman historiography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Felix_Jacoby" title="Felix Jacoby">Felix Jacoby</a> identified thirteen possible ancient <a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_historiographers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Greek historiographers">historians</a> who wrote about Macedonia in his <a href="/wiki/Fragmente_der_griechischen_Historiker" title="Fragmente der griechischen Historiker">Fragmente der griechischen Historiker</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rhodes_2010_23-340">[299]</a> Aside from accounts in <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> and Thucydides, the works compiled by Jacoby are only fragmentary, whereas other works are completely lost, such as the history of an <a href="/wiki/Illyria" title="Illyria">Illyrian</a> war fought by <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas_III_of_Macedon" title="Perdiccas III of Macedon">Perdiccas III</a> written by Antipater.<a href="#cite_note-341">[300]</a> The Macedonian historians <a href="/wiki/Marsyas_of_Pella" title="Marsyas of Pella">Marsyas of Pella</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marsyas_of_Philippi" title="Marsyas of Philippi">Marsyas of Philippi</a> wrote histories of Macedonia, the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Egypt">Ptolemaic</a> king <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy I Soter</a> authored a history about Alexander, and <a href="/wiki/Hieronymus_of_Cardia" title="Hieronymus of Cardia">Hieronymus of Cardia</a> wrote a history about Alexander's royal successors.<a href="#cite_note-342">[note 42]</a> Following the <a href="/wiki/Indian_campaign_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Indian campaign of Alexander the Great">Indian campaign of Alexander the Great</a>, the Macedonian military officer <a href="/wiki/Nearchus" title="Nearchus">Nearchus</a> wrote a work of his <a href="/wiki/Travel_literature" title="Travel literature">voyage</a> from the mouth of the <a href="/wiki/Indus_river" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus river">Indus river</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Errington_1990_225-343">[301]</a> The Macedonian <a href="/wiki/Craterus_(historian)" title="Craterus (historian)">historian Craterus</a> published a compilation of decrees made by <a href="/wiki/Ecclesia_(ancient_Athens)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecclesia (ancient Athens)">the popular assembly</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Athenian_democracy" title="Athenian democracy">Athenian democracy</a>, ostensibly while attending the school of Aristotle.<a href="#cite_note-Errington_1990_225-343">[301]</a> <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon" title="Philip V of Macedon">Philip V of Macedon</a> had manuscripts of the history of Philip II written by <a href="/wiki/Theopompus" title="Theopompus">Theopompus</a> gathered by his court scholars and disseminated with further copies.<a href="#cite_note-errington_1990_224-331">[292]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sports_and_leisure">Sports and leisure</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_sport#Ancient_Greece" title="History of sport">History of sport § Ancient Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gymnasium_(ancient_Greece)" title="Gymnasium (ancient Greece)">Gymnasium (ancient Greece)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Olympic_Games" title="Ancient Olympic Games">Ancient Olympic Games</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Music_in_ancient_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Music in ancient Greece">Music in ancient Greece</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hades_and_Persephone,_Vergina.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Hades_and_Persephone%2C_Vergina.jpg/220px-Hades_and_Persephone%2C_Vergina.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Hades_and_Persephone%2C_Vergina.jpg/330px-Hades_and_Persephone%2C_Vergina.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Hades_and_Persephone%2C_Vergina.jpg/440px-Hades_and_Persephone%2C_Vergina.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3032" data-file-height="1740" /></a><figcaption>A fresco showing <a href="/wiki/Hades" title="Hades">Hades</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persephone" title="Persephone">Persephone</a> riding in a <a href="/wiki/Chariot" title="Chariot">chariot</a>, from the tomb of Queen <a href="/wiki/Eurydice_I_of_Macedon" title="Eurydice I of Macedon">Eurydice I of Macedon</a> at <a href="/wiki/Vergina" title="Vergina">Vergina</a>, Greece, 4th century BC</figcaption></figure> When Alexander I of Macedon petitioned to compete in the <a href="/wiki/Foot_race" class="mw-redirect" title="Foot race">foot race</a> of the ancient Olympic Games, the event organizers at first denied his request, explaining that only Greeks were allowed to compete. However, Alexander I produced proof of an Argead royal <a href="/wiki/Genealogy" title="Genealogy">genealogy</a> showing ancient <a href="/wiki/Argive" class="mw-redirect" title="Argive">Argive</a> <a href="/wiki/Temenid" class="mw-redirect" title="Temenid">Temenid</a> lineage, a move that ultimately convinced the Olympic <a href="/wiki/Hellanodikai" title="Hellanodikai">Hellanodikai</a> authorities of his Greek descent and ability to compete.<a href="#cite_note-344">[302]</a> By the end of the 5th century BC, the Macedonian king Archelaus I was crowned with the <a href="/wiki/Olive_wreath" title="Olive wreath">olive wreath</a> at both <a href="/wiki/Olympia,_Greece" title="Olympia, Greece">Olympia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Delphi" title="Delphi">Delphi</a> (in the <a href="/wiki/Pythian_Games" title="Pythian Games">Pythian Games</a>) for winning <a href="/wiki/Chariot_racing" title="Chariot racing">chariot racing</a> contests.<a href="#cite_note-hatzopoulos_2011b_59-345">[303]</a> Philip II allegedly heard of the Olympic victory of his horse (in either an individual <a href="/wiki/Horse_race" class="mw-redirect" title="Horse race">horse race</a> or chariot race) on the same day his son Alexander the Great was born, on either 19 or 20 July 356 BC.<a href="#cite_note-346">[304]</a> Non-royal Macedonians also competed in and won various Olympic contests by the 4th century BC.<a href="#cite_note-347">[305]</a> In addition to literary contests, Alexander the Great staged <a href="/wiki/Music_competition" title="Music competition">competitions for music</a> and athletics across his empire.<a href="#cite_note-worthington_2014_186-332">[293]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dining_and_cuisine">Dining and cuisine</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_cuisine" title="Ancient Greek cuisine">Ancient Greek cuisine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wine_in_ancient_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Wine in ancient Greece">Wine in ancient Greece</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Banquet,_tombe_d%27Agios_Athanasios.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Banquet%2C_tombe_d%27Agios_Athanasios.jpg/220px-Banquet%2C_tombe_d%27Agios_Athanasios.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Banquet%2C_tombe_d%27Agios_Athanasios.jpg/330px-Banquet%2C_tombe_d%27Agios_Athanasios.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Banquet%2C_tombe_d%27Agios_Athanasios.jpg/440px-Banquet%2C_tombe_d%27Agios_Athanasios.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3096" data-file-height="898" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Banquet" title="Banquet">banquet</a> scene from a Macedonian tomb of <a href="/wiki/Agios_Athanasios,_Thessaloniki" title="Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki">Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki</a>, 4th century BC; shown are six men <a href="/wiki/Symposium" title="Symposium">reclining on couches</a>, with food arranged on nearby tables, a male servant in attendance, and female musicians providing entertainment.<a href="#cite_note-348">[306]</a></figcaption></figure> Ancient Macedonia produced only a few fine foods or beverages that were highly appreciated elsewhere in the Greek world, including <a href="/wiki/Eel" title="Eel">eels</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Strymonian_Gulf" title="Strymonian Gulf">Strymonian Gulf</a> and special <a href="/wiki/History_of_wine" title="History of wine">wine</a> produced in <a href="/wiki/Chalcidice" class="mw-redirect" title="Chalcidice">Chalcidice</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dalby_1997_157-349">[307]</a> The earliest known use of flat bread as a plate for meat was made in Macedonia during the 3rd century BC, which perhaps influenced the later <a href="/wiki/Trencher_(tableware)" title="Trencher (tableware)">trencher bread</a> of <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Europe">medieval Europe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dalby_1997_157-349">[307]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cattle" title="Cattle">Cattle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Goat" title="Goat">goats</a> were consumed, although there was no notice of Macedonian mountain <a href="/wiki/History_of_cheese" title="History of cheese">cheeses</a> in literature until the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dalby_1997_157-349">[307]</a> The comedic playwright <a href="/wiki/Menander" title="Menander">Menander</a> wrote that Macedonian dining habits penetrated <a href="/wiki/History_of_Athens" title="History of Athens">Athenian</a> high society; for instance, the introduction of meats into the <a href="/wiki/Dessert" title="Dessert">dessert</a> course of a meal.<a href="#cite_note-350">[308]</a> The Macedonians also most likely introduced mattye to Athenian cuisine, a dish usually made of chicken or other spiced, salted, and sauced meats served <a href="/wiki/Full_course_dinner" class="mw-redirect" title="Full course dinner">during the wine course</a>.<a href="#cite_note-351">[309]</a> This particular dish was derided and connected with licentiousness and drunkenness in a play by the Athenian comic poet <a href="/wiki/Alexis_(poet)" title="Alexis (poet)">Alexis</a> about the declining morals of Athenians in the age of <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Demetrius I of Macedon">Demetrius I of Macedon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-352">[310]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Symposium" title="Symposium">symposium</a> in the Macedonian and wider Greek realm was a banquet for the nobility and privileged class, an occasion for feasting, drinking, entertainment, and sometimes <a href="/wiki/Symposium_(Plato)" title="Symposium (Plato)">philosophical discussion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-353">[311]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Hetairoi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hetairoi">hetairoi</a>, leading members of the Macedonian <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</a>, were expected to attend such feasts with their king.<a href="#cite_note-anson_2010_10-319">[281]</a> They were also expected to accompany him on royal hunts for the acquisition of <a href="/wiki/Game_meat" class="mw-redirect" title="Game meat">game meat</a> as well as for sport.<a href="#cite_note-anson_2010_10-319">[281]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethnic_identity">Ethnic identity</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians#Identity" title="Ancient Macedonians">Ancient Macedonians § Identity</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)" title="Macedonia (terminology)">Macedonia (terminology)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Makedon_(mythology)" title="Makedon (mythology)">Makedon (mythology)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural anthropology</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:192px;max-width:192px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:96px;max-width:96px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:208px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Macedonian_boy_BM_1906.10-19.1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Macedonian_boy_BM_1906.10-19.1.jpg/94px-Macedonian_boy_BM_1906.10-19.1.jpg" decoding="async" width="94" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Macedonian_boy_BM_1906.10-19.1.jpg/141px-Macedonian_boy_BM_1906.10-19.1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Macedonian_boy_BM_1906.10-19.1.jpg/188px-Macedonian_boy_BM_1906.10-19.1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1175" data-file-height="2610" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Athenian terracotta figurine, c. 300 BC.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:92px;max-width:92px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:208px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Terrakota_Statue_eines_Makedoniers_3_Jhdt_v_Chr.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Terrakota_Statue_eines_Makedoniers_3_Jhdt_v_Chr.jpg/90px-Terrakota_Statue_eines_Makedoniers_3_Jhdt_v_Chr.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Terrakota_Statue_eines_Makedoniers_3_Jhdt_v_Chr.jpg/135px-Terrakota_Statue_eines_Makedoniers_3_Jhdt_v_Chr.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Terrakota_Statue_eines_Makedoniers_3_Jhdt_v_Chr.jpg/180px-Terrakota_Statue_eines_Makedoniers_3_Jhdt_v_Chr.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1232" data-file-height="2848" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Macedonian terracotta figurine, 3rd century BC</div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Terracotta" title="Terracotta">Terracotta</a> statues depicting <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">ancient Macedonians</a> wearing the <a href="/wiki/Kausia" title="Kausia">kausia</a>, a headgear that led the <a href="/wiki/Persians" title="Persians">Persians</a> to refer to the Macedonians as "Yaunã Takabara" ("Greeks with hats that look like shields").<a href="#cite_note-354">[312]</a></div></div></div></div> Ancient authors and modern scholars alike disagree about the precise ethnic identity of the ancient Macedonians. The predominant viewpoint supports that the Macedonians were "truly Greeks" who had just retained a more archaic lifestyle than those living in southern parts of Greece.<a href="#cite_note-Engels-2010-84-355">[313]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Badian" title="Ernst Badian">Ernst Badian</a> notes however that nearly all surviving references to antagonisms and differences between Greeks and Macedonians exist in the written speeches of <a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a>, who lived at the time of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, when any notion of an ethnic disparity between Macedonians and other Greeks was incomprehensible.<a href="#cite_note-356">[314]</a> Hatzopoulos argues that there was no real ethnic difference between Macedonians and the other Greeks, only a political distinction contrived after the creation of the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Corinth" title="League of Corinth">League of Corinth</a> in 337 BC (which was led by Macedonia through the league's elected <a href="/wiki/Hegemon" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegemon">hegemon</a> Philip II, when he was not a member of the league itself);<a href="#cite_note-357">[note 43]</a> <a href="/wiki/N._G._L._Hammond" title="N. G. L. Hammond">N. G. L. Hammond</a> asserts that ancient views differentiating Macedonia's ethnic identity from the rest of the Greek-speaking world should be seen as an expression of conflict between two different political systems: the democratic system of the city-states (e.g. Athens) versus the monarchy (Macedonia).<a href="#cite_note-358">[315]</a> Other academics who concur that the difference between the Macedonians and Greeks was a political rather than a true ethnic discrepancy include Michael B. Sakellariou,<a href="#cite_note-359">[316]</a> Malcolm Errington,<a href="#cite_note-360">[note 44]</a> and Craige B. Champion.<a href="#cite_note-361">[note 45]</a> Anson argues that some Hellenic authors expressed complex or even ever-changing and ambiguous ideas about the exact ethnic identity of the Macedonians, who were considered by some as barbarians and others as semi-Greek or fully Greek.<a href="#cite_note-362">[note 46]</a> Roger D. Woodard asserts that in addition to persisting uncertainty in modern times about the proper classification of the Macedonian language and its relation to Greek, ancient authors also presented conflicting ideas about the Macedonians.<a href="#cite_note-363">[note 47]</a> <a href="/wiki/Simon_Hornblower" title="Simon Hornblower">Simon Hornblower</a> argues on the Greek identity of the Macedonians, taking into consideration their origin, language, cults and customs related to ancient Greek traditions.<a href="#cite_note-364">[317]</a> Any preconceived ethnic differences between Greeks and Macedonians faded by 148 BC soon after the <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Wars" title="Macedonian Wars">Roman conquest of Macedonia</a> and then <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(Roman_province)" title="Macedonia (Roman province)">the rest of Greece</a> with the defeat of the <a href="/wiki/Achaean_League" title="Achaean League">Achaean League</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Corinth_(146_BC)" title="Battle of Corinth (146 BC)">Battle of Corinth (146 BC)</a>.<a href="#cite_note-365">[318]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technology_and_engineering">Technology and engineering</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_technology" title="Ancient Greek technology">Ancient Greek technology</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_in_classical_antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science in classical antiquity">History of science in classical antiquity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Ancient Greek astronomy">Ancient Greek astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_mathematics" title="Greek mathematics">Greek mathematics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_ancient_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Medicine in ancient Greece">Medicine in ancient Greece</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Architecture">Architecture</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_ancient_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture of ancient Greece">Architecture of ancient Greece</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:342px;max-width:342px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:171px;max-width:171px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:225px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:The_facade_of_the_the_Tomb_of_the_Palmettes,_first_half_of_the_3rd_century_BC,_Ancient_Mieza_(7263674714).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/The_facade_of_the_the_Tomb_of_the_Palmettes%2C_first_half_of_the_3rd_century_BC%2C_Ancient_Mieza_%287263674714%29.jpg/169px-The_facade_of_the_the_Tomb_of_the_Palmettes%2C_first_half_of_the_3rd_century_BC%2C_Ancient_Mieza_%287263674714%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="169" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/The_facade_of_the_the_Tomb_of_the_Palmettes%2C_first_half_of_the_3rd_century_BC%2C_Ancient_Mieza_%287263674714%29.jpg/254px-The_facade_of_the_the_Tomb_of_the_Palmettes%2C_first_half_of_the_3rd_century_BC%2C_Ancient_Mieza_%287263674714%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/The_facade_of_the_the_Tomb_of_the_Palmettes%2C_first_half_of_the_3rd_century_BC%2C_Ancient_Mieza_%287263674714%29.jpg/338px-The_facade_of_the_the_Tomb_of_the_Palmettes%2C_first_half_of_the_3rd_century_BC%2C_Ancient_Mieza_%287263674714%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3216" data-file-height="4288" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:167px;max-width:167px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:225px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Tomb_of_the_Palmettes_(photography_of_the_pediment),_first_half_of_the_3rd_century_BC,_Ancient_Mieza_(7263729086).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/The_Tomb_of_the_Palmettes_%28photography_of_the_pediment%29%2C_first_half_of_the_3rd_century_BC%2C_Ancient_Mieza_%287263729086%29.jpg/165px-The_Tomb_of_the_Palmettes_%28photography_of_the_pediment%29%2C_first_half_of_the_3rd_century_BC%2C_Ancient_Mieza_%287263729086%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="165" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/The_Tomb_of_the_Palmettes_%28photography_of_the_pediment%29%2C_first_half_of_the_3rd_century_BC%2C_Ancient_Mieza_%287263729086%29.jpg/248px-The_Tomb_of_the_Palmettes_%28photography_of_the_pediment%29%2C_first_half_of_the_3rd_century_BC%2C_Ancient_Mieza_%287263729086%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/The_Tomb_of_the_Palmettes_%28photography_of_the_pediment%29%2C_first_half_of_the_3rd_century_BC%2C_Ancient_Mieza_%287263729086%29.jpg/330px-The_Tomb_of_the_Palmettes_%28photography_of_the_pediment%29%2C_first_half_of_the_3rd_century_BC%2C_Ancient_Mieza_%287263729086%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2405" data-file-height="3276" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:166px;max-width:166px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:125px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:The_facade_of_the_the_Tomb_of_the_Palmettes,_first_half_of_the_3rd_century_BC,_Ancient_Mieza_(7263705128).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/The_facade_of_the_the_Tomb_of_the_Palmettes%2C_first_half_of_the_3rd_century_BC%2C_Ancient_Mieza_%287263705128%29.jpg/164px-The_facade_of_the_the_Tomb_of_the_Palmettes%2C_first_half_of_the_3rd_century_BC%2C_Ancient_Mieza_%287263705128%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="164" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/The_facade_of_the_the_Tomb_of_the_Palmettes%2C_first_half_of_the_3rd_century_BC%2C_Ancient_Mieza_%287263705128%29.jpg/246px-The_facade_of_the_the_Tomb_of_the_Palmettes%2C_first_half_of_the_3rd_century_BC%2C_Ancient_Mieza_%287263705128%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/The_facade_of_the_the_Tomb_of_the_Palmettes%2C_first_half_of_the_3rd_century_BC%2C_Ancient_Mieza_%287263705128%29.jpg/328px-The_facade_of_the_the_Tomb_of_the_Palmettes%2C_first_half_of_the_3rd_century_BC%2C_Ancient_Mieza_%287263705128%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4045" data-file-height="3111" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:125px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:The_pediment_of_the_the_Tomb_of_the_Palmettes,_first_half_of_the_3rd_century_BC,_Ancient_Mieza_(7263694348).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/The_pediment_of_the_the_Tomb_of_the_Palmettes%2C_first_half_of_the_3rd_century_BC%2C_Ancient_Mieza_%287263694348%29.jpg/170px-The_pediment_of_the_the_Tomb_of_the_Palmettes%2C_first_half_of_the_3rd_century_BC%2C_Ancient_Mieza_%287263694348%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/The_pediment_of_the_the_Tomb_of_the_Palmettes%2C_first_half_of_the_3rd_century_BC%2C_Ancient_Mieza_%287263694348%29.jpg/255px-The_pediment_of_the_the_Tomb_of_the_Palmettes%2C_first_half_of_the_3rd_century_BC%2C_Ancient_Mieza_%287263694348%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/The_pediment_of_the_the_Tomb_of_the_Palmettes%2C_first_half_of_the_3rd_century_BC%2C_Ancient_Mieza_%287263694348%29.jpg/340px-The_pediment_of_the_the_Tomb_of_the_Palmettes%2C_first_half_of_the_3rd_century_BC%2C_Ancient_Mieza_%287263694348%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4204" data-file-height="3102" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Facade" class="mw-redirect" title="Facade">facade</a> of the Macedonian <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_the_Palmettes" title="Tomb of the Palmettes">Tomb of the Palmettes</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mieza,_Macedonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mieza, Macedonia">Mieza, Macedonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>, 3rd century BC; decorated by colored <a href="/wiki/Doric_order" title="Doric order">Doric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ionic_order" title="Ionic order">Ionic</a> moldings, the <a href="/wiki/Pediment" title="Pediment">pediment</a> is also painted with a scene of a man and woman reclining together.<a href="#cite_note-366">[319]</a></div></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:428px;max-width:428px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:247px;max-width:247px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Fragment_of_painted_roof_tiles_(raking,_simas,_pan-tiles),_Archaeological_Museum,_Pella_(6919206262).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Fragment_of_painted_roof_tiles_%28raking%2C_simas%2C_pan-tiles%29%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Pella_%286919206262%29.jpg/245px-Fragment_of_painted_roof_tiles_%28raking%2C_simas%2C_pan-tiles%29%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Pella_%286919206262%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="245" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Fragment_of_painted_roof_tiles_%28raking%2C_simas%2C_pan-tiles%29%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Pella_%286919206262%29.jpg/368px-Fragment_of_painted_roof_tiles_%28raking%2C_simas%2C_pan-tiles%29%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Pella_%286919206262%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Fragment_of_painted_roof_tiles_%28raking%2C_simas%2C_pan-tiles%29%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Pella_%286919206262%29.jpg/490px-Fragment_of_painted_roof_tiles_%28raking%2C_simas%2C_pan-tiles%29%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Pella_%286919206262%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2351" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:177px;max-width:177px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Ionic_pilaster_capital_from_the_palace,_Archaeological_Museum,_Pella_(6930003102).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Ionic_pilaster_capital_from_the_palace%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Pella_%286930003102%29.jpg/175px-Ionic_pilaster_capital_from_the_palace%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Pella_%286930003102%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="175" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Ionic_pilaster_capital_from_the_palace%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Pella_%286930003102%29.jpg/263px-Ionic_pilaster_capital_from_the_palace%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Pella_%286930003102%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Ionic_pilaster_capital_from_the_palace%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Pella_%286930003102%29.jpg/350px-Ionic_pilaster_capital_from_the_palace%2C_Archaeological_Museum%2C_Pella_%286930003102%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3926" data-file-height="2988" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:left">Left, fragments of ancient Macedonian painted <a href="/wiki/Roof_tile" class="mw-redirect" title="Roof tile">roof tiles</a> (raking, simas, pan-tiles), <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Pella" title="Archaeological Museum of Pella">Archaeological Museum of Pella</a>, Greece. Right, the <a href="/wiki/Ionic_capital" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionic capital">Ionic capital</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Pilaster" title="Pilaster">pilaster</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Palace" title="Palace">palace</a> at <a href="/wiki/Pella" title="Pella">Pella</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Pella" title="Archaeological Museum of Pella">Archaeological Museum of Pella</a>.</div></div></div></div> Macedonian architecture, although utilizing a mixture of different forms and styles from the rest of Greece, did not represent a unique or diverging style from other <a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_ancient_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture of ancient Greece">ancient Greek architecture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-hardiman_2010_518-328">[290]</a> Among the <a href="/wiki/Classical_order" title="Classical order">classical orders</a>, Macedonian architects favored the <a href="/wiki/Ionic_order" title="Ionic order">Ionic order</a>, especially in the <a href="/wiki/Peristyle" title="Peristyle">peristyle</a> courtyards of private homes.<a href="#cite_note-Winter_2006_163-367">[320]</a> There are several surviving examples, albeit in ruins, of Macedonian palatial architecture, including a <a href="/wiki/Palace" title="Palace">palace</a> at the site of the capital Pella, the summer residence of <a href="/wiki/Vergina" title="Vergina">Vergina</a> near the old capital Aigai, and the royal residence at <a href="/wiki/Demetrias" title="Demetrias">Demetrias</a> near modern <a href="/wiki/Volos" title="Volos">Volos</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Winter_2006_163-367">[320]</a> At Vergina, the ruins of three large <a href="/wiki/Banquet_hall" title="Banquet hall">banquet halls</a> with marble-<a href="/wiki/Tile" title="Tile">tiled</a> floors (covered in the debris of <a href="/wiki/Roof_tiles" title="Roof tiles">roof tiles</a>) with floor plan dimensions measuring roughly 16.7 x 17.6 m (54.8 x 57.7 ft) demonstrate perhaps the earliest examples of monumental <a href="/wiki/Timber_roof_trusses" class="mw-redirect" title="Timber roof trusses">triangular roof trusses</a>, if dated before the reign of <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_II_Gonatas" title="Antigonus II Gonatas">Antigonus II Gonatas</a> or even the onset of the Hellenistic period.<a href="#cite_note-Winter_2006_164_165-368">[321]</a> Later Macedonian architecture also featured <a href="/wiki/Arch" title="Arch">arches</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vault_(architecture)" title="Vault (architecture)">vaults</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Winter_2006_165-369">[322]</a> The palaces of both Vergina and Demetrias had walls made of sundried <a href="/wiki/Brick" title="Brick">bricks</a>, while the latter palace had four corner <a href="/wiki/Tower" title="Tower">towers</a> around a central courtyard in the manner of a fortified residence fit for a king or at least a military governor.<a href="#cite_note-Winter_2006_163-367">[320]</a> Macedonian rulers also sponsored works of architecture outside of Macedonia proper. For instance, following his victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chaeronea_(338_BC)" title="Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)">Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)</a>, Philip II raised a round memorial building at <a href="/wiki/Olympia,_Greece" title="Olympia, Greece">Olympia</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Philippeion" title="Philippeion">Philippeion</a>, decorated inside with statues depicting him, his parents <a href="/wiki/Amyntas_III_of_Macedon" title="Amyntas III of Macedon">Amyntas III of Macedon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eurydice_I_of_Macedon" title="Eurydice I of Macedon">Eurydice I of Macedon</a>, his wife <a href="/wiki/Olympias" title="Olympias">Olympias</a>, and his son Alexander the Great.<a href="#cite_note-370">[323]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20100913_Ancient_Theater_Marwneia_Rhodope_Greece_panoramic_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/20100913_Ancient_Theater_Marwneia_Rhodope_Greece_panoramic_3.jpg/220px-20100913_Ancient_Theater_Marwneia_Rhodope_Greece_panoramic_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/20100913_Ancient_Theater_Marwneia_Rhodope_Greece_panoramic_3.jpg/330px-20100913_Ancient_Theater_Marwneia_Rhodope_Greece_panoramic_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/20100913_Ancient_Theater_Marwneia_Rhodope_Greece_panoramic_3.jpg/440px-20100913_Ancient_Theater_Marwneia_Rhodope_Greece_panoramic_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4177" data-file-height="1678" /></a><figcaption>Ruins of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek theatre">ancient theatre</a> in <a href="/wiki/Maroneia" title="Maroneia">Maroneia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhodope_(regional_unit)" title="Rhodope (regional unit)">Rhodope</a>, <a href="/wiki/East_Macedonia_and_Thrace" class="mw-redirect" title="East Macedonia and Thrace">East Macedonia and Thrace</a>, Greece</figcaption></figure> The ruins of roughly twenty <a href="/wiki/Greek_theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek theatre">Greek theatres</a> survive in the present-day <a href="/wiki/Decentralized_Administration_of_Macedonia_and_Thrace" title="Decentralized Administration of Macedonia and Thrace">regions of Macedonia and Thrace in Greece</a>: sixteen open-air theatres, three <a href="/wiki/Odeon_(building)" title="Odeon (building)">odea</a>, and a possible theatre in <a href="/wiki/Veria" title="Veria">Veria</a> undergoing excavation.<a href="#cite_note-371">[324]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_technology_and_engineering">Military technology and engineering</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Greek_and_Roman_artillery" title="Greek and Roman artillery">Greek and Roman artillery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Ancient Greek warfare</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lithobolos" title="Lithobolos">Lithobolos</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Siege_ladder" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege ladder">Siege ladder</a></div> By the Hellenistic period, it became common for Greek states to finance the development and proliferation of ever more powerful <a href="/wiki/Torsion_siege_engine" title="Torsion siege engine">torsion siege engines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare" title="Naval warfare">naval ships</a>, and standardized designs for <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_military_personal_equipment" title="Ancient Greek military personal equipment">arms and armor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-372">[325]</a> Under Philip II and Alexander the Great, improvements were made to <a href="/wiki/Siege_artillery" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege artillery">siege artillery</a> such as bolt-shooting <a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">ballistae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siege_engine" title="Siege engine">siege engines</a> such as huge rolling <a href="/wiki/Siege_tower" title="Siege tower">siege towers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-373">[326]</a> E. W. Marsden and M. Y. Treister contend that the Macedonian rulers <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_I_Monophthalmus" title="Antigonus I Monophthalmus">Antigonus I Monophthalmus</a> and his successor <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Demetrius I of Macedon">Demetrius I of Macedon</a> had the most powerful siege artillery of the Hellenistic world at the end of the 4th century BC.<a href="#cite_note-374">[327]</a> <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis_(306_BC)" title="Battle of Salamis (306 BC)">The siege</a> of <a href="/wiki/Salamis,_Cyprus" title="Salamis, Cyprus">Salamis, Cyprus</a>, in 306 BC necessitated the building of large siege engines and drafting of craftsmen from parts of <a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-treister_1996_376-375">[328]</a> The siege tower commissioned by Demetrius I for the Macedonian <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Rhodes_(305%E2%80%93304_BC)" title="Siege of Rhodes (305–304 BC)">Siege of Rhodes (305–304 BC)</a> and defended by over three thousand soldiers was built at a height of nine <a href="/wiki/Storey" title="Storey">stories</a>.<a href="#cite_note-humphrey_1998_pp570_571-376">[329]</a> It had a base of 4,300 square feet (399 square metres), eight wheels that were steered in either direction by pivots, three sides covered in iron plates to protect them from fire, and mechanically opened windows (shielded with wool-stuffed leather curtains to soften the blow of ballistae rounds) of different sizes to accommodate the firing of missiles ranging from arrows to larger bolts.<a href="#cite_note-humphrey_1998_pp570_571-376">[329]</a> During the siege of <a href="/wiki/Echinus_(Phthiotis)" class="mw-redirect" title="Echinus (Phthiotis)">Echinus</a> by <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon" title="Philip V of Macedon">Philip V of Macedon</a> in 211 BC, the besiegers built <a href="/wiki/Mining_(military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mining (military)">tunnels</a> to protect the soldiers and <a href="/wiki/Sapper" title="Sapper">sappers</a> as they went back and forth from the camp to the siege works. These included two siege towers connected by a makeshift <a href="/wiki/Wickerwork" class="mw-redirect" title="Wickerwork">wickerwork</a> <a href="/wiki/Curtain_wall_(fortification)" title="Curtain wall (fortification)">curtain wall</a> mounted with stone-shooting ballistae, and sheds to protect the approach of the <a href="/wiki/Battering_ram" title="Battering ram">battering ram</a>.<a href="#cite_note-377">[330]</a> Despite the early reputation of Macedon as a leader in siege technology, <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Egypt">Ptolemaic Egypt</a> became the center for technological improvements to the <a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">catapult</a> by the 3rd century BC, as evidenced by the writings of <a href="/wiki/Philo_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Philo of Alexandria">Philo of Alexandria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-treister_1996_376-375">[328]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_innovations">Other innovations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_calendar" title="Ancient Macedonian calendar">Ancient Macedonian calendar</a></div> Although perhaps not as prolific as other areas of Greece in regards to technological innovations, there are some inventions that may have originated in Macedonia aside from siege engines and artillery. The <a href="/wiki/Rotation_around_a_fixed_axis" title="Rotation around a fixed axis">rotary-operated</a> <a href="/wiki/Olive_press" class="mw-redirect" title="Olive press">olive press</a> for producing <a href="/wiki/Olive_oil" title="Olive oil">olive oil</a> may have been invented in ancient Macedonia or another part of Greece, or even as far east as the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> or <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-378">[331]</a> <a href="/wiki/History_of_glass" title="History of glass">Mold-pressed glass</a> first appeared in Macedonia in the 4th century BC (although it could have simultaneously existed in the Achaemenid Empire); the first known clear, translucent glass pieces of the Greek world have been discovered in Macedonia and <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a> and date to the second half of the 4th century BC.<a href="#cite_note-379">[332]</a> Greek technical and <a href="/wiki/Scientific_literature" title="Scientific literature">scientific literature</a> began with <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Classical Athens</a> in the 5th century BC, while the major production centers for technical innovation and texts during the Hellenistic period were <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria" title="Library of Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhodian_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodian school">Rhodes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pergamon" title="Pergamon">Pergamon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-380">[333]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Currency,_finances,_and_resources">Currency, finances, and resources</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_coinage" title="Ancient Greek coinage">Ancient Greek coinage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_ancient_Greece" title="Economy of ancient Greece">Economy of ancient Greece</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mints_of_Alexander_the_Great_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Mints_of_Alexander_the_Great_1.jpg/220px-Mints_of_Alexander_the_Great_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Mints_of_Alexander_the_Great_1.jpg/330px-Mints_of_Alexander_the_Great_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Mints_of_Alexander_the_Great_1.jpg/440px-Mints_of_Alexander_the_Great_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1809" data-file-height="2382" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tetradrachm" title="Tetradrachm">Tetradrachms</a> (above) and <a href="/wiki/Drachm" class="mw-redirect" title="Drachm">drachms</a> (below) issued during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, now in the <a href="/wiki/Numismatic_Museum_of_Athens" title="Numismatic Museum of Athens">Numismatic Museum of Athens</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Mint_(facility)" title="Mint (facility)">minting</a> of silver coinage began during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Macedon" title="Alexander I of Macedon">Alexander I</a> as a means to pay for royal expenditures.<a href="#cite_note-errington_1990_222-232">[215]</a> <a href="/wiki/Archelaus_I_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Archelaus I of Macedon">Archelaus I</a> increased the silver content of his coins as well as minting copper coins to promote foreign and domestic commerce.<a href="#cite_note-Roisman_2010_156_157-47">[44]</a> The minting of coinage significantly increased during the reigns of Philip II and Alexander the Great, especially after the increase in state revenues following the seizure of the <a href="/wiki/Pangaion_Hills" title="Pangaion Hills">Pangaion Hills</a>.<a href="#cite_note-381">[334]</a> During the Hellenistic period the royal houses of Macedonia, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Egypt">Ptolemaic Egypt</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Attalid_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Attalid kingdom">Attalid kingdom</a> exercised <a href="/wiki/State_monopoly" title="State monopoly">full monopolistic control</a> over <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a> activities, largely to ensure the funding of their armies.<a href="#cite_note-382">[335]</a> By the end of the <a href="/wiki/Conquests_of_Alexander_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Conquests of Alexander the Great">conquests of Alexander the Great</a>, nearly thirty mints stretching from Macedonia to <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a> produced standard coins.<a href="#cite_note-383">[336]</a> The right to mint coins was shared by <a href="/wiki/Central_government" title="Central government">central</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Local_government" title="Local government">local governments</a>, i.e. the <a href="/wiki/Autonomous" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous">autonomous</a> <a href="/wiki/Municipal_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Municipal government">municipal governments</a> of Thessaloniki, Pella, and Amphipolis within the Macedonian <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth" title="Commonwealth">commonwealth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-384">[337]</a> The Macedonians were also the first to issue different coins for <a href="/wiki/Circulation_(currency)" class="mw-redirect" title="Circulation (currency)">internal and external circulation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-385">[338]</a> State revenues were also raised by collecting <a href="/wiki/Produce" title="Produce">produce</a> from <a href="/wiki/Arable_land" title="Arable land">arable lands</a>, timber from forests, and <a href="/wiki/Tax#History" title="Tax">taxes</a> on <a href="/wiki/Import" title="Import">imports</a> and <a href="/wiki/Export" title="Export">exports</a> at <a href="/wiki/Harbor" title="Harbor">harbors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-386">[339]</a> Some mines, <a href="/wiki/Grove_(nature)" title="Grove (nature)">groves</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture" title="History of agriculture">agricultural lands</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Logging" title="Logging">forests</a> belonging to the Macedonian state were exploited by the Macedonian king, although these were often <a href="/wiki/Lease" title="Lease">leased</a> as <a href="/wiki/Asset" title="Asset">assets</a> or given as <a href="/wiki/Grant_(money)" title="Grant (money)">grants</a> to members of the <a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">nobility</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Hetairoi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hetairoi">hetairoi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philoi" title="Philoi">philoi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-387">[340]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tariff" title="Tariff">Tariffs</a> exacted on goods flowing in and out of Macedonian <a href="/wiki/Seaport" class="mw-redirect" title="Seaport">seaports</a> existed from at least the reign of <a href="/wiki/Amyntas_III_of_Macedon" title="Amyntas III of Macedon">Amyntas III</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Callistratus_of_Aphidnae" title="Callistratus of Aphidnae">Callistratus of Aphidnae</a> (d. c. 350 BC) aided <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas_III_of_Macedon" title="Perdiccas III of Macedon">Perdiccas III</a> in doubling the kingdom's annual profits on <a href="/wiki/Customs_duties" class="mw-redirect" title="Customs duties">customs duties</a> from 20 to 40 <a href="/wiki/Talent_(measurement)" title="Talent (measurement)">talents</a>.<a href="#cite_note-388">[341]</a> After the defeat of <a href="/wiki/Perseus_of_Macedon" title="Perseus of Macedon">Perseus</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pydna" title="Battle of Pydna">Pydna</a> in 168 BC, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a> allowed the reopening of iron and copper mines, but forbade the mining of gold and silver by the four newly established autonomous <a href="/wiki/Client_state" title="Client state">client states</a> that replaced the monarchy in Macedonia.<a href="#cite_note-389">[342]</a> The law may originally have been conceived by the Senate due to the fear that material wealth gained from gold and silver mining operations would allow the Macedonians to fund an armed rebellion.<a href="#cite_note-390">[343]</a> The Romans were perhaps also concerned with stemming <a href="/wiki/Inflation" title="Inflation">inflation</a> caused by an increased <a href="/wiki/Money_supply" title="Money supply">money supply</a> from Macedonian silver mining.<a href="#cite_note-391">[344]</a> The Macedonians continued minting silver coins between 167 and 148 BC (i.e. just before the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_province_of_Macedonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman province of Macedonia">Roman province of Macedonia</a>), and when the Romans lifted the ban on Macedonian silver mining in 158 BC it may simply have reflected the local reality of this illicit practice continuing regardless of the Senate's decree.<a href="#cite_note-treister_1996_374_375-392">[345]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Hellenic_studies" title="Hellenic studies">Hellenic studies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic Judaism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hellenism_(neoclassicism)" title="Hellenism (neoclassicism)">Hellenism (neoclassicism)</a></div> The reigns of Philip II and Alexander the Great witnessed the demise of Classical Greece and the birth of Hellenistic civilization, following the <a href="/wiki/Hellenization" title="Hellenization">spread of Greek culture</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a> during and after Alexander's conquests.<a href="#cite_note-393">[346]</a> Macedonians then migrated to Egypt and parts of Asia, but the intensive <a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">colonization</a> of foreign lands sapped the available manpower in Macedonia proper, weakening the kingdom in its fight with other Hellenistic powers and contributing to its downfall and conquest by the Romans.<a href="#cite_note-394">[347]</a> However, the diffusion of Greek culture and language cemented by Alexander's conquests in West Asia and North Africa served as a "precondition" for the <a href="/wiki/Mithridatic_Wars" title="Mithridatic Wars">later Roman expansion</a> into these territories and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greeks" title="Byzantine Greeks">entire basis</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, according to Errington.<a href="#cite_note-395">[348]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Issos_MAN_Napoli_Inv10020_n01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Battle_of_Issos_MAN_Napoli_Inv10020_n01.jpg/220px-Battle_of_Issos_MAN_Napoli_Inv10020_n01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Battle_of_Issos_MAN_Napoli_Inv10020_n01.jpg/330px-Battle_of_Issos_MAN_Napoli_Inv10020_n01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Battle_of_Issos_MAN_Napoli_Inv10020_n01.jpg/440px-Battle_of_Issos_MAN_Napoli_Inv10020_n01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3625" data-file-height="1700" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Mosaic" title="Alexander Mosaic">Alexander Mosaic</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Roman_mosaic" title="Roman mosaic">Roman mosaic</a> from <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a>, Italy, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 100 BC</figcaption></figure> The ethnic Macedonian rulers of the Ptolemaic and Seleucid successor states accepted men from all over the Greek world as their hetairoi companions and did not foster a national identity like the Antigonids.<a href="#cite_note-396">[349]</a> Modern scholarship has focused on how these Hellenistic successor kingdoms were influenced more by their Macedonian origins than Eastern or southern Greek traditions.<a href="#cite_note-397">[350]</a> While <a href="/wiki/Spartan_Constitution" title="Spartan Constitution">Spartan society</a> remained mostly insular and Athens continued placing <a href="/wiki/Solonian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Solonian Constitution">strict limitations on acquiring citizenship</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">cosmopolitan</a> Hellenistic cities of Asia and northeastern Africa bore a greater resemblance to Macedonian cities and contained a mixture of subjects including natives, Greek and Macedonian colonists, and Greek-speaking Hellenized Easterners, many of whom were the product of intermarriage between Greeks and native populations.<a href="#cite_note-398">[351]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Deification" class="mw-redirect" title="Deification">deification</a> of Macedonian monarchs perhaps began with the death of Philip II, but it was his son Alexander the Great who unambiguously claimed to be a <a href="/wiki/Imperial_cult" title="Imperial cult">living god</a>.<a href="#cite_note-399">[note 48]</a> Following his visit to the <a href="/wiki/Oracle" title="Oracle">oracle</a> of <a href="/wiki/Didyma" title="Didyma">Didyma</a> in 334 BC that suggested his divinity, Alexander traveled to the <a href="/wiki/Oracle_of_Ammon" class="mw-redirect" title="Oracle of Ammon">Oracle</a> of <a href="/wiki/Zeus_Ammon" class="mw-redirect" title="Zeus Ammon">Zeus Ammon</a>—the <a href="/wiki/Interpretatio_graeca" title="Interpretatio graeca">Greek equivalent</a> of the Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Amun-Ra" class="mw-redirect" title="Amun-Ra">Amun-Ra</a>—at the <a href="/wiki/Siwa_Oasis" title="Siwa Oasis">Siwa Oasis</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Libyan_Desert" title="Libyan Desert">Libyan Desert</a> in 332 BC to confirm his <a href="/wiki/Sacred_king" title="Sacred king">divine status</a>.<a href="#cite_note-400">[note 49]</a> Although the Ptolemaic and Seleucid empires <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_cult_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great">maintained ancestral cults</a> and deified their rulers, kings were not worshiped in the Kingdom of Macedonia.<a href="#cite_note-401">[352]</a> While Zeus Ammon was known to the Greeks prior to Alexander's reign, particularly at the <a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">Greek colony</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cyrene,_Libya" title="Cyrene, Libya">Cyrene, Libya</a>, Alexander was the first Macedonian monarch to patronize <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_mythology" title="Egyptian mythology">Egyptian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persian_mythology" title="Persian mythology">Persian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_religion" title="Babylonian religion">Babylonian priesthoods and deities</a>, strengthening the fusion of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Near Eastern</a> and Greek religious beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-402">[353]</a> After his reign, the <a href="/wiki/Mysteries_of_Isis" title="Mysteries of Isis">cult of Isis</a> gradually spread throughout the Hellenistic and <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman world</a>, while beliefs in the Egyptian god <a href="/wiki/Sarapis" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarapis">Sarapis</a> were thoroughly Hellenized by the Ptolemaic rulers of Egypt before the spread of his cult to Macedonia and the Aegean region.<a href="#cite_note-403">[354]</a> The German historian <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gustav_Droysen" title="Johann Gustav Droysen">Johann Gustav Droysen</a> argued that the conquests of Alexander the Great and creation of the Hellenistic world allowed for the growth and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">establishment of Christianity</a> in the Roman era.<a href="#cite_note-404">[355]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/31px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/47px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/62px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Historiography of Alexander the Great">Historiography of Alexander the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kings of Macedon">List of kings of Macedon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(region)" title="Macedonia (region)">Geographic region of Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(Greece)" title="Macedonia (Greece)">Macedonia region of Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paeonia_(kingdom)" title="Paeonia (kingdom)">Paeonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Tomb of Alexander the Great">Tomb of Alexander the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_the_Royal_Tombs_of_Aigai_(Vergina)" title="Museum of the Royal Tombs of Aigai (Vergina)">Museum of the Royal Tombs of Aigai (Vergina)</a></li></ul></div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEngels2010">Engels 2010</a>, p. 89; <a href="#CITEREFBorza1995">Borza 1995</a>, p. 114; <a href="/wiki/Eugene_N._Borza" title="Eugene N. Borza">Eugene N. Borza</a> writes that the "highlanders" or "Makedones" of the mountainous regions of western Macedonia are derived from northwest Greek stock; they were akin to those who at an earlier time may have migrated south to become the historical "Dorians". </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewisBoardman1994">Lewis & Boardman 1994</a>, pp. 723–724, see also <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos1996">Hatzopoulos 1996</a>, pp. 105–108 for the Macedonian expulsion of original inhabitants such as the <a href="/wiki/Phrygians" title="Phrygians">Phrygians</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOlbrycht2010">Olbrycht 2010</a>, pp. 342–343; <a href="#CITEREFSprawski2010">Sprawski 2010</a>, pp. 131, 134; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 8–9. Errington is skeptical that at this point <a href="/wiki/Amyntas_I_of_Macedon" title="Amyntas I of Macedon">Amyntas I of Macedon</a> offered any submission as a vassal at all, at most a token one. He also mentions how the Macedonian king pursued his own course of action, such as inviting the exiled Athenian <a href="/wiki/Tyrant" title="Tyrant">tyrant</a> <a href="/wiki/Hippias_(tyrant)" title="Hippias (tyrant)">Hippias</a> to take refuge at <a href="/wiki/Anthemous" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthemous">Anthemous</a> in 506 BC. </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 158–159; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 30 for further details; the Greek historian <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a> provided a seemingly conflicting account about Illyrian invasions occurring in 393 BC and 383 BC, which may have been representative of a single invasion led by the Illyrian king <a href="/wiki/Bardylis" title="Bardylis">Bardylis</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 169–170, 179. Müller is skeptical about the claims of <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Athenaeus" title="Athenaeus">Athenaeus</a> that Philip II of Macedon married <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_Eurydice_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra Eurydice of Macedon">Cleopatra Eurydice of Macedon</a>, a younger woman, purely out of love or due to his own <a href="/wiki/Midlife_crisis" title="Midlife crisis">midlife crisis</a>. Cleopatra was the daughter of the general <a href="/wiki/Attalus_(general)" title="Attalus (general)">Attalus</a>, who along with his father-in-law <a href="/wiki/Parmenion" title="Parmenion">Parmenion</a> were given command posts in <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>) soon after this wedding. Müller also suspects that this marriage was one of political convenience meant to ensure the loyalty of an influential Macedonian noble house. </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 171–172; <a href="#CITEREFBuckler1989">Buckler 1989</a>, pp. 63, 176–181; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, pp. 185–187. Cawkwell contrarily provides the date of this siege as 354–353 BC. </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 172–173; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, pp. 60, 185; <a href="#CITEREFHornblower2002">Hornblower 2002</a>, p. 272; <a href="#CITEREFBuckler1989">Buckler 1989</a>, pp. 63–64, 176–181. Conversely, Buckler provides the date of this initial campaign as 354 BC, while affirming that the second Thessalian campaign ending in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Crocus_Field" title="Battle of Crocus Field">Battle of Crocus Field</a> occurred in 353 BC. </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley & Worthington 2010</a>, pp. 189–190; <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, p. 183. Without implicating <a href="/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander III of Macedon">Alexander III of Macedon</a> as a potential suspect in the plot to assassinate <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</a>, <a href="/wiki/N._G._L._Hammond" title="N. G. L. Hammond">N. G. L. Hammond</a> and <a href="/wiki/F._W._Walbank" title="F. W. Walbank">F. W. Walbank</a> discuss possible Macedonian as well as foreign suspects, such as <a href="/wiki/Demosthenes" title="Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III</a>: <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond & Walbank 2001</a>, pp. 8–12. </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley & Worthington 2010</a>, pp. 199–200; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 44, 93. Gilley and Worthington discuss the ambiguity surrounding the exact title of <a href="/wiki/Antipater" title="Antipater">Antipater</a> aside from deputy <a href="/wiki/Hegemon" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegemon">hegemon</a> of the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Corinth" title="League of Corinth">League of Corinth</a>, with some sources calling him a regent, others a governor, others a simple general. <a href="/wiki/N._G._L._Hammond" title="N. G. L. Hammond">N. G. L. Hammond</a> and <a href="/wiki/F._W._Walbank" title="F. W. Walbank">F. W. Walbank</a> state that Alexander the Great left "Macedonia under the command of Antipater, in case there was a rising in Greece." <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond & Walbank 2001</a>, p. 32. </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 219; <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 61; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 155. Conversely, Errington dates <a href="/wiki/Lysimachus" title="Lysimachus">Lysimachus</a>' reunification of Macedonia by expelling <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhus_of_Epirus" title="Pyrrhus of Epirus">Pyrrhus of Epirus</a> as occurring in 284 BC, not 286 BC. </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, pp. 229–230; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 186–189 for further details. Errington is skeptical that Philip V at this point had any intentions of invading southern Italy via Illyria once the latter was secured, deeming his plans to be "more modest", <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 189. </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, pp. 86–87. <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 202–203: "Roman desire for revenge and private hopes of famous victories were probably the decisive reasons for the outbreak of the war." </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, pp. 93–97; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 239; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 207–208. Bringmann dates this event of handing over <a href="/wiki/Aenus_(Thrace)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aenus (Thrace)">Aenus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maroneia" title="Maroneia">Maronea</a> along the <a href="/wiki/Thracian" class="mw-redirect" title="Thracian">Thracian</a> coast as 183 BC, while Eckstein dates it as 184 BC. </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, pp. 98–99; see also <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 242, who says that "Rome ... as the sole remaining superpower ... would not accept Macedonia as a peer competitor or equal." <a href="/wiki/Klaus_Bringmann" title="Klaus Bringmann">Klaus Bringmann</a> asserts that negotiations with Macedonia were completely ignored due to Rome's "<a href="/wiki/Realpolitik" title="Realpolitik">political calculation</a>" that the Macedonian kingdom had to be destroyed to ensure the elimination of the "supposed source of all the difficulties which Rome was having in the Greek world". </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> Written evidence about Macedonian governmental institutions made before <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</a>'s reign is both rare and non-Macedonian in origin. The main sources of early Macedonian historiography are the works of <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a>. Contemporary accounts given by those such as <a href="/wiki/Demosthenes" title="Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a> were often hostile and unreliable; even <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, who lived in Macedonia, provides us with terse accounts of its governing institutions. <a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a> was a contemporary historian who wrote about Macedonia; later historians include <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a>. The works of these historians affirm Macedonia's <a href="/wiki/Hereditary_monarchy" title="Hereditary monarchy">hereditary monarchy</a> and basic institutions, yet it remains unclear if there was an established <a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">constitution</a> for Macedonian government. See: <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, pp. 373–374. However, <a href="/wiki/N._G._L._Hammond" title="N. G. L. Hammond">N. G. L. Hammond</a> and <a href="/wiki/F._W._Walbank" title="F. W. Walbank">F. W. Walbank</a> write with apparent certainty and conviction when describing the Macedonian constitutional government restricting <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Macedon">the king</a> and involving a <a href="/wiki/Popular_assembly" title="Popular assembly">popular assembly</a> of the army. See: <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond & Walbank 2001</a>, pp. 12–13. The main textual primary sources for the organization of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_army" title="Ancient Macedonian army">Macedonia's military</a> as it existed under Alexander the Great include Arrian, Curtis, Diodorus, and Plutarch; modern historians rely mostly on Polybius and <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a> for understanding detailed aspects of <a href="/wiki/Antigonid_Macedonian_army" title="Antigonid Macedonian army">the Antigonid-period military</a>. On this, <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 446–447 writes: "... to this we can add the evidence provided by two magnificent archaeological monuments, the '<a href="/wiki/Alexander_Sarcophagus" title="Alexander Sarcophagus">Alexander Sarcophagus</a>' in particular and the '<a href="/wiki/Alexander_Mosaic" title="Alexander Mosaic">Alexander Mosaic</a>'... In the case of the <a href="/wiki/Antigonid_Macedonian_army" title="Antigonid Macedonian army">Antigonid army</a> ... valuable additional details are occasionally supplied by <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, and by a series of inscriptions preserving sections of two sets of army regulations issued by <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon" title="Philip V of Macedon">Philip V</a>." </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 374; for an argument about the <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolutism</a> of the Macedonian monarchy, see <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 220–222. However, <a href="/wiki/N._G._L._Hammond" title="N. G. L. Hammond">N. G. L. Hammond</a> and <a href="/wiki/F._W._Walbank" title="F. W. Walbank">F. W. Walbank</a> write with apparent certainty and conviction when describing the Macedonian constitutional government restricting <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Macedon">the king</a> and involving a <a href="/wiki/Popular_assembly" title="Popular assembly">popular assembly</a> of the army. <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond & Walbank 2001</a>, pp. 12–13. </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 375. In 1931 Friedrich Granier was the first to propose that by the time of Philip II's reign, Macedonia had a constitutional government with laws that delegated rights and <a href="/wiki/Uncodified_constitution" title="Uncodified constitution">customary privileges</a> to certain groups, especially to its citizen soldiers, although the majority of evidence for the army's alleged right to <a href="/wiki/Elective_monarchy" title="Elective monarchy">appoint a new king</a> and judge cases of <a href="/wiki/Treason" title="Treason">treason</a> stems from the reign of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander III of Macedon">Alexander III of Macedon</a>. See <a href="#CITEREFGranier1931">Granier 1931</a>, pp. 4–28, 48–57 and <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, pp. 374–375. <a href="/wiki/Pietro_De_Francisci" title="Pietro De Francisci">Pietro De Francisci</a> was the first to refute Granier's ideas and advance the theory that the Macedonian government was an <a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">autocracy</a> ruled by the whim of the monarch, although this issue of kingship and governance is still unresolved in academia. See: <a href="#CITEREFde_Francisci1948">de Francisci 1948</a>, pp. 345–435 as well as <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 375 and <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 220 for further details. </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 379; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 221; early evidence for this includes not only Alexander I's role as a commander in the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</a> but also the city-state of <a href="/wiki/Potidaea" title="Potidaea">Potidaea</a>'s acceptance of <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas_II_of_Macedon" title="Perdiccas II of Macedon">Perdiccas II of Macedon</a> as their <a href="/wiki/Commander-in-chief" title="Commander-in-chief">commander-in-chief</a> <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Potidaea" title="Battle of Potidaea">during their rebellion</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Delian_League" title="Delian League">Delian League</a> of Athens in 432 BC. </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSawada2010">Sawada 2010</a>, pp. 403–405. According to Carol J. King, there was no "certain reference" to this institutional group until the <a href="/wiki/Military_campaigns_of_Alexander_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Military campaigns of Alexander the Great">military campaigns of Alexander the Great</a> in Asia.<a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, pp. 380–381. However, <a href="/wiki/N._G._L._Hammond" title="N. G. L. Hammond">N. G. L. Hammond</a> and <a href="/wiki/F._W._Walbank" title="F. W. Walbank">F. W. Walbank</a> state that the <a href="/wiki/Royal_page" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal page">royal pages</a> are attested to as far back as the reign of <a href="/wiki/Archelaus_I_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Archelaus I of Macedon">Archelaus I of Macedon</a>. <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond & Walbank 2001</a>, p. 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 382. The ranks of the companions were greatly increased during the reign of Philip II when he expanded this institution to include <a href="/wiki/Upper_Macedonia" title="Upper Macedonia">Upper Macedonian</a> aristocrats as well as Greeks. See: <a href="#CITEREFSawada2010">Sawada 2010</a>, p. 404. </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 384: the first recorded instance dates to 359 BC, when Philip II called together assemblies to address them with a speech and raise their morale following the death of <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas_III_of_Macedon" title="Perdiccas III of Macedon">Perdiccas III of Macedon</a> in battle against the <a href="/wiki/Illyria" title="Illyria">Illyrians</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a> For instance, when <a href="/wiki/Perdiccas" title="Perdiccas">Perdiccas</a> had Philip II's daughter <a href="/wiki/Cynane" title="Cynane">Cynane</a> murdered to prevent her own daughter <a href="/wiki/Eurydice_II_of_Macedon" title="Eurydice II of Macedon">Eurydice II of Macedon</a> from marrying <a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Macedon" title="Philip III of Macedon">Philip III of Macedon</a>, the army revolted and ensured that the marriage took place. See <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 210 and <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 119–120 for details. </li> <li id="cite_note-251"><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 390. Although these were highly influential members of local and regional government, Carol J. King asserts that they were not collectively powerful enough to formally challenge the authority of the Macedonian king or his right to rule. </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAmemiya2007">Amemiya 2007</a>, pp. 11–12: under <a href="/wiki/Antipater" title="Antipater">Antipater</a>'s oligarchy, the lower value in terms of property for acceptable members of the oligarchy was 2,000 <a href="/wiki/Ancient_drachma" title="Ancient drachma">drachma</a>. <a href="/wiki/Athenian_democracy" title="Athenian democracy">Athenian democracy</a> was restored briefly after Antipater's death in 319 BC, yet his son <a href="/wiki/Cassander" title="Cassander">Cassander</a> reconquered the city, which came under the regency of <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_of_Phalerum" title="Demetrius of Phalerum">Demetrius of Phalerum</a>. Demetrius lowered the property limit for oligarchic members to 1,000 drachma, yet by 307 BC he was exiled from the city and <a href="/wiki/Direct_democracy" title="Direct democracy">direct democracy</a> was restored. <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Demetrius I of Macedon">Demetrius I of Macedon</a> reconquered Athens in 295 BC, yet democracy was once again restored in 287 BC with the aid of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy I of Egypt">Ptolemy I of Egypt</a>. <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_II_Gonatas" title="Antigonus II Gonatas">Antigonus II Gonatas</a>, son of Demetrius I, reconquered Athens in 260 BC, followed by a succession of Macedonian kings ruling over Athens until the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> conquered both Macedonia and then <a href="/wiki/Mainland_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Mainland Greece">mainland Greece</a> by 146 BC. </li> <li id="cite_note-259"><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a> Unlike the sparse Macedonian examples, ample textual evidence of this exists for the <a href="/wiki/Achaean_League" title="Achaean League">Achaean League</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acarnanian_League" title="Acarnanian League">Acarnanian League</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Achaean_League" title="Achaean League">Achaean League</a>; see <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos1996">Hatzopoulos 1996</a>, pp. 366–367. </li> <li id="cite_note-273"><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a> According to Sekunda, Philip II's infantry were eventually equipped with heavier armor such as cuirasses, since the <a href="/wiki/Third_Philippic" title="Third Philippic">Third Philippic</a> of <a href="/wiki/Demosthenes" title="Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a> in 341 BC described them as <a href="/wiki/Hoplite" title="Hoplite">hoplites</a> instead of lighter <a href="/wiki/Peltast" title="Peltast">peltasts</a>: <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 449–450; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 238 for further details. However, Errington argues that breastplates were not worn by the <a href="/wiki/Phalanx" title="Phalanx">phalanx</a> <a href="/wiki/Pikemen" class="mw-redirect" title="Pikemen">pikemen</a> of either Philip II or Philip V's reigns (during which sufficient evidence exists). Instead, he claims that breastplates were worn only by <a href="/wiki/Military_officer" class="mw-redirect" title="Military officer">military officers</a>, while pikemen wore the <a href="/wiki/Kotthybos" title="Kotthybos">kotthybos</a> stomach bands along with their helmets and greaves, wielding a daggers as secondary weapons along with their shields. See <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 241. </li> <li id="cite_note-282"><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 455–456. <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 245: in regards to both the <a href="/wiki/Argyraspides" title="Argyraspides">argyraspides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chalkaspides" title="Chalkaspides">chalkaspides</a>, "these titles were probably not functional, perhaps not even official." </li> <li id="cite_note-283"><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 455–457. However, in discussing the discrepancies among <a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_historiographers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Greek historiographers">ancient historians</a> about the size of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>'s army, <a href="/wiki/N._G._L._Hammond" title="N. G. L. Hammond">N. G. L. Hammond</a> and <a href="/wiki/F._W._Walbank" title="F. W. Walbank">F. W. Walbank</a> choose <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a>' figure of 32,000 infantry as the most reliable, while disagreeing with his figure for cavalry at 4,500, asserting it was closer to 5,100 horsemen. <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond & Walbank 2001</a>, pp. 22–23. </li> <li id="cite_note-285"><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 459; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 245: "Other developments in Macedonian army organization are evident after <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander</a>. One is the evolution of the <a href="/wiki/Hypaspistai" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypaspistai">hypaspistai</a> from an elite unit to a form of <a href="/wiki/Military_police" title="Military police">military police</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bodyguard" title="Bodyguard">bodyguard</a> under <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon" title="Philip V of Macedon">Philip V</a>; the only thing the two functions had in common was the particular closeness to the king." </li> <li id="cite_note-289"><a href="#cite_ref-289">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 460–461; for the evolution of Macedonian military titles, such as its command by tetrarchai officers assisted by grammateis (i.e. secretaries or clerks), see <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 242–243. </li> <li id="cite_note-290"><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 461–462; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 245: "The other development, which happened at the latest under <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_III_Doson" title="Antigonus III Doson">Doson</a>, was the formation and training of a special unit of <a href="/wiki/Peltast" title="Peltast">peltastai</a> separate from the <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_phalanx" title="Macedonian phalanx">phalanx</a>. This unit operated as a form of <a href="/wiki/Royal_guard" title="Royal guard">royal guard</a> similar in function to the earlier <a href="/wiki/Hypaspistai" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypaspistai">hypaspistai</a>." </li> <li id="cite_note-292"><a href="#cite_ref-292">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 463; the largest figure for elite Macedonian <a href="/wiki/Peltast" title="Peltast">peltasts</a> mentioned by ancient historians was 5,000 troops, an amount that existed in the <a href="/wiki/Social_War_(220%E2%80%93217_BC)" title="Social War (220–217 BC)">Social War (220–217 BC)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-296"><a href="#cite_ref-296">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos2011a">Hatzopoulos 2011a</a>, p. 44; <a href="#CITEREFWoodard2010">Woodard 2010</a>, p. 9; see also <a href="#CITEREFAustin2006">Austin 2006</a>, p. 4 for further details. Edward M. Anson contends that the native <a href="/wiki/Spoken_language" title="Spoken language">spoken language</a> of the Macedonians was a dialect of Greek and that in the roughly 6,300 Macedonian-period inscriptions discovered by archaeologists about 99% were written in the Greek language, using the <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a>. <a href="#CITEREFAnson2010">Anson 2010</a>, p. 17, n. 57, n. 58. </li> <li id="cite_note-297"><a href="#cite_ref-297">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos2011a">Hatzopoulos 2011a</a>, p. 44; <a href="#CITEREFEngels2010">Engels 2010</a>, pp. 94–95; <a href="#CITEREFWoodard2010">Woodard 2010</a>, pp. 9–10. <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos2011a">Hatzopoulos 2011a</a>, pp. 43–45 states that the native language of the ancient Macedonians as preserved in the rare documents written in a language other than <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a> also betray a slight <a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">phonetic</a> influence from the languages of the original inhabitants of the region who were <a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">assimilated</a> or expelled by the invading Macedonians; Hatzopoulos also asserts that little is known about these languages aside from <a href="/wiki/Phrygian_language" title="Phrygian language">Phrygian</a> spoken by the <a href="/wiki/Bryges" title="Bryges">Bryges</a> who migrated to <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>. <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 3–4 affirms that the Macedonian language was merely a dialect of Greek that used <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanwords</a> from <a href="/wiki/Thracian_language" title="Thracian language">Thracian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Illyrian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Illyrian languages">Illyrian languages</a>, which "does not surprise modern <a href="/wiki/Philologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Philologist">philologists</a>" but ultimately provided Macedonia's political enemies with the "proof" they needed to level the charge that Macedonians were not Greek. </li> <li id="cite_note-298"><a href="#cite_ref-298">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWoodard2004">Woodard 2004</a>, pp. 12–14; Hamp, Eric; Adams, Douglas (2013). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp239_indo_european_languages.pdf">The Expansion of the Indo-European Languages</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140222134950/http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp239_indo_european_languages.pdf">Archived</a> 2014-02-22 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", Sino-Platonic Papers, vol 239. Accessed 16 January 2017. Joseph 2001: "Ancient Greek is generally taken to be the only representative (though note the existence of different dialects) of the Greek or Hellenic branch of Indo-European. There is some dispute as to whether Ancient Macedonian (the native language of Philip and Alexander), if it has any special affinity to Greek at all, is a dialect within Greek (see below) or a sibling language to all the known Ancient Greek dialects. If the latter view is correct, then Macedonian and Greek would be the two subbranches of a group within Indo-European which could more properly be called Hellenic." <a href="#CITEREFGeorgiev1966">Georgiev 1966</a>, pp. 285–297: ancient Macedonian is closely related to Greek, and Macedonian and Greek are descended from a common Greek-Macedonian idiom that was spoken till about the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. </li> <li id="cite_note-302"><a href="#cite_ref-302">^</a> For instance, <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_VII_Philopator" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra VII Philopator">Cleopatra VII Philopator</a>, the last active ruler of the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt, spoke Koine Greek as a first language and by her reign (51–30 BC) or some time before it the Macedonian language was no longer used. See <a href="#CITEREFJones2006">Jones 2006</a>, pp. 33–34. </li> <li id="cite_note-311"><a href="#cite_ref-311">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSansone2017">Sansone 2017</a>, p. 224; <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond & Walbank 2001</a>, p. 6. Rosella Lorenzi (10 October 2014). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.seeker.com/remains-of-alexander-the-greats-father-confirmed-found-1769168761.html">Remains of Alexander the Great's Father Confirmed Found: King Philip II's bones are buried in a tomb along with a mysterious woman-warrior</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170118215400/http://www.seeker.com/remains-of-alexander-the-greats-father-confirmed-found-1769168761.html">Archived</a> 2017-01-18 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>." Seeker. Retrieved 17 January 2017. </li> <li id="cite_note-315"><a href="#cite_ref-315">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos2011a">Hatzopoulos 2011a</a>, pp. 47–48; for a specific example of <a href="/wiki/Land_reclamation" title="Land reclamation">land reclamation</a> near <a href="/wiki/Amphipolis" title="Amphipolis">Amphipolis</a> during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, see <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond & Walbank 2001</a>, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-329"><a href="#cite_ref-329">^</a> This metaphorical connection between warfare, hunting, and aggressive masculine sexuality seems to be affirmed by later <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_literature" title="Byzantine literature">Byzantine literature</a>, particularly in the <a href="/wiki/Acritic_songs" title="Acritic songs">Acritic songs</a> about <a href="/wiki/Digenes_Akritas" title="Digenes Akritas">Digenes Akritas</a>. See <a href="#CITEREFCohen2010">Cohen 2010</a>, pp. 13–34 for details. </li> <li id="cite_note-334"><a href="#cite_ref-334">^</a> The actor Athenodorus performed despite risking a fine for being absent from the simultaneous <a href="/wiki/Dionysia" title="Dionysia">Dionysia</a> festival of Athens where he was scheduled to perform (a fine that his <a href="/wiki/Patron" class="mw-redirect" title="Patron">patron</a> Alexander agreed to pay). See<a href="#CITEREFWorthington2014">Worthington 2014</a>, pp. 185–186 for details. </li> <li id="cite_note-338"><a href="#cite_ref-338">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos2011b">Hatzopoulos 2011b</a>, p. 59; <a href="#CITEREFSansone2017">Sansone 2017</a>, p. 223; <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, p. 157. Although <a href="/wiki/Archelaus_I_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Archelaus I of Macedon">Archelaus I of Macedon</a> was criticized by the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, supposedly hated by <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>, and the first known Macedonian king to be given the label of <a href="/wiki/Barbarian" title="Barbarian">barbarian</a>, the historian <a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a> held the Macedonian king in glowing admiration, especially for his engagement in <a href="/wiki/Panhellenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Panhellenic">Panhellenic</a> sports and fostering of literary culture. See <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos2011b">Hatzopoulos 2011b</a>, p. 59. </li> <li id="cite_note-342"><a href="#cite_ref-342">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 224–225. For <a href="/wiki/Marsyas_of_Pella" title="Marsyas of Pella">Marsyas of Pella</a>, see also <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond & Walbank 2001</a>, p. 27 for further details. </li> <li id="cite_note-357"><a href="#cite_ref-357">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos2011b">Hatzopoulos 2011b</a>, pp. 69–71. Hatzopoulos stresses the fact that Macedonians and other peoples such as the <a href="/wiki/Epirus_(ancient_state)" title="Epirus (ancient state)">Epirotes</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Cyprus" title="History of Cyprus">Cypriots</a>, despite speaking a Greek dialect, worshiping in Greek cults, engaging in Panhellenic games, and upholding traditional Greek institutions, nevertheless occasionally had their territories excluded from contemporary geographic definitions of "<a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Hellas</a>" and were even considered barbarians by some. See: <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos2011b">Hatzopoulos 2011b</a>, pp. 52, 71–72; Johannes Engels comes to a similar conclusion about the comparison between Macedonians and <a href="/wiki/Epirotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Epirotes">Epirotes</a>, saying that the "Greekness" of the Epirotes, despite them not being considered as refined as southern Greeks, never came into question. Engels suggests this perhaps because the Epirotes did not try to dominate the Greek world as <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</a> had done. See: <a href="#CITEREFEngels2010">Engels 2010</a>, pp. 83–84. </li> <li id="cite_note-360"><a href="#cite_ref-360">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 3–4. <a href="#CITEREFErrington1994">Errington 1994</a>, p. 4: "Ancient allegations that the Macedonians were non-Greek all had their origin in Athens at the time of the struggle with Philip II. Then as now, political struggle created the prejudice. The orator <a href="/wiki/Aeschines" title="Aeschines">Aeschines</a> once even found it necessary, to counteract the prejudice vigorously fomented by his opponents, to defend Philip on this issue and describe him at a meeting of the Athenian Popular Assembly as being 'entirely Greek'. <a href="/wiki/Demosthenes" title="Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a>' allegations were lent an appearance of credibility by the fact, apparent to every observer, that the life-style of the Macedonians, being determined by specific geographical and historical conditions, was different to that of a Greek city-state. This alien way of life was, however, common to western Greeks of Epirus, Akarnania and Aitolia, as well as to the Macedonians, and their fundamental Greek nationality was never doubted. Only as a consequence of the political disagreement with Macedonia was the issue raised at all." </li> <li id="cite_note-361"><a href="#cite_ref-361">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChampion2004">Champion 2004</a>, p. 41: "<a href="/wiki/Demosthenes" title="Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a> could drop the barbarian category altogether in advocating an Athenian alliance with the Great King against a power that ranked below any so-called barbarian people, the Macedonians. In the case of <a href="/wiki/Aeschines" title="Aeschines">Aeschines</a>, Philip II could be 'a barbarian due for the vengeance of God', but after the orator's embassy to Pella in 346, he became a 'thorough Greek', devoted to Athens. It all depended upon one's immediate political orientation with Macedonia, which many Greeks instinctively scorned, was always infused with deep-seated ambivalence." </li> <li id="cite_note-362"><a href="#cite_ref-362">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnson2010">Anson 2010</a>, pp. 14–17; this was manifested in the different <a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_the_Greek_gods" title="Family tree of the Greek gods">mythological genealogies</a> concocted for the Macedonian people, with <a href="/wiki/Hesiod" title="Hesiod">Hesiod</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Catalogue_of_Women" title="Catalogue of Women">Catalogue of Women</a> claiming that the Macedonians descended from <a href="/wiki/Makedon_(mythology)" title="Makedon (mythology)">Macedon</a>, son of <a href="/wiki/Zeus" title="Zeus">Zeus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thyia_(mythology)" title="Thyia (mythology)">Thyia</a>, and was therefore a nephew of <a href="/wiki/Hellen" title="Hellen">Hellen</a>, progenitor of the Greeks. See: <a href="#CITEREFAnson2010">Anson 2010</a>, p. 16; <a href="#CITEREFRhodes2010">Rhodes 2010</a>, p. 24. By the end of the 5th century BC, <a href="/wiki/Hellanicus_of_Lesbos" title="Hellanicus of Lesbos">Hellanicus of Lesbos</a> asserted Macedon was the son of <a href="/wiki/Aeolus" title="Aeolus">Aeolus</a>, the latter a son of Hellen and ancestor of the <a href="/wiki/Aeolians" title="Aeolians">Aeolians</a>, one of the major <a href="/wiki/Tribe" title="Tribe">tribes</a> of the Greeks. As well as belonging to tribal groups such as the Aeolians, <a href="/wiki/Dorians" title="Dorians">Dorians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Achaeans_(tribe)" title="Achaeans (tribe)">Achaeans</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ionians" title="Ionians">Ionians</a>, Anson also stresses the fact that some Greeks even distinguished their ethnic identities based on the <a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">polis</a> (i.e. city-state) they originally came from. See: <a href="#CITEREFAnson2010">Anson 2010</a>, p. 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-363"><a href="#cite_ref-363">^</a> For instance, <a href="/wiki/Demosthenes" title="Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a> when labeling Philip II of Macedon as a barbarian whereas <a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a> called Greeks and Macedonians as homophylos (i.e. part of the same race or <a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">kin</a>). See: <a href="#CITEREFWoodard2010">Woodard 2010</a>, pp. 9–10; Johannes Engels also discusses this ambiguity in ancient sources: <a href="#CITEREFEngels2010">Engels 2010</a>, pp. 83–89. </li> <li id="cite_note-399"><a href="#cite_ref-399">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWorthington2012">Worthington 2012</a>, p. 319. As <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">pharaoh</a> of the Egyptians, he was already titled <a href="/wiki/Ra" title="Ra">Son of Ra</a> and considered the living incarnation of <a href="/wiki/Horus" title="Horus">Horus</a> by his Egyptian subjects (a belief that the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic kingdom">Ptolemaic successors</a> of Alexander would foster for <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty" title="Ptolemaic dynasty">their own dynasty in Egypt</a>). See: <a href="#CITEREFWorthington2014">Worthington 2014</a>, p. 180 and <a href="#CITEREFSansone2017">Sansone 2017</a>, p. 228 for details. </li> <li id="cite_note-400"><a href="#cite_ref-400">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWorthington2012">Worthington 2012</a>, p. 319; <a href="#CITEREFWorthington2014">Worthington 2014</a>, pp. 180–183. After the priest and <a href="/wiki/Oracle_of_Ammon" class="mw-redirect" title="Oracle of Ammon">Oracle</a> of <a href="/wiki/Zeus_Ammon" class="mw-redirect" title="Zeus Ammon">Zeus Ammon</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Siwa_Oasis" title="Siwa Oasis">Siwa Oasis</a> convinced him that Philip II was merely his mortal father and Zeus his actual father, Alexander began styling himself as the 'Son of Zeus', which brought him into contention with some of his Greek subjects who adamantly believed that living men could not be immortals. See <a href="#CITEREFWorthington2012">Worthington 2012</a>, p. 319 and <a href="#CITEREFWorthington2014">Worthington 2014</a>, pp. 182–183 for details. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos1996">Hatzopoulos 1996</a>, pp. 105–106; <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, p. 156. </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEngels2010">Engels 2010</a>, p. 92; <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, p. 156. </li> <li id="cite_note-sprawski_135–138_olbrycht_342–345-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sprawski_135–138_olbrycht_342–345_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sprawski_135–138_olbrycht_342–345_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sprawski_135–138_olbrycht_342–345_3-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSprawski2010">Sprawski 2010</a>, pp. 135–138; <a href="#CITEREFOlbrycht2010">Olbrycht 2010</a>, pp. 342–345. </li> <li id="cite_note-Turchin-4"><a href="#cite_ref-Turchin_4-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFTurchinAdamsHall2006" class="citation journal cs1">Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D. 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<a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 9, 11–12. </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 145–147. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 146–147; <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, p. 171; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, p. 72; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 13–14 for further details. </li> <li id="cite_note-roisman_2010_146_147-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-roisman_2010_146_147_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-roisman_2010_146_147_33-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-roisman_2010_146_147_33-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 146–147. </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 146–147; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 18 for further details. </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 147–148; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 19–20. </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 149–150; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 20. </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 150–152; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 21–22. </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, p. 152; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 152–153; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 22–23. </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, p. 153; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 22–23. </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 153–154; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 23 for further details. </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, p. 154; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 23 for further details. </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, p. 154; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 23–24. </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 154–155; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 24. </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 155–156. </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, p. 156; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 26. </li> <li id="cite_note-Roisman_2010_156_157-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Roisman_2010_156_157_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roisman_2010_156_157_47-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 156–157. </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 156–157; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 26. </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 157–158; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 28–29. </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, p. 158; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 28–29. </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, p. 159; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 30 for further details. </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 159–160; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 32–33. </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, p. 161; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 34–35. </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 161–162; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 35–36. </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 162–163; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 36. </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 162–163. </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, pp. 163–164; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 37. </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 166–167; <a href="#CITEREFBuckley1996">Buckley 1996</a>, pp. 467–472. </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 167–168; <a href="#CITEREFBuckley1996">Buckley 1996</a>, pp. 467–472. </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 167–168; <a href="#CITEREFBuckley1996">Buckley 1996</a>, pp. 467–472; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 38. </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, p. 167. </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, p. 168. </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 168–169. </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, p. 169. </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, p. 170; <a href="#CITEREFBuckler1989">Buckler 1989</a>, p. 62. </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 170–171; <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley & Worthington 2010</a>, p. 187. </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 167, 169; <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, p. 161. </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 169, 173–174; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, p. 84; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 38–39. </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, p. 171; <a href="#CITEREFBuckley1996">Buckley 1996</a>, pp. 470–472; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, pp. 74–75. </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, p. 172; <a href="#CITEREFHornblower2002">Hornblower 2002</a>, p. 272; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, p. 42; <a href="#CITEREFBuckley1996">Buckley 1996</a>, pp. 470–472. </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 171–172; <a href="#CITEREFBuckler1989">Buckler 1989</a>, pp. 8, 20–22, 26–29. </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, p. 173; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, pp. 62, 66–68; <a href="#CITEREFBuckler1989">Buckler 1989</a>, pp. 74–75, 78–80; <a href="#CITEREFWorthington2008">Worthington 2008</a>, pp. 61–63. </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoweBrice2015" class="citation book cs1">Howe, Timothy; Brice, Lee L. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=248DCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA170">Brill's Companion to Insurgency and Terrorism in the Ancient Mediterranean</a>. BRILL. p. 170. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-28473-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-28473-9"><bdi>978-90-04-28473-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brill%27s+Companion+to+Insurgency+and+Terrorism+in+the+Ancient+Mediterranean&rft.pages=170&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-90-04-28473-9&rft.aulast=Howe&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft.au=Brice%2C+Lee+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D248DCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA170&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-EDC-78">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EDC_78-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EDC_78-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarney2000" class="citation book cs1">Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZbI2hZBy_EkC&pg=PA101">Women and Monarchy in Macedonia</a>. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 101. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3212-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3212-9"><bdi>978-0-8061-3212-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+and+Monarchy+in+Macedonia&rft.pages=101&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-3212-9&rft.aulast=Carney&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+Donnelly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZbI2hZBy_EkC%26pg%3DPA101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, p. 173; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, p. 44; <a href="#CITEREFSchwahn1931">Schwahn 1931</a>, col. 1193–1194. </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, p. 86. </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 173–174; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, pp. 85–86; <a href="#CITEREFBuckley1996">Buckley 1996</a>, pp. 474–475. </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 173–174; <a href="#CITEREFWorthington2008">Worthington 2008</a>, pp. 75–78; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, pp. 96–98. </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, p. 174; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, pp. 98–101. </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 174–175; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, pp. 95, 104, 107–108; <a href="#CITEREFHornblower2002">Hornblower 2002</a>, pp. 275–277; <a href="#CITEREFBuckley1996">Buckley 1996</a>, pp. 478–479. </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, p. 175. </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 227. </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 175–176; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, pp. 114–117; <a href="#CITEREFHornblower2002">Hornblower 2002</a>, p. 277; <a href="#CITEREFBuckley1996">Buckley 1996</a>, p. 482; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMollovGeorgiev2015">Mollov & Georgiev 2015</a>, p. 76. </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, p. 176; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, pp. 136–142; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 82–83. </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 176–177; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, pp. 143–148. </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, p. 177; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, pp. 167–168. </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 177–179; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, pp. 167–171; see also <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond & Walbank 2001</a>, p. 16 for further details. </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis_Hanson2010" class="citation book cs1">Davis Hanson, Victor (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/makersancientstr00hans">Makers of Ancient Strategy: From the Persian Wars to the Fall of Rome</a>. Princeton University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/makersancientstr00hans/page/n131">119</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13790-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13790-2"><bdi>978-0-691-13790-2</bdi></a>. <q>Afterwards he [Alexander] revived his father's League of Corinth, and with it his plan for a pan-Hellenic invasion of Asia to punish the Persians for the suffering of the Greeks, especially the Athenians, in the Greco-Persian Wars and to liberate the Greek cities of Asia Minor.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Makers+of+Ancient+Strategy%3A+From+the+Persian+Wars+to+the+Fall+of+Rome&rft.pages=119&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-691-13790-2&rft.aulast=Davis+Hanson&rft.aufirst=Victor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmakersancientstr00hans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOlbrycht2010">Olbrycht 2010</a>, pp. 348, 351 </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOlbrycht2010">Olbrycht 2010</a>, pp. 347–349 </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOlbrycht2010">Olbrycht 2010</a>, p. 351 </li> <li id="cite_note-muller_179–180_cawkwell_170-97">^ <a href="#cite_ref-muller_179–180_cawkwell_170_97-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-muller_179–180_cawkwell_170_97-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 179–180; <a href="#CITEREFCawkwell1978">Cawkwell 1978</a>, p. 170. </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 180–181; see also <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond & Walbank 2001</a>, p. 14 for further details. </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, pp. 181–182; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 44; <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley & Worthington 2010</a>, p. 186; see <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond & Walbank 2001</a>, pp. 3–5 for details of the arrests and judicial trials of other suspects in the conspiracy to assassinate <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley & Worthington 2010</a>, p. 190; <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, p. 183; <a href="#CITEREFRenault2001">Renault 2001</a>, pp. 61–62; <a href="#CITEREFFox1980">Fox 1980</a>, p. 72; see also <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond & Walbank 2001</a>, pp. 3–5 for further details. </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley & Worthington 2010</a>, p. 186. </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley & Worthington 2010</a>, p. 190. </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley & Worthington 2010</a>, pp. 190–191; see also <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond & Walbank 2001</a>, pp. 15–16 for further details. </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley & Worthington 2010</a>, p. 191; <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond & Walbank 2001</a>, pp. 34–38. </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley & Worthington 2010</a>, p. 191; <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond & Walbank 2001</a>, pp. 40–47. </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley & Worthington 2010</a>, p. 191; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 91 and <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond & Walbank 2001</a>, p. 47 for further details. </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley & Worthington 2010</a>, pp. 191–192; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 91–92 for further details. </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley & Worthington 2010</a>, pp. 192–193. </li> <li id="cite_note-gilley_worthington_2010_193-110">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gilley_worthington_2010_193_110-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-gilley_worthington_2010_193_110-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-gilley_worthington_2010_193_110-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley & Worthington 2010</a>, p. 193. </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley & Worthington 2010</a>, pp. 193–194; <a href="#CITEREFHolt2012">Holt 2012</a>, pp. 27–41. </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley & Worthington 2010</a>, pp. 193–194. </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley & Worthington 2010</a>, p. 194; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 113. </li> <li id="cite_note-gilley_worthington_2010_195-114">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gilley_worthington_2010_195_114-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-gilley_worthington_2010_195_114-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley & Worthington 2010</a>, p. 195. </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley & Worthington 2010</a>, pp. 194–195. </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 105–106. </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley & Worthington 2010</a>, p. 198. </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHolt1989">Holt 1989</a>, pp. 67–68. </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley & Worthington 2010</a>, p. 196. </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley & Worthington 2010</a>, p. 199; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 93. </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley & Worthington 2010</a>, pp. 200–201; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 58. </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley & Worthington 2010</a>, p. 201. </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley & Worthington 2010</a>, pp. 201–203. </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley & Worthington 2010</a>, p. 204; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 44 for further details. </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley & Worthington 2010</a>, p. 204; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 115–117 for further details. </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley & Worthington 2010</a>, p. 204; <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 209; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 69–70, 119. </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley & Worthington 2010</a>, pp. 204–205; <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, pp. 209–210; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 69, 119. </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGilleyWorthington2010">Gilley & Worthington 2010</a>, p. 205; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 118 for further details. </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, pp. 208–209; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 117. </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, pp. 210–211; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 119–120. </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 211; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 120–121. </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, pp. 211–212; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 121–122. </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, pp. 207 n. #1, 212; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 122–123. </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, pp. 212–213; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 124–126. </li> <li id="cite_note-adams_213_errington_126–127-136">^ <a href="#cite_ref-adams_213_errington_126–127_136-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-adams_213_errington_126–127_136-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 213; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 126–127. </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, pp. 213–214; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 127–128. </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 214; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 128–129. </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, pp. 214–215. </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, pp. 215–216. </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 216. </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, pp. 216–217; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 129. </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 217; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 145. </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 217; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 145–147; <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 61. </li> <li id="cite_note-adams_2010_218-145">^ <a href="#cite_ref-adams_2010_218_145-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-adams_2010_218_145-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-adams_2010_218_145-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-adams_2010_218_145-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 218. </li> <li id="cite_note-bringmann_2007_61-146">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bringmann_2007_61_146-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bringmann_2007_61_146-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 61. </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 218; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 153. </li> <li id="cite_note-adams_218–219_bringmann_61-148">^ <a href="#cite_ref-adams_218–219_bringmann_61_148-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-adams_218–219_bringmann_61_148-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, pp. 218–219; <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 61. </li> <li id="cite_note-adams_219_bringmann_61-150"><a href="#cite_ref-adams_219_bringmann_61_150-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 219; <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 61; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 156–157. </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 219; <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, pp. 61–63; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 159–160. </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 160. </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 160–161. </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 219; <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 63; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 162–163. </li> <li id="cite_note-adams_219–220_bringmann_2007_63-155">^ <a href="#cite_ref-adams_219–220_bringmann_2007_63_155-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-adams_219–220_bringmann_2007_63_155-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, pp. 219–220; <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 63. </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, pp. 219–220; <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 63; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 164. </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 220; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 164–165. </li> <li id="cite_note-adams_2010_220-158"><a href="#cite_ref-adams_2010_220_158-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 220. </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 220; <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 63; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 167. </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 220; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 165–166. </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 221; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 167–168 about the resurgence of <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a> under <a href="/wiki/Areus_I" title="Areus I">Areus I</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 221; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 168. </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 221; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 168–169. </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 221; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 169–171. </li> <li id="cite_note-adams_2010_221-165"><a href="#cite_ref-adams_2010_221_165-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 221. </li> <li id="cite_note-adams_2010_222-166">^ <a href="#cite_ref-adams_2010_222_166-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-adams_2010_222_166-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 222. </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, pp. 221–222; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 172. </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 222; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 172–173. </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 222; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 173. </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 222; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 174. </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 223; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 173–174. </li> <li id="cite_note-adams_223_errington_174-172">^ <a href="#cite_ref-adams_223_errington_174_172-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-adams_223_errington_174_172-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 223; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 174. </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 223; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 174–175. </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 223; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 175–176. </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, pp. 223–224; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2013">Eckstein 2013</a>, p. 314; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 179–180 for further details. </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, pp. 223–224; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2013">Eckstein 2013</a>, p. 314; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 180–181. </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 224; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2013">Eckstein 2013</a>, p. 314; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 181–183. </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 224; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 182 about the Macedonian military's occupation of Sparta following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sellasia" title="Battle of Sellasia">Battle of Sellasia</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdams2010">Adams 2010</a>, p. 224; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 183–184. </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 229; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 184–185. </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 229; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 185–186, 189. </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 230; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 189–190. </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, pp. 230–231; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 190–191. </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 79; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 231; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 192; also mentioned by <a href="#CITEREFGruen1986">Gruen 1986</a>, p. 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 80; see also <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 231 and <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 191–193 for further details. </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 191–193, 210. </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 82; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 193. </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 82; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, pp. 232–233; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 193–194; <a href="#CITEREFGruen1986">Gruen 1986</a>, pp. 17–18, 20. </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 83; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, pp. 233–234; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 195–196; <a href="#CITEREFGruen1986">Gruen 1986</a>, p. 21; see also <a href="#CITEREFGruen1986">Gruen 1986</a>, pp. 18–19 for details on the <a href="/wiki/Aetolian_League" title="Aetolian League">Aetolian League</a>'s treaty with <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon" title="Philip V of Macedon">Philip V of Macedon</a> and Rome's rejection of the second attempt by the Aetolians to seek Roman aid, viewing the Aetolians as having violated the earlier treaty. </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 85; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 196–197 for further details. </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, pp. 234–235; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 196–198; see also <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 86 for further details. </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, pp. 85–86; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, pp. 235–236; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 199–201; <a href="#CITEREFGruen1986">Gruen 1986</a>, p. 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 86; see also <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 235 for further details. </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 86; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 197–198. </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 87. </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, pp. 87–88; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 199–200; see also <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, pp. 235–236 for further details. </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 236. </li> <li id="cite_note-bringmann_2007_88-200">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bringmann_2007_88_200-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bringmann_2007_88_200-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 88. </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 88; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 236; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 203. </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 88; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, pp. 236–237; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 204. </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, pp. 88–89; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 237. </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, pp. 89–90; see also <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 237 and <a href="#CITEREFGruen1986">Gruen 1986</a>, pp. 20–21, 24 for further details. </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, pp. 90–91; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, pp. 237–238. </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 91; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 238. </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, pp. 91–92; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 238; see also <a href="#CITEREFGruen1986">Gruen 1986</a>, pp. 30, 33 for further details. </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 92; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 238. </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 97; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 207–208 for further details. </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 97; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, pp. 240–241; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 211–213 for a discussion about Perseus's actions during the early part of his reign. </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, pp. 97–98; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 240. </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 98; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 240; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 212–213. </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, pp. 98–99; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, pp. 241–242. </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 99; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, pp. 243–244; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 215–216; <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos1996">Hatzopoulos 1996</a>, p. 43. </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 99; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 245; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 204–205, 216; see also <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos1996">Hatzopoulos 1996</a>, p. 43 for further details. </li> <li id="cite_note-bringmann_99–100_eckstein_245-218">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bringmann_99–100_eckstein_245_218-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bringmann_99–100_eckstein_245_218-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, pp. 99–100; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 245; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 216–217; see also <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos1996">Hatzopoulos 1996</a>, pp. 43–46 for further details. </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, p. 104; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, pp. 246–247. </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, pp. 104–105; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, p. 247; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 216–217. </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBringmann2007">Bringmann 2007</a>, pp. 104–105; <a href="#CITEREFEckstein2010">Eckstein 2010</a>, pp. 247–248; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 203–205, 216–217. </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 374; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 220–221 for further details. </li> <li id="cite_note-king_2010_373-226"><a href="#cite_ref-king_2010_373_226-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 373. </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, pp. 375–376. </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, pp. 376–377. </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 377. </li> <li id="cite_note-king_2010_378-230">^ <a href="#cite_ref-king_2010_378_230-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-king_2010_378_230-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 378. </li> <li id="cite_note-king_2010_379-231"><a href="#cite_ref-king_2010_379_231-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 379. </li> <li id="cite_note-errington_1990_222-232">^ <a href="#cite_ref-errington_1990_222_232-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-errington_1990_222_232-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-errington_1990_222_232-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 222. </li> <li id="cite_note-king_2010_380-234">^ <a href="#cite_ref-king_2010_380_234-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-king_2010_380_234-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 380. </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 380; for further context, see <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 220. </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOlbrycht2010">Olbrycht 2010</a>, pp. 345–346. </li> <li id="cite_note-king_2010_381-238">^ <a href="#cite_ref-king_2010_381_238-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-king_2010_381_238-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-king_2010_381_238-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-king_2010_381_238-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 381. </li> <li id="cite_note-Sawada_2010_403-239"><a href="#cite_ref-Sawada_2010_403_239-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSawada2010">Sawada 2010</a>, p. 403. </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSawada2010">Sawada 2010</a>, pp. 404–405. </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSawada2010">Sawada 2010</a>, p. 406. </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 382; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 220. </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSawada2010">Sawada 2010</a>, pp. 382–383. </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond & Walbank 2001</a>, pp. 5, 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, pp. 384–389; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 220. </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, pp. 383–384; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 220. </li> <li id="cite_note-king_2010_390-250"><a href="#cite_ref-king_2010_390_250-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKing2010">King 2010</a>, p. 390. </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAmemiya2007">Amemiya 2007</a>, pp. 11–12. </li> <li id="cite_note-errington_1990_231-254">^ <a href="#cite_ref-errington_1990_231_254-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-errington_1990_231_254-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 231. </li> <li id="cite_note-255"><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 229–230. </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 230. </li> <li id="cite_note-257"><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 231–232. </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos1996">Hatzopoulos 1996</a>, pp. 365–366. </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos1996">Hatzopoulos 1996</a>, pp. 366–367. </li> <li id="cite_note-261"><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos1996">Hatzopoulos 1996</a>, pp. 367–369. </li> <li id="cite_note-262"><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos1996">Hatzopoulos 1996</a>, pp. 368–369. </li> <li id="cite_note-errington_1990_242-263"><a href="#cite_ref-errington_1990_242_263-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 242. </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 447; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 243–244. </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 447–448. </li> <li id="cite_note-266"><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 448–449; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 238–239 for further details. </li> <li id="cite_note-267"><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 238–239, 243–244. </li> <li id="cite_note-sekunda_2010_449-268"><a href="#cite_ref-sekunda_2010_449_268-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 449. </li> <li id="cite_note-sekunda_2010_448_449-269"><a href="#cite_ref-sekunda_2010_448_449_269-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 448–449. </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 239–240. </li> <li id="cite_note-errington_1990_238-271"><a href="#cite_ref-errington_1990_238_271-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 238, 247. </li> <li id="cite_note-sekunda_2010_451-272">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sekunda_2010_451_272-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sekunda_2010_451_272-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 451. </li> <li id="cite_note-274"><a href="#cite_ref-274">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 450; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 244. </li> <li id="cite_note-sekunda_2010_452-275">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sekunda_2010_452_275-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sekunda_2010_452_275-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 452. </li> <li id="cite_note-276"><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 451; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 241–242. </li> <li id="cite_note-277"><a href="#cite_ref-277">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 449–451. </li> <li id="cite_note-278"><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 451; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 247–248; <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond & Walbank 2001</a>, pp. 24–26. </li> <li id="cite_note-sekunda_2010_453-279"><a href="#cite_ref-sekunda_2010_453_279-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 453. </li> <li id="cite_note-sekunda_2010_454-280">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sekunda_2010_454_280-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sekunda_2010_454_280-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 454. </li> <li id="cite_note-281"><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 455; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 245. </li> <li id="cite_note-sekunda_2010_458_459-284">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sekunda_2010_458_459_284-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sekunda_2010_458_459_284-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 458–459. </li> <li id="cite_note-sekunda_2010_461-286"><a href="#cite_ref-sekunda_2010_461_286-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 461. </li> <li id="cite_note-sekunda_2010_460-287">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sekunda_2010_460_287-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sekunda_2010_460_287-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 460. </li> <li id="cite_note-288"><a href="#cite_ref-288">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 469 </li> <li id="cite_note-sekunda_2010_462-291"><a href="#cite_ref-sekunda_2010_462_291-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, p. 462. </li> <li id="cite_note-293"><a href="#cite_ref-293">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSekunda2010">Sekunda 2010</a>, pp. 463–464. </li> <li id="cite_note-294"><a href="#cite_ref-294">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 247–248. </li> <li id="cite_note-errington_1990_248-295">^ <a href="#cite_ref-errington_1990_248_295-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-errington_1990_248_295-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-errington_1990_248_295-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-errington_1990_248_295-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 248. </li> <li id="cite_note-299"><a href="#cite_ref-299">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnson2010">Anson 2010</a>, p. 17, n. 57, n. 58; <a href="#CITEREFWoodard2010">Woodard 2010</a>, pp. 9–10; <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos2011a">Hatzopoulos 2011a</a>, pp. 43–45; <a href="#CITEREFEngels2010">Engels 2010</a>, pp. 94–95. </li> <li id="cite_note-engels_2010_95-300"><a href="#cite_ref-engels_2010_95_300-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEngels2010">Engels 2010</a>, p. 95. </li> <li id="cite_note-engels_2010_94-301"><a href="#cite_ref-engels_2010_94_301-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEngels2010">Engels 2010</a>, p. 94. </li> <li id="cite_note-Sansone_2017_223-303"><a href="#cite_ref-Sansone_2017_223_303-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSansone2017">Sansone 2017</a>, p. 223. </li> <li id="cite_note-304"><a href="#cite_ref-304">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnson2010">Anson 2010</a>, pp. 17–18; see also <a href="#CITEREFChristesenMurray2010">Christesen & Murray 2010</a>, pp. 428–445 for ways in which Macedonian religious beliefs diverged from mainstream Greek polytheism, although the latter was hardly "monolithic" throughout the Classical Greek and Hellenistic world and Macedonians were "linguistically and culturally Greek" according to Christesen and Murray. <a href="#CITEREFChristesenMurray2010">Christesen & Murray 2010</a>, pp. 428–429. </li> <li id="cite_note-305"><a href="#cite_ref-305">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 225–226. </li> <li id="cite_note-306"><a href="#cite_ref-306">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 226; <a href="#CITEREFChristesenMurray2010">Christesen & Murray 2010</a>, pp. 430–431 </li> <li id="cite_note-errington_1990_226-307">^ <a href="#cite_ref-errington_1990_226_307-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-errington_1990_226_307-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 226. </li> <li id="cite_note-308"><a href="#cite_ref-308">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBorza1992">Borza 1992</a>, pp. 257–260; <a href="#CITEREFChristesenMurray2010">Christesen & Murray 2010</a>, pp. 432–433; see also <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond & Walbank 2001</a>, pp. 5–7 for further details. </li> <li id="cite_note-309"><a href="#cite_ref-309">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBorza1992">Borza 1992</a>, pp. 259–260; see also <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond & Walbank 2001</a>, pp. 5–6 for further details. </li> <li id="cite_note-310"><a href="#cite_ref-310">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBorza1992">Borza 1992</a>, pp. 257, 260–261. </li> <li id="cite_note-312"><a href="#cite_ref-312">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBorza1992">Borza 1992</a>, p. 257. </li> <li id="cite_note-313"><a href="#cite_ref-313">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSansone2017">Sansone 2017</a>, pp. 224–225. </li> <li id="cite_note-314"><a href="#cite_ref-314">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos2011a">Hatzopoulos 2011a</a>, pp. 47–48; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-316"><a href="#cite_ref-316">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos2011a">Hatzopoulos 2011a</a>, p. 48; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 7–8, 222–223. </li> <li id="cite_note-hatzopoulos_2011a_48-317"><a href="#cite_ref-hatzopoulos_2011a_48_317-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos2011a">Hatzopoulos 2011a</a>, p. 48. </li> <li id="cite_note-318"><a href="#cite_ref-318">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnson2010">Anson 2010</a>, pp. 9–10. </li> <li id="cite_note-anson_2010_10-319">^ <a href="#cite_ref-anson_2010_10_319-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-anson_2010_10_319-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-anson_2010_10_319-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnson2010">Anson 2010</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-320"><a href="#cite_ref-320">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnson2010">Anson 2010</a>, pp. 10–11. </li> <li id="cite_note-321"><a href="#cite_ref-321">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHammondWalbank2001">Hammond & Walbank 2001</a>, pp. 12–13. </li> <li id="cite_note-hardiman_2010_515-322"><a href="#cite_ref-hardiman_2010_515_322-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHardiman2010">Hardiman 2010</a>, p. 515. </li> <li id="cite_note-323"><a href="#cite_ref-323">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHardiman2010">Hardiman 2010</a>, pp. 515–517. </li> <li id="cite_note-hardiman_2010_517-324">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hardiman_2010_517_324-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hardiman_2010_517_324-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHardiman2010">Hardiman 2010</a>, p. 517. </li> <li id="cite_note-325"><a href="#cite_ref-325">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPalagia2000">Palagia 2000</a>, pp. 182, 185–186. </li> <li id="cite_note-326"><a href="#cite_ref-326">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHead2016">Head 2016</a>, pp. 12–13; <a href="#CITEREFPiening2013">Piening 2013</a>, p. 1182. </li> <li id="cite_note-327"><a href="#cite_ref-327">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHead2016">Head 2016</a>, p. 13; <a href="#CITEREFAldreteBartellAldrete2013">Aldrete, Bartell & Aldrete 2013</a>, p. 49. </li> <li id="cite_note-hardiman_2010_518-328">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hardiman_2010_518_328-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hardiman_2010_518_328-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hardiman_2010_518_328-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hardiman_2010_518_328-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFHardiman2010">Hardiman 2010</a>, p. 518. </li> <li id="cite_note-muller_2010_182-330"><a href="#cite_ref-muller_2010_182_330-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMüller2010">Müller 2010</a>, p. 182. </li> <li id="cite_note-errington_1990_224-331">^ <a href="#cite_ref-errington_1990_224_331-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-errington_1990_224_331-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-errington_1990_224_331-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 224. </li> <li id="cite_note-worthington_2014_186-332">^ <a href="#cite_ref-worthington_2014_186_332-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-worthington_2014_186_332-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-worthington_2014_186_332-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFWorthington2014">Worthington 2014</a>, p. 186. </li> <li id="cite_note-333"><a href="#cite_ref-333">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWorthington2014">Worthington 2014</a>, p. 185. </li> <li id="cite_note-worthington_2014_183_186-335">^ <a href="#cite_ref-worthington_2014_183_186_335-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-worthington_2014_183_186_335-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWorthington2014">Worthington 2014</a>, pp. 183, 186. </li> <li id="cite_note-336"><a href="#cite_ref-336">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos2011b">Hatzopoulos 2011b</a>, p. 58; <a href="#CITEREFRoisman2010">Roisman 2010</a>, p. 154; <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, pp. 223–224. </li> <li id="cite_note-337"><a href="#cite_ref-337">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos2011b">Hatzopoulos 2011b</a>, pp. 58–59; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 224 for further details. </li> <li id="cite_note-339"><a href="#cite_ref-339">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChroust2016">Chroust 2016</a>, p. 137. </li> <li id="cite_note-Rhodes_2010_23-340"><a href="#cite_ref-Rhodes_2010_23_340-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRhodes2010">Rhodes 2010</a>, p. 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-341"><a href="#cite_ref-341">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRhodes2010">Rhodes 2010</a>, pp. 23–25; see also <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 224 for further details. </li> <li id="cite_note-Errington_1990_225-343">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Errington_1990_225_343-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Errington_1990_225_343-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 225. </li> <li id="cite_note-344"><a href="#cite_ref-344">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBadian1982">Badian 1982</a>, p. 34, <a href="#CITEREFAnson2010">Anson 2010</a>, p. 16; <a href="#CITEREFSansone2017">Sansone 2017</a>, pp. 222–223. </li> <li id="cite_note-hatzopoulos_2011b_59-345"><a href="#cite_ref-hatzopoulos_2011b_59_345-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos2011b">Hatzopoulos 2011b</a>, p. 59. </li> <li id="cite_note-346"><a href="#cite_ref-346">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNawotka2010">Nawotka 2010</a>, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-347"><a href="#cite_ref-347">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnson2010">Anson 2010</a>, p. 19 </li> <li id="cite_note-348"><a href="#cite_ref-348">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCohen2010">Cohen 2010</a>, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-dalby_1997_157-349">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dalby_1997_157_349-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-dalby_1997_157_349-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-dalby_1997_157_349-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFDalby1997">Dalby 1997</a>, p. 157. </li> <li id="cite_note-350"><a href="#cite_ref-350">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDalby1997">Dalby 1997</a>, pp. 155–156. </li> <li id="cite_note-351"><a href="#cite_ref-351">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDalby1997">Dalby 1997</a>, p. 156. </li> <li id="cite_note-352"><a href="#cite_ref-352">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDalby1997">Dalby 1997</a>, pp. 156–157. </li> <li id="cite_note-353"><a href="#cite_ref-353">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnson2010">Anson 2010</a>, p. 10; <a href="#CITEREFCohen2010">Cohen 2010</a>, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-354"><a href="#cite_ref-354">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEngels2010">Engels 2010</a>, p. 87; <a href="#CITEREFOlbrycht2010">Olbrycht 2010</a>, pp. 343–344. </li> <li id="cite_note-Engels-2010-84-355"><a href="#cite_ref-Engels-2010-84_355-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEngels2010">Engels 2010</a>, p. 84. </li> <li id="cite_note-356"><a href="#cite_ref-356">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBadian1982">Badian 1982</a>, p. 51, n. 72; Johannes Engels comes to a similar conclusion. See: <a href="#CITEREFEngels2010">Engels 2010</a>, p. 82. </li> <li id="cite_note-358"><a href="#cite_ref-358">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHammond1997" class="citation book cs1">Hammond, N.G.L. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/geniusofalexande00nglh/page/11">The Genius of Alexander the Great</a>. The University of North Carolina Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/geniusofalexande00nglh/page/11">11</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-2350-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-2350-7"><bdi>978-0-8078-2350-7</bdi></a>. <q>The other part of the Greek-speaking world extended from Pelagonia in the north to Macedonia in the south. It was occupied by several tribal states, which were constantly at war against Illyrians, Paeonians and Thracians. Each state had its own monarchy. Special prestige attached to the Lyncestae whose royal family, the Bacchiadae claimed descent from Heracles, and to the Macedonians, whose royal family had a similar ancestry. [...] In the opinion of the city-states these tribal states were backward and unworthy of the Greek name, although they spoke dialects of the Greek language. According to Aristotle, monarchy was the mark of people too stupid to govern themselves.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Genius+of+Alexander+the+Great&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=The+University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-2350-7&rft.aulast=Hammond&rft.aufirst=N.G.L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgeniusofalexande00nglh%2Fpage%2F11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-359"><a href="#cite_ref-359">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSakellariou1983">Sakellariou 1983</a>, p. 52. </li> <li id="cite_note-364"><a href="#cite_ref-364">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimon_Hornblower2016" class="citation book cs1">Simon Hornblower (2016). "2: Greek Identity in the Archaic and Classical Periods". In Zacharia, Katerina (ed.). Hellenisms: Culture, Identity, and Ethnicity from Antiquity to Modernity. Routledge. p. 58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-6525-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-6525-0"><bdi>978-0-7546-6525-0</bdi></a>. <q>The question "Were the Macedonians Greeks?" perhaps needs to be chopped up further. The Macedonian kings emerge as Greeks by criterion one, namely shared blood, and personal names indicate that Macedonians generally moved north from Greece. The kings, the elite, and the generality of the Macedonians were Greeks by criteria two and three, that is, religion and language. Macedonian customs (criterion four) were in certain respects unlike those of a normal apart, perhaps, from the institutions which I have characterized as feudal. The crude one-word answer to the question has to be "yes."</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=2%3A+Greek+Identity+in+the+Archaic+and+Classical+Periods&rft.btitle=Hellenisms%3A+Culture%2C+Identity%2C+and+Ethnicity+from+Antiquity+to+Modernity&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-6525-0&rft.au=Simon+Hornblower&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-365"><a href="#cite_ref-365">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHatzopoulos2011b">Hatzopoulos 2011b</a>, p. 74. </li> <li id="cite_note-366"><a href="#cite_ref-366">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBolman2016">Bolman 2016</a>, pp. 120–121. </li> <li id="cite_note-Winter_2006_163-367">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Winter_2006_163_367-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Winter_2006_163_367-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Winter_2006_163_367-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFWinter2006">Winter 2006</a>, p. 163. </li> <li id="cite_note-Winter_2006_164_165-368"><a href="#cite_ref-Winter_2006_164_165_368-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWinter2006">Winter 2006</a>, pp. 164–165. </li> <li id="cite_note-Winter_2006_165-369"><a href="#cite_ref-Winter_2006_165_369-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWinter2006">Winter 2006</a>, p. 165. </li> <li id="cite_note-370"><a href="#cite_ref-370">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFErrington1990">Errington 1990</a>, p. 227; 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Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 145–165. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-7936-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Classical+Macedonia+to+Perdiccas+III&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Ancient+Macedonia&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E145-%3C%2Fspan%3E165&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2&rft.aulast=Roisman&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2FAncientMacedonia%2FAncient%2520Macedonia%23page%2Fn401%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSakellariou1983" class="citation book cs1">Sakellariou, Michael B. (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/macedonia4000yea00sake">"Inhabitants"</a>. In Michael B. Sakellariou (ed.). Macedonia: 4000 Years of Greek History and Civilization. Athens: Ekdotike Athenon S.A. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/macedonia4000yea00sake/page/44">44–63</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Inhabitants&rft.btitle=Macedonia%3A+4000+Years+of+Greek+History+and+Civilization&rft.place=Athens&rft.pages=44-63&rft.pub=Ekdotike+Athenon+S.A.&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Sakellariou&rft.aufirst=Michael+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmacedonia4000yea00sake&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSansone2017" class="citation book cs1">Sansone, David (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cVUWDQAAQBAJ">Ancient Greek Civilization</a> (3rd ed.). Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Wiley-Blackwell" title="Wiley-Blackwell">Wiley-Blackwell</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-119-09815-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-119-09815-7"><bdi>978-1-119-09815-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Greek+Civilization&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-119-09815-7&rft.aulast=Sansone&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcVUWDQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSawada2010" class="citation book cs1">Sawada, Noriko (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up">"Social Customs and Institutions: Aspects of Macedonian Elite Society"</a>. In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 392–408. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-7936-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Social+Customs+and+Institutions%3A+Aspects+of+Macedonian+Elite+Society&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Ancient+Macedonia&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E392-%3C%2Fspan%3E408&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2&rft.aulast=Sawada&rft.aufirst=Noriko&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2FAncientMacedonia%2FAncient%2520Macedonia%23page%2Fn401%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSekunda2010" class="citation book cs1">Sekunda, Nicholas Viktor (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up">"The Macedonian Army"</a>. In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 446–471. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-7936-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Macedonian+Army&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Ancient+Macedonia&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E446-%3C%2Fspan%3E471&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2&rft.aulast=Sekunda&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+Viktor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2FAncientMacedonia%2FAncient%2520Macedonia%23page%2Fn401%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwahn1931" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Schwahn, Walther (1931). "Sympoliteia". <a href="/wiki/Realencyclop%C3%A4die_der_Classischen_Altertumswissenschaft" class="mw-redirect" title="Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft">Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft</a> (in German). Vol. Band IV, Halbband 7, Stoa–Symposion. col. 1171–1266.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sympoliteia&rft.btitle=Realencyclop%C3%A4die+der+Classischen+Altertumswissenschaft&rft.pages=col.+1171-1266&rft.date=1931&rft.aulast=Schwahn&rft.aufirst=Walther&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSprawski2010" class="citation book cs1">Sprawski, Slawomir (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up">"The Early Temenid Kings to Alexander I"</a>. In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 127–144. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-7936-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Early+Temenid+Kings+to+Alexander+I&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Ancient+Macedonia&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E127-%3C%2Fspan%3E144&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2&rft.aulast=Sprawski&rft.aufirst=Slawomir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2FAncientMacedonia%2FAncient%2520Macedonia%23page%2Fn401%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStern2008" class="citation book cs1">Stern, E. Marianne (2008). "Glass Production". In Oleson, John Peter (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tjrRCwAAQBAJ">The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World</a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 520–550. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518731-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518731-1"><bdi>978-0-19-518731-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Glass+Production&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Engineering+and+Technology+in+the+Classical+World&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E520-%3C%2Fspan%3E550&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-518731-1&rft.aulast=Stern&rft.aufirst=E.+Marianne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtjrRCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas2010" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Carol G. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up">"The Physical Kingdom"</a>. In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 65–80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-7936-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Physical+Kingdom&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Ancient+Macedonia&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E65-%3C%2Fspan%3E80&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Carol+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2FAncientMacedonia%2FAncient%2520Macedonia%23page%2Fn401%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTreister1996" class="citation book cs1">Treister, Michail Yu (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dcTexDa4I0kC">The Role of Metals in Ancient Greek History</a>. Leiden: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10473-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10473-0"><bdi>978-90-04-10473-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Role+of+Metals+in+Ancient+Greek+History&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-90-04-10473-0&rft.aulast=Treister&rft.aufirst=Michail+Yu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdcTexDa4I0kC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorthington2008" class="citation book cs1">Worthington, Ian (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CZsTAQAAIAAJ">Philip II of Macedonia</a>. New Haven, CT: <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-12079-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-12079-0"><bdi>978-0-300-12079-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philip+II+of+Macedonia&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-300-12079-0&rft.aulast=Worthington&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCZsTAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorthington2012" class="citation book cs1">Worthington, Ian (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yxqpAgAAQBAJ">Alexander the Great: a Reader</a> (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-66742-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-66742-5"><bdi>978-0-415-66742-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great%3A+a+Reader&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-415-66742-5&rft.aulast=Worthington&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyxqpAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorthington2014" class="citation book cs1">Worthington, Ian (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vnGVAwAAQBAJ">By the Spear: Philip II, Alexander the Great, and the Rise and Fall of the Macedonian Empire</a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-992986-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-992986-3"><bdi>978-0-19-992986-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=By+the+Spear%3A+Philip+II%2C+Alexander+the+Great%2C+and+the+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+Macedonian+Empire&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-992986-3&rft.aulast=Worthington&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvnGVAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodard2004" class="citation book cs1">Woodard, Roger D. (2004). "Introduction". In Woodard, Roger D. (ed.). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages. Oxford: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56256-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56256-0"><bdi>978-0-521-56256-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Encyclopedia+of+the+World%27s+Ancient+Languages&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E18&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-56256-0&rft.aulast=Woodard&rft.aufirst=Roger+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodard2010" class="citation book cs1">Woodard, Roger D. (2010) [2008]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientlanguages00roge/page/1">"Language in Ancient Europe: an Introduction"</a>. In Woodard, Roger D. (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientlanguages00roge/page/1">1–13</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-68495-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-68495-8"><bdi>978-0-521-68495-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Language+in+Ancient+Europe%3A+an+Introduction&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Languages+of+Europe&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=1-13&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-521-68495-8&rft.aulast=Woodard&rft.aufirst=Roger+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientlanguages00roge%2Fpage%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinter2006" class="citation book cs1">Winter, Frederick E. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=03UNLhtEP1oC">Studies in Hellenistic Architecture</a>. Toronto: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Toronto_Press" title="University of Toronto Press">University of Toronto Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-3914-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-3914-9"><bdi>978-0-8020-3914-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Hellenistic+Architecture&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8020-3914-9&rft.aulast=Winter&rft.aufirst=Frederick+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D03UNLhtEP1oC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAutenrieth1891" class="citation book cs1">Autenrieth, Georg (1891). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ahomericdiction00unkngoog">A Homeric Dictionary for Schools and Colleges</a>. New York: Harper and Brothers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Homeric+Dictionary+for+Schools+and+Colleges&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+and+Brothers&rft.date=1891&rft.aulast=Autenrieth&rft.aufirst=Georg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fahomericdiction00unkngoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBard1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kathryn_A._Bard" title="Kathryn A. Bard">Bard, Kathryn A.</a>, ed. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MH7sAgAAQBAJ">Encyclopaedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt</a>. New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-66524-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-66524-2"><bdi>978-1-134-66524-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+the+Archaeology+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-134-66524-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMH7sAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorza1999" class="citation book cs1">Borza, Eugene N. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JdEHAAAACAAJ">Before Alexander: Constructing Early Macedonia</a>. Claremont, CA: Regina Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-941690-97-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-941690-97-3"><bdi>978-0-941690-97-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Before+Alexander%3A+Constructing+Early+Macedonia&rft.place=Claremont%2C+CA&rft.pub=Regina+Books&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-941690-97-3&rft.aulast=Borza&rft.aufirst=Eugene+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJdEHAAAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBryant1996" class="citation book cs1">Bryant, Joseph M. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bCM9D9fyCoQC">Moral Codes and Social Structure in Ancient Greece: A Sociology of Greek Ethics from Homer to the Epicureans and Stoics</a>. Albany, NY: <a href="/wiki/State_University_of_New_York_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="State University of New York Press">State University of New York Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-3042-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-3042-2"><bdi>978-0-7914-3042-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Moral+Codes+and+Social+Structure+in+Ancient+Greece%3A+A+Sociology+of+Greek+Ethics+from+Homer+to+the+Epicureans+and+Stoics&rft.place=Albany%2C+NY&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-3042-2&rft.aulast=Bryant&rft.aufirst=Joseph+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbCM9D9fyCoQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChamoux2002" class="citation book cs1">Chamoux, François (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T1kr4YGTA2AC">Hellenistic Civilization</a>. Oxford, UK: <a href="/wiki/Blackwell_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackwell Publishing">Blackwell Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-22241-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-22241-5"><bdi>978-0-631-22241-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hellenistic+Civilization&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-631-22241-5&rft.aulast=Chamoux&rft.aufirst=Fran%C3%A7ois&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DT1kr4YGTA2AC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDegen2022" class="citation book cs1">Degen, Julian (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h51zzwEACAAJ">Alexander III. zwischen Ost und West. Indigene Traditionen und Herrschaftsinszenierung im makedonischen Weltimperium</a>. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-515-13283-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-515-13283-1"><bdi>978-3-515-13283-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+III.+zwischen+Ost+und+West.+Indigene+Traditionen+und+Herrschaftsinszenierung+im+makedonischen+Weltimperium&rft.place=Stuttgart&rft.pub=Franz+Steiner&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-3-515-13283-1&rft.aulast=Degen&rft.aufirst=Julian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh51zzwEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErrington1974" class="citation journal cs1">Errington, Robert M. (1974). "Macedonian 'Royal Style' and Its Historical Significance". The Journal of Hellenic Studies. 94: 20–37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F630417">10.2307/630417</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/630417">630417</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162629292">162629292</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Hellenic+Studies&rft.atitle=Macedonian+%27Royal+Style%27+and+Its+Historical+Significance&rft.volume=94&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E20-%3C%2Fspan%3E37&rft.date=1974&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162629292%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F630417%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F630417&rft.aulast=Errington&rft.aufirst=Robert+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFine1983" class="citation book cs1">Fine, John Van Antwerp (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientgreeks00john">The Ancient Greeks: A Critical History</a>. Cambridge, MA: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03314-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03314-6"><bdi>978-0-674-03314-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Greeks%3A+A+Critical+History&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-674-03314-6&rft.aulast=Fine&rft.aufirst=John+Van+Antwerp&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientgreeks00john&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHammond2001" class="citation book cs1">Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eW0iAQAAIAAJ">Collected Studies: Further Studies on Various Topics</a>. Amsterdam: Hakkert.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Collected+Studies%3A+Further+Studies+on+Various+Topics&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pub=Hakkert&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Hammond&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+Geoffrey+Lempri%C3%A8re&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeW0iAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHammond1993" class="citation book cs1">Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TWwiAQAAIAAJ">Studies concerning Epirus and Macedonia before Alexander</a>. Amsterdam: Hakkert. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-256-1050-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-256-1050-0"><bdi>978-90-256-1050-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+concerning+Epirus+and+Macedonia+before+Alexander&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pub=Hakkert&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-90-256-1050-0&rft.aulast=Hammond&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+Geoffrey+Lempri%C3%A8re&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTWwiAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHammond1989" class="citation book cs1">Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4jRoAAAAMAAJ">The Macedonian State: Origins, Institutions, and History</a>. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-814883-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-814883-8"><bdi>978-0-19-814883-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Macedonian+State%3A+Origins%2C+Institutions%2C+and+History&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-19-814883-8&rft.aulast=Hammond&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+Geoffrey+Lempri%C3%A8re&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4jRoAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2001" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Archer (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z2FRzcz2W0oC">The Art of War in the Western World</a>. Champaign, IL: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Press" title="University of Illinois Press">University of Illinois Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06966-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06966-6"><bdi>978-0-252-06966-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+War+in+the+Western+World&rft.place=Champaign%2C+IL&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-252-06966-6&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Archer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz2FRzcz2W0oC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevinson1992" class="citation book cs1">Levinson, David (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PnMYAAAAIAAJ">Encyclopedia of World Cultures</a>. Vol. 1. Boston, MA: G.K. Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8168-8840-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8168-8840-5"><bdi>978-0-8168-8840-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+World+Cultures&rft.place=Boston%2C+MA&rft.pub=G.K.+Hall&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-8168-8840-5&rft.aulast=Levinson&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPnMYAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStarr1991" class="citation book cs1">Starr, Chester G. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bA3kgtZU1iMC">A History of the Ancient World</a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-506628-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-506628-9"><bdi>978-0-19-506628-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Ancient+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-19-506628-9&rft.aulast=Starr&rft.aufirst=Chester+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbA3kgtZU1iMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToynbee1981" class="citation book cs1">Toynbee, Arnold Joseph (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/greekstheirheri00toyn">The Greeks and Their Heritages</a>. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-215256-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-215256-5"><bdi>978-0-19-215256-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Greeks+and+Their+Heritages&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-19-215256-5&rft.aulast=Toynbee&rft.aufirst=Arnold+Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgreekstheirheri00toyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilcken1967" class="citation book cs1">Wilcken, Ulrich (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/alexandergreat0000wilc">Alexander the Great</a>. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-00381-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-00381-9"><bdi>978-0-393-00381-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexander+the+Great&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+and+Company%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=978-0-393-00381-9&rft.aulast=Wilcken&rft.aufirst=Ulrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Falexandergreat0000wilc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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data-file-height="430" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">1911 Encyclopædia Britannica</a> article "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Macedonian_Empire" class="extiw" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Macedonian Empire">Macedonian Empire</a>".</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Ancient Macedonia <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Macedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Macedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Macedonia+%28ancient+kingdom%29&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/maa-mam/macedonia/macedonia.html">Ancient Macedonia</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303183445/http://www.livius.org/maa-mam/macedonia/macedonia.html">Archived</a> 3 March 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/">Livius</a>, by Jona Lendering</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ashmolean.org/exhibitions/current/?timing=current&id=57&exhibitionYear=2011">Heracles to Alexander The Great: Treasures From The Royal Capital of Macedon, A Hellenic Kingdom in the Age of Democracy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ashmolean_Museum_of_Art_and_Archaeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology">Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Macedonia-ancient-kingdom-Europe">"Macedonia, ancient kingdom"</a>, entry from the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/alex/hd_alex.htm">"The Rise of Macedonia and the Conquests of Alexander the Great"</a>, from the <a 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.navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Kings_of_Macedon207" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Kings_of_Macedon" title="Template:Kings of Macedon"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Kings_of_Macedon" title="Template talk:Kings of Macedon"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Kings_of_Macedon" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Kings of Macedon"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Kings_of_Macedon207" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Macedonia" title="List of kings of Macedonia">Kings of Macedon</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legendary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caranus_of_Macedon" title="Caranus of Macedon">Caranus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coenus_of_Macedon" title="Coenus of Macedon">Coenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrimmas_of_Macedon" title="Tyrimmas of Macedon">Tyrimmas</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Vergina Sun"><img alt="Vergina Sun" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg/75px-Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg/113px-Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg/150px-Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="573" data-file-height="573" /></a><figcaption>Vergina Sun</figcaption></figure></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty" title="Argead dynasty">Argead dynasty</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perdiccas_I_of_Macedon" title="Perdiccas I of Macedon">Perdiccas I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argaeus_I_of_Macedon" title="Argaeus I of Macedon">Argaeus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_I_of_Macedon" title="Philip I of Macedon">Philip I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeropus_I_of_Macedon" title="Aeropus I of Macedon">Aeropus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcetas_of_Macedon" title="Alcetas of Macedon">Alcetas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amyntas_I_of_Macedon" title="Amyntas I of Macedon">Amyntas I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Macedon" title="Alexander I of Macedon">Alexander I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perdiccas_II_of_Macedon" title="Perdiccas II of Macedon">Perdiccas II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archelaus_I_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Archelaus I of Macedon">Archelaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orestes_of_Macedon" title="Orestes of Macedon">Orestes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeropus_II_of_Macedon" title="Aeropus II of Macedon">Aeropus II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amyntas_II_of_Macedon" title="Amyntas II of Macedon">Amyntas II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_of_Macedon" title="Pausanias of Macedon">Pausanias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amyntas_III_of_Macedon" title="Amyntas III of Macedon">Amyntas III</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argaeus_II_of_Macedon" title="Argaeus II of Macedon">Argaeus II</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Macedon" title="Alexander II of Macedon">Alexander II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_of_Aloros" title="Ptolemy of Aloros">Ptolemy of Aloros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perdiccas_III_of_Macedon" title="Perdiccas III of Macedon">Perdiccas III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amyntas_IV_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Amyntas IV of Macedon">Amyntas IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander III (the Great)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Macedon" title="Philip III of Macedon">Philip III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_IV_of_Macedon" title="Alexander IV of Macedon">Alexander IV</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Antipatrid_dynasty" title="Antipatrid dynasty">Antipatrid dynasty</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cassander" title="Cassander">Cassander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_IV_of_Macedon" title="Philip IV of Macedon">Philip IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipater_I_of_Macedon" title="Antipater I of Macedon">Antipater I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_V_of_Macedon" title="Alexander V of Macedon">Alexander V</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dynastic conflict</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Demetrius I of Macedon">Demetrius I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhus_of_Epirus" title="Pyrrhus of Epirus">Pyrrhus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysimachus" title="Lysimachus">Lysimachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_Ceraunus" title="Ptolemy Ceraunus">Ptolemy Ceraunus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meleager_(king)" title="Meleager (king)">Meleager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipater_Etesias" title="Antipater Etesias">Antipater II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sosthenes_of_Macedon" title="Sosthenes of Macedon">Sosthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antigonus_II_Gonatas" title="Antigonus II Gonatas">Antigonus II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhus_of_Epirus" title="Pyrrhus of Epirus">Pyrrhus</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Antigonid_dynasty" title="Antigonid dynasty">Antigonid dynasty</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antigonus_II_Gonatas" title="Antigonus II Gonatas">Antigonus II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_II_Aetolicus" title="Demetrius II Aetolicus">Demetrius II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antigonus_III_Doson" title="Antigonus III Doson">Antigonus III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon" title="Philip V of Macedon">Philip V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perseus_of_Macedon" title="Perseus of Macedon">Perseus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Post-Conquest Rebel Kings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andriscus" title="Andriscus">Andriscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Alexander" title="Pseudo-Alexander">Pseudo-Alexander</a></li> <li>Pseudo-Philip/Pseudo-Perseus</li> <li>Euephenes</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>Debatable or disputed rulers are in italics.</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Greece390" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Greece_topics" title="Template:Ancient Greece topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Greece_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Greece topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Greece_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Greece topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Greece390" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_ancient_Greece" title="Timeline of ancient Greece">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="HistoryGeography390" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Greece" title="History of Greece">History</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_ancient_Greece" title="Regions of ancient Greece">Geography</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Periods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cycladic_culture" title="Cycladic culture">Cycladic civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_civilization" title="Minoan civilization">Minoan civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Dark_Ages" title="Greek Dark Ages">Greek Dark Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Greece" title="Hellenistic Greece">Hellenistic Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greece_in_the_Roman_era" title="Greece in the Roman era">Roman Greece</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_ancient_Greece" title="Regions of ancient Greece">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeolis" title="Aeolis">Aeolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaica" title="Cyrenaica">Cyrenaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doric_Hexapolis" title="Doric Hexapolis">Doris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epirus" title="Epirus">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dardanelles" title="Dardanelles">Hellespont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_Sea" title="Ionian Sea">Ionian Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(region)" title="Macedonia (region)">Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peloponnese" title="Peloponnese">Peloponnesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontus_(region)" title="Pontus (region)">Pontus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Taurica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">Ancient Greek colonies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="City_statesPoliticsMilitary390" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">City states</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece#Politics_and_society" title="Ancient Greece">Politics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Military</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">City states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Argos" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Argos">Argos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcis" title="Chalcis">Chalcis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Corinth" title="Ancient Corinth">Corinth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephesus" title="Ephesus">Ephesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miletus" title="Miletus">Miletus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pergamon" title="Pergamon">Pergamon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretria" title="Eretria">Eretria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corfu" title="Corfu">Kerkyra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larissa" title="Larissa">Larissa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalopolis,_Greece" title="Megalopolis, Greece">Megalopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Greece" title="Thebes, Greece">Thebes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megara" title="Megara">Megara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samos" title="Samos">Samos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lissus_(Crete)" title="Lissus (Crete)">Lissus (Crete)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kingdoms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bithynia" title="Kingdom of Bithynia">Bithynia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cappadocia" title="Kingdom of Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epirus_(ancient_state)" title="Epirus (ancient state)">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Greco-Bactrian Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek Kingdom</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pergamon" title="Kingdom of Pergamon">Pergamon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Pontus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Federation" title="Federation">Federations</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Confederation" title="Confederation">Confederations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doric_Hexapolis" title="Doric Hexapolis">Doric Hexapolis</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1100 – c. 560 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italiotes#Italiote_League" title="Italiotes">Italiote League</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 800–389 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_League" title="Ionian League">Ionian League</a> (c. 650–404 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_League" title="Peloponnesian League">Peloponnesian League</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 550–366 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amphictyonic_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphictyonic League">Amphictyonic League</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 595–279 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acarnanian_League" title="Acarnanian League">Acarnanian League</a> (c. 500–31 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Hellenic League</a> (499–449 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delian_League" title="Delian League">Delian League</a> (478–404 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcidian_League" title="Chalcidian League">Chalcidian League</a> (430–348 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boeotia#Boeotian_League" title="Boeotia">Boeotian League</a> (c. 424–c. 395 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aetolian_League" title="Aetolian League">Aetolian League</a> (c. 400–188 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Athenian_League" title="Second Athenian League">Second Athenian League</a> (378–355 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thessalian_League" title="Thessalian League">Thessalian League</a> (374–196 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcadian_League" title="Arcadian League">Arcadian League</a> (370–c. 230 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epirote_League" title="Epirote League">Epirote League</a> (370–168 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/League_of_Corinth" title="League of Corinth">League of Corinth</a> (338–322 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euboean_League" title="Euboean League">Euboean League</a> (c. 300 BC–c. 300 AD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaean_League" title="Achaean League">Achaean League</a> (280–146 BC)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece#Politics_and_society" title="Ancient Greece">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boule_(ancient_Greece)" title="Boule (ancient Greece)">Boule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_city_(classical_antiquity)" title="Free city (classical antiquity)">Free city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koinon" title="Koinon">Koinon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxeny" title="Proxeny">Proxeny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stasis_(ancient_Greece)" title="Stasis (ancient Greece)">Stasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagus_(title)" title="Tagus (title)">Tagus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrant" title="Tyrant">Tyrant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Athenian_democracy" title="Athenian democracy">Athenian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agora" title="Agora">Agora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Areopagus" title="Areopagus">Areopagus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesia_(ancient_Athens)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecclesia (ancient Athens)">Ecclesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphe_paranomon" title="Graphe paranomon">Graphe paranomon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliaia" title="Heliaia">Heliaia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostracism" title="Ostracism">Ostracism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Spartan_Constitution" title="Spartan Constitution">Spartan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesia_(Sparta)" title="Ecclesia (Sparta)">Ekklesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephor" title="Ephor">Ephor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerousia" title="Gerousia">Gerousia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Macedon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synedrion" title="Synedrion">Synedrion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koinon_of_Macedonians" class="mw-redirect" title="Koinon of Macedonians">Koinon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Greece" title="List of wars involving Greece">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athenian_military" title="Athenian military">Athenian military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_archers" title="Scythian archers">Scythian archers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antigonid_Macedonian_army" title="Antigonid Macedonian army">Antigonid Macedonian army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_army" title="Ancient Macedonian army">Army of Macedon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">Ballista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cretan_archers" title="Cretan archers">Cretan archers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_armies" title="Hellenistic armies">Hellenistic armies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippeis" title="Hippeis">Hippeis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoplite" title="Hoplite">Hoplite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Companion_cavalry" title="Companion cavalry">Hetairoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_phalanx" title="Macedonian phalanx">Macedonian phalanx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_Mycenaean_Greece" title="Military of Mycenaean Greece">Military of Mycenaean Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phalanx" title="Phalanx">Phalanx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peltast" title="Peltast">Peltast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pezhetairos" title="Pezhetairos">Pezhetairos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarissa" title="Sarissa">Sarissa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_Band_of_Thebes" title="Sacred Band of Thebes">Sacred Band of Thebes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sciritae" title="Sciritae">Sciritae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_army" title="Seleucid army">Seleucid army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spartan_army" title="Spartan army">Spartan army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategos" title="Strategos">Strategos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxotai" title="Toxotai">Toxotai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiphos" title="Xiphos">Xiphos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xyston" title="Xyston">Xyston</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="People390" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Greeks" title="Category:Ancient Greeks">People</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="List_of_ancient_Greeks183"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greeks" title="List of ancient Greeks">List of ancient Greeks</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_rulers_of_Greece#Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Lists of rulers of Greece">Rulers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Argos" title="List of kings of Argos">Kings of Argos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eponymous_archon" title="Eponymous archon">Archons of Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Athens" title="List of kings of Athens">Kings of Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Commagene" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Commagene">Kings of Commagene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">Diadochi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Macedonia" title="List of kings of Macedonia">Kings of Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Thrace_and_Dacia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Thrace and Dacia">Kings of Paionia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attalid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Attalid dynasty">Attalid kings of Pergamon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Pontus" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kings of Pontus">Kings of Pontus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty" title="Ptolemaic dynasty">Ptolemaic dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_dynasty" title="Seleucid dynasty">Seleucid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Sparta" title="List of kings of Sparta">Kings of Sparta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tyrants_of_Syracuse" title="List of tyrants of Syracuse">Tyrants of Syracuse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists & scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_astronomers" title="List of ancient Greek astronomers">Astronomers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_historians" title="List of ancient Greek historians">Historians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_mathematicians" title="List of ancient Greek mathematicians">Mathematicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_philosophers" title="List of ancient Greek philosophers">Philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_playwrights" title="List of ancient Greek playwrights">Playwrights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_poets" title="List of ancient Greek poets">Poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Sages_of_Greece" title="Seven Sages of Greece">Seven Sages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_writers" title="List of ancient Greek writers">Writers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anaxagoras" title="Anaxagoras">Anaxagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaximenes_of_Miletus" title="Anaximenes of Miletus">Anaximenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisthenes" title="Antisthenes">Antisthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes of Sinope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia">Hypatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leucippus" title="Leucippus">Leucippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protagoras" title="Protagoras">Protagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Elea" title="Zeno of Elea">Zeno</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Authors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aeschylus" title="Aeschylus">Aeschylus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesop" title="Aesop">Aesop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcaeus_of_Mytilene" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcaeus of Mytilene">Alcaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archilochus" title="Archilochus">Archilochus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristophanes" title="Aristophanes">Aristophanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacchylides" title="Bacchylides">Bacchylides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euripides" title="Euripides">Euripides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesiod" title="Hesiod">Hesiod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hipponax" title="Hipponax">Hipponax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibycus" title="Ibycus">Ibycus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menander" title="Menander">Menander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimnermus" title="Mimnermus">Mimnermus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panyassis" title="Panyassis">Panyassis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philocles" title="Philocles">Philocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pindar" title="Pindar">Pindar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sappho" title="Sappho">Sappho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simonides_of_Ceos" title="Simonides of Ceos">Simonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophocles" title="Sophocles">Sophocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stesichorus" title="Stesichorus">Stesichorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theognis_of_Megara" title="Theognis of Megara">Theognis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timocreon" title="Timocreon">Timocreon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrtaeus" title="Tyrtaeus">Tyrtaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Athenian_statesmen" class="mw-redirect" title="List of ancient Athenian statesmen">Athenian statesmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_lawgivers" title="List of ancient Greek lawgivers">Lawgivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Olympic_victors" title="List of ancient Olympic victors">Olympic victors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_tyrants" title="List of ancient Greek tyrants">Tyrants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_tribes" title="List of ancient Greek tribes">Ancient Greek tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Thracian_Greeks" title="List of Thracian Greeks">Thracian Greeks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Macedonians" title="List of ancient Macedonians">Ancient Macedonians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="SocietyCulture390" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece#Politics_and_society" title="Ancient Greece">Society</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Greece" title="Culture of Greece">Culture</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece#Politics_and_society" title="Ancient Greece">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Greece" title="Agriculture in ancient Greece">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_calendars" title="Ancient Greek calendars">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Greece" title="Clothing in ancient Greece">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_coinage" title="Ancient Greek coinage">Coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_cuisine" title="Ancient Greek cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_ancient_Greece" title="Economy of ancient Greece">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paideia" title="Paideia">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emporium_(antiquity)" title="Emporium (antiquity)">Emporium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euergetism" title="Euergetism">Euergetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athenian_festivals" title="Athenian festivals">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_folklore" title="Ancient Greek folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_in_ancient_Greece" title="Homosexuality in ancient Greece">Homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_law" title="Ancient Greek law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Olympic_Games" title="Ancient Olympic Games">Olympic Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pederasty_in_ancient_Greece" title="Pederasty in ancient Greece">Pederasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_ancient_Greece" title="Prostitution in ancient Greece">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Greece" title="Marriage in ancient Greece">Wedding customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece_and_wine" title="Ancient Greece and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_art" title="Ancient Greek art">Arts</a> and science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_architecture" title="Ancient Greek architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Revival_architecture" title="Greek Revival architecture">Greek Revival architecture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Ancient Greek astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_mathematics" title="Greek mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_medicine" title="Ancient Greek medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Greece" title="Music of ancient Greece">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Musical_system_of_ancient_Greece" title="Musical system of ancient Greece">Musical system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pottery_of_ancient_Greece" title="Pottery of ancient Greece">Pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_sculpture" title="Ancient Greek sculpture">Sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_technology" title="Ancient Greek technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Greece" title="Theatre of ancient Greece">Theatre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_funeral_and_burial_practices" title="Ancient Greek funeral and burial practices">Funeral and burial practices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Mythology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_deities" title="List of Greek deities">Deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_temple" title="Ancient Greek temple">Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Olympians" title="Twelve Olympians">Twelve Olympians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_underworld" title="Greek underworld">Underworld</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;text-align:left;">Sacred places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eleusis" class="mw-redirect" title="Eleusis">Eleusis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delphi" title="Delphi">Delphi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delos" title="Delos">Delos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dion,_Pieria" title="Dion, Pieria">Dion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dodona" title="Dodona">Dodona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Olympus" title="Mount Olympus">Mount Olympus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympia,_Greece" title="Olympia, Greece">Olympia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Athenian_Treasury" title="Athenian Treasury">Athenian Treasury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lion_Gate" title="Lion Gate">Lion Gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Walls" title="Long Walls">Long Walls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippeion" title="Philippeion">Philippeion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Dionysus" title="Theatre of Dionysus">Theatre of Dionysus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_of_Eupalinos" title="Tunnel of Eupalinos">Tunnel of Eupalinos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_temple" title="Ancient Greek temple">Temples</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Aphaea" class="mw-redirect" title="Temple of Aphaea">Aphaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Artemis" title="Temple of Artemis">Artemis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Athena_Nike" title="Temple of Athena Nike">Athena Nike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erechtheion" title="Erechtheion">Erechtheion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Hephaestus" title="Temple of Hephaestus">Hephaestus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Hera,_Olympia" title="Temple of Hera, Olympia">Hera, Olympia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthenon" title="Parthenon">Parthenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samothrace_temple_complex" title="Samothrace temple complex">Samothrace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Zeus,_Olympia" title="Temple of Zeus, Olympia">Zeus, Olympia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Language</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Greek_language" title="Proto-Greek language">Proto-Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greek" title="Mycenaean Greek">Mycenaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeric_Greek" title="Homeric Greek">Homeric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_dialects" title="Ancient Greek dialects">Dialects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aeolic_Greek" title="Aeolic Greek">Aeolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcadocypriot_Greek" title="Arcadocypriot Greek">Arcadocypriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attic_Greek" title="Attic Greek">Attic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doric_Greek" title="Doric Greek">Doric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epirote_Greek" title="Epirote Greek">Epirote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionic_Greek" title="Ionic Greek">Ionic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locrian_Greek" title="Locrian Greek">Locrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_language" title="Ancient Macedonian language">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pamphylian_Greek" title="Pamphylian Greek">Pamphylian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Greek_alphabet" title="History of the Greek alphabet">Writing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linear_A" title="Linear A">Linear A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_syllabary" title="Cypriot syllabary">Cypriot syllabary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_numerals" title="Greek numerals">Greek numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attic_numerals" title="Attic numerals">Attic numerals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Greek_colonisation390" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_colonisation" title="Greek colonisation">Greek colonisation</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mainland Italy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lecce" title="Lecce">Alision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brindisi" title="Brindisi">Brentesion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caulonia_(ancient_city)" title="Caulonia (ancient city)">Caulonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casabona" title="Casabona">Chone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crotone" title="Crotone">Croton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumae" title="Cumae">Cumae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velia" title="Velia">Elea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclea_Lucania" title="Heraclea Lucania">Heraclea Lucania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vibo_Valentia" title="Vibo Valentia">Hipponion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otranto" title="Otranto">Hydrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krimisa" title="Krimisa">Krimisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La%C3%BCs" title="Laüs">Laüs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locri" title="Locri">Locri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medma" title="Medma">Medma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metauros" title="Metauros">Metauros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapontum" title="Metapontum">Metapontion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Neápolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandosia_(Lucania)" title="Pandosia (Lucania)">Pandosia (Lucania)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paestum" title="Paestum">Poseidonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Policastro_Bussentino" title="Policastro Bussentino">Pixous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reggio_Calabria" title="Reggio Calabria">Rhegion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scylletium" title="Scylletium">Scylletium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siris_(Magna_Graecia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siris (Magna Graecia)">Siris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sybaris" title="Sybaris">Sybaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sybaris_on_the_Traeis" title="Sybaris on the Traeis">Sybaris on the Traeis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taranto" title="Taranto">Taras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terina_(ancient_city)" title="Terina (ancient city)">Terina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurii" title="Thurii">Thurii</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrigento" title="Agrigento">Akragas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akrai" title="Akrai">Akrai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akrillai" title="Akrillai">Akrillai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonia_(Sicily)" title="Apollonia (Sicily)">Apollonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caronia" title="Caronia">Calacte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casmenae" title="Casmenae">Casmenae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catania" title="Catania">Catana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gela" title="Gela">Gela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helorus" title="Helorus">Helorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enna" title="Enna">Henna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclea_Minoa" title="Heraclea Minoa">Heraclea Minoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himera" title="Himera">Himera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybla_Gereatis" title="Hybla Gereatis">Hybla Gereatis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybla_Heraea" title="Hybla Heraea">Hybla Heraea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamarina,_Sicily" title="Kamarina, Sicily">Kamarina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lentini" title="Lentini">Leontinoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megara_Hyblaea" title="Megara Hyblaea">Megara Hyblaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messina" title="Messina">Messana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naxos_(Sicily)" title="Naxos (Sicily)">Naxos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segesta" title="Segesta">Segesta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selinunte" title="Selinunte">Selinous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_Sicily" title="Syracuse, Sicily">Syracuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taormina" title="Taormina">Tauromenion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sciacca" title="Sciacca">Thermae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tindari" title="Tindari">Tyndaris</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aeolian_Islands" title="Aeolian Islands">Aeolian Islands</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salina,_Sicily" title="Salina, Sicily">Didyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panarea" title="Panarea">Euonymos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alicudi" title="Alicudi">Ereikousa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basiluzzo" title="Basiluzzo">Hycesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipari" title="Lipari">Lipara/Meligounis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filicudi" title="Filicudi">Phoenicusa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stromboli" title="Stromboli">Strongyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulcano" title="Vulcano">Therassía</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaica" title="Cyrenaica">Cyrenaica</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bayda,_Libya" title="Bayda, Libya">Balagrae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barca_(ancient_city)" title="Barca (ancient city)">Barca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benghazi" title="Benghazi">Berenice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrene,_Libya" title="Cyrene, Libya">Cyrene</a> (<a href="/wiki/Apollonia,_Cyrenaica" class="mw-redirect" title="Apollonia, Cyrenaica">Apollonia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemais,_Cyrenaica" title="Ptolemais, Cyrenaica">Ptolemais</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lucentum" title="Lucentum">Akra Leuke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villajoyosa" title="Villajoyosa">Alonis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emp%C3%BAries" title="Empúries">Emporion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elche" title="Elche">Helike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9nia" title="Dénia">Hemeroscopion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aljaraque" title="Aljaraque">Kalathousa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant_Mart%C3%AD_d%27Emp%C3%BAries" title="Sant Martí d'Empúries">Kypsela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainake_(Greek_settlement)" title="Mainake (Greek settlement)">Mainake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Puerto_de_Santa_Mar%C3%ADa" title="El Puerto de Santa María">Menestheus's Limin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Pola" title="Santa Pola">Illicitanus Limin/Portus Illicitanus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roses,_Girona" class="mw-redirect" title="Roses, Girona">Rhode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salou" title="Salou">Salauris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sagunto" title="Sagunto">Zacynthos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Illyria" title="Illyria">Illyria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aspalathos" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspalathos">Aspalathos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonia_(Illyria)" title="Apollonia (Illyria)">Apollonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vlor%C3%AB#Early_history" title="Vlorë">Aulon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidamnos" title="Epidamnos">Epidamnos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidaurum" title="Epidaurum">Epidauros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Issa_(polis)" class="mw-redirect" title="Issa (polis)">Issa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melaina_Korkyra" class="mw-redirect" title="Melaina Korkyra">Melaina Korkyra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nymphaeum_(Illyria)" title="Nymphaeum (Illyria)">Nymphaion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oricum" title="Oricum">Orikon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharos_(polis)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharos (polis)">Pharos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragurion" class="mw-redirect" title="Tragurion">Tragurion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thronion_(Illyria)" title="Thronion (Illyria)">Thronion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> basin</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North coast</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akra_(Crimmerian_Bosporus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Akra (Crimmerian Bosporus)">Akra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berezan_Island" title="Berezan Island">Borysthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charax,_Crimea" title="Charax, Crimea">Charax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chersonesus" title="Chersonesus">Chersonesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sukhumi" title="Sukhumi">Dioscurias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anapa" title="Anapa">Gorgippia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tmutarakan" title="Tmutarakan">Hermonassa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalos_Limen" title="Kalos Limen">Kalos Limen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kepoi" title="Kepoi">Kepoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevpatoria" title="Yevpatoria">Kerkinitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimmerikon" title="Kimmerikon">Kimmerikon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myrmekion" class="mw-redirect" title="Myrmekion">Myrmekion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikonion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikonion">Nikonion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nymphaion_(Crimea)" title="Nymphaion (Crimea)">Nymphaion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olbia_(Pontic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Olbia (Pontic)">Olbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantikapaion" title="Pantikapaion">Pantikapaion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phanagoria" title="Phanagoria">Phanagoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitsunda" title="Pitsunda">Pityus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanais" title="Tanais">Tanais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feodosia" title="Feodosia">Theodosia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyras" title="Tyras">Tyras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyritake" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyritake">Tyritake</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South coast</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abonoteichos" title="Abonoteichos">Abonoteichos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samsun" title="Samsun">Amisos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomorie" title="Pomorie">Anchialos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozopol" title="Sozopol">Apollonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pazar,_Rize" title="Pazar, Rize">Athina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batumi" title="Batumi">Bathus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balchik" title="Balchik">Dionysopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordu" title="Ordu">Cotyora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytorus" title="Cytorus">Cytorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eupatoria_(Pontus)" title="Eupatoria (Pontus)">Eupatoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclea_Pontica" title="Heraclea Pontica">Heraclea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giresun" title="Giresun">Kerasous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nesebar" title="Nesebar">Mesambria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varna,_Bulgaria" title="Varna, Bulgaria">Odessos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%9Cnye" title="Ünye">Oinòe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phasis_(town)" title="Phasis (town)">Phasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatsa" title="Fatsa">Polemonion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rize" title="Rize">Rhizos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C4%B1y%C4%B1k%C3%B6y" title="Kıyıköy">Salmydessus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amasra" title="Amasra">Sesamus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinop,_Turkey" title="Sinop, Turkey">Sinope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terme" title="Terme">Thèrmae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tium" title="Tium">Tium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trabzon" title="Trabzon">Trapezous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripolis_(Pontus)" title="Tripolis (Pontus)">Tripolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaliche" title="Zaliche">Zaliche</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Lists390" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Lists</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_cities" title="List of ancient Greek cities">Cities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_ancient_Epirus" title="List of cities in ancient Epirus">in Epirus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greeks" title="List of ancient Greeks">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_place_names" title="List of Greek place names">Place names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_stoae" title="List of stoae">Stoae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ancient_Greek_temples" title="List of Ancient Greek temples">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_theatres" title="List of ancient Greek theatres">Theatres</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Greece" title="Category:Ancient Greece">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Greece" title="Portal:Ancient Greece">Portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Greece" title="Outline of ancient Greece">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Macedonia_(Greece)118" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background:#cedff2; color: blue; border:1px solid gold;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Greek_Macedonia" title="Template:Greek Macedonia"><abbr title="View this template" style="color: blue">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Greek_Macedonia" title="Template talk:Greek Macedonia"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color: blue">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Greek_Macedonia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Greek Macedonia"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color: blue">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Macedonia_(Greece)118" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(Greece)" title="Macedonia (Greece)">Macedonia (Greece)</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center; background: #cedff2;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">Ancient Macedonians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Macedonians" title="List of ancient Macedonians">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonians_(Greeks)" title="Macedonians (Greeks)">Macedonians (Greeks)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Macedonians_(Greek)" title="List of Macedonians (Greek)">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Thessaloniki" title="History of the Jews in Thessaloniki">Jews of Thessaloniki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_speakers_of_Greek_Macedonia" title="Slavic speakers of Greek Macedonia">Slavic speakers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Bulgarians" title="Macedonian Bulgarians">Macedonian Bulgarians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_Macedonians" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic Macedonians">Ethnic Macedonians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aromanians" title="Aromanians">Aromanians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megleno-Romanians" title="Megleno-Romanians">Megleno-Romanians</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg/75px-Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg/113px-Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg/150px-Vergina_Sun_WIPO.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="573" data-file-height="573" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center; background: #cedff2;">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ancient Macedonia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Macedonia" title="List of kings of Macedonia">Kings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">Wars of Alexander the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Diadochi" title="Wars of the Diadochi">Wars of the Diadochi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Wars" title="Macedonian Wars">Macedonian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(Roman_province)" title="Macedonia (Roman province)">Roman Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarian_invasions" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbarian invasions">Barbarian invasions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(theme)" title="Macedonia (theme)">Theme of Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thessalonica_(theme)" title="Thessalonica (theme)">Theme of Thessalonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strymon_(theme)" title="Strymon (theme)">Theme of Strymon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Thessalonica_(904)" title="Sack of Thessalonica (904)">Sack of Thessalonica (904)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Bulgarian_wars" title="Byzantine–Bulgarian wars">Byzantine–Bulgarian wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Thessalonica_(1185)" title="Sack of Thessalonica (1185)">Sack of Thessalonica (1185)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Thessalonica" title="Kingdom of Thessalonica">Kingdom of Thessalonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Empire of Thessalonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_civil_war_of_1321%E2%80%931328" title="Byzantine civil war of 1321–1328">Byzantine civil war of 1321–1328</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_civil_war_of_1341%E2%80%931347" title="Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347">Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zealots_of_Thessalonica" title="Zealots of Thessalonica">Zealots of Thessalonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Ottoman_wars" title="Byzantine–Ottoman wars">Byzantine–Ottoman wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Thessalonica_(1422%E2%80%931430)" title="Siege of Thessalonica (1422–1430)">Siege of Thessalonica (1422–1430)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Greece" title="Ottoman Greece">Ottoman Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rumelia_Eyalet" title="Rumelia Eyalet">Rumelia Eyalet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence#Macedonia" title="Greek War of Independence">Greek War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manastir_Vilayet" class="mw-redirect" title="Manastir Vilayet">Manastir Vilayet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanjak_of_Monastir" title="Sanjak of Monastir">Sanjak of Monastir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanjak_of_Serfi%C4%9Fe" title="Sanjak of Serfiğe">Sanjak of Serfiğe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salonica_Vilayet" class="mw-redirect" title="Salonica Vilayet">Salonica Vilayet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanjak_of_Drama" title="Sanjak of Drama">Sanjak of Drama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanjak_of_Salonica" title="Sanjak of Salonica">Sanjak of Salonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanjak_of_Siroz" title="Sanjak of Siroz">Sanjak of Siroz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Struggle" title="Macedonian Struggle">Macedonian Struggle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_Wars" title="Balkan Wars">Balkan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_front" title="Macedonian front">Macedonian front</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_National_Defence" title="Provisional Government of National Defence">Provisional Government of National Defence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axis_occupation_of_Greece" title="Axis occupation of Greece">Axis occupation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Civil_War" title="Greek Civil War">Greek Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_naming_dispute" title="Macedonia naming dispute">Macedonia naming dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prespa_agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Prespa agreement">Prespa agreement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center; background: #cedff2;">Administration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Macedonia_and_Thrace" title="Ministry of Macedonia and Thrace">Ministry of Macedonia and Thrace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Macedonia" title="Western Macedonia">Western Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Macedonia" title="Central Macedonia">Central Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Macedonia_and_Thrace" title="Eastern Macedonia and Thrace">Eastern Macedonia and Thrace</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center; background: #cedff2;">Economy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agios_Dimitrios_Power_Plant" title="Agios Dimitrios Power Plant">Agios Dimitrios Power Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amyntaio_Power_Plant" title="Amyntaio Power Plant">Amyntaio Power Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drama_coal_mine" title="Drama coal mine">Drama coal mine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerakini_mine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gerakini mine (page does not exist)">Gerakini mine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympias_mine" title="Olympias mine">Olympias mine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piavitsa_mine" title="Piavitsa mine">Piavitsa mine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Port_of_Kavala&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Port of Kavala (page does not exist)">Port of Kavala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_of_Thessaloniki" title="Port of Thessaloniki">Port of Thessaloniki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prinos_oil_field" title="Prinos oil field">Prinos oil field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaida-Florina_coal_mine" title="Ptolemaida-Florina coal mine">Ptolemaida-Florina coal mine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skouries_mine" title="Skouries mine">Skouries mine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratoni_mine" title="Stratoni mine">Stratoni mine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki_International_Fair" title="Thessaloniki International Fair">Thessaloniki International Fair</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center; background: #cedff2;">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Thessaloniki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kavala" title="Kavala">Kavala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kastoria" title="Kastoria">Kastoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serres" title="Serres">Serres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veria" title="Veria">Veria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katerini" title="Katerini">Katerini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edessa,_Greece" title="Edessa, Greece">Edessa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florina" title="Florina">Florina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drama,_Greece" title="Drama, Greece">Drama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naousa,_Imathia" title="Naousa, Imathia">Naousa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kozani" title="Kozani">Kozani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siatista" title="Siatista">Siatista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kilkis" title="Kilkis">Kilkis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cities_in_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Cities in Greece">Other</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center; background: #cedff2;">Nature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vardar" title="Vardar">Axios River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doiran_Lake" title="Doiran Lake">Doiran Lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falakro" title="Falakro">Falakro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallikos_(river)" title="Gallikos (river)">Galikos River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haliacmon" title="Haliacmon">Haliacmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Kerkini" title="Lake Kerkini">Lake Kerkini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Koroneia" title="Lake Koroneia">Lake Koroneia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Orestiada" title="Lake Orestiada">Lake Orestiada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Prespa" title="Lake Prespa">Lake Prespa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Small_Prespa_Lake" title="Small Prespa Lake">Small Prespa Lake</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Vegoritida" title="Lake Vegoritida">Lake Vegoritida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Volvi" title="Lake Volvi">Lake Volvi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Paiko" title="Mount Paiko">Mount Paiko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestos_(river)" title="Nestos (river)">Nestos (river)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Olympus" title="Mount Olympus">Mount Olympus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pangaion_Hills" title="Pangaion Hills">Pangaion Hills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pindus" title="Pindus">Pindus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pindus_National_Park" title="Pindus National Park">Pindus National Park</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petralona_cave" class="mw-redirect" title="Petralona cave">Petralona cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Struma_(river)" title="Struma (river)">Strymon River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasilitsa" title="Vasilitsa">Vasilitsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vermio_Mountains" title="Vermio Mountains">Vermio Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kato_Vermio" title="Kato Vermio">Seli</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verno" title="Verno">Verno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voras_Mountains" title="Voras Mountains">Voras Mountains</a></li> <li>Islands: <a href="/wiki/Thasos" title="Thasos">Thasos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammouliani" title="Ammouliani">Ammouliani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center; background: #cedff2;">Monuments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agios_Athanasios,_Thessaloniki" title="Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki">Agios Athanasios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandrion_(Litochoro)" title="Alexandrion (Litochoro)">Alexandrion (Litochoro)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amphipolis" title="Amphipolis">Amphipolis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lion_of_Amphipolis" title="Lion of Amphipolis">Lion of Amphipolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasta_Tomb" title="Kasta Tomb">Kasta Tomb</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dion,_Pieria" title="Dion, Pieria">Dion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dion,_Archaeological_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="Dion, Archaeological Park">Archaeological Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_theatre_of_Dion" title="Hellenistic theatre of Dion">Hellenistic theatre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Athos" title="Mount Athos">Mount Athos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mieza,_Macedonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mieza, Macedonia">Mieza</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Judgement,_Lefkadia" title="Tomb of Judgement, Lefkadia">Tomb of Judgement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_the_Palmettes" title="Tomb of the Palmettes">Tomb of the Palmettes</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleochristian_and_Byzantine_monuments_of_Thessaloniki" title="Paleochristian and Byzantine monuments of Thessaloniki">Byzantine monuments of Thessaloniki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pella" title="Pella">Pella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippi" title="Philippi">Philippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platamon_Castle" title="Platamon Castle">Platamon Castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vergina" title="Vergina">Vergina</a> (<a href="/wiki/Aegae_(Macedonia)" title="Aegae (Macedonia)">Aigai</a>)</li> <li>Museums : <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Amphipolis" title="Archaeological Museum of Amphipolis">Archaeological Museum of Amphipolis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aiani_Archaeological_Museum" title="Aiani Archaeological Museum">Aiani Archaeological Museum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dion,_Archaeological_Museum" title="Dion, Archaeological Museum">Archaeological Museum of Dion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Pella" title="Archaeological Museum of Pella">Archaeological Museum of Pella</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Thessaloniki" title="Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki">Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Byzantine_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Museum of Byzantine culture">Museum of Byzantine culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center; background: #cedff2;">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vergina_Sun" title="Vergina Sun">Vergina Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Macedonia_(Greece)" title="Flag of Macedonia (Greece)">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Macedonia_(Greece)" title="Music of Macedonia (Greece)">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_cuisine_(Greek)" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonian cuisine (Greek)">Cuisine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="text-align:center; background: #cedff2;"><div>Greek Macedonia Portal</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="The_division_of_Alexander&#039;s_empire47" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Diadochi" title="Template:Diadochi"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Diadochi" title="Template talk:Diadochi"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Diadochi" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Diadochi"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="The_division_of_Alexander&#039;s_empire47" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">The division of Alexander's empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_9u2ei0t32zr07v5dwfbuw6ktr86qvp6"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Seleucus_I_Nicator" coords="275,557,367,577" title="Seleucus I Nicator" alt="Seleucus I Nicator" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Antiochus_I_Soter" coords="605,541,702,562" title="Antiochus I 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coords="349,247,428,271" title="Thrace" alt="Thrace" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Peloponnesus" coords="329,200,448,224" title="Peloponnesus" alt="Peloponnesus" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Greece" coords="319,153,458,177" title="Greece" alt="Greece" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Macedon" coords="346,106,431,130" title="Macedon" alt="Macedon" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Regent" coords="349,59,428,83" title="Regent" alt="Regent" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Macedon" coords="319,12,458,36" title="Macedon" alt="Macedon" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_9u2ei0t32zr07v5dwfbuw6ktr86qvp6" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/9u2ei0t32zr07v5dwfbuw6ktr86qvp6.png" /></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Hellenistic/Macedonian_colonies85" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Hellenistic_colonies" title="Template:Hellenistic colonies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Hellenistic_colonies" title="Template talk:Hellenistic colonies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Hellenistic_colonies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Hellenistic colonies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Hellenistic/Macedonian_colonies85" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Hellenistic/<a href="/wiki/Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedon">Macedonian</a> <a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">colonies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemais_Hermiou" title="Ptolemais Hermiou">Ptolemais Hermiou</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_III_empire_map-es.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Alexander_III_empire_map-es.svg/70px-Alexander_III_empire_map-es.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="38" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Alexander_III_empire_map-es.svg/105px-Alexander_III_empire_map-es.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Alexander_III_empire_map-es.svg/140px-Alexander_III_empire_map-es.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1243" data-file-height="673" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ai-Khanoum" title="Ai-Khanoum">Ai-Khanoum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%B0skenderun" title="İskenderun">Alexandretta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apamea,_Syria" title="Apamea, Syria">Apamea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria_Arachosia" title="Alexandria Arachosia">Alexandria Arachosia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria_Ariana" title="Alexandria Ariana">Alexandria Ariana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria_Eschate" title="Alexandria Eschate">Alexandria Eschate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria_in_the_Caucasus" title="Alexandria in the Caucasus">Alexandria in the Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria_on_the_Indus" title="Alexandria on the Indus">Alexandria on the Indus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria_Prophthasia" title="Alexandria Prophthasia">Alexandria Prophthasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antalya" title="Antalya">Attalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edessa" title="Edessa">Edessa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latakia" title="Latakia">Laodicea Paralos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Laodicea in Phoenicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicaea" title="Nicaea">Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ala%C5%9Fehir" title="Alaşehir">Philadelphia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucia" title="Seleucia">Seleucia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucia_Pieria" title="Seleucia Pieria">Seleucia Pieria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serraepolis" title="Serraepolis">Serraepolis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antigonia_(Paeonia)" title="Antigonia (Paeonia)">Antigonia (Paeonia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandropolis_Maedica" title="Alexandropolis Maedica">Alexandropolis Maedica</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Greek_wars160" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Greek_wars" title="Template:Ancient Greek wars"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Greek_wars" title="Template talk:Ancient Greek wars"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Greek_wars" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Greek wars"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Greek_wars160" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Ancient Greek wars</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Messenian_War" title="First Messenian War">First Messenian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lelantine_War" title="Lelantine War">Lelantine War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Messenian_War" title="Second Messenian War">Second Messenian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lydian%E2%80%93Milesian_War" title="Lydian–Milesian War">Lydian–Milesian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Sacred_War" title="First Sacred War">First Sacred War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Wars" title="Sicilian Wars">Sicilian Wars</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeginetan_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Aeginetan War">Aeginetan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Delian_League" title="Wars of the Delian League">Wars of the Delian League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Messenian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Messenian War">Third Messenian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Peloponnesian_War" title="First Peloponnesian War">First Peloponnesian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sacred_War" title="Second Sacred War">Second Sacred War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samian_War" title="Samian War">Samian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Second Peloponnesian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phyle_Campaign" title="Phyle Campaign">Phyle Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corinthian_War" title="Corinthian War">Corinthian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boeotian_War" title="Boeotian War">Boeotian War</a></li> <li>Wars of the <a href="/wiki/Theban_hegemony" title="Theban hegemony">Theban hegemony</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theban%E2%80%93Spartan_War" title="Theban–Spartan War">Theban–Spartan War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_War_(357%E2%80%93355_BC)" title="Social War (357–355 BC)">Social War (357–355 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Sacred_War" title="Third Sacred War">Third Sacred War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_War" title="Foreign War">Foreign War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expansion_of_Macedonia_under_Philip_II" title="Expansion of Macedonia under Philip II">Expansion of Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">Wars of Alexander the Great</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Greece" title="Hellenistic Greece">Hellenistic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lamian_War" title="Lamian War">Lamian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Diadochi" title="Wars of the Diadochi">Wars of the Diadochi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antigonid%E2%80%93Nabataean_confrontations" title="Antigonid–Nabataean confrontations">Antigonid–Nabataean confrontations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid%E2%80%93Mauryan_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucid–Mauryan war">Seleucid–Mauryan war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhic_War" title="Pyrrhic War">Pyrrhic War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Wars" title="Syrian Wars">Syrian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhus%27_invasion_of_the_Peloponnese" title="Pyrrhus' invasion of the Peloponnese">Pyrrhus' invasion of the Peloponnese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chremonidean_War" title="Chremonidean War">Chremonidean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid%E2%80%93Parthian_Wars" title="Seleucid–Parthian Wars">Seleucid–Parthian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleomenean_War" title="Cleomenean War">Cleomenean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyttian_War" title="Lyttian War">Lyttian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_War_(220%E2%80%93217_BC)" title="Social War (220–217 BC)">Social War (220–217 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Wars" title="Macedonian Wars">Macedonian Wars</a> (<a href="/wiki/First_Macedonian_War" title="First Macedonian War">First</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_Macedonian_War" title="Second Macedonian War">Second</a>, <a href="/wiki/Third_Macedonian_War" title="Third Macedonian War">Third</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Macedonian_War" title="Fourth Macedonian War">Fourth</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cretan_War_(205%E2%80%93200_BC)" title="Cretan War (205–200 BC)">Cretan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Seleucid_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman–Seleucid War">Roman–Seleucid War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aetolian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Aetolian War">Aetolian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_against_Nabis" title="War against Nabis">War against Nabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galatian_War" title="Galatian War">Galatian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maccabean_Revolt" title="Maccabean Revolt">Maccabean Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Dynastic_Wars" title="Seleucid Dynastic Wars">Seleucid Dynastic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaean_War" title="Achaean War">Achaean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithridatic_Wars" title="Mithridatic Wars">Mithridatic Wars</a> (<a href="/wiki/First_Mithridatic_War" title="First Mithridatic War">First</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_Mithridatic_War" title="Second Mithridatic War">Second</a>, <a href="/wiki/Third_Mithridatic_War" title="Third Mithridatic War">Third</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Actium" title="War of Actium">War of Actium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">Military history</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Timeline_of_Mesopotamia95" style="display:table;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Timeline_of_Mesopotamia" title="Template:Timeline of Mesopotamia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Timeline_of_Mesopotamia" title="Template talk:Timeline of Mesopotamia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Timeline_of_Mesopotamia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Timeline of Mesopotamia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Timeline_of_Mesopotamia95" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Timeline of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-width:0;"><div style="padding:0"> <table style="width:100%"> <tbody><tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;"> </th> <td colspan="3" style="background:white">Northwestern Mesopotamia </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:white">Northern Mesopotamia </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:white">Southern Mesopotamia </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 3500–2350 BCE </th> <td colspan="6" style="background:white">Late Chalcolithic 4-5 / Early Jezirah 1-3 </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#FFD380"><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr period</a> / <a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic period</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 2350–2200 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#FFB080"><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 2200–2100 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#F8F3C6"><a href="/wiki/Gutian_people" title="Gutian people">Gutians</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 2100–2000 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#FFA380"><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Third Dynasty of Ur</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 2000–1800 BCE </th> <td colspan="3" style="background:#FFD0BD"><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorite</a> city-states </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#FFFF80"><a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_period" title="Old Assyrian period">Old Assyrian period</a> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:palegoldenrod"><a href="/wiki/Isin" title="Isin">Isin</a>/<a href="/wiki/Larsa" title="Larsa">Larsa</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorite</a> city-states </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1800–1600 BCE </th> <td colspan="2" style="background:#F7C1F7"><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Old Hittite Kingdom</a> </td> <td colspan="7" style="background:#B2CAF6"><a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian Empire</a> (Southern Akkadians) </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1600–1400 BCE </th> <td colspan="6" style="background:#E6C29F"><a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hurrians" title="Hurrians">Hurrians</a>) </td> <td colspan="3" rowspan="3" style="background:#88D0CC"><a href="/wiki/Kardunia%C5%A1" title="Karduniaš">Karduniaš</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1400–1200 BCE </th> <td colspan="2" style="background:#FFB4DA"><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Middle Hittite Kingdom</a> </td> <td style="background:#FFEB80"> </td> <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" style="background:#FFEB80"><a href="/wiki/Assyria#Middle_Assyrian_Empire_—_Assyrian_resurgence" title="Assyria">Middle Assyria</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1200–1150 BCE </th> <td colspan="2" style="background:#FF8080"><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronze Age Collapse">Bronze Age Collapse</a> ("<a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a>") </td> <td style="background:moccasin"><a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1150–911 BCE </th> <td rowspan="2" style="background:#C590C5"><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background:#FF8CB9"><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Neo-Hittite</a> <a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">city-states</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background:peachpuff"><a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Aram-</a> <a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Damascus</a> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:moccasin"><a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a> </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="background:#A0B4F0"><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Middle Babylonia</a> </td> <td rowspan="3" style="background:lightblue"><a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chal-</a> <a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">de-</a> <a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">ans</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">911–729 BCE </th> <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" style="background:#F6DB88"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">729–609 BCE </th> <td colspan="3" style="background:#F6DB88"> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:#F6DB88"> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">626–539 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#8EC8FF"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldeans</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">539–331 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:mediumspringgreen"><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">336–301 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#BEFD80"><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonian Empire">Macedonian Empire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greeks">Ancient Greeks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">Macedonians</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="1" style="background:#e6e7e8;">311–129 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#99E699"><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="1" style="background:#e6e7e8;">129–63 BCE </th> <td colspan="3" style="background:#99E699"><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> </td> <td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="background:#80C0C0"><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="1" style="background:#e6e7e8;">63 BCE–224 CE </th> <td colspan="3" rowspan="4" style="background:#D29595"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> - <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Syria</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="1" style="background:#e6e7e8;">224–mid 7C </th> <td colspan="6" rowspan="3" style="background:#90D9D5"><a href="/wiki/Sassanid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid Empire">Sassanid Empire</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output 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[\"CITEREFHolt2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHornblower2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHornblower2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoweBrice2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHumphreyOlesonSherwood1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKing2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoumpis2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKremydi2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevinson1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewisBoardman1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeadows2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMollovGeorgiev2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMüller2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNawotka2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlbrycht2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPalagia2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPiening2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRenault2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRhodes2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoisman2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSakellariou1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSansone2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSawada2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchwahn1931\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSekunda2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimon_Hornblower2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSprawski2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStarr1991\"] = 1,\n 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